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||Technology in Australia 1788-1988
Table of Contents
I Technology Transported; 1788-1840
II Technology Established; 1840-1940
i Meat Preserving: Heat Processing Introduced
ii Horticultural Products: Heat, Sugar and Solar Drying
iii Refrigeration and the Export of Meat
iv Milling and Baking
v Dairy Products
vii Sugar: Supplying an Ingredient
III The Coming Of Science
IV From Science To Technology: The Post-war Years
V Products And Processes
Other Baked Goods (continued)
In 1848, William Arnott, a Scot, arrived in Sydney and was a baker in Maitland until 1851, when gold lured him to Turon. He had no luck digging but successfully baked bread and pies and in 1853, returned to Maitland as a baker and pastry-cook. The severe floods of subsequent years drove him into debt, which he eventually repaid in full and, in 1865, into Newcastle. There he began again baking bread at night and biscuits and other baked goods during the day. The business prospered and he began to specialize in biscuits. From 1882, they were shipped to Sydney and by 1885, the factory covered two acres and employed 300 people. Three years later the output was 31 tons of biscuits, some 80 varieties, and over 11,000 cakes per week. In 1894, William Arnott bought a factory in Sydney and took his five sons into partnership. By this time the total work-force at the two locations was about 800. In 1908, William Arnott Limited opened a new factory on a six and a half acre site at Homebush in suburban Sydney. At this time bakehouse machinery was steam driven (Swallow and Ariell electrified it in 1911) and the ovens were coke, coal, or wood fired. Gas-fired ovens were introduced in the 1920s and band ovens in the thirties. During the war biscuit manufacturers generally reduced the range available to the civilian population and switched to the manufacture of service rations, for some of which they were uniquely suited.
Early in the nineteenth century, Charles Haywood had begun in Hobart as a baker and pastry-cook. From 1875, his son, as C. D. Haywood Pty., Ltd., specialized in biscuits and followed the technological progress of the total industry; major remodelling in 1924, travelling ovens in 1931. In 1950 the firm was absorbed by Swallow and Ariell. From 1949 to 1963, Arnotts became associated with six other family companies from Brisbane to Perth, and in 1965, with Swallow and Ariell. Known as the Australian Biscuit Company, this company has now become Arnotts Limited.
Of uncertain Anglo-Saxon origin, the term crumpet was applied in the eighteenth century to a leavened cereal product baked from below on griddle or hot-plate. Thus it has come to us, more recent production being a manual batch process in which a batter was poured into rings on a large gas heated hot-plate. In 1947, R. J. Hastings, a Sydney engineer, applied for and was later granted a patent for a machine for the first continuous and automatic production of crumpets. This Australian invention has since been working here and overseas. A second machine producing an intrinsically different kind of crumpet, the De Jersey machine, was also developed in Australia. After perfecting the crumpet machine, Hastings invented a machine for the automatic and continuous production of pikelets, which must be cooked on both sides.
Organisations in Australian Science at Work - Arnotts Limited; Australian Biscuit Company; C. D. Haywood Pty Ltd
People in Bright Sparcs - Ariell, T. H.; Arnott, William; Hastings, R. J.; Haywood, Charles; Swallow, Thomas
© 1988 Print Edition page 100, Online Edition 2000
Published by Australian Science and Technology Heritage Centre, using the Web Academic Resource Publisher
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- Melvyn Bragg
- Bob Bee
- Bob Bee
Episode 1 of 3
Duration: 1 hour
In this three-part series, Melvyn Bragg explores the relationship, from 1911 to 2011, between class and culture - the two great forces which define and shape us as individuals and as a society.
Melvyn starts with the period from 1911 to 1945. Through location sequences, interviews with experts and ordinary people, and copious amounts of archive material, Melvyn tells the story of how a rigidly class-based society responded to wars and economic hardship, and changed to the point where a classless society seemed a real possibility at the end of World War II.
Melvyn paints a picture of the cultures of the upper, middle and working classes before the Great War. In the Great War, the classes joined up together for the sake of the nation. Class division went to the trenches along with the men but was shaken by the common experience. Melvyn explores the culture that emerged.
The thirties saw the horror of mass unemployment, and culturally a new interest among middle class observers in the plight of others. Melvyn explores the importance of class in the work of George Orwell, particularly The Road to Wigan Pier.
In 1939, the nation went to war again and the theme of the different classes pulling together is a major one, particularly in the cinema. Melvyn develops this with reference to In Which We Serve.
With the Labour victory of 1945 and the implementation of the Beveridge report, it seems that a new world is on the horizon, one in which class will no longer be the defining factor. What role has culture played in bringing this situation about? And how will class and culture interact in the future?
You are at the first episode
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Our people have historically built a relationship of peace and trust with the French Colonial movement throughout the Mi'kma'ki homeland, the Mi'kmaq learned to speak French before any other European language. It is for this reason that we have a strong French language history since the European arrival.
Historically, the Mi'kmaq quietly lived in the area, often denying their ancestry due to the fact that the British Empire were enemies of the French and their Mi'kmaq allies. Our ancestors spoke French and Mi'kmaq and did not do anything that would draw attention to themselves.
Here today out on Pukt aq Pukt Kwe’sawe’k (the Port au Port Peninsula) we continue to co-exist with the adjacent Francophone community many of whom are also of Mi'kmaq ancestry. We are friends, family and allies with great mutual respect and understanding.
History of the Communities
French and Mi'kmaq hold joint Celebrations for National Aboriginal Day and St-Jean Baptiste Day in 2008
Mi'kmaq information site in French and Míkmawísimk
Copyright © 2005 - 2011 Benoit First Nation
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State wants to protect rare Las Vegas Valley plant
The state is moving toward protecting the Las Vegas buckwheat, a unique subspecies of plant found only in pockets of gypsum-rich soil in and around the Las Vegas Valley.
The state forester's office has scheduled a hearing from 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. Tuesday at the Nevada Division of Forestry Office, 4747 Vegas Drive.
The Las Vegas buckwheat is found only in small areas of Clark and Lincoln counties, where the gypsum-rich soils and "badlands" have been lost to growth in the Las Vegas Valley.
Some of the remaining concentrations of plants grow in the Upper Las Vegas Wash and Area III of Nellis Air Force Base, both threatened by residential, commercial and energy-related development, said Rob Mrowka, an ecologist and conservation advocate with the Center for Biological Diversity based in Tucson, Ariz.
Other threats to the plants include unmanaged off-road vehicle use on federal public lands, mining, climate change and utility corridor and energy developments, Mrowka said.
In April the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to upgrade the priority status for listing the Las Vegas buckwheat under the Endangered Species Act. It is expected that the service will make a decision on the federal petition in December.
© Las Vegas Sun
|Photo © Paul S. Hamilton||HOME / DONATE NOW / SIGN UP FOR E-NETWORK / CONTACT US / PHOTO USE /|
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Edmonton Journal, July 6, 2010
For the sake of eagles, it's time to get the lead out
By Caroline Barlott
When a bald eagle comes to the Wildlife Rehabilitation Society of Edmonton looking weak and vulnerable, the prognosis is often food chain poisoning. Sitting on the top of the food chain, people sometimes think these tough birds are invincible. But unfortunately, cases of lead poisoning can severely affect them, slowly deteriorating their health.
The birds become sick when they scavenge on prey like fish that have swallowed lead weights or mammals killed with lead bullets. Toxins collect in the bald eagle’s fat reserves and when it’s time to use the energy, like during migration, the bird will become really sick. The WRS has seen a number of cases of bald eagles that would not be able to make migration because of lead poisoning.
Stephanie May, animal care manager for the WRS, says that it takes several staff members and volunteers to help treat these massive birds. One bald eagle, who weighed 4.75 kilograms (about 101/2 pounds), required three people just to hold the bird, while a fourth staff member took blood. “From this sample [we] were able to get values for packed cell volume, total protein, white blood cell count and level of lead in the eagle’s system,” explains Stephanie.
Once it’s determined that the animal has lead poisoning, the wildlife shelter can begin using chelation therapy, which involves injecting penicillin and a calcium compound into the birds. The drugs work to draw the toxic lead from of the animals’ systems.
And while staff have experienced success in rehabilitating bald eagles, they’d prefer seeing less animals come to the shelter suffering from a painful, debilitating, and completely preventable illness. People can help prevent lead poisoning by using lead-free fishing sinkers and lead-free bullets. Lead shotgun pellets are illegal in our province, but people who still have old ones sitting around are advised not to use them.
Lead poisoning can also result from improperly disposing of any type of battery, old paint, and other hazardous materials. For information about how to properly dispose of all types of hazardous items, go to the City of Edmonton’s Reuse and Recycle directory and type in the item you need to recycle.
The WRS is a non-profit organization which relies on donations to be able to care for injured wildlife. For more information, click here.
© 2008 - 2010 Postmedia Network Inc.
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Chemical Imaging Of Deep-Sea Microorganisms May Help Explain Lingering Nitrogen Mystery
Researchers at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have identified an unexpected metabolic ability within a symbiotic community of microorganisms that may help solve a lingering mystery about the world's nitrogen-cycling budget.
A paper about their work appears in the October 16 issue of the journal Science.
The element nitrogen is a critical part of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, and therefore essential to all life. Although nitrogen is plentiful on Earth—it comprises 78 percent of the atmosphere, by volume—the element is usually found strongly bonded to itself, in the form of the diatomic gas N2. To be biologically useful, a nitrogen atom must be released from this coupling and converted to a reduced, or "fixed," state; reduced nitrogen atoms gain an electron, which makes them chemically reactive.
Although lightning, combustion, and other nonbiological processes can reduce nitrogen, far more is generated by nitrogen-fixing microorganisms such as bacteria—in particular, photosynthetic cyanobacteria. These organisms produce the bulk of the nitrogen available to living things in the ocean.
Still, when researchers add up all of the known sources of fixed nitrogen (biological and otherwise) in the global nitrogen cycle and compare it to the sinks—where nitrogen is taken up for growth and energy—they come up short. It appears that more nitrogen is being used than is being made. The apparent nitrogen budget, in effect, does not balance. This discrepancy had led scientists to question whether the nitrogen cycle is truly out of balance, or whether the known inventories of sources and sinks are misleadingly incomplete.
Victoria J. Orphan, an assistant professor of geobiology at Caltech, along with graduate student Anne E. Dekas and postdoctoral research scholar Rachel S. Poretsky, suggest the answer is, at least in part, an incomplete catalog of the sources of fixed nitrogen.
The team studied ocean sediment samples obtained in methane cold seeps located at a depth of about 1,800 feet. The area, known as the Eel River Basin, is located approximately 20 miles off the coast of the northern California town of Eureka, on a continental margin in a region supporting high levels of natural methane seepage at the seabed.
In the laboratory, the researchers examined the methane-rich sediment and the tiny microbial conglomerations that live within. These spherical cell conglomerates, averaging about 500 cells each, consist of two types of anaerobic microorganisms living in a unique symbiotic relationship fueled by methane. The first microorganism is a bacterium that reduces the chemical sulfate into sulfide (via a process that produces the rotten-egg odor of salt marshes and mud flats) to generate energy. The second is a methane-oxidizing archaeon (the archaea are a group of nonbacterial single-celled microorganisms). Working together, these two symbionts are responsible for consuming the majority of the naturally released methane in the deep sea.
Although these symbiotic associations themselves are not new—these conglomerations were discovered about a decade ago and are found on continental margins worldwide—the Caltech scientists discovered something unexpected: the methane-consuming archaea were actively fixing nitrogen, and sharing it with their bacterial neighbors.
"This is the first time that nitrogen fixation has been documented within methane-oxidizing archaea," Dekas says.
Interestingly, although these organisms have a nitrogen-poor diet of methane gas, they live in an environment that contains reduced nitrogen—in the form of ammonium and other chemicals—which means they shouldn't need to create their own. "It's possible that they do need to because they are living in a crowded community—a tightly packed ball—that prevents some organisms from having access to the nitrogen," she says. Another possibility is that these environments do not have as much biologically available reduced nitrogen as had been thought.
To determine that the archaea were indeed fixing nitrogen, the researchers first incubated the archaeal-bacterial assemblages with a dinitrogen gas, N2, that was composed of two atoms of nitrogen-15. Nitrogen-15 is a nonradioactive isotope of nitrogen that contains one more neutron than regular nitrogen (nitrogen-14) and can be used as a tracer for the incorporation of the element.
The researchers then used a technique called fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to stain the two types of organisms in the sediment, and analyzed these cells for their nitrogen-15 content using a state-of-the-art instrument called a nanometer secondary ion mass spectrometer, or nanoSIMS. The nanoSIMS, which is housed at the Caltech Center for Microanalysis, is capable of collecting chemical and isotopic data at a spatial scale of 50 to 100 nanometers, or around five to 10 times smaller than the size of a single microbial cell.
Both the archaea and, to a lesser extent, their bacterial neighbors had incorporated the nitrogen-15, which could have happened only if the N2 had been fixed by the archaea—and then shared.
"The high spatial resolution of the nanoSIMS instrument—which produces a focused beam of ions that is smaller than a single cell—allowed us to directly pinpoint which of the symbiotic cells in the consortia had assimilated the nitrogen-15–labeled N2 into their biomass," Orphan notes.
The fixation process, say the scientists, is painfully slow; the organisms themselves have ultra-slow growth rates, doubling once every three to six months. "But they are passing on some nitrogen to their neighbors, which means they are producing more than they need," despite the energy cost of doing so, Dekas says. "We don't know what benefit the archaeal organisms get from sharing it, but we do know they need the bacterial symbiont to stay alive," she adds.
"Previously, assumptions about when and where nitrogen fixation takes place made it seem unlikely that nitrogen fixation would occur in this environment, or within such energetically starved organisms," Dekas says. "These results suggest that these assumptions may need to be reevaluated, and that there could be more nitrogen-fixing organisms in other unexpected environments. Together, these previously overlooked sources of nitrogen may be an important component in the marine nitrogen inventory."
The research in the paper, "Deep-Sea Archaea Fix and Share Nitrogen in Methane-Consuming Microbial Consortia," was supported by the National Science Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.Source : California Institute of Technology
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Positive Images - Children with a Visual Impairment
Unicorns, ghosts and dinosaurs!
Stories full of adventure that also explore what it's like to have a visual impairment. Plus a list of information books and useful websites.
Cousins, Lucy - What Can Rabbit See?
A lift the flap book featuring a rabbit who wears glasses.
Hest, Amy - Baby Duck and the Bad Eye Glasses
Baby duck doesn't like her new eye glasses until she realises that they are just like her grandpa's and they help her see much better.
McKinlay, Penny - Bumposaurus
The story of Bumposaurus who is so short sighted that he bumps into lots of trouble and even mistakes his sister's tail for dinner. His grandmother provides the answer to the little dinosaur's problems when she presents him with a pair of glasses.
Moon, Nicola - Lucy's Picture
Lucy decides to make her grandad a picture. Instead of just using brightly coloured paints Lucy uses twigs and feathers, velvet and sand so that her grandad can see it with his fingers.
Strom, Maria Diaz - Rainbow Joe and Me
When Eloise tells her mum that Rainbow Joe can mix colours her mother says that it's impossible because Rainbow Joe cannot see. However the colours Rainbow Joe mixes are the notes he plays on the saxaphone.
Wild, Margaret - All the Better to See You With
Katie does not know that she cannot see very well and it is not until she becomes lost on a beach that Katie and her parents realise she is short sighted. With the help of new glasses Katie can see much more clearly and this book shows what an advantage the glasses are.
Beginning to Read
Ryan, Margaret - Robbie and the Alien
Robbie doesn't want to go to school because he is scared that everyone will laugh at his new glasses. However, when he meets KT the Alien her realises what an advantage wearing glasses can be.
Stories for Children
Creech, Sharon - Granny Torelli Makes Soup
Rosie and Bailey are best friends and love spending as much time together as they can, but Bailey goes to a different school because he has a visual impairment. Occasionally Rosie and Bailey fall out over things but Granny Torrelli is usually there to give advice and put things in perspective. She does this by relating the issue to things that have happened to her in the past and does it while cooking Italian food. This is a delightful book that clearly explains the positives and negatives of Bailey's visual impairment, the ups and downs of a close relationship and gives some great tips for Italian recipes. Don't read this while you feel hungry!
Doherty, Berlie - Spellhorn
A fantasy story featuring Laura who sees with her minds eye. She senses a world where the Wild Ones are searching for their lost unicorn. They find the creature with Laura and she becomes drawn into their world.
Forretal, Elaine - Someone Like Me
This is an adventure story set in Australia. Tas is always an outsider at school and when Enya and her family more in next door he thinks that at last he will have a friend. However Enyas family have a secret and this will lead to Tas questioning Enyas loyalty and friendship.
Horgan, Dorothy - Charlies Eye
Charlie, who is at primary school, wears a glass eye which she often uses to her advantage, hiding it in her dads coffee or organising eye diving competitions when she goes swimming. However, when a new boy starts school, he taunts her about her glass eye and she feels bullied. As the story progresses Charlie discovers that bullies sometimes have problems of their own.
Wilde, Nicholas - Into the Dark
When Matthew goes on holiday with this mother he befriends Rory. Little does he know that Rory is a ghost reliving the last days of his life.
Wilson, Jacqueline - Take a Good Look
A story about Mary who is nearly bind. When she visits the sweet shop she becomes involved in a robbery and shows how resourceful she can be.
Archer, Eleanor - Judo Champion
This book follows the story of Ian as he goes to a judo competition in Germany.
Church, Diane - Going on a School Trip
A simple information book about Georgia and her fiend Kamilla. Georgia cannot see very well. Whilst the book focuses on the children school trip, strawberry picking, the reader finds out about Georgia everyday life and routines.
Condon, Judith - When it Hard to See
This book covers what everyday life is like as well as biographical information about famous people.
Wescott, Patsy - Living with Blindness
This is quite a detailed book about the causes of blindness and what it is like to have a visual impairment. The book focuses on the lives of three children and one adult, describing their daily routines, attitudes and ambitions.
White, Peter - Think About Being Blind
This book gives lots of information about what it is like to be blind. It also contains historical details and information.
How can I read these books?
You can reserve any of these books through the online library catologue at: www.birmingham.gov.uk/libcat
All you need is your library ticket number and PIN number. If you don't know your PIN, you can find out by telephoning your local library. You can arrange to pick the book up from the library of your choice.
Children in the Picture:http://childreninthepicture.org.uk
Part of Scope's Time to Get Equal campaign, this website aims to encourage publishers, illustrators and writers to include disabled children alongside others in picture books for young readers.
A charity which provides a postal audio book service to anyone who has an illness or disability that makes it impossible or difficult to hold a book, turn its pages or read in the usual way.
National Federation of Families with Visually Impaired Children: www.look-uk.org
A 'one stop shop' for families looking for information and support.
CBeebies BBC parents' site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies/grownups/about/specialneeds/
Information on Cbeebies web pages suitable for young children with a visual impairment.
Please note: We are not responsible for the content of other organisations' websites.
When a book might help
Library services for children and young people with special needs
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Hau fibers are created by a labor intensive process. The fibers are made from the wild hibiscus plant that thrives in the tropical climate of the Polynesian islands. The tree branches are cut into 4-5 foot lengths and the outer bark removed.
Once this is complete, the inner fibers are stripped. Different preparation methods are used to for different uses. However, one of the most common preparation steps is to tie the fibers to a support branch and soak in the ocean. This acts as a natural bleach and a way to remove any unwanted bugs. After soaking for a time, the fibers are removed and dried.
Handicrafters, dancers, and artisans use the fibers for costumes, accessories, and creative cultural applications. The fibers are somewhat darker and less refined than the hau fibers that we offer from Samoa. However, they are heavier and thicker.
Hau fibers are made from plants. Each piece is unique. Fibers may contain small imperfections due to knots or other features that create unusual patterns or texture.
Three bunches of fibers pictured. Sold by the bunch.
Fibers measure approx. 3 in. wide by 4 ft. in length.
Back to Fijian Handicrafts
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On Location: Florida
Lake Wales Ridge is in central Florida, about an hour's drive south of Disney World. But it's a world apart from almost every other image you might associate with Florida. The ridge is an ancient sand dune that extends about 100 miles north and south down the middle of the Florida peninsula. About 2 million years ago, this Ridge was the only piece of dry land around here. This isolation contributed to the evolution of numerous plants and animals that can only be found in this particular region today. This isolation also increases the chance that some of these species will have trouble surviving. And in fact, 26 species of plants and animals that live on the Ridge are listed as endangered or threatened by the federal government.
In order to protect this special habitat, more than 30 conservation sites have been established along the Ridge. These sites are managed by a variety of agencies and organizations, such as state and federal natural resources agencies, and private organizations such as The Nature Conservancy.
|Young sand pines at the Archbold Biological Station in Highlands County, Florida. Photo by Christine Hawkes, ABS.|
The Nature Conservancy is a nonprofit conservation organization committed to protecting plants and animals and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth. One way the Conservancy is doing this in Florida is by using a technique called prescribed burning.
A prescribed burn is the controlled application of fire under specific weather and ecological conditions. The broadcast will take you to Florida to watch a prescribed burn and to learn how this technique not only helps improve habitat for wildlife but also helps protect nearby homes from the threat of fuels buildup.
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A college student in 1960s attire carrying a Civil Rights protest sign starts singing in the great hall, leading visitors to a training session to prepare for a student sit-in. The legendary John Brown thunders in an exhibition pocket theater about his anti-slavery activities and why violence is justified. Mary Pickersgill lays out a swath of cloth on the museum floor, asking visitors to help design the stars for her latest project, the 1813 American flag that would become the Star-Spangled Banner.
What is going on at the National Museum of American History (NMAH)? The History Alive! Theater Program gets visitors talking about history through an interactive, personal presentation of the stories of America’s past that resonate in the nation’s present. NMAH shows use emotion, tension, and conflict to lead visitors comfortably through a exploration of challenging issues and topics.
Now NMAH’s award-winning historic theater programs are eyeing the road. Designed to travel, the programs and their actors can re-create the Smithsonian experience at Affiliate sites. The performances can be customized to take place in a variety of locations, with different kinds of audiences, or for special celebrations such as Black History Month. The costs include a daily fee and travel from Washington; contact your National Outreach Manager for more information.
Affiliates have the unique opportunity to offer two of the most popular theater programs from the nation’s history museum to their visitors.
Join the Student Sit-Ins
Join the Student Sit-Ins is an interactive presentation of the story of the 1960 sit-in for desegregation that took place at the F.W. Woolworth lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. Visitors take part in a training session based on an actual 1960s manual and prepare for their first sit-in. The program won the Smithsonian’s Education Excellence Award in 2009 for the Institution’s best educational program. According to one participant, “The Greensboro Lunch Counter performance was the most powerful exhibit that I’ve seen in DC. The woman who did it was wonderful and passionate and brought me to tears.” C. Vanarthos 8/13/11. For more, read about the program in the Smithsonian’s Around the Mall blog.
The Time Trial of John Brown
History and memory are not always one and the same. When History is on trial, only Time can be the judge. Created in 2010, the Time Trials series allows visitors to debate and discuss the historical legacy of controversial figures. In The Time Trial of John Brown, visitors meet the passionate and committed abolitionist who violently opposed the expansion of slavery and led a raid against the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia in hopes of inciting a slave rebellion. Visitors discuss and debate Brown’s legacy: should we remember him as a heroic martyr, a vigilante murderer, something in between, or something else entirely?
So, if you’re looking for a creative new way to engage your audiences, consider History Alive! Theater Programs and step right in to history!
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Comanche Helicopter Makes First Flight
WEST PALM BEACH, Fla., Jan. 4, 1996 -- A major achievement in aviation history was recorded here today when the prototype RAH-66 Comanche helicopter lifted off for the first time.
The Comanche, developed by a team of companies led by Boeing Defense & Space Group, Helicopters Division in Philadelphia, and Sikorsky Aircraft, Stratford, Conn., took off at 1:05 p.m. from Sikorsky's Development Flight Test Center located in West Palm Beach, Fla.
Army Comanche Program Manager Brig. Gen. James Snider said the Comanche's first flight "is a major step forward for the program and for the Army's 21st Century modernization plans."
Sikorsky test pilot Rus Stiles and Boeing test pilot Bob Gradle were at the controls for the maiden flight, which lasted for more than an hour. During the first flight, the pilots carried out a number of maneuvers, including hover, left and right hover turns and forward flight.
Team director Jim Morris said today's flight "is a tribute to the teamwork among all of the Comanche Team companies and our most important team member, the U.S. Army. Thousands of men and women have dedicated their lives to making this moment a reality."
The Comanche prototype will be put through a series of flight tests in 1996 designed to develop the helicopter's full flight capabilities. In a process known as "opening up the envelope," the aircraft will be flown faster and maneuvered more aggressively in the weeks and months ahead.
When fielded early in the next century, the RAH-66 will fly faster and outmaneuver every other combat helicopter now flying or under development. But speed and agility are only a small part of the improved performance that the Comanche will bring to the 21st Century battlefield.
The Comanche's design incorporates features that will make it difficult to detect with either radar-guided or heat-seeking weapons. The helicopter's advanced electronics will allow it to automatically scan the battlefield in seconds, locating and prioritizing enemy targets, as well as identifying friendly units to avoid fratricide. The Comanche crew will use state-of-the-art communications to digitally share information with all elements of the combined arms team, including the Air Force and Navy units.
Designed to replace the Army's current Vietnam-vintage scout and light attack helicopter fleet, the Comanche will provide U.S. forces with a major advantage in any future conflicts by supplying them with accurate, timely tactical battlefield intelligence.
The Army awarded the RAH-66 development contract in April 1991 to the Boeing Sikorsky First Team. Major team member companies include: Hamilton Standard, Harris Corp., Hughes Link Training Division, Kaiser Electronics, Lear Astronics, Litton, Lockheed Martin, Moog, Sunstrand, TRW Military Electronics & Avionics, Westinghouse Electronics Systems Group and Williams International. Allison Engine Company and AlliedSignal Engine Company are co-developing the engines for the Comanche.
Boeing Defense & Space Group, Helicopters Division, is a unit of The Boeing Company of Seattle. Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation is a subsidiary of United Technologies Corporation, Hartford, Conn.
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Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.
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...but also as neuromodulators. As neuromodulators, they do not act directly as neurotransmitters but rather increase or decrease the action of neurotransmitters. Well-known examples are the opioids (e.g., enkephalins), so named because they are endogenous (produced in the human body) peptides (short chains of amino acids) with a strong affinity for the receptors that bind opiate drugs,...
...of neuropeptides is not yet complete. Among those peptides known to affect synaptic transmission are substance P, neurotensin, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin, and the opioid peptides. The best-studied are the opioid peptides, so called because opiate drugs, such as morphine, are known to bind to their receptors and mimic their painkilling and mood-altering...
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softballArticle Free Pass
softball, a variant of baseball and a popular participant sport, particularly in the United States. It is generally agreed that softball developed from a game called indoor baseball, first played in Chicago in 1887. It became known in the United States by various names, such as kitten ball, mush ball, diamond ball, indoor–outdoor, and playground ball. There were wide variances in playing rules, size and type of playing equipment, and dimensions of the playing field.
In 1923 a rules committee was appointed to publish and circulate a standard set of rules. The committee was later enlarged to form the International Joint Rules Committee on Softball, which came to include representatives of a number of organizations that promote and sponsor softball. The Amateur Softball Association of America, organized in 1933, came to be the recognized governing agency for promotion and control of organized national competition.
The Fédération Internationale de Softball (International Softball Federation), which was formed in 1952, acts as liaison between more than 40 softball organizations of several countries. Headquarters are in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The federation coordinates international competition and regular regional and world championship tournaments for men and women. In 1996, a women’s softball competition was added to the Olympic Games.
The fundamentals of softball are the same as those of baseball. Batting and fielding strategy are similar, but softball is played on a much smaller area, and a game is only seven innings long.
The regulation playing field for softball includes a diamond-shaped area with 60-foot (18.3-metre) baselines. The pitching distance for men is 46 feet (14 metres) and for women 43 feet (13.11 metres). Bats must be round, not more than 34 inches (86.4 cm) long, and not more than 2.25 inches (5.7 cm) in diameter at the largest part. The official softball is a smooth-seam ball 12 inches (30.5 cm) in circumference, weighing between 6.25 and 7 ounces (177 and 198 grams).
In softball the ball is delivered by an underhand motion, whereas in baseball the pitch is overhand or sidearm. Base stealing is permitted in both games, but in softball the runner must keep contact with the base until the pitcher releases the ball on delivery to the batter.
A popular variation of softball called slow-pitch may be played with regulation equipment. The major differences from softball (fast-pitch) are that there are 10 members on a team, the pitching distance for men and for women is 46 feet, and a pitched ball must be delivered at moderate speed with an arc of at least 3 feet in its flight toward the batter. Speed and height of the pitch are left to the judgment of an umpire, who may eject a pitcher for repeatedly throwing the ball too fast. Base stealing is not allowed in slow-pitch.
Another variation, popular especially in Chicago and other midwestern American cities, is played with a ball that is 16 inches (40.64 cm) in circumference on a diamond whose base paths are 55 feet (16.8 metres) for men and 50 feet long (15.25 metres) for women. The ball is delivered as in slow-pitch, and fielders typically play without gloves.
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Churches Built Before 1800 (fn. 84)
HOLY TRINITY, Coventry, and its Chapels. (fn. 85) Holy Trinity was in existence at least by 1113 as a chapel claimed by Coventry Priory and serving the tenants of what was by then the Prior's Half of Coventry. (fn. 86) It was mentioned again, as a church, in 1139, when, at the desire of Bishop Roger de Clinton, it was confirmed to the priory by Innocent II together with half the rental (census) of Coventry, and this confirmation was repeated by Lucius II in 1144. (fn. 87) According to a more detailed confirmation issued by Bishop Gerard Pucelle in 1183-4, which listed Holy Trinity among the priory's dependent chapels, the prior and convent were to find a suitable priest to minister there. (fn. 88) In contrast with St. Michael's, Holy Trinity appears to have been held by the priory without disturbance in the late 12th and for most of the early 13th century, except for a brief period in 1236 when, during the current dispute between the priory and Bishop Alexander de Stavensby, (fn. 89) the confirmations of popes Innocent and Lucius were renewed in the bishop's favour. (fn. 90) In 1259 the church was formally appropriated to the priory, (fn. 91) and in 1264 a vicarage was ordained. Ralph of Sowe, the first vicar, was thereupon presented by the prior and admitted by the bishop. (fn. 92) At the Dissolution the advowson was taken into the king's hand and subsequently remained with the Crown, the right to present being exercised on the Crown's behalf by the Lord Chancellor. (fn. 93)
According to the ordination of the vicarage in 1264 the vicar was to receive all oblations, obventions, tithes, and other profits of the church and of its chapels of Holy Cross, Coundon, Willenhall, and St. Nicholas, with the exception of the tithes of corn, hay, mills, lambs, and wool, and all principal mortuaries, rents, and services of the church's tenants which were apportioned to the priory; the latter was also to receive £5 yearly from the vicar for the Sunday offerings. (fn. 94) In 1346 the prior brought a case at Common Pleas against John de Holland, the vicar, to enforce his claim to the yearly sum which had not been paid for the previous seven years. The prior's claim was successful, (fn. 95) and in 1410-11 payment was being made normally. (fn. 96) The terms of the original ordination seem to have been slightly varied in 1456 by an agreement between the vicar, John Meneley, and the prior whereby the vicars of Holy Trinity were in future to render the 100s. annually in return for the small tithes of the parish and its existing chapelries (fn. 97) and of any other chapels that might be founded in the parish outside the priory's precinct. (fn. 98) In 1546-7 the receiver answered for a pension of 100s. received annually from Holy Trinity vicarage. (fn. 99)
In 1291 the church was valued at 20 marks and the vicarage at two marks; and these sums remained constant in 1340-1 and in 1454. By 1522 the vicarage was worth £25 and in 1534 its net value had risen to £26 5s. 6½d., but in 1546 it had decreased to £15 6s. 8d. Four years later the incumbent, William Bennett, in order to stabilize his stipend, leased the vicarage to two inhabitants of Coventry for seven years in return for a fine of 20 marks and an annual rent of £6 13s. 4d., but by 1553 the profits of the benefice had dropped to £3 19s. 10½d. (fn. 1)
In 1565 the corporation bought the rectory from the Crown, (fn. 2) thus becoming recipients of the great tithes and chargeable for repairs to the chancel, as well as having the right to certain pews in the church. The corporation as rectors also claimed the tithes of the dissolved St. John's Hospital during the minority of its owner, John Hales, since these had been payable to the priory as the appropriators of Holy Trinity. Anyone refusing to pay tithe was brought before the council by the alderman of his ward (fn. 3) and the corporation was able from time to time to lease out the tithes to individuals for a fixed annual sum. (fn. 4) At first the corporation carried out its duties in paying for repairs to the chancel, but by 1639 objections were being made and in 1654 an agreement was reached between the corporation and the vestry that the city should make an annual payment of £2 to Holy Trinity for the corporation's seats, but that the repair of the chancel should be the burden of the parish. (fn. 5) There were, however, frequent occasions when the council voted a contribution to the fabric; the corporation, moreover, showed some interest in the appointments of incumbents and in the sufficiency of their stipends.
As the value of the vicarage decreased it became clear that a proper provision must be made: in 1557-8, when the seven years' lease of the vicarage came to an end, an Act was passed for the payment of tithes in both Holy Trinity parish and St. Michael's, which was experiencing similar difficulties. (fn. 6) Although church attendance had decreased and payment of tithes could not be enforced, the incumbent had found a way of ensuring some sort of income, but by this Act a rate was to be levied on all those paying rent in the two parishes, on each a tithe of his rent - 1s. on 10s., 2s. on 20s., and so on; complaints were to be heard before the mayor and council, with appeal to the Lord Chancellor. In 1647 the tithe of house rents was bringing in £55 and this, together with various small payments and £8 6s. 8d., from the Crown, as arranged in 1568, gave the vicar a stipend of £74 3s. 4d. The Act for the payment of tithes was repealed in 1779 and replaced by an Act for the better providing of a maintenance for the vicar. (fn. 7) The previous Act had resulted in much litigation and the income of the vicarage had decreased considerably. The new arrangement was to supersede payment of all tithes and other ecclesiastical dues within the city. and suburbs, except endowments, bequests and stipends bestowed on the vicar, and surplice fees; it was to consist of an annual rate of 1s. in the £ on all houses, gardens, and buildings, with the exception of houses under the value of £6. (fn. 8) In 1851 the incumbent's position was comparatively good: he assessed his income from all sources at £670 7s. (fn. 9) The shilling rate was exacted until 1883, when the vicar's rate leviable in the parish of Holy Trinity was abolished by Act of Parliament. (fn. 10)
The abolition of the vicar's rate was the result of a long and bitter campaign waged by the corporation and by prominent nonconformists against this hated levy. A test case occurred in 1838, when the opinion of Sir Frederick Pollock was sought as to whether payment of the rate could be enforced. Since payment could be enforced by distress and sale of goods, unless appeal was made, the magistrates were at this point unable to proceed further. (fn. 11) The corporation, however, found good grounds for objection in 1866 to rates charged that year for the first time on market tolls and great fair tolls, on the Smithfield Market, and on the water mains in St. Nicholas Street. (fn. 12) The real crisis took place in 1882 when the vicar, Francis Morton Beaumont, issued thirteen demands for payment of the rate. Ten of the thirteen persons concerned, who objected to a compulsory payment for religious purposes, appealed to the mayor and magistrates for protection; it was rumoured that their goods, which had been seized by the police, were to be sold privately. An attempt was made to sell, but local opposition had been underestimated and the sale was a failure. Meanwhile the Anti Vicar's Rate Association, whose president was a member of the city council, was holding meetings and issuing pamphlets which provided strong evidence on the injustice of the system. A meeting summoned by the mayor resulted in the formation of a committee to collect subscriptions for a campaign for abolition. Before the end of the year Holy Trinity vestry had agreed to promote a Bill for the abolition of the vicar's rate provided that £4,200 was raised to pay debts and the costs of the Act. The money, including £100 subscribed by the Bishop of Worcester, was collected and the Act for abolition was passed in 1883. After Easter 1883 the vicar was to receive £500 a year out of the estates of the church and £100 from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. (fn. 13)
The number of priests attached to Holy Trinity cannot be ascertained before 1522, when there were, besides the vicar, eleven priests and two chantry priests; eleven years later there were a vicar, eight priests and two chantry priests; in 1547 there were only two priests but in 1560 the number had risen to seven. (fn. 14) Before the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries there appear to have been eight altars besides the high altar, each with its chapel and chantry: the altar of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Jesus altar, the Trinity altar, the Corpus Christi altar, the Holy Cross altar, and the altars of All Saints, St. Thomas, and St. Andrew. There was a chantry in the chapel of St. Thomas the Martyr in 1298; (fn. 15) it had been founded, probably in 1296, by William de Allesley for one priest to sing mass daily. (fn. 16) The chaplaincy was in the gift of the priory (fn. 17) and in 1534-5 the net value of the chantry was £4 17s. (fn. 18) The chapel, with its altar, lies east of the north porch. In 1564 seats for the general use of the congregation were placed in the chapel. (fn. 19)
William Celet had, during his lifetime, constructed a parclose screen between the Corpus Christi Chapel and the church; this chapel probably occupied the south transept. (fn. 20) After his death provision for his chantry was made by Richard de Solihull, priest, who granted land in 1329 to John de Caldicote, priest, and his successors in the chapel, who were to reside and were to undertake no other office which might in any way impede them in their duty. The living, which was in the gift of the priory, was for a time usurped by Queen Isabel, but reverted to the priory under the tripartite indenture of 1355. (fn. 21) The chapel in the south transept has also been identified as the Jesus Chapel; perhaps the dedication was altered when the Jesus Mass was introduced in Holy Trinity in 1478. The Jesus altar was still in existence in 1558, but was removed within two years, the chapel being used to store the dismantled organ. (fn. 22)
The Percy chantry at the altar of All Saints was of two separate foundations, one being made in 1349 when Nicholas Percy, John de Fillongley, and Henry Molling gave property for the support of one priest to sing mass daily for various members of the Percy family, including Nicholas and John Percy. (fn. 23) By 1372 there were two priests and the chantry was divided into distinct moieties, both of which were in the presentation of John Percy. (fn. 24) In 1411 and 1449 the prior held the right to present. (fn. 25) The position of this altar and chantry is unknown.
In 1356 a chantry was founded at the altar of the Holy Cross within the church (fn. 26) by William de Daventry and twelve others, for two priests to sing mass daily for the good estate of the king and queen, their children and Queen Isabel, the founders and the brethren and sisters of the fraternity of the Holy Cross. (fn. 27) This guild is otherwise unknown, unless the grant in 1363-4 by Richard de Fillongley, butcher, one of the founders of the chantry, and his wife, of property in the parish to four men (fn. 28) (three of whom were fellow founders) was in fact a gift without licence in mortmain to the guild.
The chapel of the Blessed Virgin Mary was in existence in 1364 and in 1392 two foundations were attached to its altar. An agreement was made between the Corpus Christi Guild and the churchwardens of Holy Trinity regarding the position of the guild's priest, who was to sing mass daily at St. Mary's altar and attend divine service on Sundays and double feasts and all offices used in the church; he was to be known as St. Mary's priest and was to be appointed by the guild, but he was closely connected with the church for, if the guild failed to provide a priest, it was to pay 8 marks a year to the churchwardens. (fn. 29) In 1404 it was granted further property for the support of a priest to sing Our Lady's Mass at St. Mary's altar, and additional property in 1492 for the same purpose. (fn. 30) The second foundation was of a chantry for Roger de Lodington and his widow, Alice; Alice herself added to the chantry's endowment in 1402. (fn. 31) From time to time other gifts were made for the upkeep of the altar, and in 1477 forty days' indulgence was granted to all hearing mass or praying there for benefactors, or contributing to the upkeep of lights and ornaments. Vestments were still being used by the Corpus Christi Guild in 1543, but St. Mary's altar was either damaged or allowed to fall into disrepair, probably after the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries, for, just before the death of Queen Mary, a gift was made for its repair or rebuilding. The chapel is thought to have been situated at the east end of the north chancel aisle; (fn. 32) this is the most likely position and equivalent to that of the Lady Chapel in St. Michael's. (fn. 33)
The chapel of the Holy Trinity in 1423 had its own chaplain who also served the chapel of St. Thomas; (fn. 34) little more is known of it than that it was sufficiently important for the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield to grant forty days' indulgence to all hearing mass or praying there for benefactors, or contributing to the upkeep of lights and ornaments. It was apparently situated in the south aisle. A chapel dedicated to St. Andrew is known to have existed in 1566. A late chantry was that founded by Richard Marler in 1526-7 in a newly-built chapel east of the north transept; only two priests served this chantry, the second being appointed by the city wardens (fn. 33) and the lands and revenues being administered by the Drapers' Company. (fn. 36)
Certain guilds have so far been noticed as having connexions with certain altars and chapels: the Holy Cross Guild (perhaps the butchers' company) with the altar of the Holy Cross, and the Corpus Christi Guild with St. Mary's Chapel. The fact that stairs are mentioned in connexion with the Dyers' Chapel (fn. 37) has suggested its identification with the two-storied St. Thomas's Chapel. If Holy Trinity Chapel was in the south nave aisle it may have served the tanners' company which maintained a priest there. (fn. 38) Otherwise, the whittawers' company is known to have kept one obit in the church (fn. 39) and the mercers' company to have had a chapel there. (fn. 40)
Evidence for the early history of Holy Trinity is scantier than that for St. Michael's. (fn. 41) The church and parish lay outside the main stream of the town's development; Holy Trinity was connected with the Corpus Christi Guild, St. Michael's with the Trinity Guild - indubitably the more important of the two. Holy Trinity was the church of the Prior's Half, appropriated to the priory, serving the needs of the prior's tenants, reflecting the life of the Prior's Half, which was not as highly developed as the Earl's Half. (fn. 42) So close was the bond between priory and church that the Vicar of Holy Trinity had been accustomed to administer the sacrament in time of need to servitors and other laymen attached to the priory and to others who repaired there until 1391, when this duty was ordered by papal indult to be performed by the sacristan, subprior or other fit monk. (fn. 43) It was also said that the prior had intended to denounce John Grace, the Lollard hermit, from the pulpit of Holy Trinity Church in 1424. (fn. 44) Several of the incumbents were, however, members of the Trinity Guild. (fn. 45) Nicholas Crosby obtained papal licence of absence to go to the university, a year after his presentation, for a period of five years and again in 1429 for another five years. (fn. 46)
Of considerable importance and most illuminating are the constitutions drawn up in 1462 for the deacon and the second deacon of Holy Trinity Church. (fn. 47) Their duties were of three kinds, connected respectively with the cure of souls, with the church ornaments and vestments, and with the fabric. As deacons, probably preparing for the priesthood and to have the cure of souls, they were to sing in the choir at high mass and for the daily offices. On Sundays, holy days, or double feasts they were rectors of the choir, and they were also to arrange for the reading of the gospel and the epistle at high mass on Sundays and holy days. The parish was divided into two wards, for each of which one of the deacons was responsible; he looked after weddings and funerals for his own ward, accompanied the priest when he took the sacrament to the sick, and carried holy water to each house in his ward every Sunday, receiving his 'duty' quarterly. Between them the deacons were responsible for all books, ornaments, and vestments in regular use, for keeping the church clean both inside and out, and for providing the decorations and observing all other proper ceremonies at special seasons in the church calendar.
The clergy of the church lived in a common hall called Jesus Hall, which was founded by the vicar, Thomas Bowde, and built on land conveyed to him by Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset, in 1499. (fn. 48) It lay to the south of the church, adjoining the south wall of the south transept and consisted, in 1693, of a hall and dining room, stairway and chamber over. Next door was the vicarage, which was probably part of the original building. Witness to its foundation was the inscription over the windows: Orate pro anima Thome Bowde, hujus vicarii fundatoris. Thomas Bowde devised Jesus Hall to the church in 1508 and at the same time founded his own chantry, for which the vicar was to be responsible. The priests of Holy Trinity Church lived there in common, under one of their number, who was called the archmaster, until the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries. (fn. 49) The hall was then let out from time to time to some of the craft companies (fn. 50) and, after being leased to Samuel Gibson, the vicar, who gave up his lease for the use of the parishioners, it was leased in 1622 to Humphrey Burton. The latter, after several improvements had been made, (fn. 51) acquired it in 1658, and from him it descended to his son Simon. (fn. 52) Nathaniel Wanley (who married Humphrey Button's daughter) occupied the house during his vicariate while Simon Burton lived next door. (fn. 53) The latter devised Jesus Hall in 1693 to the Vicar of Holy Trinity and his successors, but within fifty years it was pulled down and a new vicarage house built on the site. This did not last for long as it was demolished in 1826 to make way for extensions to the gaol. The new vicarage house was erected in St. Nicholas Street in 1839. (fn. 54)
William Bennett, in 1550, at a time when the church's finances were at their lowest ebb, had leased his vicarage house, and other properties, for seven years so that the money thus saved might be used to pay an assistant curate. (fn. 55) In spite, however, of his obvious care for the church and parish in his charge, he was deprived at Mary's accession because he was married. The fact that he had also been zealous in the sale of the church's twenty copes had probably militated against him. His successor, George Brooch, restored vestments and ornaments, but in 1560 and in the ensuing years the plate was sold, the high altar and rood were dismantled, and 'superstitious' symbols painted out, under the auspices of both Brooch and his successor, George Cheston. (fn. 56) The best known of the Elizabethan vicars is Humphrey Fenn, who was appointed in 1578. He was a Presbyterian and a member of the Warwickshire classis, (fn. 57) who in 1584 refused to subscribe to Archbishop Whitgift's six articles. (fn. 58) It was said that, on his suspension, a Welshman, one Griffen, became vicar, that there was some strife between them as to who should hold the benefice and that when Fenn was restored there was much rejoicing in Coventry. (fn. 59) He did not stay for long, for he was again suspended on his citation before the Star Chamber for having subscribed the Book of Discipline and for his membership of the Warwickshire classis. (fn. 60) Although he was released from the Fleet and probably returned to Coventry, he was not restored to the vicarage again and his successor, Richard Eyton, was attacked by the Puritans for negligence. (fn. 61) After the incumbency of Samuel Bugges, who was also Vicar of St. Michael's, Henry Carpenter proved a popular vicar, to whose stipend the parishioners were willing to add £10 a year rather than that he should go to a better living elsewhere. (fn. 62) But he went, and it was during his successor's incumbency that the altar was restored to the easterly position and raised on three steps. (fn. 63) This measure, carried out at the order of the chancellor of the diocese, was opposed, and after another five years opinion had hardened. The church was in financial difficulties and poverty was a good excuse for dispensing with the organist and then for selling the organ; (fn. 64) but, although strong representations were made to the chancellor to reimburse the vestry for its outlay on moving the altar in 1636 and to provide funds for restoring the communion table to its 'ancient position' as required by order of Parliament, the money was paid out of the estates. (fn. 65) On Robert Proctor's death, the parishioners petitioned for Julius Herring to be given the vicarage, but he appears not to have satisfied Parliament, for John Bryan was appointed. (fn. 66) The latter was popular with his parishioners and respected by his opponents; he left a more lucrative living to come to Coventry. (fn. 67) Bryan was a convinced Presbyterian and stripped the church of the rest of its ornaments. The font was taken down in 1645 and the eagle lectern was relegated to the vestry. (fn. 68) At the Restoration, in common with the Vicar of St. Michael's, he was urged by the bishop to conform, but similarly he refused and his last signature occurs in the vestry minutes on 1 April 1662; (fn. 69) the council continued, however, to make payments to him (fn. 70) and he went on living in Coventry until his death in 1676, when his funeral sermon was preached by his successor, Nathaniel Wanley. (fn. 71)
The revenues of Holy Trinity came mainly from rents of lands and buildings, with additional sums from pew rents, bell-ringing, and graves; out of this had to be found the clerk's wages and the organist's salary, repairs to the church and vicarage, and other small miscellaneous expenses. (fn. 72) There were four churchwardens, appointed by vote of the vestry, (fn. 73) who were responsible for the administration of the estates and for the keeping of accounts. (fn. 74) In 1652 they were empowered to lease pews. In 1627 Humphrey Burton, later town clerk, was appointed churchwarden and kept the accounts most assiduously. The vestry minutes of his period are mainly in his meticulous hand. In 1642 Robert Proctor, the vicar, tried to impose his own churchwardens, but the vestry was adamant and the wardens of the previous year were continued in office. By 1672 there was a head-churchwarden, the three others being appointed for the three wards of the parish, Cross Cheaping, Butchery, and Bishop Street. It is likely that the preservation of the church records is partly due to the care of Humphrey Burton. (fn. 75) Appointments of parish clerks and sextons are entered in the minutes; the sextons had taken over the duties relating to the fabric of the church, which formerly belonged to the deacons; they were also responsible for the custody of church goods and accounted to the wardens. (fn. 76)
At the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries the church was deprived of its staff of priests and little money was available for the payment of stipends beyond that of the vicar; but various lectures and sermons were founded by benefactors, of which the Friday lecture, in existence by at least 1611, carried during the 17th century a salary of £2 yearly. (fn. 77) Three yearly sermons had already been founded by Thomas Warren, by his will proved in 1530, and after the Dissolution further small endowments for a total of twelve sermons were provided under the wills of Thomas Wheatley (proved 1567), John Tallants (proved 1573), Christopher Davenport (proved 1629), Richard Baron (c. 1658), Nathaniel Wanley (1681), William Jelliff (proved 1684), and Samuel Frankland (1692). Three more sermons were endowed by John Cockesonne, by deed of 1566, and two by the gift, in 1817, of Mary Pollard. From 1562 onwards a payment of £1 10s. a year is recorded in the churchwardens' accounts for the preaching of three sermons connected with the name of Henry Boteler who about 1490 had also endowed three sermons at St. Michael's. Several of these sermons have survived to the present day, (fn. 78) but at some periods sums considerably in excess of those originally laid down were paid for them, either to a permanent lecturer who then acted as the vicar's assistant, or to the vicar himself to augment his stipend. (fn. 79)
On the deprivation of John Bryan at the Restoration, Nathaniel Wanley was appointed vicar. The living was still poor and Wanley's stipend was cut just before he died in 1680. During his vicariate several reforms were introduced: the parish plate was no longer to be lent out to private persons and stricter regulations were issued for the burial of the poor. Considerable repairs were carried out on the fabric of the church. When the tower and spire fell in 1666 rebuilding was completed in under three years. (fn. 80) Wanley was succeeded by Samuel Barton who stayed only a few months, then by Jonathan Kimberley, an outstanding preacher, (fn. 81) whose gifts won him an extra £30 a year from the council. (fn. 82) On his preferment as Dean of Lichfield in 1712 the church sank into a period of apathy.
Kimberley was succeeded by his son, Samuel. John Davies, appointed in 1811, was a well-loved incumbent, who gave much of his time to preaching at the workhouse. The outstanding vicar of the 19th century was Walter Farquhar Hook, who made a great impression on welfare and education in the parish as well as on the fabric of the church; he left Holy Trinity to become Vicar of Leeds in 1837. (fn. 83)
The following modern ecclesiastical parishes have been created wholly or partly out of Holy Trinity in the 19th and 20th centuries: St. Peter (1842), St. Thomas, Keresley-with-Coundon (1848), All Saints and St. Mark (1869), and St. Nicholas. Radford (1912), which had been built as a chapel of ease to Holy Trinity in 1874.
A mission room to serve the area of Willenhall, a detached part of Holy Trinity parish later known as Holy Trinity Without, was opened in St. James Lane, Willenhall, in 1884. It was eventually replaced in 1957 by the new, permanent church of St. John the Divine, Willenhall, to which Holy Trinity Without was assigned to a parish in 1958'
(fn. 84) The old Free Grammar School building, formerly the church attached to St. John the Baptist's Hospital
(fn. 85) , was bought by subscription in 1885 and conveyed to the vicar and churchwardens of Holy Trinity for use as a mission room,
(fn. 86) which was subsequently called St. Katherine's mission room Hales Street.
The parish church of the HOLY TRINITY stands at the junction of Broadgate and Priory Row. It is basically cruciform in plan, having an aisled nave, an aisled chancel, north and south transepts and a central tower with a tall spire. On the north side a porch and three chapels obscure the projection of the transept. The chapels are separated from the church by arcades, and virtually add second north aisles to both nave and chancel. At the east ends of both chancel aisles are low self-contained chapels, now used as vestries. The external walls of the church have been rebuilt or refaced with different types of stone at various periods so that little original work remains.
There is apparently nothing left of the Norman building which was destroyed by fire in 1257.
(fn. 89) Work of the 13th century, however, survives in considerable quantity, and its distribution gives some idea of the extent of the rebuilt church. The most easily recognized part of this fabric is the twostoried north porch. Internally the ground floor has a quadripartite vault springing from angle shafts with foliage capitals; similar shafts flank the deeplymoulded arch to the doorway into the north aisle. The wall surrounding the doorway has been pierced with several rectangular openings, communicating with the upper room of the porch and the staircase leading to it. The continuation of this wall eastwards, above the later archway to St. Thomas's Chapel, has at least one blocked lancet window which evidently belonged to the mid-13th-century north aisle. Owing to the addition of chapels on both sides of the porch, its east and west external walls are now enclosed inside the church; the north wall has been rebuilt. The original porch walls contain masonry of the 13th century and some which may be even older.
(fn. 90) There is also 13th-century walling in the upper part of the north wall of the north nave aisle, in a similar position in the north chancel aisle, in the lowest 4 ft. of the outer wall of the south chancel aisle, and in the north wall of the north transept. In addition 13th-century arches, or parts of them, have survived as abutments to the piers of the crossing in the chancel and transepts. The extent of this work makes it possible to establish that, by the later 13th century, a large cruciform church was in existence, having a central tower, transepts, an aisled nave, an aisled chancel, and a two-storied north porch.
The first addition to this building was St. Thomas's Chapel, a two-storied structure filling the space between porch and north transept. It probably dates from about 1296 when Allesley's chantry was founded. A former doorway from the porch, consisting of two trefoil-headed openings with early Geometrical tracery in the arch above, is now partly glazed.
(fn. 91) The arch between the chapel and the north aisle has late-13th-century mouldings and is without responds.
The chapel to the west of the porch, known either as the Archdeacon's Chapel or the consistory court,
(fn. 92) was probably added before 1350. Its two-bay arcade has a tall octagonal pier and semi-octagonal responds. High up in the east wall is a contemporary five-light window, now blocked, which was evidently above the original eaves level of the porch; it consists of an arched head filled with reticulated tracery. The other windows in the chapel are later insertions.
A rebuilding of the nave arcades appears to have taken place during the later 14th century. They are of four bays, supported on composite piers of lozengeshaped plan. The easternmost bays contain halfarches, probably because these gave greater support to the piers of the crossing; a similar halfarch is found at the junction of south nave aisle and south transept. The re-casing of the crossing piers and the rebuilding of its arches followed the work in the nave. Three of the four arches to east and west of the crossing were not, however, completely rebuilt; each retains a 13th-century respond with a typical 'waterholding' base.
It is known that in 1391 the chancel was in poor repair, and that it was to be rebuilt with an extension to the east of 24 ft.
(fn. 93) The present chancel, however, has no recognisable features of this date. It must be assumed that a later reconstruction took place, perhaps partly in post-Reformation times. At the west end of the arcades two 13th-century arches have been left in position although their jambs have been rebuilt; probably here, as elsewhere, the motive was to avoid disturbance to the piers supporting the tower. Plain stretches of walling between these arches and the crossing contain blocked doorways to the former rood-loft, taken down in 1560.
Late-15th-century work in the church includes the fine stone pulpit adjoining the south-east pier of the crossing. The nave clerestory also belongs to this period; the earlier church had a lower and more steeply-pitched roof, the line of which is visible on the east and west faces of the tower. The nave clerestory has two-light square-headed windows with stone panelling filling the space between their sills and the arcades. Between each pair of windows wall shafts rise from arcade level to support the arched braces of the tie-beam roof. A curious feature, for which no adequate explanation has been offered, is that the clerestory bays do not fit those of the arcades below. The chancel clerestory is of the same type but plainer than that of the nave. It appears to be contemporary with the arcades beneath it but, like the rest of the chancel, cannot be dated with certainty. Nearly all the windows in the church are Perpendicular in style and some were probably first inserted in the 15th century.
The building of Jesus Hall against the south transept c. 1500
(fn. 94) blocked the way round this side of the church. It was probably at this date, therefore, that a public footpath was cut through the transept from east to west. The transeptal chapel, thought to be that containing the Jesus altar, was raised above the vaulted passage and given external access; its piscina can be seen high up in the transept's south wall. The so-called 'Jesus passage' survived until 1834, when the transept was reopened to the church.
(fn. 95) Blocked entrances to both passage and chapel are still visible externally.
The last addition to the church before the Dissolution was the Marler Chapel, assumed to have been built in 1526-7.
(fn. 96) It lies east of the north transept and is of three bays. Its windows and the arches separating it from the north chancel aisle have fourcentred heads; there is a piscina in the north wall and the carved oak roof is original.
In 1666 the spire and the upper part of the tower fell as the result of a great storm, much of the surrounding masonry being also destroyed.
(fn. 97) Funds for rebuilding were rapidly collected and the corporation gave trees from Hawkesbury and Coundon, as well as stone from a quarry 'without New Gate'.
(fn. 98) In two years and nine months the restoration was complete and the weathercock set in position.
(fn. 99) The new spire was octagonal and taller than the original one, the total height being 237 ft.
(fn. 1) The tower was needing attention again by 1674 and continued to do so during the 18th and early 19th centuries.
(fn. 2) In the last quarter of the 18th century the east wall of the chancel was refaced and many of the windows in the church were replaced, the architect for most of the work being Samuel Eglinton.
(fn. 3) Refacing of the tower masonry was begun in 1826 and a thorough restoration of the whole exterior in Bath stone, including a new west front, was carried out between 1843 and 1849 under R. C. Hussey of Birmingham.
Work on the interior during Hook's incumbency (1829-37) revealed wall paintings of the Crucifixion and the Last Judgement; the former was not preserved and the latter has now largely disappeared. In 1833 alterations were made to the communion table and altarpiece and the pulpit was 'restored'; Thomas Rickman was evidently employed as architect.
(fn. 5) A complete internal restoration by George Gilbert (later Sir Gilbert) Scott was started in 1855. Galleries in the aisles and an organ gallery across the nave were removed. A new organ chamber was built in the westernmost bay of the south chancel aisle. Box-pews were cleared away, the church was reseated, and medieval stalls were moved to the chancel. The tower lantern was opened up by removing the floor of the ringing chamber. Owing to doubts about the stability of the tower, the bells were transferred to a newly-built wooden belfry in the old graveyard to the north of Priory Row.
(fn. 6) Soon afterwards alterations were again made to the chancel and it was then considered that the altarpiece and furnishing might be taken as 'an excellent specimen of moderately high-church taste'.
(fn. 7) In 1863 the first surpliced choir in Coventry since the 16th century occupied this chancel.
Between 1915 and 1918 the facing masonry of the tower, again decayed, was removed and replaced with Woolton stone. Measures were also taken to strengthen the transepts and the piers supporting the tower; the architect was Sir T. G. Jackson.
(fn. 9) In 1935 a new north-east vestry was built.
(fn. 10) The church was damaged during air raids in 1940 and 1941. On the first occasion incendiary bombs were extinguished by the vicar, Canon G. W. Clitheroe, and the curate; on the second the reredos and part of the east window were destroyed by blast.
(fn. 11) After the Second World War an appeal was launched for £10,000, and the total of over £12,000 that was eventually raised was applied to the renewal of the roof over the sanctuary, the Archdeacon's Chapel, and the south transept. A new west window was inserted in 1955 and an east window, of seven lights instead of six, was completed in 1956.
The octagonal stone font of 15th-century date was re-coloured in 1855.
(fn. 13) The brass eagle lectern is a fine example of late-15th-century work. Three of the choir-stalls are medieval, others have original carved miserere seats, some of which are thought to have come in the first place from the Whitefriars church, but were brought to Holy Trinity from the Free Grammar School in 1885.
(fn. 14) There is an Elizabethan pedestal alms box and, in the Archdeacon's Chapel, a medieval banner cupboard. In 1775 the ancient glass was removed from the window over the south door; this included, among other figures, those of Leofric and Godiva.
(fn. 15) Most of the glass was later taken to a house in Worcestershire, where it was destroyed by fire in 1784, but the remaining fragments were re-inserted in 1779 in another south window. They were subsequently transferred, after 1855, to Marler's Chapel, and again, in the early 20th century, to the Archdeacon's Chapel.
(fn. 16) The earliest recorded organ was built by John Howe and John Clymmowe in 1526; its dismantled parts were sold in the late 16th century. Others were set up in 1631 and 1684.
(fn. 17) An organ by Thomas Swarbrick, dating from 1732, was replaced by a new instrument (by Foster and Andrews) in 1861; this was rebuilt in 1900 by W. Hill and Sons, with some of the earlier work incorporated, and restored by a local builder in 1923 and 1933. It was rebuilt a second time after the Second World War by the firm of Henry Willis.
A number of monuments in the church disappeared during the restoration of 1855, and others were moved to the Archdeacon's Chapel.
(fn. 19) The latter include a late medieval canopied tomb, much worn and without brasses or inscription, and a mural tablet with brasses to John Whitehead (d. 1597), mayor.
(fn. 20) A tablet commemorating Dr. Philemon Holland (d. 1636) bears a Latin epitaph composed by himself; this has been copied from a former monument in the chancel. Among later tablets are two with portrait busts, one to John Bohun (d. 1691), his wife, and daughter, the other to the Revd. John Davies (d. 1828). Also in the chapel are three early medieval stone coffins, two of them with coped lids.
The church possessed at least three bells in 1462; the two deacons then appear to have been largely responsible for the ringing and maintenance of them.
(fn. 21) The 'sanctus' bell is referred to in 1563 and 1573. In the latter year the corporation sold to the parish the 'great bell', one of two from the church of the dissolved house of Whitefriars.
(fn. 22) A bell was recast at Leicester in 1577, another in 1579, three, in 1588, 1595, and 1613, at the Leicester foundry of the Newcombe family,
(fn. 23) and two by Watts of Leicester in 1616 and 1617. There were five bells in 1625-6 when Watts also recast the tenor. This bell seems to have been out of use by 1654 but had been replaced by 1658 when the number of bells was raised to six by the gift of a treble from the mayor.
(fn. 24) In 1776 a new ring of eight bells was cast by Pack and Chapman of London of which four became cracked and were removed from the tower sometime before 1855. During the restoration of 1855-6 nos. 1 to 7 were recast by C. and G. Mears of London and the bells rehung in a wooden belltower in the churchyard. The old tenor was cracked in 1891 and was recast by J. Taylor and Co. of Loughborough in 1898.
Chimes were set up in the steeple in 1623; a sixth bell was added to them and the tune altered in 1659. They were apparently not used after 1755.
(fn. 26) In 1606 a clock was installed in the steeple; it was replaced in 1737-8.
In 1559 the church plate included two pyxes, four gilt chalices, one of which was broken, and four patens,
(fn. 28) but some, at least, of the plate was sold the following year.
(fn. 29) Two chalices and patens had been acquired by 1589 when one pair was stolen. Another chalice with a paten was bought in 1607, and six pewter flagons in 1633.
(fn. 30) The plate now consists of two silver gilt chalices and patens, all hall-marked 1587 but the chalices both inscribed 'made in ANNO DOM 1590'; two silver gilt flagons, with a hallmark of 1614, which were given to the church in 1695 by Sir John Dugdale, Kt., and his wife Elizabeth; a silver gilt alms dish of 1699, and a silver gilt paten of 1774.
(fn. 31) The registers date from 1561 and are complete. The entries include those of the burial in 1602 of Bartholomew Griffin, thought to be the same as the late-16th-century poet who wrote Fidessa, and the marriage in 1773 of William Siddons and Sarah Kemble.
A chapel dedicated to the HOLY CROSS was in existence in 1183-4 when it was among the possessions confirmed to Coventry Priory. The exact site of the chapel is not known but it and Holy Trinity itself were then described together as lying in the cathedral graveyard (infra cemiterium sitis).
(fn. 33) Holy Cross was included among the chapels of Holy Trinity in the ordination of the vicarage in 1264
(fn. 34) and in the agreement of 1456 concerning the payment of small tithes to the vicar,
(fn. 35) but no mention of it was made in 1535.
There was a chapel of ST. CHAD in Coundon from at least 1221, when it was among the possessions confirmed to Coventry Priory,
(fn. 36) but there is no evidence about the nature of the building or how it was used. The profits of the chapel were said to belong to Holy Trinity Church in 1264, and the building seems to have been still in existence in 1410-11.
(fn. 37) One of the two pieces of land owned by Holy Trinity in the 19th century was a house and small field in the hamlet at Coundon Court,
(fn. 38) which may represent the site of the 13th-century chapel. The Priestsfield which belonged to Holy Trinity Guild in the 15th century was a croft and field in Little Coundon held of Coventry Priory by customary rent of 1s. 10d. There was also a croft called Clerksyard in the priory's estate.
The tithes of Coundon were appropriated to the priory in 1259-60.
(fn. 40) In the account given in 1410-11 of the agreement between the prior and John Hastings, lord of Allesley, on Hernerswaste and Bradnokwaste, the prior was to have the great tithes in those wastes, and Hastings the small tithes.
(fn. 41) According to the agreement of 1456 the small tithes of Coundon were included among those to be paid to the Vicar of Holy Trinity.
There is some discrepancy in the accounts of the tithes at the Dissolution. According to Jeaffreson's summary, the lease of the Moathouse to Michael Bold in 1538 included the tithes of wool and lambs.
(fn. 43) According to other evidence, however, the tithes, that is all the tithes, of Keresley and Coundon were leased in the same year to Henry Over, for the life of Henry Alicock and 60 years thereafter, for £3 3s. 4d. yearly.
(fn. 44) The tithes were not granted to Coventry corporation with the Moathouse, but in 1542 to Richard Andrewes and Leonard Chamberlain.
(fn. 45) The tithes of Coundon were later separated from those of Keresley, and by 1641 had come into the hands of Simon Norton, who in that year left them in trust to provide an annuity of £13 6s. 8d. and for charitable purposes.
(fn. 46) There were then also several pieces of land in the common fields 'enjoyed with the said tithes'.
(fn. 47) However, the charitable trust was never effective, and the tithes again became private property. In 1841 the great and small tithes were worth £245, and were owned by G. R. P. Jarvis of Doddington Hall (Lines.).
In 1848 Coundon became part of the ecclesiastical parish of St. Thomas, Keresley-with-Coundon. Parts of the modern housing estates of Coundon were included in the parish of St. George, Barkers Butts Lane, created in 1935.
The chapel of ST. JAMES, Willenhall, was in existence by 1183-4 when it was confirmed as the property of Coventry Priory.
(fn. 50) It was appropriated to Holy Trinity in 1259,
(fn. 51) and the profits of the chapel were said to pertain to that church in 1264.
(fn. 52) In 1410-11, however, the chapel was derelict, the graveyard being worth 20d. for grazing. The site of the chapel was clearly indicated in the survey, being north of the cottages at the corner of London Road and St. James Lane, and south of the later Chapel Farm.
(fn. 53) The income of Holy Trinity vicarage in 1535 included 2s. from the chapel yard of Willenhall,
(fn. 54) and 13s. 4d. from the same in 1647.
The prior was declared to be rector in 1410-11, and had a tithe barn south of the graveyard.
(fn. 56) The tithes of grain of both Willenhall and Whitley, and the hay of Whitley, all worth £2 13s. 4d., were brought here for the priory's sacrist, and the tithes of wool and lambs, and the heriots, for the steward and the treasurer. The tenants of Willenhall were paying £1 4s. to the steward for their tithes of hay.
(fn. 57) In 1456 it was agreed by the prior that the small tithes of Willenhall among the other chapelries of the parish should be paid to the Vicar of Holy Trinity.
(fn. 58) In 1535 the sacrist was said to be receiving £1 from the tithes,
(fn. 59) and in 1539 the tithes of grain, hay, lambs, and wool were being leased by a tenant for £2.
(fn. 60) The tithes passed to John Hales after the Dissolution, and descended with the Hales estate.
For all ecclesiastical purposes, Willenhall was a detached part of Holy Trinity parish from the 14th to the 19th centuries; the modern parish was created out of Holy Trinity in 1958.
A chapel on Gosford Green was first mentioned in 1425 when the leet ordered the chamberlains to lease the grass and garth belonging to it.
(fn. 63) It appears to have been attached to or even identical with the hermitage, said to be outside Gosford Gate, the occupants of which were, by order of leet in 1429, to be installed by the mayor.
(fn. 64) In 1446 the leet granted the hermitage to John Thorpe, tailor, on condition that he should keep it in repair.
(fn. 65) According to the agreement of 1456 the Vicar of Holy Trinity was to receive inter alia the oblations and obventions of ST. MARGARET'S Chapel, 'newly erected at Gosford Green',
(fn. 66) and in 1535 a sum of 2s. from the garden 'commonly called the chapel yard of the chapel or hermitage of St. Margaret' was included among the profits of Holy Trinity vicarage.
The chapel was apparently still in existence in 1538,
(fn. 68) but by 1647 had been converted into a tithe barn from which Holy Trinity vicarage then received £1 13s. 4d.
(fn. 69) The Hermitage Barn, or the Trinity Tithe Barn, as it was later called,
(fn. 70) disappeared sometime after 1837.
(fn. 71) Later in the century the site on Gosford Green was described as a garden known as 'Trinity tithe barn piece'.
The origins of the church of ST. NICHOLAS are obscure. An anonymous annalist claims that c. 1003 it was the parish church of Coventry.
(fn. 73) Dugdale mentions no more than the graveyard,
(fn. 74) the church itself having ceased to exist before his time or during his very early years. No parish can with certainty be assigned to St. Nicholas, unless it was the area which came within the jurisdiction of the Bishop Street leet. The church was, during the greater part of its existence, a chapel of Holy Trinity and certainly lay in that parish, within the Prior's Half,
(fn. 75) and on the hill which Dugdale suggests was the site of the first settlement of Coventry; close to it lay the parcel of ground called Medelborowe and the fields called Bannepece and Stripe.
(fn. 76) Scanty though it is, the evidence suggests that St. Nicholas was the church of an early settlement of Coventry and that, when the centre of habitation moved towards the area of the castle and the priory, St. Nicholas's Church and parish were absorbed by the church of the Prior's Half. In 1183-4 it was listed among the chapels belonging to Coventry Priory,
(fn. 77) and by 1264 it was a chapel of Holy Trinity to which church it remained thenceforward attached.
(fn. 78) It is tempting to suppose that the clerks and chaplains who appear as witnesses to transfers of land in the area of St. Nicholas Street and who held land close to the church did in fact serve it: these were Gladewin, priest, at some period between 1154 and 1187, Robert de Repindon, Hugh, Alan, Thomas Seled, John le Bel in the mid 13th century, and Robert de Sweppeston in 1411.
St. Nicholas was also closely connected with the Corpus Christi Guild (the guild of the Prior's Half) which was founded in 1348 and licensed to maintain a chaplain.
(fn. 80) In 1368 licence was granted for the alienation of £5 in mortmain for the support of two chaplains to officiate in St. Nicholas's Church.
(fn. 81) So far it has proved impossible to link this grant with the guild: its wording is suggestive, but it appears to be a simple foundation of a chantry for John Damasce and his nine co-founders. Although the original licence of 1348 was confirmed in 1381,
(fn. 82) the guild seems not to have received the wherewithal for the support of its chaplain until 1392.
(fn. 83) Presumably the chaplain officiated daily in St. Nicholas's from that time, for by 1410-11 the guild was also known as St. Nicholas Guild.
(fn. 84) The connexion between church and guild is well documented at a later date: in 1493 the guild inventory included two chalices belonging to St. Nicholas, which were kept by Thomas Owr who assisted the priest; at the turn of the century the guild made two separate payments for repairs to the church, and it also celebrated the church's dedication.
Although the guild was apparently still meeting at St. Nicholas for services and celebrations in 1541-2,
(fn. 86) the church had already, in 1535, been described as 'in decay and ruin'. The profits of 5s. from the graveyard were then being received by Holy Trinity.
(fn. 87) The members for Coventry appealed in Parliament in 1547-8 against the forfeiture of the guild and chantry lands to the Crown,
(fn. 88) but although Coventry corporation was allowed to purchase the bulk of these lands in 1552
(fn. 89) the two guild churches of St. Nicholas and St. John the Baptist (the church of the Trinity Guild) ceased to be used as places of worship. St. John's was eventually restored,
(fn. 90) but by 1560 St. Nicholas seems to have been turned into a storehouse by the churchwardens of Holy Trinity
(fn. 91) and it is mentioned for the last time in 1610.
(fn. 92) Nothing is known of its appearance but it is described as a 'fair church' in a note in Stow's collections.
(fn. 93) The graveyard was included, as 'one close or pasture', in a lease for seven years of Holy Trinity vicarage in 1558, and a sum of £2 10s. from 'Nicholas Churchyard' formed part of the income of the vicarage in 1647.
The actual site of the church and graveyard is uncertain, but both seem to have lain somewhere to the west of St. Nicholas Street, between it and Radford Road.
(fn. 95) In 1410-11 the street was said to run from the corner of Dog Lane (Leicester Street) by Bishop Gate to the 'further wall' of the graveyard of St. Nicholas's Church and to the little lane leading from the graveyard to Radford Road.
(fn. 96) By the 19th century, however, it was apparently thought that the graveyard had lain on the other side of St. Nicholas Street.
(fn. 97) This belief was strengthened by Fretton's assertion that the new vicarage house for Holy Trinity parish, which was built on the east side of St. Nicholas Street in 1839, lay on the site of St. Nicholas's graveyard,
(fn. 98) and by his identification of foundations, found in the process of building, with the remains of the church.
(fn. 99) It was perhaps on the authority of these statements that the site of the church has been marked to the east of the street by the Ordnance Survey.
ST. ANNE by the Charterhouse was a chapel or hermitage in existence at least by 1381 since the first party of Carthusian monks is said to have lived in it for seven years while their own house was being completed.
(fn. 2) The chapel, which then belonged to the Trinity Guild, was described in 1393 as a messuage called St. Anne's Chapel, with a house, garden, and land, the whole surrounded by a moat, and lying near Langley Grove.
(fn. 3) This grove may have been the same as the Little Grove which stood on the west bank of the Sherbourne between Bisseley Mill and New Mill. Since certain early-14th-century deeds (dealing with property of the Langley family in this area) which mention Little Grove have been endorsed De grava iuxta Coventr' ad capellam Sancte Anne
(fn. 4) the chapel mayhave originated considerably earlier than 1381.
In 1460 both the chapel and the domus of St. Anne are referred to
(fn. 5) and in 1485-6 the guild was receiving a rent of 13s. 4d. a year de capellano Sancte Anne.
(fn. 6) In 1518 the leet drew up regulations for the playing of bowls at 'St. Anne's by the Charterhouse' with fines for any infringement, to be paid by 'him that keepeth the place'.
(fn. 7) In 1526 the Trinity Guild leased the chapel to the Charterhouse for 99 years in exchange for some pasture land and the Charterhouse Leys
(fn. 8) and for a yearly rent.
(fn. 9) After the Dissolution the chapel was included among property granted by the Crown in 1546 to Edward Watson, of Rockingham (Northants.), and Henry Herdson, skinner, of London.
The Langley Grove mentioned in 1393, and again in 1487,
(fn. 11) has been identified
(fn. 12) with the wood called St. Anne's Grove in the 15th century and later, which seems also to have belonged to the Trinity Guild.
(fn. 13) It was thought by Sharp that the site of the chapel was marked in his day by a house on the east side of the Sherbourne, next to the bridge carrying the approach to the Charterhouse from London Road over the river.
(fn. 14) It is, however, much more likely, as already indicated, that the chapel stood on the west side of the Sherbourne, where a clump of trees in the field to the south of the approach was still known in the 1870s as St. Anne's Grove.
ST. GEORGE by Gosford Gate. This chapel is first referred to in 1425 as one of the meeting-places of a number of journeymen, particularly those of the tailors' craft, who had banded together as the fraternity or fellowship of St. George of Coventry.
(fn. 16) A similar fraternity, that of St. Anne, whose members were meeting at the priory and the other religious houses in the city in 1406 and again in 1414, was suppressed by royal order to the mayor and bailiffs on both occasions,
(fn. 17) as had been the Nativity Guild, apparently the earliest of such journeyman organizations,
(fn. 18) in 1384.
(fn. 19) Although the fraternity of St. George was also ordered to be dispersed in 1425,
(fn. 20) the original Nativity Guild was revived about 1439 when it was officially recognized as the guild of the shearmen (whose patron saint was St. George)
(fn. 21) and fullers. Its members were then licensed to acquire property, consisting of the reversion of the site of St. George's Chapel, four messuages, and a mill, from the feoffees of Laurence Cook or Husy,
(fn. 22) mayor in 1415 and 1429,
(fn. 23) for the support of a chaplain and two poor men.
(fn. 24) The chapel and the priest's chamber adjoining it had been built by Cook,
(fn. 25) at an unknown date, and he and his wife Alice still retained a life-interest in the property in 1439.
(fn. 26) In 1448, when the fullers withdrew from the guild
(fn. 27) of tailors and shearmen, as it was called thenceforward, they released to the latter their right in the chapel and other property which Cook had granted to the guild.
At the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries the guild's expenses included the chaplain's stipend of £4 a year and the yearly celebration of Cook's obit in the chapel as founder of the guild. It was also reported that 'many people of the suburbs . . . being very poor folks and the rather to avoid ill airs and the press of them do commonly use to resort to the same chapel to hear mass and other divine service, and not to the parish church [St. Michael's'.
(fn. 29) Most of the guild's property - the mill, the mansion called 'le Lodge', and three messuages in Gosford Street - was sold to William Place and Nicholas Spakeman in 1550.
(fn. 30) The chapel itself, which was certainly converted into tenements sometime after the Dissolution, may as early as 1552 have been turned into the two messuages in Gosford Street, formerly belonging to the guild, 'in which the poor now dwell', which were included in the sale of guild and chantry lands to the corporation in that year.
The chapel adjoined Gosford Gate to the northeast.
(fn. 32) It was built on the bridge which carried Calais Street (later part of Far Gosford Street) over the Sherbourne. At this point the river ran immediately outside the city wall and beneath the chapel itself. The building consisted of nave and chancel, both 20 ft. wide, and had a circular turret at its north-west angle. There was a north doorway in the chancel and a south doorway communicating with Gosford Gate, where a room was used by the tailors' and shearmen's guild. By the early 19th century the chapel had long been occupied as tenements and a timber-framed upper story, containing weavers' shops, had been added. In the north wall two three-light 15thcentury windows survived above the arch of the bridge; the south wall, which abutted on the street, also retained traces of medieval windows. The building was demolished in 1822 and the site absorbed in a row of new houses.
ST. JAMES AND ST. CHRISTOPHER, a chapel by Spon Bridge, may have been in existence as early as 1395 as the 'church' of Spon
(fn. 34) the site of which is roughly indicated in a description of the liberties of the city in 1399.
(fn. 35) The 'church' stood near the end of a lane which ran from a point outside Greyfriars Gate, skirting Crabtree Field,
(fn. 36) and which has been thought to have followed approximately the line of Queen's Road and the Butts
(fn. 37) and so to have joined Spon Street near Spon Bridge. Confusion has occurred at various times between the chapel of St. James and St. Christopher and the chapel which existed at Spon in the 12th century and was then confirmed to Coventry Priory by the earls of Chester.
(fn. 38) This chapel was subsequently endowed by Hugh (II), Earl of Chester (d. 1181), as a hospital for lepers
(fn. 39) (dedicated to St. Leonard),
(fn. 40) but it seems to have ceased to be so used by 1280,
(fn. 41) and it later became a royal free chapel dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen.
(fn. 42) From this point onwards it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between references to this chapel and to the chapel by Spon Bridge, particularly as the exact date and circumstances of the latter's foundation are not known. It may be the chapel by Spon Bridge which is referred to in the priory's rental of 1410-11 as the capella de Sponna
(fn. 43) but from the topographical evidence given it might almost equally well be identified with the chapel of St. Mary Magdalen.
The first clear references to the chapel of St. James and St. Christopher, as 'Christopher Chapel', occur in 1428 and 1431.
(fn. 45) The chapel itself and the land surrounding it, between Spon Causeway and Spon Street, belonged to the members of the weavers' craft,
(fn. 46) who had presumably been responsible for the founding of the chapel, possibly to serve their craft as St. George's Chapel (see above) served the tailors' and shearmen's guild.
(fn. 47) The dedication to St. Christopher, which later in the 15th century was enlarged to that of St. Christopher and St. Julian
(fn. 48) (a saint who is also associated with ferrymen and travellers)
(fn. 49) suggests that the chapel might originally have been connected with the upkeep by the weavers of a ford across the Sherbourne. However, a 19th-century tradition that at one time the only approach to the city from the west was through the river and the gateway (see below) 'under' the chapel
(fn. 50) may not be reliable as there seems to be a continuous history of a bridge over the river in that area.
(fn. 51) The 'Parsonsfield of the Spanne', mentioned in 1423, lying by 'Somerlesowfield',
(fn. 52) may have been attached to this chapel, but there is no record of any arrangement made for the support of a chaplain before 1439, when Joan, widow of Adam Dyer, weaver of Coventry, gave property in Cuckoo Lane to secure the payment after her death of a stipend to the chaplain to celebrate in the chapel of St. Christopher and St. Julian super pontem de Spon.
(fn. 53) The chapel is first referred to as that of St. James in 1454, when Emot, wife of John Dowte,
(fn. 54) gave one-third of a croft to the altar there,
(fn. 55) and it is generally called St. James's Chapel from that date up to the mid 16th century.
The chapel seems to have escaped all official notice at the time of the Dissolution and to have remained in the possession of the weavers', later known as the clothiers', company. It is not known when it ceased to be used as a place of worship
(fn. 57) but by the 18th century at latest it was being leased by the company for private occupation. In 1761 the building on the site was described as a 'ruinous stone house or building', with an 'arch, gateway, or passage' leading through it, and a 'little messuage or tenement' adjoining it on the east side.
(fn. 58) An early19th-century drawing
(fn. 59) shows an L-shaped structure of which only the south wing was built of stone. This was apparently of 15th-century origin and had diagonal buttresses, three-light Perpendicular windows, and a wide gateway arch below its north end. Although this building is not correctly orientated, the presence of a piscina inside it suggests that it may have been the chapel. Fretton, however, believed that this part of the structure was a priest's dwelling and that the chapel had stood north of the arch, where, in his day, there were stone foundations to the later timber-framed wing.
(fn. 60) By the mid 19th century the stone south wing had been converted into cottages, the archway blocked, and the tracery removed from the medieval windows, one of which had been altered to form a doorway from the street.
(fn. 61) In 1936 the property was sold by the clothiers' company to the corporation and was subsequently uninhabited.
(fn. 62) Plans for the preservation of the buildings were not put into effect and by the late 1950s they were in a ruinous condition.
(fn. 63) The timber-framed tenement and accretions to the stone building were subsequently demolished and by 1964 only the shell of the latter survived, forming a feature in the garden of St. Christopher's Club for old people which had been built at the rear of the site in 1959-60.
Several antiquarian writers have at times wrongly identified the chapel building, in their descriptions of it, as the remains of the leper hospital. The first to do so in print was probably Thomas Pennant,
(fn. 65) who was followed by William Reader,
(fn. 66) though Reader seems later (like Poole and Fretton after him) to have realized his mistake.
(fn. 67) Certainly in a reissue of Reader's work on Coventry, published, with some additional information, about 1824, the chapel and the leper hospital are for the first time clearly distinguished from each other, and the buildings by Spon Bridge are correctly identified as 'St. James's Chapel'.
ST. JAMES, Ansty.
(fn. 69) Ansty and Shilton were among the chapels of St. Michael's restored to Coventry Priory by Ranulf de Gernon in the early 12th century.
(fn. 70) However, Ansty and Shilton chapels, with Wyken and Allesley, had only recently been built by Earl Ranulf and Thurstan Banaster for poor people during the civil war; the tithes also were to be devoted to the relief of the poor.
(fn. 71) There is some architectural evidence that Ansty and Wyken churches differed from, and were presumably built at a later date than, some of the other chapels in Ranulf de Gernon's grant.
In the 13th century Ansty appeared in the list of chapels appropriated to the priory with St. Michael's.
(fn. 73) But Ansty and Shilton are said to have been for a short time during the 12th century chapelries of Bulkington church and in the hands of Leicester Abbey, and to have been returned to Coventry Priory for an annual payment of £10 to the abbey.
(fn. 74) Whatever the reason, it was recognised in the early 15th century that, although the prior was the rector, Ansty and Shilton were not within the rectory of St. Michael's, but were a separate rectory, with Ansty described as the principal chapel and Shilton the dependent chapel.
(fn. 75) The priory was to provide a chaplain to serve the chapels three days a week and on the principal feast day. In the 12th century the Bishop of Coventry had insisted that burials should not take place in the graveyards of the newly founded chapels, but at St. Michael's.
(fn. 76) In the 15th century this rule was said to be established by ancient custom.
There had been a rectory house at Ansty before 1410-11, but by then it was disused.
(fn. 78) A 'rector' of the late 12th century, Philip de Ramsey, was mentioned; the site for a house at Shilton, however, was only for a chaplain. The rectory site, and a grange and a croft, were used for storing the tithes of Ansty, Shilton, and Sowe Shortwood. Tithes were collected from the beasts ranging in the fields; several pieces of meadow were held in lieu of tithes of hay. The glebe consisted of a virgate and several other pieces of land, some of which may be identified with pieces held in the 17th century.
(fn. 79) All the glebe seems to have been pasture in 1410-11; it was leased from the priory by John Smythier of Coventry.
By the early 16th century the claim of Ansty to a rector and a rectory had been forgotten. In 1535 Ansty and Shilton each had a chaplain, as in the other chapelries of St. Michael's, removable at the will of the prior and paid £5 annually out of the small tithes, oblations, and other dues. The tithes of sheaves of both Ansty and Shilton were then worth £4 to the steward of the priory.
(fn. 81) In 1546-7 the great tithes of sheaves, grain, wool, and lambs were out on a lease, dated 1538, at £8 annually for 80 years to John Bole and his son George, who had sub-let them to Michael Cameswell,
(fn. 82) possibly a relation of the last prior, Thomas Camswell.
(fn. 83) The chapel or church was leased by the Crown in 1539 to Michael Cameswell, and in 1554 to William Oldnale, each for 21 years;
(fn. 84) this may have been merely a method of securing their titles to the great tithes. The right of presentation had by 1628 reverted to the Crown,
(fn. 85) and is exercised on the Crown's behalf by the Lord Chancellor.
(fn. 86) The great tithes later came into the hands of the Adams family.
In the late 17th century the small tithes were commuted for 10s. annually from each of ten yardlands;
(fn. 88) this may represent the £5 which had been allowed to the chaplain until the Dissolution. Shortly after, an attempt was made to assert that the small tithes should be paid in kind, and an elaborate list of titheable objects and other dues was made in the glebe terrier of 1705,
(fn. 89) but the parish later reverted to the commutation.
(fn. 90) After the Tithe Award of 1850 the vicar received £40 annually in respect of small tithes;
(fn. 91) the whole vicarage was then worth £63 a year.
The chaplain of 1535, John Oley, survived the Dissolution to become known as the first Vicar of Ansty in the early years of Elizabeth I.
(fn. 93) He was followed by a succession of vicars at Ansty to 1644, and of chaplains at Shilton.
(fn. 94) There was no chaplain at Shilton after 1632, and James Illidge, the blind Vicar of Ansty, served both churches up to his death in 1644. In 1636 he brought an action against Richard Barker and other tenants, who had combined, he said, to deprive him of his rights and income;
(fn. 95) this was probably in connexion with the partial inclosure of that time.
(fn. 96) There was no vicar between 1644 and the appointment of Benjamin Hallowes in 1650.
(fn. 97) Hallowes was probably a protégé of Richard Tayler, the Parliamentarian tenant of the manor. Various changes were made, probably at this time, in the church: the floor of the nave was raised, a ceiling put in the roof, and window tracery removed. A regular succession of vicars began again in 1660.
There was apparently a vicarage house at Ansty during the incumbency of James Illidge, who then occupied it, and the site of it was still recalled in the early 19th century as being on the south of Old Church Lane. The house continued, throughout the rest of the 17th century and in the 18th century, to be included, as the vicarage, in successive leases of the demesne estate, in each of which it was said to be occupied by the 'present Vicar of Ansty',
(fn. 99) but from at least the early 18th century the vicars were in fact non-resident. John Million served both Ansty and Shilton as curate, often called vicar, to his death about 1719. He left his residuary estate to provide a school for the two parishes, and the money was used for the foundation of the school at Shilton in 1725.
From 1754 to 1789 there were separate curates for Shilton, while the Vicar of Ansty remained nonresident. In 1784 Edward Nason, the curate of Shilton, became Vicar of Ansty; Nason was also curate of Bulkington church, and lived at Bulkington.
(fn. 2) When a new vicar, T. C. Adams, of the family which had acquired the manor, arrived in 1809, there was no vicarage. A farm house was for a time used as a vicarage, and later the house called the Lodge was built, to the south-west of the churchyard, both as a vicarage and a residence for other members of the Adams family.
(fn. 3) This was demolished about 1939.
(fn. 4) T. C. Adams (1809-1851) and his son C. C. Adams (1852-86) were very active in the two parishes; C. C. Adams acted as curate for his father for some years before 1851. During the period, the two churches were extensively restored, and many gifts were made by members of the Adams family.
(fn. 5) In 1884 the benefices were united,
(fn. 6) and a grant was made by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for the building of a new vicarage at Shilton,
(fn. 7) which is still in use.
The parish church of ST. JAMES, standing in a large graveyard to the north of the village, consists of nave, chancel, north aisle, and west tower. Nothing remains of the 12th-century fabric, but the difference in width between nave and chancel may have been a feature of the original chapel which survived subsequent rebuilding. The church was much restored and altered in the 19th century.
The chancel, of red sandstone ashlar, is of 13thcentury date. Although restored, it retains in the south wall one late-13th-century trefoil-headed lancet, a pointed doorway, and a mutilated piscina. A lancet in the north wall may also be original. The nave was evidently rebuilt in the 14th century but in its present form dates partly from 1876. The north arcade of three bays has pointed arches of two chamfered orders, supported on octagonal piers. The north aisle, of light-coloured sandstone ashlar, was built in the 15th or early 16th century. In the early 19th century there was an external gable near the east end of its north wall, suggesting that at one time a chapel or transept may have projected from it.
(fn. 8) The windows are square-headed, of two and three trefoil-headed lights. At the east end of the arcade a four-centred doorway formerly gave access to the rood-loft stair.
The church was evidently reroofed in the early 17th century: a beam in the chancel is dated 1615,
(fn. 9) and the aisle has two 17th-century roof-trusses with carved bosses. The gable-ends of chancel, nave, and aisle were formerly constructed of timber-framing. The only gable to survive in this form is that at the east end of the nave.
Many changes were made during the incumbency of C. C. Adams, who became vicar in 1852. In this year a new three-light window was inserted at the east end of the chancel.
(fn. 11) In 1856 a west tower was added to the church, replacing a small bell turret.
(fn. 12) The tower was built in memory of Maj.-Gen. H. W. Adams (who died of wounds at Scutari in 1854) and was designed by G. G. (later Sir Gilbert) Scott.
(fn. 13) It is of stone ashlar, having a square base which forms a west porch to the church. Above is an octagonal belfry, surmounted by a short spire. In 1876 the whole church was restored under the supervision of the same architect. The south wall of the nave was largely rebuilt and given four traceried windows of 14th-century design. Other new windows were inserted and older ones were restored. Between chancel and nave an elaborate timber screen was erected, incorporating the original studwork of the gable-end above. The pulpit, font, and lectern all date from this restoration,
(fn. 14) as do the wall-paintings in the chancel and at the west end of the nave. The organ has been placed at the east end of the aisle; the west end of the aisle has been screened off to form a vestry.
The former bell-cote contained one bell, of 1707, by Joseph Smith of Edgbaston. Three additional bells, cast by John Warner and Sons of London, were given by Lady Adams in 1876. The plate is all of the 19th century, the oldest piece being a chalice of 1820 presented by John Adams in 1826 to replace an 'ancient cup'. The registers begin in 1589 and are complete.
ST. JAMES, Stivichall.
(fn. 16) Stivichall was mentioned in the 12th-century list of chapelries in the Coventry district appertaining to St. Michael's and so to Coventry Priory.
(fn. 17) An undated but early reference says that the chapel was endowed with two carucates, apparently in Stivichall, and a close in Stoneleigh, and the chaplain and other inhabitants were enfeoffed with these lands.
(fn. 18) The chapel was appropriated to the priory in 1259.
(fn. 19) A graveyard was first mentioned in 1299.
From at least 1313 a house and a virgate of land, said to appertain to the rectory of the chapel and called the church land, were being leased to laymen.
(fn. 21) In 1410-11 this holding, which had once been called the glebe, was described as two great pieces of land in the fields, and a house at the Coventry end of the village; it was leased, as in 1366, to a John Clerk, of the Stivichall family of that name.
(fn. 22) John Halome, chaplain in 1410-11, lived in a cottage in the village owned by the priory; there were also three other cottages and ten acres attached to the property.
(fn. 23) The priory was to provide a chaplain to hold services three times a week; the chapel did not then have burial rights, and bodies were presumably taken to St. Michael's in Coventry.
(fn. 24) The prior, as rector, had the great tithes including sheaves, hay, lambs, and fleeces worth £6 6s. 8d., and tithes of fish caught in the floodgates of Baginton fulling mill. The tithes of hay were collected from pieces of meadow allotted for that purpose. No specific income was mentioned for the chaplain, though he presumably had small tithes and dues; he was, however, lessee of the hay tithes.
(fn. 25) A hermit is said to have had a cell at Stivichall in the 15th century.
At the Dissolution the whole church, with the 'churchhouse' and garden, all tithes, and a barn, but apparently no arable land, was out on lease for £2 13s. 4d. The lessees were to find the chaplain to celebrate services throughout the year, and also to provide a soldier on behalf of Coventry Priory when necessary.
(fn. 27) The lease, to William Neale and his wife, had been granted in 1534, and was for 75 years.
(fn. 28) Later in the century, during a dispute, it was said that Neale had obtained a blank lease and forged a lease to himself and his successors, though his successors claimed that they had obtained a genuine, new lease from the queen.
(fn. 29) In 1537 Coventry corporation held the freehold of the lease, but this was apparently later lost,
(fn. 30) and in 1565 the corporation were granted the rectory of St. Michael's,
(fn. 31) which still included dependent chapelries (see below).
By 1591 a dispute about the parish of Stivichall had broken out between the lessees of Stivichall church and the city of Coventry.
(fn. 32) Various points were at issue; witnesses were asked whether Stivichall was a parish and whether it had been considered as a parish before the Dissolution. It was said that the Coventry motive was the acquisition of more grazing land. The immediate questions were whether Asthill and Horwell, between Earlsdon Lane on the east and Horwell brook on the west, were in Stivichall or in St. Michael's, and who collected the tithes there. The chamberlains of Coventry were said to have included this land only recently in their annual riding of the bounds at Lammas Day. Witnesses gave contradictory evidence of the payment of tithes from various fields; the truth seems to have been that tithes had been surrendered, here to one side and there to the other, as a result of persuasion.
It was argued on the city's behalf that the successive lessees, William Neale, Robert Turner, Baldwin Hill, and, at that date, Bartholomew Tate, were farmers not rectors; the rectory was still that of St. Michael's, and the chaplains had never been called parsons or vicars. As for the boundaries, the Gregorys were said to have forged various documents to show that Asthill and Horwell were in Stivichall, and Bartholomew Tate was using these as his title deeds.
(fn. 34) The corporation's case does seem to have been substantially correct and, after reference to the bounds and other entries in the priory's register,
(fn. 35) was accepted by the diocesan court at Lichfield.
(fn. 36) This was followed by an agreement in 1595 between Tate and the corporation, by which Warwick Lane (Kenilworth Road) was accepted as the boundary. Tate continued to collect the Stivichall tithes, and Stivichall was apparently recognised as a parish.
(fn. 37) The rectory and advowson of Stivichall descended in the 17th and 18th centuries with Tate's and Bowater's manor of Whitley.
(fn. 38) Doubts continued, however, and the various documents were inspected again in 1663 by Sir Christopher Fisher, and in 1676 by John Bowater.
In 1659 the chaplain, like his medieval predecessors, was living in a rented cottage.
(fn. 40) By 1693, however, there was a vicarage house with a garden next to the churchyard.
(fn. 41) The only lands held by the vicar were a piece called Tithe Barn Close and the Tithe Hook, held in respect of tithes of hay. In 1701 the great tithes were valued at £30, from which the vicar (called the curate) was said to be paid £10 yearly by the impropriator; in 1711 he was also said to receive Easter dues and small tithes in kind.
(fn. 42) In 1707 the value was reported as £2 13s. 4d.
(fn. 43) It is not possible to reconcile these facts. The sum of £2 13s. 4d., later said to have been paid on the Gregory lands in Stivichall,
(fn. 44) may represent commuted small tithes. The benefice received sums of £200 from Queen Anne's Bounty in 1739, 1749, 1766, and in 1783, when lands worth £200 had also been given in the previous year by Arthur Gregory.
(fn. 45) These lands were presumably the 36 acres in Northamptonshire, called glebe lands, later mentioned in glebe terriers.
(fn. 46) In 1823 a further gift of £200 by Col. Gregory was followed by a parliamentary grant of £300.
(fn. 47) In 1850 the benefice, then described as a perpetual curacy, was said to be worth £90 a year,
(fn. 48) and this remained the approximate value until 1930. The benefice, which from 1868 onwards was officially styled a vicarage,
(fn. 49) was too small for a permanent vicar at the turn of the century: from 1899 to 1914 it was served by the Vicar of St. Mark's, Coventry,
(fn. 50) from 1915 to 1923 by the Vicar of St. Michael's, Coventry,
(fn. 51) and from 1924 to 1930 by the Vicar of Stoneleigh.
(fn. 52) From 1930 there was a Vicar of Stivichall who was also curate-in-charge of the conventional district of Green Lane, outside the ancient parish,
(fn. 53) until in 1938 this became the parish of St. Martin in the Fields, Finham, created out of Stoneleigh and St. John the Baptist, Westwood.
(fn. 54) Since the Second World War there have been at times one
(fn. 55) and occasionally two
(fn. 56) curates at Stivichall.
The area of the parish has twice been altered in the 20th century; in 1938, with the transference to it of parts of the parishes of St. Anne and St. Michael,
(fn. 57) and in 1957, with the creation of the new parish of Christ Church, Frankpledge Road.
The church of ST. JAMES, which stands on the east side of Leamington Road, was completely rebuilt in the early 19th century and much enlarged in 1955. The first church was a Norman structure, probably similar to the other daughter chapels of St. Michael's, consisting only of nave and chancel. A view of the church before its demolition in 1810 shows that it had been considerably altered
(fn. 59) but had retained its two 12th-century doorways. A priest's door to the chancel and three two-light windows in the south wall may have been 14th-century insertions. Alterations in the 15th century appear to have included a new east window, two square-headed windows in the south wall, a small west tower, and possibly the raising of the roof. The medieval church was demolished in 1810 and a new one, completed in 1817, was erected at the expense of the Gregory family. The builder was James Green, a Coventry stonemason.
(fn. 60) It was built of stone in a late Gothic style and consisted of a nave of two bays and a small projecting chancel. In 1955
(fn. 61) a wide nave was constructed at the west end of the existing church and the former nave was converted into a chancel. The new addition included a projecting baptistery on the south side and a west porch, designed to form the base of a future tower. The architects were W. S. Hattrell and Partners of Coventry. A vestry and cloakrooms were added to the south of the chancel in 1958.
(fn. 62) The only ancient fitting is an octagonal stone font, probably dating from the 15th century.
The single bell, dated 1778, and probably by Pack and Chapman of Whitechapel, is inscribed with proverbs. The church possesses a silver chalice and a silver paten, inscribed 1572 and 1576 respectively. Registers survive from 1648 and are complete.
ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST, Coventry.
(fn. 64) St. John's parish was not established until 1734 when it was carved out of St. Michael's, but the church originated as a collegiate chapel in the middle of the 14th century. In 1344 Queen Isabel granted to the guild of St. John the Baptist a parcel of land at Bablake on which a chapel was to be built; it was first consecrated in 1350 and was subsequently enlarged. The adjoining buildings formed the College of Bablake, which, by the early 16th century, housed as many as twelve priests. The history of the college and of the medieval church has been dealt with elsewhere.
(fn. 65) Bablake College was dissolved in 1548 and later that year the site and buildings were granted to the city.
(fn. 66) The church itself was apparently dismantled and remained little used
(fn. 67) until the early 17th century.
The church was restored as a place of worship in 1608 when the mayor, William Hancox, had it repaired and inaugurated a Saturday lecture there.
(fn. 68) In the following year Saturday lectures were again ordered by the corporation and Mr. Oxenbridge was appointed lecturer at a fee of 5s. for each sermon.
(fn. 69) In 1624 Humfrey Fenn was appointed to give the lecture,
(fn. 70) and a few months afterwards he was assigned Bond's Gift of £13 a year as well as the annual allowance left by William Wheate in 1616 for a minister to preach at Bablake church;
(fn. 71) in 1630 Fenn was granted £13 a year for preaching a Thursday lecture.
(fn. 72) In 1648 a sermon was preached at the expense of the drapers' company; in 1650 this sermon was given by Obadiah Grew for a fee of 6s. 8d.
(fn. 73) In 1658, when the church was standing 'vacant all the year except 1 May' (the date of this yearly sermon),
(fn. 74) a small body of Congregationalists was authorized to meet there for worship under their pastor, Samuel Basnett.
(fn. 75) In the following year the recorder, William Purefoy, asked that his own previous year's fee should be used for repairs to the church in order to assist Basnett's work.
(fn. 76) The church had also been used, in 1648, to accommodate some of the Scottish prisoners brought to Coventry after the battle of Preston.
The neglect of the church and of worship there first prompted the corporation to consider making it a parish church in 1726, and the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield lent weight to such a proposal in 1733.
(fn. 78) By the Act of the following year
(fn. 79) Spon Street ward was assigned as the new parish and, in recompense for losses of land which the Free Grammar School had suffered at the hands of the corporation, the master and the usher of the school were to be appointed as rector and lecturer of the parish. The corporation was to be patron and owner of the advowson. In 1836, under the Municipal Corporations Act, the patronage of the church and the management of the school were transferred to the Coventry Church Charity Trustees.
(fn. 80) They in 1874 sold the patronage to Mrs. Jane Blakesley.
(fn. 81) It passed to Alderman Joseph Edge Banks in 1894,
(fn. 82) again, in 1901, to the Revd. A. G. Robinson (Rector, 1896-1918),
(fn. 83) and finally, in 1925, to trustees.
The Act of 1734 laid down that the income of the church was to be shared between rector and lecturer in the proportion of two-thirds to one-third. Apart from pew-rents, the income at first consisted of payments for certain tithes: these arose from Alderman Simon Norton's bequest to his son in 1641 of £13 6s. 8d. a year from lands and tithes in Coundon and of the profits of tithes on land at Biggin, in Clifton parish, to be settled upon the minister of St. John's should it ever become a parish church. In 1869 the annual payment for tithes in Coundon, Biggin, and Keresley amounted to £53 4s. 3d.; £19 19s. 3d. a year was received from Queen Anne's Bounty, and the pew-rents and surplice-fees were estimated at about £100 a year. This income was supplemented by payments arising from the separation of the rectorship from the headmastership of the school, as agreed between the trustees of the school and the headmaster in 1856 and confirmed by an Act of 1864. The sum of £420 a year was to be paid to the then rector by the trustees, and £200 a year paid to subsequent rectors. In addition, several small charitable gifts had been made at various times to pay for the preaching of sermons or the reading of prayers in the church. In 1833 these were represented by yearly sums of 6s. 8d. received from the drapers' company for the sermon already mentioned (payment had lapsed by 1854), £2 12s., being the allowance from Wheate's Charity, and £14 9s. 8d. payable under the wills of Nathaniel (1745) and Hannah Crynes (1774). A similar bequest of four guineas a year left by Joseph or Josiah Vernon (1742) had apparently been lost by about 1813.
Four men held the rectorship and headmastership jointly. The first, in 1734, was Edward Jackson, the existing master of the school. He was succeeded at his death in 1758 by Thomas Edwards,
(fn. 86) who had petitioned against the Act of 1734.
(fn. 87) Edwards resigned in 1779 and was replaced by William Brookes,
(fn. 88) and he at his death was succeeded by Thomas Sheepshanks in 1834.
(fn. 89) Sheepshanks remained rector in 1857, relinquishing the headmastership of the school.
Two modern parishes have been created partly out of St. John's: St. Thomas, Albany Road, in 1844, and St. George, Barkers Butts Lane, in 1935.
The mission church of St. Saviour, Spon Street, a brick building in the late Gothic style, was dedicated and opened in 1899.
(fn. 92) It ceased to function as a mission church in 1939, but from 1941 to 1944 it was used as a place of worship by the congregation of the Roman Catholic church of St. Osburg, Hill Street, whose own church had been seriously damaged by bombing in 1940, and it is still regularly used for parochial purposes, and for occasional services.
(fn. 93) The Chapel of the Deaf and Dumb, attached to Hill House at the junction of Gas Street and Hill Street, was licensed in 1936.
The parish church of ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST stands at the junction of Fleet Street and Hill Street. It consists of an aisled nave and an aisled chancel, both with clerestories, a central tower, and a north vestry. The ground plan is rectangular but at clerestory level the church is cruciform, the transepts being formed by the raising of a bay in each aisle to the height of the nave and chancel. Owing to the growth of the building by stages, few of the walls are parallel. The 14th-century church was almost entirely rebuilt in the 15th and early 16th centuries. A 19th-century restoration included the refacing of the walls, obscuring much original work. During this restoration W. G. Fretton was able to observe and record features belonging to the medieval church, including the foundations of earlier walls.
The land given to St. John's Guild in 1344 appears to have had a frontage to Hill Street of 117 ft. and to Fleet (formerly Spon) Street of 40 ft.
(fn. 96) The first chapel probably occupied the area of the present chancel, although it may have been even smaller. From the beginning there were collegiate buildings to the north of the chapel, both on the site of the present north chancel aisle (the Lady Chapel) and beyond it. In 1357 Queen Isabel made an endowment through William Walshman for finishing the chapel and for adding to it a new aisle of the same dimensions as the original building. Materials from an unfinished chapel at Cheylesmore were to be used for these improvements.
(fn. 97) The new aisle can probably be identified with the present south chancel aisle (St. John's Chapel). A foundation wall, discovered in 1875, would represent its former west end. A second piece of land, granted in 1359 and measuring 60 ft. by 40 ft., may have been used for collegiate buildings.
(fn. 98) Fretton, however, believed that it made possible a westward extension of the church, covering the area of the crossing and the easternmost bays of nave and aisles. A third possibility is that the complete nave and its south aisle were built on this ground: no structural 14th-century work has been found in the north aisle, while the three bays of the south aisle were evidently built as a single unit. Additional funds became available after 1365 and in 1375 some important building work was evidently put in hand.
(fn. 99) By c. 1390 the whole site of church and college seems to have been acquired.
The south wall of the south nave aisle, although much restored, is the only substantial part of the 14th-century church to survive; its buttresses and window-tracery are typical of the late 14th century. Elsewhere early masonry has been identified in the walls of St. John's Chapel, in part of the north wall of the Lady Chapel, and in the lowest 4 ft. of the west wall of the church.
(fn. 2) Below the present floor level of the chancel and its flanking chapels, piscinae and traces of altars have been found, as well as the pier bases of an earlier north arcade. The two western piers of the crossing, against which altars formerly stood, are also probably part of the 14th-century building.
The remodelling of the church, begun in the 15th century, may have been fairly continuous until the suppression of the guild. The work apparently started at the west end, where the great west window is of early Perpendicular type. The nave and north aisle were completed first; their bays do not correspond with those of the earlier south aisle. The design of the 15th-century nave piers helps to give the interior of the church its strong vertical emphasis. Most of the windows are Perpendicular in character, but the clerestory above the north arcade has three windows containing 14th-century tracery. These may have come from the original nave and been re-used by the 15th-century builders. The rebuilding of the chancel and its chapels followed that of the nave. The floor was raised, the arcades rebuilt and new windows inserted. The north chapel was enlarged and a new doorway at the higher level was provided to communicate with the collegiate buildings. The outstanding feature of the chancel is the design of the square-headed clerestory windows, the vertical members of which are carried down to form a panelled treatment above the arches of the arcades.
(fn. 3) The clerestory on the south side of the nave is similar, but less elaborate. There are late Perpendicular windows in the two stages of the central tower and in the upper part of both transepts. The cruciform arrangement at clerestory level appears to have been a comparatively late innovation. On the south side it is particularly noticeable that the large 8-light window of the transept bears no relation to the 14th-century aisle which lies below.
No structural alterations date from the period after 1548. By 1733 the church was said to be in a 'ruinous condition'.
(fn. 4) Before its re-opening as a parish church, the interior was fitted with box pews, a gallery, and an 'unnecessarily large' pulpit.
(fn. 5) The floor level was raised by over 3 ft., probably as a precaution against flooding; this led to the blocking of some doorways and the alteration of others.
In 1838 additional galleries were erected, and in 1841 the west window was rebuilt, the original being 'copied with scrupulous fidelity'. A restoration by George Gilbert (later Sir Gilbert) Scott was carried out between 1858 and 1861. Some of the walls, originally of grey Whitley stone, were refaced, and a new east window was inserted. A more extensive restoration under the same architect took place between 1875 and 1877. The lowering of the floors to their 15th-century levels enabled several ancient doorways to be reinstated. The vaulted ringing chamber of the tower was opened up and a new north vestry was built. Scott is said to have found structural evidence for the embattled parapets and flying buttresses which he added to the church. It is evident that Fretton's influence ensured more respect for the ancient fabric than was usual at this period.
The churchyard was closed for burials in 1893. In 1900 the church was flooded to a depth of over 5 ft. and the organ was ruined; this organ dated from 1870 and replaced one of 1816. A new organ was installed in 1903, but this was destroyed by fire in 1945. The pulpit and reredos date from the restoration of 1875-7 and the font is a replacement of 1929.
A morning mass bell and the Trinity bell are mentioned in the mid 15th century, and a 'rodemass' bell in 1519. One of these may have been the 'Bablake sermon bell' rung in 1648 in connexion with the drapers' company sermon.
(fn. 8) There are now five bells. No. 3 is probably the work of a Leicester founder, and bears the name of Henry Dodenhale, mayor in 1365. No. 4, also of 14th-century date, is by John de Stafford; it was formerly known as the dyers' bell and until 1834 was rung daily at four in the morning. The treble and tenor are both by Henry Bagley: the treble was supplied in 1676 to replace the old cracked treble which had been recast the previous year for the new ring at St. Michael's, and the tenor, originally No. 4 in the new ring at St. Michael's, was later transferred to St. John's. No. 2, by Pack and Chapman of London, is dated 1778.
(fn. 9) There was a clock by 1459, which was renewed in 1518, and chimes by 1461. The clock was apparently maintained by the city by 1584 and during the 17th century, and in 1681 new chimes were installed on the mayor's orders.
The plate consists of a silver paten of c. 1650, a silver chalice and paten of 1739, a silver flagon of 1740, and a silver chalice of 1845.
(fn. 11) The registers are complete from 1734.
ST. LAWRENCE, Foleshill.
(fn. 13) Foleshill chapel first appeared among the list of chapelries granted to St. Michael's in the early 12th century.
(fn. 14) It was appropriated to Coventry Priory in 1259.
(fn. 15) The unusual font is all that remains of the Norman building.
(fn. 16) A house and a piece of land which was apparently glebe were held by one of the priory's tenants in the early 14th century, and the mention of Brother William Bishop as the former occupant suggests that a monk may for a time have served the chapel.
In 1410-11 there were references to the church, the graveyard, the chaplain's house and croft, and other pieces of glebe; there was also a road called Churchend and an open field called Churchfurlong. 'Procurators' of the chapel were mentioned but it is not clear whether these were lay churchwardens or religious supervisors. The priory had the great tithes, and the chaplain the small tithes and church dues. There is, however, no indication that there was in fact a chaplain resident in the village.
(fn. 18) In 1535 there was a chaplain, William Amerson, who, like the other chaplains in the district, had to serve the church daily, and received small tithes and dues worth £5 annually.
Since the Dissolution the right of presentation has been retained by the Crown and is exercised on the Crown's behalf by the Lord Chancellor.
(fn. 20) The great tithes, leased first by the priory in 1545 and then by the Crown to William and Elizabeth Stoke, were sold in 1550.
(fn. 21) In 1552 a sum of 13s. 10d. was reserved to the Vicar of Foleshill from the chantry land granted to Coventry corporation; this sum may have been a rent-charge on Partridge Croft, the origin of which was disputed in the 19th century.
(fn. 22) This grant provides a clear reference to a vicar, though the witnesses in the tithe dispute of 1726 believed that the first vicar had been Tristram Diamond,
(fn. 23) who was presented to Foleshill in 1629.
(fn. 24) About 1593 both R. Bristow, the incumbent, and his living, were declared to be inadequate.
In 1693 the living was called a vicarage or free chapel. There was then a vicarage house of three bays, a stable, and a close, but apparently no glebe. The vicar was said to receive various small tithes and a rate of 2s. in the £ from meadows and pastures.
(fn. 26) The payment of small tithes had, however, been in doubt since the time of Diamond, who was said in 1724 to have been the last vicar to collect the tithes in kind. There was at first an agreement to commute the tithes for a payment of 2s. in the pound on unploughed land, but some tenants did not pay, some vicars still tried to collect tithes, and the whole system had fallen into confusion. Edward Jackson, the vicar in 1724, had on one occasion appeared with a churn and threatened to collect the milk himself. The parishioners were particularly reluctant to pay tithes, since they said that Jackson lived not in the vicarage but in Coventry and came to Foleshill only on Sundays, even when there were corpses waiting to be buried.
(fn. 27) By a Chancery decree of 1726 the parish returned to payment in kind,
(fn. 28) but Jackson's relations with his parishioners did not improve after the conclusion of the dispute. Shortly after the Chancery case, in 1727, he demanded in one instance four times the usual tithe.
(fn. 29) The tithes on the open fields were commuted in the inclosure of 1775, and 37 acres of new glebe were allotted north of the church.
(fn. 30) The annual value of the vicarage in 1850, after the Tithe Award of 1841, was £352.
(fn. 31) Shortly afterwards it rose to £400, and remained at that figure until after the First World War when it was increased to about £700.
(fn. 32) The glebe was farmed until about 1900, when most of it was sold.
From the late 17th century onwards the nonconformist sects were influential in Foleshill,
(fn. 34) more influential at some periods than the Church of England. There was certainly a larger number of nonconformists (10) reported there in 1676 than in any other parish in the neighbourhood of Coventry, with the notable exceptions of Allesley (67) and Bedworth (100).
(fn. 35) About 1760 the parishioners in their petition to the bishop for a resident vicar stated that until about 1750 most of the inhabitants had attended the Church of England, but since the establishment of several dissenting meetings, 'chiefly with deserters from the church', its congregations had fallen to 30 or 40. This was not surprising as there had been no resident vicar for many years. Jackson, though responsible for the building of a school in the parish
(fn. 36) and also the first vicar for a long time to attend the annual vestry regularly,
(fn. 37) had been the active headmaster of the Free Grammar School since 1718,
(fn. 38) and Rector of St. John the Baptist, Coventry, since 1734.
(fn. 39) Even the curate lived in Coventry and had duties in St. John's parish. Since Samuel Brooks had succeeded Jackson in 1759 there had been more services but no real change. The petitioners pointed out that 'the deficiency in the ministerial offices . . . adds strength to dissenting interests' and asked that 'we may have a clergyman residing within the parish so far disengaged from other concerns that our customary duty may be performed'. They believed that there was no parish 'of the value and population of ours which has not had at least that attention'.
Whether as a result of this petition or not, an outburst of activity followed. The school was enlarged in 1766, the vicarage was rebuilt, and the church extensively altered and modernized between 1782 and 1792.
(fn. 41) But these measures, impressive though they might have been in a rural parish, were probably hardly noticed by the rapidly rising population of poor, unruly weavers in Foleshill, and the comments of the vicar, John Hewlett, on the crop return of 1801, though acutely observed, have a weary and almost cynical air.
(fn. 42) It was perhaps because of these difficulties that in 1809 he wished to resign from the living to take the poorer one of Loxley.
There was apparently a brief period of 'religious excitement' between 1815 and 1817 during the curacy of William Nunn, an enthusiastic evangelical preacher, who, owing to Hewlett's age and incapacity by that date, had to undertake all the duties of the parish. As a result congregations were attracted which overflowed the church and there was a marked increase in the number of Sunschool attenders. Nunn thereupon organized the raising of a fund sufficient to cover the enlarging of the church to almost double its former capacity and the building of a new schoolroom. Opposition arose, however, led by the vicar's wife, and in spite of a petition to the vicar to retain his services Nunn was dismissed in 1817. His successor, John Hughes, was also a zealous preacher, and several of the congregation favoured his appointment to the living after Hewlett's death, but their wishes were disregarded and thereafter the parish 'relapsed into its former state'.
It must have been a striking contrast for T. C. Adams, who was in the 1830s Vicar of Foleshill, as well as of Ansty and Shilton, to drive from his family's manor-house in rural Ansty to the vicarage in industrial Foleshill.
(fn. 45) In 1840 the spread of the nonconformist influence in the rural weaving districts was officially attributed to the Church of England's neglect of the area, since all the weaving parishes 'which are of good value, . . . are held by non-resident clergymen, officiating only by curates, frequently removing, who cannot have that permanent acquaintance with, or exercise that permanent influence upon, the mass of the population' which was thought to be necessary.
(fn. 46) The Church's attempts to regain support met at first with little success. A library was opened at Foleshill church by the Religious and Useful Knowledge Society 'upon which the inhabitants generally, being Dissenters, look with disfavour', and an effort to exclude dissenters' children from the National School if they failed also to attend the Sunday school was similarly unsuccessful.
In spite of these discouragements, however, a new district church, St. Paul's, for the south and west of Foleshill, was built in 1841.
(fn. 48) It was then said to stand among green fields, but the building of a new church with accommodation for 1,000 people was itself an indication of the growth of the area. In the 1930s, before St. Luke, Holbrooks, became a separate parish in 1935, partly taken out of St. Paul's,
(fn. 49) the latter was the most populous parish in Coventry diocese.
(fn. 50) Other parts of the ancient parish were assigned to St. Thomas, Longford (formerly a chapel of ease), in 1908,
(fn. 51) and to St. Chad, Woodend, in 1956.
The parish church of ST. LAWRENCE stands in a large churchyard on the north side of Old Church Road. To the south is the vicarage, an 18thcentury house with substantial later additions. The schools
(fn. 53) stand at the south-west corner of the churchyard. The church consists of nave, chancel, north and south aisles, south transept, south porch, north vestries, and west tower. The only ancient structural parts of the building are the tower and the north aisle. These are of grey sandstone ashlar and date from late in the medieval period. The tower has diagonal buttresses, a west window with Perpendicular tracery, two-light windows at the belfry stage, and an embattled parapet with angle pinnacles. The west doorway is a later insertion. In the aisle the three-light windows are square-headed and the north doorway has a three-centred arch. Although the original stone arcade between nave and aisle has been removed, its east and west responds are still visible; a squint between aisle and chancel has also survived. The timber roof to the aisle appears to be of early-17th-century date.
Alterations to the church are known to have taken place between 1782 and 1792
(fn. 54) and these may have included the rebuilding in brick of both nave and chancel. A small brick vestry on the north side of the chancel has a date tablet of 1812. In 1816 the south aisle was built and galleries were inserted in the church.
(fn. 55) The galleries have been removed but the nave is still divided from the aisles by shafted cast-iron columns supporting lintels enriched with early-19th-century ornament. These columns probably represent the former gallery fronts. The south aisle, built largely of brick, has 'Tudor' windows of the same period. The stone south porch is a later addition.
The church was extensively restored in 1888-9, the architect being T. F. Tickner. The chancel was remodelled and the galleries were taken down. The floors were re-laid, the pews removed, and the wood used to make new panelled ceilings.
(fn. 56) In 1904 a vestry, built of yellow brick, was added outside the door of the north aisle.
(fn. 57) The south transept, forming a chapel on the south side of the chancel, is a stone addition in the Gothic style, built in 1927.
(fn. 58) The church roof was destroyed by bombing in 1941, and for some years services were held in the church institute until the damage had been repaired.
The 12th-century font is circular and decorated with primitive chevron ornament.
(fn. 60) All the other fittings are of the 19th century or later. In 1908 a new organ replaced the one which had been installed in 1833.
(fn. 61) A number of 18th-century mural tablets, all reset, include one to Edward Jackson, vicar (d. 1758), and several to members of the Parrott and Wright families of Hawkesbury Hall (1773-86).
There are three bells, all by Hugh Watts (II) of Leicester, of which no. 1 is dated 1635 and the other two 1616.
(fn. 62) The plate consists of a silver paten of 1718 engraved with the Parrott arms and presented by a member of the Wright family, and two silver chalices of 1735 and 1829.
(fn. 63) Complete registers of marriages and burials survive from 1564 and of baptisms from 1769. These were formerly kept in a 16th-century iron-bound chest with an elaborately engraved lock.
ST. MARY MAGDALEN, Wyken.
(fn. 65) Wyken chapel was one of the four said to have been built during the civil war of Stephen's reign by Ranulf de Gernon and Thurstan Banaster as a refuge for the poor.
(fn. 66) It was one of the chapelries restored to St. Michael's, Coventry, by Ranulf de Gernon.
(fn. 67) The chapels were not to have the right of burial, which was to be reserved to St. Michael's.
(fn. 68) The chapel was appropriated in 1259.
In the early 15th century the prior as rector had to find a chaplain to officiate three days each week and on the principal feast days. The chaplain received the dues and renders of the chapel, tithes of grain and hay worth £3 6s. 8d., tithes of wood and pasture, and of the mill on the Caludon estate.
(fn. 70) The chaplain also held a quarter virgate in the fields from the prior. The restriction on burials was not repeated in the 15th-century survey, and had probably lapsed.
In 1535 the arrangements were similar. The chaplains were then said to be removeable at will, and were to conduct services daily. Their income was £5 a year. There was then apparently a single priest, Thomas Jackson, for both Wyken and Stoke. The great tithes of the combined chapelry, paid to the priory's steward, were worth £4 16s.
(fn. 72) After the Dissolution the advowson came into the hands of the lord of the manor, and descended with the manorial estate
(fn. 73) until 1919 when it was transferred from the Earl of Craven to the new Bishop of Coventry.
(fn. 74) In 1547 Hugh Hill was called vicar of the parish church of Wyken; his stipend was then £4 a year. The great tithes of Wyken had been leased to Thomas Trye with those of Stoke in 1538 for £5 6s. 8d., and descended with the Stoke tithes. The glebe had apparently disappeared.
(fn. 75) In 1593 Sowe and Wyken were being held together. Feare, the incumbent, and his living, were both considered inadequate.
In 1694 there was a vicarage house of two bays which was let for 8s.; the living was apparently already combined with that of Binley. The income was then £9 2s., paid by Henry Green, presumably in respect of small tithes. A further sum of £1 10s. was said to be due to the church, but had not been paid during the lives of the past two vicars.
(fn. 77) The value of the living was returned as £5 10s. in 1707.
In 1718 Henry Green gave a house and ten acres worth £200, to which another £200 was added by Queen Anne's Bounty.
(fn. 79) By will dated 1729, Thomas Muston, Rector of Brinklow, gave property in Foleshill to the church of Wyken, subject to payments of £1 to the poor of Brinklow and 10s. to the poor of Wyken.
(fn. 80) After the inclosure of 1774 the holding was worth £15 yearly, and an additional £1 a year was paid by the Coventry Canal Company for passing through the land. By 1775 Lord Craven was paying interest on £200 in lieu of the house and land given by Green. Craven's tenants and the freeholders were paying £4 12s. for commuted small tithes. The churchyard and a small plot, the site of the former vicarage, were let. The total value of the living, then called a curacy, was £33 10s., with, in addition, dues to the curate and the parish clerk. The furnishings of the church then included plate, vestments, and books, and a communion table given by Lord Craven.
(fn. 81) In 1784 Craven gave another £200, which was also augmented by the Bounty.
In 1824 the sources of income were unchanged, but the value of the land had risen to £92 10s., and the total value of the living to £107 17s.
(fn. 83) In 1850 and 1875 the value was given as £115; the living was described in 1850 as a perpetual curacy,
(fn. 84) but was officially styled a vicarage after 1868. Wyken continued to be held jointly with Binley until 1919, and the vicar lived at Binley; there was only a brick stable at Wyken for his carriage.
During and after the First World War a succession of mission rooms and churches was provided for the munitions workers who were settled in the area and for the inhabitants of the suburban houses which began to cover the parish from 1920 onwards. These missions included St. Martin's, a hut in Wyken Way;
(fn. 86) St. George's Hall, in Camden Street, acquired for the workers in the Ordnance factory off Red Lane about 1921 and sold to the Salvation Army about 1924;
(fn. 87) St. Chad, Upper Stoke, which was transferred from Stoke parish to Wyken and re-licensed in 1924;
(fn. 88) and, finally, in 1929, St. Alban, Stoke Heath,
(fn. 89) to which St. Chad was subsequently assigned as a church hall.
(fn. 90) Another mission church, that of the Holy Cross, Caludon, designed by N. F. Cachemaille-Day, was built in St. Austell Road in 1939 to serve the developing district between Wyken and Binley.
(fn. 91) Wyken parish hall was built in 1935.
A separate parish for St. Alban was created out of Wyken in 1939, and a further part of Wyken parish was assigned to the new church of St. Chad, Hillmorton Road, Woodend, in 1956.
The parish church of ST. MARY MAGDALEN stands on the east side of Wyken Croft, where its graveyard occupies a slight eminence. The building, which consists of nave, chancel, west tower, and north vestry, is the only one of St. Michael's daughter chapels to retain substantially its 12thcentury fabric. It also has the distinction of being structurally the oldest surviving building within the modern city boundaries.
The nave and chancel, built of stone rubble, date from the 12th century. There is no chancel arch, but the nave (16 ft. 9 ins.) is about two feet wider than the chancel.
(fn. 94) The nave originally had north and south doorways, both now blocked. The jambs of the former are visible externally; the latter was moved in the 19th century to the west wall of the tower. This doorway is of red sandstone and has a semicircular arch of two plain orders supported on attached shafts and surmounted by a billet moulding. There is a narrow 12th-century window with widely-splayed internal reveals to the east of the former north door, and a similar window in each of the north and south walls of the chancel. The east chancel wall evidently contained three such windows, but the insertion of a later east window destroyed everything except traces of the two outer ones.
Near the east end of the south chancel wall a twolight window was inserted in the late 13th century. The east window is of 15th-century date and other surviving medieval openings include three aumbries and a 'low side' window in the chancel, and a small window high up at the east end of the south wall of the nave; this last was probably inserted to light the rood.
The west tower, of grey sandstone ashlar with diagonal buttresses, was added in the 15th century. It formerly had a square timber-framed belfry stage, surmounted by a pyramidal roof.
(fn. 95) The tall tower arch has been obscured on the nave side by the insertion of a later gallery. The nave roof, of four bays, also probably dates from the 15th century; only wall posts and arch-braced tie beams are visible below an 18th-century plaster ceiling.
The ceiling in the chancel is dated 1686 and other work to the chancel, including the installation of new communion rails, was done at this time.
(fn. 96) By 1775 there was a west doorway in the tower,
(fn. 97) although the Norman doorway had not then been moved. Two windows are said to have been inserted in the south wall of the nave in the 18th century.
(fn. 98) A view of the church dating from c. 1800 shows a south porch, probably of post-Reformation date, leading to a doorway a little to the west of the Norman one, which was already blocked.
In 1866 the church was altered and restored, the architect being G. Steane of Coventry. New stone windows in the Decorated style were inserted in the nave, the vestry was built, and the timber-framed belfry was replaced by one of more elaborate design.
(fn. 1) The re-erection of the Norman doorway in the west wall of the tower is also of about this period.
The circular 12th-century font bowl is decorated with carved arcading; it resembles the font of similar date at Walsgrave-on-Sowe.
(fn. 2) In 1956 a wall painting of St. Christopher, thought to be of 15th-century date, was discovered on the north wall of the nave. Included in the picture, which is in a good state of preservation, is a timber windmill on the river bank. The painting had been concealed by 16th-century plaster, inscribed with the Commandments, and this in its turn was covered with whitewash.
(fn. 3) A carved 17th-century chair in the sanctuary is probably of Flemish origin. The fittings in the nave date from the 19th and those in the chancel from the 20th century.
The church possesses one bell thought to be by a local founder and of mid-14th-century date.
(fn. 4) The plate consists of a silver chalice and paten of 1718.
(fn. 5) The registers date from 1600 and are complete.
ST. MARY THE VIRGIN, Walsgrave-on-Sowe.
(fn. 7) Sowe chapel was on the ancient estate of Coventry Priory, and was not one of the Chester chapels granted to the priory in the 12th century. The font in the present church is the only visible survival of the Norman building.
(fn. 8) The chapel was appropriated to the priory in 1259, as part of the arrangements for the endowment of Holy Trinity vicarage,
(fn. 9) but the small tithes and dues were not given to the Vicar of Holy Trinity, as were those of Coundon and Willenhall, and remained in the hands of the chaplain.
(fn. 10) There is no evidence of the status of the chaplain or chapel before this appropriation.
The original endowment of the chapel was probably the village and the open fields. The delimitation of the boundaries of the surrounding parishes on the waste was delayed by the absence of tithable settlements there, and by the fact that precise rules were unnecessary while the priory held the great tithes of nearly all the surrounding churches. In the early 15th century, for instance, the priory stored the tithes of Ansty, Shilton, and Sowe Shortwood in the derelict Ansty rectory, and other tithes from the waste in a tithe barn of the 'manor' of Hawkesbury.
(fn. 11) The priory claimed, in its dispute about the tithes of 80 a. of the waste held by the lord of Caludon, that Sowe waste was in Sowe parish, as part of the ancient foundation of the priory,
(fn. 12) but it is probable that this was not true, and that its parochial rights were only successfully asserted after the suit of 1337.
(fn. 13) Even in the early 15th century there were pieces of land which were in no one parish. The Prior of St. John of Jerusalem, for instance, had a field described as both in Sowe Shortwood and in Ansty beside Ansty Park.
(fn. 14) The priory had specific agreements with some of the tenants of the waste, including Zouche and Beauchamp, for the collection of tithes,
(fn. 15) and found it necessary in the case of both Hawkesbury and Attoxhale to assert that these places were in Sowe parish.
(fn. 16) It is probable that the parish boundaries were finally determined only when the great tithes of the various parishes came into the hands of laymen after the Dissolution.
In 1279 the prior was said to have the chapel in his own hands, with ½ a. of land appurtenant,
(fn. 17) and in the early 15th century to be rector of Sowe hamlet, with tithes of sheaves, hay, and wood, and of the mill, and the mortuary offerings and livestock.
(fn. 18) The chaplain could be removed at the will of the prior; he received the tithes of wool and lambs, and the small tithes, and had the graveyard, a house next to it, and 10 a. of glebe. There was also a house in the graveyard pro reclus'.
(fn. 19) It is clear that the church, graveyard, and vicarage already occupied the positions they were to be in until the 19th century.
In 1535 the 'chaplain and curate' John Aston was said to be a stipendiary of the priory, and to have received an income of £5, made up of all the tithes and other revenues, except tithes of grain.
(fn. 20) A salary or stipend of £2 was still being paid to John Aston in 1546-7. It was then said, probably mistakenly, that the chaplain had been accustomed to have all the tithes except those of hay. In fact at that date all the tithes and the income of the church were leased, with the tithe barn, to John and George Bole for 80 years from 1538 at £8 yearly.
(fn. 21) A Crown lease of the church, for 21 years, was granted in 1539 to Michael Cameswell,
(fn. 22) and a fresh lease (for the same term) to William Oldnale in 1554,
(fn. 23) but this appears either to have been inoperative or to have been surrendered to the Boles. The church dues and small tithes were later recovered by the vicar, probably when the Bole lease expired. The advowson has remained in the hands of the Crown since the Dissolution and the right of presentation is exercised on the Crown's behalf by the Lord Chancellor.
The chapel and chaplain are first called the church and the vicar in the early 17th century. The expiry of the lease of tithes and dues then coincided with the ministry of the active and litigious George Dale, who was Vicar of Sowe from 1609 to 1644.
(fn. 25) In the glebe terrier which he compiled in 1635 Dale stated that he had built the vicarage on the south of the churchyard.
(fn. 26) The medieval vicarage, however, had been next to the churchyard, and Dale may have been exaggerating what he had done. In a dispute with Francis Peyto which began about 1608, Dale had claimed a house, which Peyto said was his property, as the vicarage, had granted it to a tenant, and had then tried to evict Peyto.
In the course of this prolonged dispute Dale was on one occasion chased by Peyto's bailiffs, and in retaliation had brought out the hue and cry on an order written in his own hand for the illiterate thirdborough; the case which finally reached the Star Chamber was brought against Dale for the forgery of this order,
(fn. 28) but it is not known how it was decided. In August 1642 Nehemiah Wharton, then stationed at Coventry, wrote 'our horsemen sallied out as their daily custom is, and brought in with them . . . an old base priest, the parson of Sowe near us, and led him ridiculously about the city unto the chief commander'.
(fn. 29) This must have been George Dale, at the unfortunate end of a long career.
In 1724 the tithes of grain, wool, and lambs were being paid in kind to the tithe owner, but one witness in the dispute of that year said that he had paid some wool and lambs to the vicar.
(fn. 30) Possibly as a result of this dispute, the vicar was in 1726 receiving £26 yearly from all the landowners in lieu of small tithes; he was also getting £1 from the great tithes, a sum that probably represented the earlier stipend.
(fn. 31) In the inclosure award of 1756 the vicar received an allotment of 37 a. in respect of glebe and the small tithes from the open fields, and 2 a. in respect of tithes worth £2 which had been paid by Craven, probably the stipend.
(fn. 32) He continued to receive the small tithes from the waste, of which those on beasts were paid in cash in 1797, until 1843, when they were commuted for £80 yearly.
In 1778 a petition was sent to the bishop, asking that the benefices of Sowe and Stoke should be united, on the grounds that their net values were only £80 and £90 respectively, that the services were already being performed by one clergyman
(fn. 34) (though there had in fact been a curate at Stoke since 1763),
(fn. 35) that the populations were small, the churches only three miles apart, and each church big enough for the congregations of both parishes. These arguments, most of them specious, were accepted, and the benefices united.
(fn. 36) It is not certain whether or not the vicars were resident
(fn. 37) before F. D. Perkins arrived at Sowe in 1817.
(fn. 38) Perkins either enlarged-or rebuilt the vicarage
(fn. 39) in Schoolhouse Lane, on the ancient glebe close called Norrit, and thereafter the vicar of the united benefice normally lived at Sowe,
(fn. 40) and a curate (there were sometimes two) at Stoke.
(fn. 41) The arrival of the conscientious Perkins in the disorderly parish marks the transition from the 18th to the 19th century in Sowe. During his ministry much work was done to the church, and the National and infant schools were begun.
In 1866 the inhabitants of Stoke petitioned for its separation from Sowe, on the grounds that they had no resident vicar, and in 1867 it was agreed that their wishes should be met when a vacancy occurred in the benefice.
(fn. 43) The vicar, Robert Arrowsmith, like Perkins an active and determined minister,
(fn. 44) had a long ministry, lasting from 1856 to 1884, and the benefices were therefore not separated until the latter year.
A mission church for the colliery district was licensed in 1859 and opened the following year at Hawkesbury, near the corner of Hawkesbury and Lenton's Lanes, and another church school started there.
(fn. 46) This church is inside the parish of Sowe, but from 1908 onwards has been served from the parish of St. Thomas, Longford,
(fn. 47) which was created in that year partly out of Sowe. The parish of St. Chad, Woodend, was created from part of Sowe in 1957.
The parish church of ST. MARY THE VIRGIN stands on the corner of Ansty Road and Hall Lane, at the main cross-roads of the village. The graveyard was levelled and turfed c. 1955. The church consists of chancel, nave, north and south aisles, vestry, south porch, and west tower. It dates mainly from the 14th and 15th centuries, but retains its Norman font.
The chancel, of 14th-century date, is built of red sandstone. The buttresses, the east window and gable, and the upper parts of the walls have all been rebuilt or refaced. The east window contains cusped intersecting tracery. In the south wall is a priest's doorway flanked by two-light windows with forking tracery, hoodmoulds, and head-stops; there is a similar window in the north wall. Internally the south wall contains a piscina with a trefoil head. The character of the south nave arcade, of three bays, suggests that both nave and south aisle are of early14th-century date, but the chancel arch appears to have been inserted and the aisle entirely rebuilt in the late 15th or early 16th century. The south aisle windows are square-headed and the arch of the south doorway is four-centred, the door itself being original. At the east end of the south arcade there is a rood-loft stair with both upper and lower doorways in position. The north aisle is built of grey sandstone ashlar, patched with red; the two end gables have been rebuilt and these may originally have been timber-framed.
(fn. 49) The aisle probably dates from the late 15th century and has square-headed windows and a four-centred north doorway, now leading to the vestry. The aisle's three bays are longer than those of the south aisle, so that the nave arcade is of two bays only and the third bay is built against part of the north wall of the chancel, where it probably formed a chapel. One of the original north chancel windows was blocked when the aisle was built and this has now been made into an archway. There is also a small doorway into the easternmost bay of the aisle, perhaps originally an external north doorway to the chancel. The tower is of grey sandstone and is of late-15th-century date; it is of two stages and has diagonal buttresses and an embattled parapet with angle pinnacles and gargoyles. There is a blocked west doorway, probably a later insertion. Above the doorway and at the belfry stage are Perpendicular windows. The stair-turret is at the north-east angle.
During the incumbency of F. D. Perkins (1817- 56) the church was expensively re-pewed, increasing the sittings from 130 to 296. The small north vestry was also built, and plans were prepared for the restoration of the fabric.
(fn. 50) The church was thoroughly restored in 1865 under the direction of G. E. Street.
(fn. 51) It was probably at this time that the nave clerestory, which formerly had square-headed windows, was altered, the nave and chancel were re-roofed, and the brick south porch was replaced by one of red sandstone.
The 12th-century font is circular and is carved with arcading in shallow relief; it closely resembles the font at St. Mary Magdalen, Wyken. In the upper lights of the east window of the south aisle is some ancient glass, depicting angels carrying the arms of the Peyto family.
(fn. 53) There is an oak chest in the church dated 1702 with initials 'IB' and 'TH'. The organ is housed in the east bay of the north aisle.
In 1552 there were said to be two bells and a 'little sacring bell', but according to a later note the largest bell was subsequently sold to meet the cost of repairs to the church. In 1910 there were five bells, nos. 4 and 5 of 1702 by William Bagley of Chacombe (Northants.), nos. 1 and 2 of 1843 by W. and J. Taylor of Oxford, and no. 3 of 1872 by J. Taylor and Co. of Loughborough.
(fn. 54) In 1964 there were said to be six bells waiting to be re-hung.
(fn. 55) There is a silver chalice and paten of the Elizabethan period and a modern set of plate. The parish registers, which begin in 1538 and are complete,
(fn. 56) are very full and include a number of inventories of church goods.
ST. MICHAEL, Coventry, and its Chapels.
(fn. 57) St. Michael's is first mentioned by name in a charter granted between 1144 and 1148, in which Ranulf (II), Earl of Chester, restored to Coventry Priory all the chapels
(fn. 58) in his fee, in and outside Coventry, and all rights in them in tithes, oblations, and other benefits. Roger, the earl's chaplain, who was one of the witnesses,
(fn. 59) was probably the incumbent of St. Michael's and maintained by the earl as one of his household. An exact date for the chapel's foundation has not been discovered, but it may have been serving the earl and his tenants in the Earl's Half by 1113, by which date Holy Trinity is known to have been in existence as the chapel of the Prior's Half.
(fn. 60) Earl Ranulf's restoration to the priory was confirmed by his son, Hugh,
(fn. 61) and by Bishop Gerard Pucelle in 1183-4.
The advowson of St. Michael's became the subject of dispute after the acquisition of the priory by Bishop Hugh de Nonant who in 1190 expelled the prior and the monks and subsequently installed secular canons in their place.
(fn. 63) He also presented one 'R., Clerk of Coventry', to St. Michael's,
(fn. 64) presumably the same as Ralph, the earl's chaplain, to whom, and to whose successors as chaplains, Earl Ranulf granted the tithes of all his possessions in Coventry.
(fn. 65) Although the monks were restored after the death of Bishop Hugh in 1198
(fn. 66) and the next bishop, Geoffrey de Muschamp, was ordered to revoke all alienations made by his predecessor,
(fn. 67) the priory evidently did not at once recover its rights in St. Michael's, since de Muschamp confirmed Ralph, who was then referred to as Ralph Mainwaring (de Maisiulwarin), in the chapel at the earl's request.
The next stage in the dispute, which continued intermittently for the following 50 years, was an appeal made by the priory between 1216 and 1223 to Pope Honorius HI who, however, evaded a judgment by merely declaring that the priory should present on the next vacancy if it could substantiate its claim.
(fn. 69) This it seems to have failed to do since in 1241 Pope Gregory IX stated that the patronage belonged to the bishop and authorized him to appropriate the revenues.
(fn. 70) Of these the bishop granted 30 marks yearly to both Coventry Priory and Lichfield Chapter, each of which was to pay 20 marks a year to Ralph Mainwaring,
(fn. 71) who seems to have died or resigned the living then or shortly afterwards. Dispute over St. Michael's broke out afresh after the death of Bishop Hugh de Pateshull towards the end of 1241, and was complicated by the protracted disagreement between the priory and the chapter over the election of his successor.
(fn. 72) The archdeacons of Coventry and Salop and the Precentor of Lichfield apparently tried to present to St. Michael's,
(fn. 73) by what authority is not known, but the king, asserting his rights during the vacancy of the see, contested their claim, and, together with the pope and the priory, supported one Ralph de Leicester. His institution, however, was resisted with violence, though it is not clear whose interests this hostile element was representing. Roger de Weseham, after he had became bishop in 1245-6, excommunicated Ralph de Leicester and his followers for forcing their way into the church, whereupon the king rejoined by threatening to deprive the bishop of his temporalities.
The king was evidently successful in removing opposition to Ralph de Leicester since the latter was holding the cure in 1248 when a settlement was eventually reached between all parties. In this the bishop recognized the priory's right to St. Michael's with its dependent chapels and their revenues. The priory was to present a vicar to St. Michael's and to provide priests to serve the chapels (after the deaths of their then incumbents) and sufficient maintenance for all of these, including a vicarage worth 24 marks for St. Michael's. The 30 marks a year formerly due from St. Michael's vicarage to Lichfield was in future to be paid out of the rectory of Southam. A vicarage was accordingly ordained, in 1249, by which time the priory had presented to the living.
(fn. 75) This settlement was formally confirmed again by the bishop at the end of the same year,
(fn. 76) and by Roger and Cecily de Montalt, the successors of the earls of Chester in Coventry, in their grant of a large part of their possessions there to the priory in 1250.
(fn. 77) The appropriation of St. Michael's to the priory finally received papal recognition in 1399.
(fn. 78) At the Dissolution the advowson of St. Michael's came to the Crown, which retained it
(fn. 79) until 1907 when it was transferred to the Bishop of Worcester. It finally passed to the Bishop of Coventry in 1919.
The terms of the ordination of the vicarage in 1249 were very similar to those of the vicarage ordained for Holy Trinity Church in 1264.
(fn. 81) The Vicar of St. Michael's was to receive all the revenues except the great tithes, all principal mortuaries, rents and services of the church's tenants and the revenues from its chapels outside the city which were to go to the priory as rector. The vicar was also to pay the priory £5 a year for the tithes received with the Sunday offerings.
(fn. 82) After the Dissolution the rectory passed with the advowson to the Crown. It was sold to Coventry corporation in 1565
(fn. 83) and from time to time thereafter was leased to farmers.
(fn. 84) The vicar's tithes continued to be paid to him until in 1636 the corporation paid to the vicar, William Panting, £100 a year for three years in exchange for vicar's tithes and allowances, with the exception of the tithes of Keresley and Whitley and surplice fees and offerings. A lease to this effect was drawn up in 1640.
(fn. 85) The tithes apportioned in 1249, however, were not by that time the only source of the vicar's income; the stipend was found to be insufficient and in 1557-8 an Act was passed for the payment of tithes both in Holy Trinity parish and St. Michael's.
(fn. 86) Complaints were numerous, and it was recognized that the burden on the parishioners was too heavy; the Act was at last repealed in 1779 and a new Act for establishing certain payments to be made to the Vicar of St. Michael was passed on the petition of the vicar and parishioners. This required that 1s. on all houses, gardens, and buildings of the annual value of £10 and over, and 6d. on all of £6 and over should be paid to the vicar yearly.
(fn. 87) It is probable that opposition to the payment of vicar's rates was more widespread than is apparent. There had been cases of Quakers refusing to pay levies for repairs to the fabric,
(fn. 88) but it was not until 1836 (the year of the Act for the commutation of tithes)
(fn. 89) that any extensive opposition is found. The assessors failed to make the rate within the appointed time and the vicar, Robert Simson, made it himself; several people objected and the magistrates, many of whom were Dissenters, were not disposed to enforce payment.
(fn. 90) Objections to the vicar's rate were indeed inevitable in a parish where nonconformity was both deep-seated and widespread. In 1892 the vicar, James Robert Mills, who had been appointed in 1888,
(fn. 91) was averse to receiving his income in this way; the vicar's rate had been abolished in Holy Trinity parish nine years earlier after a campaign by the Anti-Vicar's Rate Association and with the active support of the mayor. Mills's refusal to allow the rate to be collected failed to force the vestry's hand and he found himself without an adequate income. He thereupon instructed his solicitor to prosecute those who had not paid. Their goods were distrained upon and an attempt was made to auction their chattels. The auctioneer was pelted with rotten eggs and the vicar was chased by angry crowds and besieged in his church for several hours.
(fn. 92) The vicar's rate remained, however, for another eight years, abolition being the result of a town's meeting which resolved that strenuous efforts should be made to raise £5,000 required to redeem the vicar's rate. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners agreed to endow the living with £300 yearly and the corporation agreed to include the abolition of the Act of 1778 in the Bill then being promoted by them in Parliament.
As has been said, the vicarage of St. Michael's was ordained to the value of 24 marks and the tithes apportioned to that purpose in 1249. In 1291, however, St. Michael's and its chapels were valued at 50 marks, the vicarage being taxed at 7½ marks. In 1249 the vicar was to pay £5 to the priory, but this amount was taxed at £3 in 1291.
(fn. 94) In 1340-1 and in 1453-4 the amounts remained the same.
(fn. 95) By 1522, however, the vicarage was worth £60 yearly.
(fn. 96) After deductions it was worth about £56 in 1534-5.
(fn. 97) Although a tithe was levied on all households in the parish from 1557-8, the living was worth only some £47 in 1570, and in that year the Crown added £6 out of the city's fee farm.
(fn. 98) The commutation of part of the vicar's tithes in 1636 by the corporation brought in £100 to which were added the tithes of Keresley and Whitley, surplice fees and offerings.
(fn. 99) In 1647, however, the total was only £64 and the corporation agreed to make it up to £124.
(fn. 1) There were, of course, numerous gifts by parishioners for special purposes; these were administered by the vestry, which paid an annual sum to the vicar.
(fn. 2) In 1779 the vestry offered the vicar a fixed sum of £280 a year in lieu of all claims under the Act of 1557-8, to be raised by a parish rate,
(fn. 3) and a new Act was introduced for the levy of a vicar's rate.
(fn. 4) In 1835 vicar's tithes totalled £472
(fn. 5) and the vicar's rate was also being received. In 1851 John Brownrigge Collisson complained that the tithes had been despoiled by the Tithe Commissioners and that his net income, from fees, dues, Easter offerings, and other sources was less than £150. He refrained from mentioning the amount received from the vicar's rate.
(fn. 6) In 1879 the vicar's income was £200.
(fn. 7) In 1900, on the abolition of the vicar's rate, the income of the benefice was £300 arising from the endowment made by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners.
Numerous chapels, each supporting a priest, and chantries, each with its own staff of chaplains, were founded in St. Michael's from time to time, so that in 1423 it was possible for 20 priests to be supplied from the establishment for William Whitchurch's obit.
(fn. 9) In 1522 there were, besides the vicar, eighteen priests and six chantry priests
(fn. 10) and in 1533 a curate, thirteen priests, and an unspecified number of chantry priests.
(fn. 11) At the end of the 15th century there appear to have been ten altars besides the high altar, each with its chapel and chantry; they were: the altar of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Jesus altar, the Trinity altar and the altars of St. John, St. Anne, St. Katherine, St. Thomas, St. Andrew. St. Lawrence, and All Saints.
The earliest recorded foundation within the church is that of St. Mary's altar and chapel (probably for the use of the drapers' company) in 1300, when indulgences were issued to provide funds for building expenses;
(fn. 12) the usual pious donations of wax for the light before the high altar were made, and in 1350 the Merchant Guild of St. Mary ordered that all its priests were to say the offices in the chapel of Our Lady.
(fn. 13) A chantry for Henry Dilcock and his wife, Robert de Whatton and his wife, and William de Shepey and his wife was founded at this altar in 1371 and another for Henry Dodenhale three years later.
(fn. 14) This was, after the high altar, the most considerable for, on the combination of the Guild Merchant, St. John's Guild, and the Trinity Guild in 1392, further lands and rents were granted for the support of a priest and his assistant priests to serve them there and detailed regulations on their qualifications and duties were framed.
(fn. 15) The altars of Our Lady and the Holy Trinity were rebuilt in 1412 by John Preston for his two chantry priests.
(fn. 16) In 1450, owing to the rebuilding of this part of the church, the two contiguous chapels of St. Mary and All Saints (which were on the north side of the former chancel) were dismantled by the parishioners and their site included in the new nave. The drapers' company had constructed another chapel, dedicated to St. Mary and All Saints, in a more easterly position and obtained papal confirmation of its possession of the new chapel and of the furnishings which it had transferred from the previous ones.
(fn. 17) John Haddon, draper, who made bequests to all the altars in St. Michael's, provided the stipend of a priest and gave £5 for an ornament for St. Mary's Chapel. In 1534 the freemen of the drapers' company and their apprentices were ordered to sit in the chapel every Sunday. At the Reformation the company sold some of its altar vessels but, shortly after the accession of Mary, it bought a chalice, vestments, and an organ. In 1634 the chapel was fitted up for the consistory court, but it had probably been so used before.
The earliest recorded chantry in St. Michael's was founded in 1323 by Hugh de Merynton for two priests to sing mass daily for the souls of himself and Agnes, his wife. He endowed it with rents to the value of £8,
(fn. 19) which had increased to £8 3s. 4d by the time that the guilds and chantries were dissolved. At that time no chaplain is mentioned and the chantry is said to have been founded for one priest only.
(fn. 20) Its position in the church is at present unknown. The first Shepey chantry was founded in 1330 by Lawrence de Shepey for one priest to sing mass daily at the altar of St. Lawrence for the souls of himself, of several members of his family, and of Adam Stanydelf and Alice, his wife; in 1344, 1383, and 1390 the chantry was augmented for other members of the family. The presentation was in the gift of the priory and in 1361 Richard de Wardon was presented by the king during a vacancy.
(fn. 21) The chantry was perhaps situated to the west of St. Mary's or the Drapers' Chapel.
(fn. 22) Haye's chantry was founded in 1388 by Henry del Haye, girdler, at the altar of All Saints.
(fn. 23) As has been seen, the chapel of All Saints was dismantled at the same time as that of St. Mary, and a new chapel of St. Mary and All Saints was furnished at the east end of the north chancel aisle in 1450.
(fn. 24) Preston's chantry, founded in 1412 by John Preston for two priests, was connected with the altars of Holy Trinity and St. Mary.
(fn. 25) The site of the Holy Trinity altar is unknown. William Matthew appears to have been the last priest at this chantry, for in 1555 he had a pension; the presentation was in the gift of the prior.
(fn. 26) Crosse's chantry was founded in 1412, after the death of John Crosse, by four of his friends, who made the mayor and commonalty the administrators of their foundation, which was to support one priest singing mass daily at the altar of St. Katherine.
(fn. 27) The corporation fulfilled this duty until the suppression of the guilds and chantries. As the mercers' company kept its obits here, it may be presumed that this was also the mercers' chapel;
(fn. 28) the mercers certainly had a chapel in St. Michael's until 1713, when they relinquished it because of bad acoustics.
(fn. 29) The Trinity Guild (which incorporated St. Katherine's Guild) kept the feast of St. Katherine by burning a candle before her statue in the chapel.
(fn. 30) Its position was in the south chancel aisle opposite the drapers' chapel.
(fn. 31) In 1449 the smiths were paying a priest and, twenty years later, they had a copy of the Jesus Mass made for him; the smiths' chapel (probably the same as St. Andrew's)
(fn. 32) must not, however, be confused with the Jesus altar, although neither can be sited with certainty. The smiths seem to have retained their ornaments longer than the drapers, and were having new vestments made in 1553.
(fn. 33) The Jesus Mass was introduced in Coventry by John Pynchbek, mayor, in 1465,
(fn. 34) but the Jesus altar was not erected until 1468 when the clothiers of the city founded it to deliver the inhabitants from plague. The pope relaxed penance for all those who visited the altar and gave alms for its upkeep at the three major feasts. A fraternity, not otherwise recorded, appears to have been instituted at the time as the Confraternity of Jesus;
(fn. 35) it was probably short-lived, for there is a suggestion that the Jesus Mass was suspended in Coventry c. 1492.
(fn. 36) It was, however, resumed, for bequests were made by various drapers or clothiers for the Jesus Mass or the altar
(fn. 37) and in 1518 the leet ordered that the mayor's officers were to accompany him to the Jesus Mass before market every Friday.
St. Thomas's Chapel, on the south side of the church and east of the central porch, appears to have been taken over by the cardmakers c. 1465.
(fn. 39) The chapel followed the fortunes of the company, for from 1531 it was used by the cappers as well and in 1537 was taken over entirely by them.
(fn. 40) Their ornaments were sold at the time of the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries. The cappers resigned their rights in the chapel to the parish in 1630 for the sum of £15 and thenceforth they had six seats reserved for them in the church at a rent of 2s. Subsequent references to the cappers' chapel presumably refer to the room over the south porch which the cappers had used as their hall and to which access was first obtained from their original chapel, then from the south gallery, and finally by a newel stairway from the ground. The dyers' chapel seems to have been situated to the west of the south porch; probably there was a chamber above it for their priest. Early in the 17th century it became known as the Mourners' Chapel and it is possible that the dyers had already vacated it, as they were paying rent for two seats in the church in 1599. St. John's altar is known only from the fact that William Pisford bequeathed £6 13s. 4d. for its upkeep,
(fn. 41) but doubtless the chaplains of St. John's Guild celebrated there before the chapel at Bablake was built.
(fn. 42) St. Anne's altar is likewise known only from John Haddon's bequest of 6s. 8d. for wax in 1518, and the Lekborne Chapel from a bequest by the same benefactor.
(fn. 43) The date of foundation of Tate's chantry is unknown, as also its position in St. Michael's; its priest received a stipend of £5 6s. 8d. a year from the Dyers' Company of London,
(fn. 44) the last occupant of the office being Thomas Elysson who was receiving a pension of £5 in 1555.
(fn. 45) The girdlers' chapel lay in the north aisle, east of the north porch; their hall, containing their library, was probably above it. In 1725 the chapel was dismantled and the materials used for the erection of a gallery on the north side of the church.
(fn. 46) Copston's chantry was originally attached to the cathedral church, but at the Dissolution it was translated to St. Michael's for the remaining nine years of its existence.
(fn. 47) St Matthew's chantry was in existence early in the 16th century, but it is not certain whether it was attached to St. Michael's.
During the 12th century St. Michael's was 'the earl's chapel' and was served by the earl's chaplain but in 1241 it began to be called a 'church'.
(fn. 49) The early years of both chapel and church were dominated by the unseemly battle between the priory and the bishop over tithes and advowson which has already been described.
(fn. 50) Guy de Tyllebroc, vicar during the latter part of the 13th century, was apparently a man of substance, for he gave the site on which St. Mary's Hall was built (about 50 years later) for the support of a lamp before the high altar; in 1350 the lamp was being kept for the Guild Merchant,
(fn. 51) various gifts were made to the high altar and in 1430 the wiredrawers were responsible for the upkeep of the tabernacle.
(fn. 52) From 1300 one of the chief features in the life of St. Michael's was its close connexion with the guilds. Many of the vicars were members of the Trinity Guild, the Corpus Christi Guild or of the craft guilds,
(fn. 53) and, as has been seen, at least eleven guilds had chapels or altars in the church. Many of the incumbents obtained leave of absence to study at a university or to serve the pope or the king.
(fn. 54) St. Michael's was very much in the midst of ordinary everyday life in Coventry, for cloth seems to have been sold in the porch until it was forbidden in 1455; and when, in 1495, there was trouble about aulnage, apprentices' fees, and the common lands, it was to the door of St. Michael's Church that rebellious verses were pinned.
With the Dissolution of the Monasteries and of the Guilds and Chantries great changes became apparent in St. Michael's. John Rambridge was the last vicar to be appointed by the prior before the Dissolution; he retained his benefice for the time being, but he was removed for examination when he had made his accusation against Thomas Saunders for heresy. On his recantation of 'popish errors' he was restored to his living and in 1553 he was succeeded by Hugh Symondes, who was appointed by Edward VI.
(fn. 56) In 1548 religious guilds, any chantries attached to guilds, and all personal chantries and obits came to an end, and their possessions passed four years later into the hands of the mayor, bailiffs, and commonalty of the city.
(fn. 57) It has already been noted that certain of the guilds sold chalices and vestments in accordance with the temper of the time. On Mary's accession Hugh Symondes declared against her and was called before the Privy Council for 'wishing them hanged that would say mass'. He was given an opportunity (which he seems not to have taken) to recant,
(fn. 58) but he was finally deprived because he was married. For four and a half years the parish remained without an incumbent,
(fn. 59) while certain of the guilds returned to preReformation ritual, buying chalices and vestments and restoring their music.
(fn. 60) It is not clear whether Symondes returned to the parish on the accession of Elizabeth, but developments were certainly in line with his declared opinions: vestments were delivered back to the city council,
(fn. 61) a 'chalice' was re-made as a 'communion cup', and in 1569 feeling in the parish was running so high that the registers were destroyed because they savoured of 'popery'.
(fn. 62) This attitude would seem to be one of deep conviction, for William Hinton (who was appointed Archdeacon of Coventry a year after his institution as Vicar of St. Michael's in 1583)
(fn. 63) was opposed with some doggedness by a section of his congregation when he tried to restore the custom of kneeling to receive the sacrament. Seats were erected in 1610 for those who objected to kneeling,
(fn. 64) but in 1611 the king supported Hinton.
(fn. 65) In the end Hinton was reasonably successful in his efforts, for when inquiry was made in 1621 it was reported that all the magistrates conformed and that only about three persons of note persisted in sitting or standing.
(fn. 66) Hinton got the living augmented by the city council, obtained an assistant for the Wednesday lecture,
(fn. 67) and had galleries erected on either side of the choir.
(fn. 68) In 1603 the king's arms were set up and an hour glass was bought in 1586 and two large ones in 1602.
(fn. 69) On Hinton's resignation in 1624 (he remained archdeacon until his death), the city council certified to the bishop its approval of the appointment of Samuel Bugges,
(fn. 70) who had already been presented by the Crown.
(fn. 71) Two years later Bugges became Vicar of Holy Trinity Church as well. He probably had some previous connexion with Coventry, for he dedicated a sermon preached at Paul's Cross in 1621 to the mayor, aldermen, and commonalty of the city, and in the following year printed Philemon Holland's speech on James I's visit to Coventry.
(fn. 72) He did not satisfy the more extreme of his parishioners, some of whom preferred to wear their hats in church.
William Panting, the next incumbent, worked gradually and diplomatically to restore dignity in the face of extremism and put the vicar's stipend on a sounder basis, while refusing personal gain. He rescued a pall of cloth of gold, which had formerly hung about the pulpit, and used it as a cloth for the communion table,
(fn. 74) but he met the reformers by having the Lord's prayer, the 'belief and the Commandments set up in the chancel.
(fn. 75) He refused to receive the money due to him for delivering the Wednesday lecture, except as a gift of love.
(fn. 76) It was during his incumbency that the communion table was placed altar-wise and raised on three steps; this met with immediate opposition and the bishop ordered it to be brought down again into the chancel.
(fn. 77) Whatever his merits, Panting had shown himself to be of the Laudian party and his living was sequestrated in 1643.
(fn. 78) A petition of the mayor and of some of the parishioners for a Mr. Viner to be appointed was unsuccessful
(fn. 79) and the corporation invited Obadiah Grew, Master of the Free School at Atherstone and a declared Presbyterian, to be minister of the parish. St. Michael's was stripped of all indications of 'superstition', inscriptions were painted out, the brass eagle sold, the font taken down, and the cross on the mercers' chapel removed. Grew, however, was opposed to the regicides and showed personal sympathy to Panting in his misfortune. He was also an assistant to the Commissioners for Warwickshire for the ejection of ignorant and insufficient ministers and schoolmasters. He appears to have been a man of principle, not an extremist, but a convinced Presbyterian, who resigned his benefice on the promulgation of the Act of Uniformity, although urged by his bishop to conform. So greatly were his opinions respected that he was allowed to continue preaching in Coventry for some time.
Bishop Hacket, who had urged Grew to conform, supported his successor, Samuel Feake, who petitioned for the living.
(fn. 81) Thereupon the font was restored and the Royal Arms set up again, but by the end of Feake's incumbency the church was in a sad state of decay.
(fn. 82) Meanwhile the corporation was maintaining payments to the late minister, Dr. Grew.
With the Dissolution of the Guilds and Chantries, the opportunity for bequeathing money for religious purposes disappeared, and, at the same time, the churches lost their clergy. However, at St. Michael's, as at Holy Trinity, a solution to the two problems was found in the endowment of yearly sermons. Three had already been founded by Henry Boteler about 1490, and, after the Reformation, a total of 22 more were founded by the wills of William Hopkins (1570), John Tallants (proved 1573), Thomas Bentley (proved 1604), William Wheate (1616), Sampson Hopkins (1623), one Rogerson (in the 1620s), James Harwell (1631), Isaac Walden (proved 1632), Thomas Brownrigg (1634), and Thomas Jesson (proved 1636). Jesson also provided for a weekly sermon. Three more sermons were endowed by Sir Brian J'Anson, by deed of 1628, and one by the gift, in 1749, of Mrs. Anne Alison.
Thomas Bentley's bequest apparently never came into operation, and about half of the rest of these endowments was subsequently lost (at least by the mid 19th century),
(fn. 84) but the sermons that survived were far more highly paid than their founders had intended. The sum normally laid down was 6s. 8d. for each sermon, but in practice, during the 17th century, the payment ranged from £5 to £25 yearly,
(fn. 85) thus adding to the stipend of the vicar or assistant curate or providing a competence for an additional member of staff or lecturer.
In 1410-11 there is mention of a deacon in connexion with St. Michael's.
(fn. 86) Just over a century later Richard Shirley was called curate (but he was not the incumbent), and similarly in 1533 Richard Singleton.
(fn. 87) Again c. 1593 Humphrey Wilding was described as curate, though inadequate.
(fn. 88) For most of the 17th century lecturers were appointed by the corporation to deliver the Wednesday lecture: in 1611 Mr. Drax, in 1613 Peter Gibson, in 1615 Mr. Greene,
(fn. 89) in 1644 Gilbert Walden; and in 1676 John Nailer was appointed one of the lecturers in place of Thomas Allesley who had received preferment.
(fn. 90) But in 1730 St. Michael's vestry chose Benjamin Dawson as lecturer to preach every Sunday morning. In the following year, when there was a smallpox epidemic, Dawson was to visit the sick and to do duty for the vicar if he fell ill.
(fn. 91) An inquiry of 1852 showed that the remuneration for reading weekly prayers (one of the duties of an assistant) had been diverted into the vicar's pocket since Obadiah Grew took over the duty himself in the Commonwealth period. The vicar, John Brownrigge Collisson, was deprived of this extra £20,
(fn. 92) but two years later he was allowed £80 to enable him to pay a second curate.
(fn. 93) The difficulty was that Collisson was nonresident and only with the help of two curates could the Sunday evening service be continued. On the other hand Collisson was obviously discontented with his stipend and with the heating and seating arrangements.
(fn. 94) Matters came to a head in 1857 when the grant made by the Curates' Aid Society was withdrawn; the vestry refused to pay more than £80 and stated that they were unwilling to help the vicar further until he resided in the parish; indeed they would stop the £80 unless he promised to appoint a second curate. The Pastoral Aid Society's grant, which paid a scripture reader, had also been withdrawn.
(fn. 95) There had been constant friction between Collisson and the vestry and he was clearly considered unsatisfactory. He was succeeded in 1858 by Sidney Henry Widdrington,
(fn. 96) who presumably was aided by one curate. There was still one curate in 1917.
A 'close' vestry
(fn. 98) dealt with both civil and ecclesiastical organization; two of its frequent duties were the leasing of church lands and the letting of pews; rents from the latter were set aside for beautifying the church in 1725, when it was agreed that they were not to be used for repairs or for the sacramental bread and wine, which were to be bought at the charge of the parish.
(fn. 99) But from 1850 pew rents were to be used for the services of the church.
(fn. 1) There was great competition for seats and in 1818 the vestry resolved that canvassing must not be allowed; proper application must be made to the accountant churchwarden or to the vestry clerk. The vestry was to allocate the seats.
The vestry kept close control over the church's finances; it regulated its own administration and by 1770 some of its work was being carried out by committees;
(fn. 3) in 1805 it appointed a committee which thenceforward met quarterly to inspect and conduct the church affairs of the parish.
(fn. 4) From 1870 the vestry met once yearly at Easter.
(fn. 5) It had been responsible for the appointment of officers, but in 1849 it delegated this duty to the churchwardens.
(fn. 6) There were six churchwardens, one for each ward in the parish, and they were chosen by the vestry at its Easter meeting;
(fn. 7) elections were not always fairly observed, for in 1780, although fifteen members voted for one candidate and ten for another, the latter was appointed.
(fn. 8) There had been a separate accountant, but from 1800 the vicar's warden was to do his job and was usually called the accountant churchwarden.
(fn. 9) When the church rate had got into arrear, it was decided in 1819 that each churchwarden should collect the rate from his own ward.
(fn. 10) Disorderliness was becoming common in the city on Sundays and the churchwardens were charged in 1821 with the duty of seeing that order was kept throughout the city and particularly in the churchyard on Sundays.
(fn. 11) In 1766 the sexton was a person of some importance; he was, for example, to keep the church, the vestry, and the churchyard clean, to see to the ringing of the bells, and to keep the clock and chimes in order; moreover he was to wear a gown and robe and carry a tipstaff in the manner of vergers at cathedrals.
(fn. 12) In 1808 his wages were raised from £9 to £20 a year,
(fn. 13) and he was given the further duties of looking after behaviour in church and of examining the fabric.
In 1908, as a preliminary step towards the creation of the modern diocese of Coventry,
(fn. 15) St. Michael's was made a collegiate church with the bishop as dean and the vicar as sub-dean and precentor.
(fn. 16) Thereafter the chapter, which was composed of ten priest canons, seven lay canons, and a chapter clerk, gradually took over some of the functions of St. Michael's vestry.
(fn. 17) In 1918, when the diocese was finally created,
(fn. 18) St. Michael's became its cathedral, and early in 1919 the authority of the vestry was merged in that of the cathedral chapter.
(fn. 19) Officials were appointed and a rota of preachers was drawn up, and it was fixed that the great chapter should meet quarterly and the smaller chapter monthly. No new constitution was then laid down and the canons were appointed by the bishop. In 1921 the parochial church council, the chapter, the vestry, and the churchwardens held a conference at which the decisions of 1908 were endorsed, with the proviso that both the parochial church council and the vestry should send three representatives to the chapter and that the chapter so enlarged should continue to be the authority for the conduct of the cathedral church and for the allocation of offerings.
To some 1922 must have seemed a disastrous year, for the bishop, the sub-dean, and the archdeacon died within a few months of one another. For others it marked the start of a new era, for the rule of Yeatman-Biggs, the first bishop of the new diocese, had been a very personal and rather authoritarian one. The new bishop, C. Lisle Carr, was concerned about the position of the canons and about the lack of a constitution. The changes demanded by the creation of the diocese and the passing of the Enabling Act had been ignored and it was essential that the position should be rectified. A provisional constitution was drawn up in 1924 and the Cathedral Measures of 1931 and 1934 made legal a modification of this constitution.
(fn. 21) The bishop was no longer dean, and the chapter consisted of the provost (the Vicar of St. Michael's), two archdeacons, not more than four residentiary canons, not more than four canons theologian, and not more than fifteen honorary canons, all appointed by the bishop. The cathedral council consisted of the bishop as chairman, the provost, the bishop suffragan or assistant bishop, the archdeacons, five churchwardens, the parochial treasurer, seven members elected by the parochial church council, five lay representatives of the diocese nominated by the bishop, and five lay representatives of the laity elected by the diocesan conference. The statutes gave the bishop the right to use the cathedral, on reasonable notice to the provost, for visitations, synods, ordinations, and confirmations, to celebrate communion or to preach at the greater festivals, and for diocesan services; he could also, in consultation with the provost, appoint a canon skilled in church music as canon precentor.
(fn. 22) The constitution of the cathedral was slightly altered in 1951 by a scheme regulating the tenure of residentiary canonries.
Apart from the creation of St. John's parish in 1734, a number of new ecclesiastical parishes were taken wholly or partly out of St. Michael's parish in the 19th and 20th centuries; these were St. Thomas, Keresley-with-Coundon (1848), All Saints and St. Mark (1869), Christ Church (1900), which had been built as a chapel of ease to St. Michael in the early 1830s, St. Barbara (1922), St. Mary Magdalen (1926), and St. Anne (1930), which had become a mission church of St. Michael's after the First World War.
In 1861 the National school in Red Lane, then in a detached part of St. Michael's parish, was licensed as a mission chapel.
(fn. 25) The building seems to have been partly converted at the vicar's expense into a place of worship which was known as St. Mary's Church and served from St. Michael's.
(fn. 26) Services there were apparently discontinued in the late 1860s or early 1870s, probably after the opening of St. Mark's Church in 1869.
(fn. 27) A second mission chapl,e in Whitefriars Lane, also known as St. Mary's and formerly a Baptist chapel, was bought and licensed for worship in 1869.
(fn. 28) A chancel was added to the building about 1884 and it was thoroughly restored, to the design of H. Quick, in 1888.
(fn. 29) It was used for services by the congregation from Christ Church from 1941 to 1955
(fn. 30) and was then lent for two years to Holy Trinity parish council. It was finally sold in 1958
(fn. 31) and has subsequently been demolished.
During the air raid on Coventry of 14-15 November 1940 the cathedral was largely destroyed by fire, only the outside walls and the tower being left standing.
(fn. 32) The following account of the fabric, therefore, is based mainly on illustrations and published descriptions of the undamaged building.
The former cathedral church of ST. MICHAEL consisted of an aisled nave of six bays, an aisled chancel of three bays with an apsidal east end, and a west tower. Beyond the south nave aisle a second aisle included two chapels and a south porch; on the north side of the nave there was an outer aisle of five bays. Two crypts lay below the inner north nave aisle and there were sacristies at a low level beyond the 5-sided apse. Owing to falling ground towards the north-east, the chancel floor was more than 12 ft. above street level. In its final form St. Michael's dated largely from the late 14th and 15th centuries. It was one of the largest medieval parish churches in England, and the height of the tower and spire (295 ft.) is only exceeded at Salisbury and Norwich.
Loose fragments of Norman stonework have survived, but there were no structural remains of the 12th-century church. P. B. Chatwin has suggested the middle of the following century. Even at the beginning the work was in the Perpendicular style, an unusually early example of its use in a parish church. The first new building was the tower, placed centrally on the west wall of the 13th-century nave. It dates from 1373-94 and the cost is said to have been largely borne by the brothers William and Adam Botoner. The spire was begun in 1432.
(fn. 36) The tower is of five stages, surmounted by an embattled parapet and tall angle pinnacles. Its lavishly carved stonework includes niches with figures (replaced in the 19th century). Set behind the parapet is an octagonal lantern connected to the angle pinnacles by ogee-shaped flying buttresses. The spire rises a further 136 ft. in three stages.
The rebuilding of the body of the church was a complex process. Chatwin's theory as to how it was carried out, based on a detailed study of the fabric,
(fn. 37) can only be briefly summarized here. The rebuilding that it consisted only of nave and chancel, and that it was comparable in size to its daughter chapels, some of which are still standing in recognizable form.
(fn. 34) This is borne out by the traces of a pre-15th-century roof which are visible against the tower arch and which indicate a former nave width of 15 ft. 7 in. It is thought that the Norman church was enlarged in the later 13th century by the westward extension of the nave and the addition of aisles to both nave and chancel. Beyond the north chancel aisle a Lady Chapel, with a crypt or charnel house below it, is known to have been built c. 1300.
(fn. 35) Later a smaller crypt, containing a piscina, was added to the east of the former one. These two crypts, and a south porch of about the same date, survived both the 15thcentury reconstruction and the fire of 1940.
A great rebuilding took place between 1373 and entailed major extensions both to the north and east, the presence of St. Mary's Hall making it impossible to expand southwards. Thus the south aisle of the rebuilt nave coincided with that of the 13th-century church. The scheme involved doubling the width of the old nave to include its north aisle and the building of a new north aisle beyond it. The new aisle would absorb the projecting Lady Chapel of c. 1300 and extend over the crypt beneath it. The eastward extension consisted of a large aisled chancel, of the same width as the new nave and designed to join it at approximately the eastern extremity of the old church. The new chancel was put in hand first, starting at the apse and leaving the rest of the church undisturbed. Although the style of the chancel was similar in date to that of the tower, it must be assumed that the latter, central on the axis of the old church, was well in hand before the scheme of a widened nave and chancel was thought of.
(fn. 38) The chancel of the 13th-century church, and probably of the Norman church before it, had a slight inclination towards the north. This is proved by the angle of the existing crypts, built originally against the north wall of the 13th-century chancel aisle. If, as has been supposed, the east end of the old church was still in existence when the later chancel was begun, it might well have formed the guiding-line for the layout of the new work. This would account for the marked divergence between nave and chancel in the rebuilt church. Authorities differ as to how long a period of time elapsed between the completion of the chancel and the rebuilding of the nave,
(fn. 39) but the whole scheme was probably finished soon after 1450. At this date it is known that the old Lady Chapel had been demolished and another Lady Chapel was being established further east in the new north chancel aisle.
ST. MICHAEL'S CHURCH FROM A PLAN OF 1870
In general the new church, with its wide aisles, gave scope for the increase of separate chapels demanded by the growth of the guilds in 15thcentury Coventry.
(fn. 41) The Dyers' Chapel and St. Thomas's Chapel, flanking the older south porch, were probably completed and in use by 1463 and 1465 respectively.
(fn. 42) The outer north aisle, accommodating two chapels, is thought to have been built c. 1500,
(fn. 43) thus representing the last notable preReformation addition to the church.
In spite of a change in style from early to later Perpendicular at the junction of nave and chancel, the interior of St. Michael's gave an overall impression of uniformity. Arches of wide span, slender piers, and large windows, particularly in the clerestory, contributed to the general effect of lightness and space. The only demarcation between nave and chancel was provided by a change in roof level and by side piers containing staircases to the roof and rood-loft.
In the late 17th and 18th centuries decay of the fabric was a constant charge upon the parish; in 1736 the Quakers refused to contribute towards a levy made on the parishioners.
(fn. 44) In 1793 a meeting was called in the County Hall to discuss the raising of funds for repairs, particularly to the steeple.
(fn. 45) By 1818 the condition of the tower was again causing concern and bell-ringing was suspended,
(fn. 46) as it was again in 1851 for a time.
In the course of the 17th and 18th centuries the interior of the church had acquired box-pews, wainscotting, a classical altarpiece, and many galleries - in Poole's words: 'such a wild spread and pile of incumbrances as no other church could have found room for'.
(fn. 48) A plan of 1820 for refitting the interior, using a bequest of £1,000 from Richard Burgh (will proved 1813), came to nothing. A new scheme by George Gilbert (later Sir Gilbert) Scott was put in hand in 1849, when all the galleries were cleared away and new open pews were installed, the costs being met out of the capital of Burgh's bequest (£2,222) and voluntary subscriptions amounting to about £1,500. Two years later the internal stonework was stripped and restored. At the same time most of the monuments were moved, some disappearing in the process. In 1860 the wainscotting in the apse and the altarpiece were replaced by new stone arcading and a Gothic reredos, designed by James Murray.
(fn. 49) Meanwhile, from 1854 onwards, a gradual renewal of the decayed external stonework of the aisles was taking place.
The last major restoration was carried out between 1883 and 1890 under the direction of J. Oldrid Scott. This included the external re-facing with Runcorn stone of spire, tower, clerestories, and chancel, and the strengthening of the tower foundations. At the same time a vestry to the south-east of the apse, perhaps dating from the early 17th century, was demolished and a new one built to match the three medieval sacristies already in existence.
(fn. 51) It was at this period that iron girders were inserted to strengthen the tie-beams of the roof. When the roof caught fire during the raid of 14 November 1940, the twisting of these girders in the great heat helped to bring down the masonry of the clerestories and arcades.
Few original fittings had survived to the 20th century. In the Lady Chapel were portions of screens and fourteen carved miserere seats.
(fn. 53) A brass eagle lectern of 1359 and a font of 1394 had been removed in 1645, but a Purbeck marble font bowl, probably of the 13th century, was preserved in the church.
(fn. 54) A 15th-century pulpit was replaced in 1869.
(fn. 55) The apse and clerestory windows contained fragments of stained glass, mostly re-set, which were probably the work of early-15th-century Coventry glaziers; these were taken out during the Second World War and have been preserved.
(fn. 56) Among the many notable memorials in the church
(fn. 57) were a floor slab with brass commemorating Thomas Bond (d. 1506), a carved stone altar-tomb to Julian Nethermyl (d. 1539) and his wife, a mid-16th century altar tomb with recumbent effigies and an inscription to Elizabeth Swillington, and another with its brass missing but thought to commemorate John Wayd, a mid-16th-century mercer of Coventry. There were also large monuments to Sir Thomas Berkeley (d. 1611), to the wife and children of Dr. Joseph Moore (erected 1640), and to William Stanley (d. 1640). Among later memorials was one with portrait busts to Richard Hopkins (d. 1707), his wife and son, one to Dame Mary Bridgeman and Mrs. Eliza Samwell (d. 1701 and 1724 respectively), and one by Chantrey commemorating the Hon. F.W. Hood (killed in battle in 1814).
The churchyard was enlarged in 1783-4 as a result of the demolition of a block of old houses at its south-west corner.
(fn. 58) A new burial ground on a site to the north of New Street was consecrated in 1793.
After the destruction of the cathedral in 1940 an altar of stones picked out of the rubble was set up in the apse in January 1941 and on it was placed a cross of charred beams from the ruins. One of the 'crosses of nails' was added some time later. The east crypt, which had been fitted up as a memorial chapel - the Wyley Crypt Chapel - in 1932, was immediately brought into use for services. In 1942 the south porch was converted into a chapel known as the Chapel of the Resurrection or the Friends' Chapel and daily services were held there. By 1945 the west crypt, holding a congregation of about 100, had been consecrated as a temporary Chapel of Unity; communion was still celebrated in the adjoining east crypt. Larger services were held in Holy Trinity Church until the end of 1945 and also, weather permitting, in the main body of the ruins. In 1947-8 the area inside the walls was cleared of rubble and laid out with paths and grass, while eight 'hallowing places' were constructed against the side walls, each one dedicated to a different branch of human activity. Further restoration work on the ruins took place in 1952-4, and in 1957 the room above the south porch was restored for use by the cappers' guild.
Although there had been initially some uncertainty
(fn. 61) whether the cathedral should be rebuilt at all or whether cathedral status should be conferred instead on Holy Trinity Church or St. Mary's, Warwick, the cathedral council decided in March 1941 that a new cathedral should be erected, on or near the site of the old, and this decision was supported by the Central Council for the Care of Churches. A rebuilding committee was appointed under the provost's chairmanship, and in 1942 Sir Giles Gilbert Scott was invited by the cathedral council to design the new building. However, the plans
(fn. 62) which he submitted in 1944 and 1945, though approved by the council, were subsequently rejected by the Royal Fine Art Commission and he resigned at the beginning of 1947. The Harlech Commission was then set up, and, after a thorough examination of the ruins and a wide canvass of opinion, reported later in the year in favour of rebuilding in the Gothic style (a stipulation which caused some controversy) as nearly as possible on the old site but without incorporating the remains of the old structure which were declared to be insufficiently strong for re-use. The architect was to be chosen by open competition. A reconstruction committee was formed to prepare the terms of the competition, which, as they were finally published in 1950, omitted all restrictions on the style of architecture to be adopted. The results were announced the following year; the design chosen was that of Basil (later Sir Basil) Spence. The assessors reported that the design was 'of outstanding excellence' and that the author had 'qualities of spirit and imagination of the highest order'. The new cathedral was to be built immediately north of the old one and at right angles to it. The medieval tower and ruins were to be preserved in their existing form and an open porch, spanning St. Michael's Avenue, was to connect old and new. Because of its break with conventional styles of church architecture, the design met with opposition in some quarters, but at the same time created world-wide interest in the new project. The completed scheme incorporated all the main features of the competition design, although some modifications were introduced between 1951 and 1954. Among these were the removal of a structural wall between high altar and Lady Chapel, the raising in height of the porch, the enlargement of the glass screen between porch and nave, and the alteration of the main access from Priory Street. The licence for the erection of the new cathedral was granted by the Minister of Works in 1954. It was estimated later that the total cost of the cathedral would be about £1,350,000, of which £1,000,000 was provided by the War Damage Commission. The main contractors for the work were John Laing and Sons. The foundation stone was laid by Queen Elizabeth II in 1956 and cathedral services were transferred from the old west crypt to the new undercroft, the Chapel of the Cross, at the end of 1958. The cathedral was consecrated by the Bishop of Coventry, Dr. Cuthbert Bardsley, on 25 May 1962.
The new cathedral church of ST. MICHAEL consists of a structurally undivided nave and chancel, with a Lady Chapel at the north end of the building behind the high altar. The altar itself, with a vast tapestry representing Christ in Glory above it, is visible from the porch at the opposite end of the nave through a 'west' wall made entirely of glass. The side walls of nave and chancel are zig-zag in plan with five pairs of windows reaching from floor to ceiling and throwing light towards the altar. Slender columns divide the nave from passage aisles and support a high vaulted ceiling. Internally the walls, partly for acoustic reasons, are faced with absorbent plaster. On the east side of the nave is a baptistery and opposite to it is the entrance to the Chapel of Unity. This has a star-shaped plan and its tapering walls and buttresses were designed to resemble a 'crusader's tent'. Flanking the Lady Chapel to the east is the Chapel of Christ in Gethsemane, its metal screen symbolising the Crown of Thorns. From this point a short cloister leads to the Chapel of Industry, or of Christ the Servant, a circular building below which lies the cathedral chapter house. Owing to falling ground to the north-east, it has been possible to accommodate vestries and administrative rooms in the undercroft of the main building. A refectory and verger's flat are situated to the north-west. The plain external walls of the cathedral are of pink Hollington stone and those of the Chapel of Unity of green Westmorland slate. Above the nave roof is a bronze latticework flèche, 90 ft. high; the bells are still housed in the existing medieval tower.
The new cathedral was always intended to give scope for the work of individual artists and craftsmen. The great tapestry, occupying the whole of the north wall, was designed by Graham Sutherland and made near Aubusson in France. The bronze figures of St. Michael and the Devil, placed on the external wall between the baptistery and the porch, were the work of Sir Jacob Epstein shortly before his death in 1959. John Hutton engraved the figures on the glass screen between porch and nave. The stained glass in the baptistery window was designed by John Piper, that in the windows at the entrance to the Lady Chapel by the Swedish artist Einar Forseth, and the windows of the Chapel of Unity by Margaret Traherne. The ten windows in the nave were designed by three artists from the Royal College of Art, Lawrence Lee, Geoffrey Clarke, and Keith New. The eight 'Tablets of the Word', stone panels set in embrasures in the side walls of the nave, were executed by Ralph Beyer. The font bowl is hollowed out from a rough boulder brought from a hillside at Bethlehem. Among many other individual contributions, the inlaid floor of the Chapel of Unity deserves special mention; this was designed by Einar Forseth, and given by the Church of Sweden.
The interest taken in music in the old St. Michael's has been maintained in the new. There was an organ in the church as early as 1392 and the priests of the Trinity Guild were required to be able to sing the office with or without organ. In 1505 John Gylbard, organist of St. Michael's, was admitted as an member of the Corpus Christi Guild. At the Reformation the drapers disposed of the organ in their chapel and little more is heard of music until the 18th century,
(fn. 63) when there seems to have been an adult male choir with children from a charity school to sing treble. The vestry appointed the organist, sometimes on a competition, and regulated his duties.
(fn. 64) The first modern organ appears to have been built about 1730, by Thomas Swarbrick.
(fn. 65) Dr. Thomas Deane was the first organist, at a salary of £40 a year,
(fn. 66) and, with the coming of an organ, it was possible for more parts of the service to be sung than hitherto.
(fn. 67) A considerable amount of care was taken of the instrument,
(fn. 68) and it was rebuilt in 1835.
(fn. 69) In 1829 ten regular members of the choir were paid £2 a year and later £1 was set aside for the boy choristers.
(fn. 70) About this time the idea of giving musical performances in church to raise money for enlarging the organ was introduced.
(fn. 71) The organ of 1835 was taken down in 1885 during the large-scale restoration of the church and was replaced by a new instrument in 1886-7.
(fn. 72) Some outstanding musicians spent part of their career as organist of St. Michael's, including Herbert (later Sir Herbert) Brewer, from 1886 to 1892, and Harold Rhodes, from 1928 to 1933.
For nearly 20 years after the destruction of the old cathedral in 1940 a mixed choir took part in the services held in the west crypt. Some younger singers also created an independent body known as the Vacation Choir. In 1959, in preparation for the consecration of the new cathedral, it was decided to constitute a fresh cathedral choir. This, in its final form, was composed of twelve men, and 24 boys whose training was assisted by the establishment, between 1959 and 1961, of a corresponding number of choral scholarships at the King Henry VIII School. In 1961 a new organist and choirmaster was appointed who combined his duties in the cathedral with those of musical adviser to the city council.
(fn. 74) The west crypt was refurnished as a song school for the choir and as the cathedral music library.
(fn. 75) Particular care was taken over the acoustics of the new cathedral, and the device of movable choirstalls was introduced to permit the performance there of large-scale choral and orchestral works as well as to secure for the congregation a clear view of the altar during the communion service. The new organ, flanking the altar, is by Harrison and Harrison; its cost was largely defrayed by a gift from Canada.
Bells were first hung in the tower of St. Michael's in 1429. In 1488, to celebrate the general peace that prevailed after the battle of Stoke in the previous year, 'a great bell' called Jesus Bell was added to them at the expense of the churchwardens and others, and from the mid 16th century, at least, a sum of 13s. 4d. a year was paid by the corporation for its repair. There was a ring of six bells in the 17th century and probably by 1607 when the 3rd and 4th were recast. In 1675 the existing ring of six was recast into one of eight by the two Henry Bagleys, elder and younger, of Chacombe (Northants.), who also used in the process the metal of the cracked treble from Bablake church. By about the middle of the 18th century it was thought that the weight of the bells was endangering the fabric and these fears were increased after Pack and Chapman had again recast the ring in 1774 and added two new trebles to it. As a result of an examination made in 1793 the bells were taken down and, after the tower had been strengthened, were rehung the following year in a wooden framework rising from the ground inside the tower but being structurally independent of it.
(fn. 77) The tenor, which had been cracked in 1802, was recast in 1805 by Briant of Hereford and the bells were rehung on one level instead of two as formerly.
(fn. 78) An effort was made in 1885, during the restoration of the church, to have a campanile built in the churchyard to the north of the church. This project came to nothing,
(fn. 79) and the bells lay on the floor of the church until by 1895 sufficient funds had been raised for them to be hung again, in the octagon, by Taylor of Loughborough and adapted for chiming.
There were chimes and a clock in the church by 1465. A new set of chimes and a clock were installed in 1778-9.
The earliest reference to plate occurs in 1564 when a new communion cup was made out of an old chalice. In 1659 the plate included two silver gilt bowls, a silver flagon given by Henry Smith, and four silver bowls with covers bought with a bequest by Isaac Walden. A silver dish was presented by the bishop in 1683, but the following year all the plate was sold and a new set bought. This was stolen from the vestry in 1786 and not replaced until 1804 with a silver gilt set given by Mrs. Yardley. The present collection of plate consists of a silver alms-dish of c. 1619, a silver gilt chalice, two silver gilt patens, a paten-cover and an alms-dish all of 1717, a silver jug of 1770, a silver flagon, two silver gilt chalices, and two silver gilt patens all of 1826.
Complete registers survive from 1698. Earlier volumes are said to have been burnt in 1569, because of 'some marks of popery in them', and others in a fire in the vestry in 1697.
No chapelry of CALUDON was mentioned in the 12th-century lists. Ranulf de Blundeville was said to have given the tithes and dues of Caludon to Stephen de Segrave with the original grant of the estate, and a chapel was apparently included in the earliest house there.
(fn. 84) It was first specifically mentioned in 1239 in the papal confirmation of the grant.
(fn. 85) Ranulf's grant was confirmed by an agreement between Stephen de Segrave and Ralph Mainwaring, rector of St. Michael's. The chaplain presented by Segrave was to receive all the tithes of the park and three other fields, and the small tithes and oblations of the rest of the estate in Caludon. The rector was to be paid 6s. yearly,
(fn. 86) a sum still being received by the priory at the Dissolution.
(fn. 87) In the early 15th century there was a dispute between the priory and the farmer of Caludon who claimed that the tithes of the 80 acres of Sowe Waste in the estate belonged to the Caludon chapel.
(fn. 88) Five chaplains were presented between 1335 and 1359.
(fn. 89) A bell hanging in the chapel was mentioned in 1385.
(fn. 90) It is not known when the chapel finally fell into disrepair. There were no references to it in the 16th century, and Dugdale said that it was ruinous in the 17th century.
(fn. 91) Tithes in Caludon, formerly paid to the priory, were granted to Thomas Reve and Giles Isham in 1554,
(fn. 92) and tithes presumably not pertaining to the chapel came into the hands of Coventry corporation in the 17th century.
was included in the list of chapelries appurtenant to St. Michael's which were granted to Coventry Priory in the 12th century, but probably only a grant of parochial rights was intended, and there is no evidence of a chapel there in the Middle Ages.
(fn. 94) A modern tradition that one of the monks of the priory served Keresley from a cottage called the Priest's House in Sandpits Lane appears to have no foundation in fact.
In 1410 the prior claimed only to be the rector, having the right of burial, tithes of grain and hay, and the profits from the woodland.
(fn. 96) At the Dissolution the tithes, leased to Henry Over, were acquired in 1542 by Richard Andrewes and Leonard Chamberlain.
(fn. 97) The tithes passed through various hands until 1629 when they were bought by Coventry corporation and in 1633 the income from their lease was devoted to the payment of Wheate's, Stone's, and Gayer's charities. The income rose from £18 in 1628, to £22 in 1675, £30 in 1715, £40 in 1750, and £245 in 1833.
(fn. 98) The great tithes were commuted in 1847 for £228; those on Troughton's and Lamb's farms were then said to have been merged. This sum was in respect of tithes of corn, grass, hay, wood, wool, and lambs; a sum of £1 12s. 6d. was to be paid to the Vicar of St. Michael's for small tithes.
There was a full investigation into the methods of paying tithes in 1705, during a dispute between Humphrey Burton, the lessee, and a tenant.
(fn. 1) A difficult situation had arisen, in the partial clearance of Thievestake Wood, over the tithes of faggots and other wood, and the tithes of crops grown there Some of the tenants had been compounding for many years at a rate of 18d. in the £ of annual value for tithes, but there was no regular arrangement, and Burton's servants were still collecting some tithes in kind. In 1815 the inhabitants of Keresley led by John Burton established that when sums were being raised for the repair of St. Michael's, Keresley had anciently paid a fixed sum of 30s. and not a rate.
In the 1840s the Established Church was particularly concerned with the spiritual care of the Coventry citizens who were moving to country houses in Keresley and Coundon. Services began to be held in their houses, and especially at Keresley House which was the home of William Thickins (d. 1873), curate of Exhall, from 1828 to 1846, and first vicar or perpetual curate of Keresley.
(fn. 3) The decision, taken early in 1842, to build a church
(fn. 4) resulted eventually in the consecration of St. Thomas's Church in 1847 and the creation of the chapelry of Keresley-with-Coundon in the following year.
was included among the chapels attached to St. Michael's which were recognized as belonging to Coventry Priory in the 12th century.
(fn. 6) In 1222 Geoffrey de Langley obtained a licence from the chaplain of St. Michael's to found a chantry in his chapel at Pinley and further permission to have a chantry there was granted by the bishop and the Prior of Coventry in 1238.
(fn. 7) There is no later documentary evidence of the chapel's existence. The derelict building, said to have been standing near Aldermoor Lane south of Bigging in the 1860s, which has been identified as Pinley chapel was more likely to have been connected with Bigging in Stoke.
was also included, by its ancient name of 'Bisseley',
(fn. 9) in the 12th-century list of chapels belonging to Coventry Priory,
(fn. 10) but the only remains of chapel buildings which have been found in or near this area seem unlikely to be those of Bisseley or Shortley chapel.
For the 12th-century chapel at SPON which was then attached to St. Michael's,
(fn. 12) see pp. 135, 332.
There is no medieval reference, after the 12th century,
(fn. 13) to a chapel at WHITLEY, and there is no reference to one in the description of the priory's rectorial income from the estate in 1410-11.
(fn. 14) The great tithes, with those of St. Michael's, came into the hands of the corporation after the Dissolution, and the small tithes remained in the hands of the Vicar of St. Michael's until 1846.
An 'old chapel' mentioned by Dugdale as still existing in his day
(fn. 16) was probably a private chapel attached to the manor-house. In the 19th century there was an unreliable tradition that the site of this chapel was then occupied by the stables of Whitley Abbey.
The chapel of ST. MARY, standing in the graveyard attached to the cathedral church, was included among the chapels belonging to St. Michael's that were confirmed to Coventry Priory in 1183-4.
(fn. 18) It was later known also as the chapel of St. Mary de Monte, the capella super montem, or the 'chapel on the hill'. It is probable that St. Mary's Guild used this chapel since the Trinity Guild was responsible for its upkeep in the 15th and 16th centuries. The guild, in the last of its ordinances, directed that the chapel gates should be kept open during the hours of certain services in St. Michael's, but otherwise nothing is known of its relationship with the parish church. The chapel was still being used, for a burial, in 1532-3 and was last referred to in 1538-9.
ST. MICHAEL, Stoke.
(fn. 20) A chapel was in existence at Stoke in the early 12th century when it was listed among the chapelries restored to Coventry Priory by the Earl of Chester.
(fn. 21) An agreement between Coventry Priory and Combe Abbey in 1253 was made in Stoke chapel.
(fn. 22) The chapel was appropriated to Coventry Priory in 1259.
In 1410-11 the chapel was called 'the chapel of the hamlets of Stoke and Bigging'. The priory was then to ensure, by ancient custom, that services were held on three days each week, but the absence of references to a chaplain at that time suggests that the chapel was served from Coventry. It was said that people from Binley, probably only the priory's tenants there, were accustomed to attend the chapel, but there is no other evidence that they did so. The only income then mentioned was 8s. 8d. from the rent of the glebe land, except Parsonsmeadow which was kept in hand. Tithes were mentioned only in passing,
(fn. 24) and were presumably collected directly by the officers of the priory.
In 1535 the priory's steward was receiving £4 16s. from the tithes of Stoke and Wyken. There was then a chaplain of Stoke, Thomas Perte, receiving a salary worth, together with the church dues, £5 12s. annually; he was also receiving 8s. as keeper of a chantry at Holy Trinity.
(fn. 25) In 1545 there was a chaplain, also called a vicar, William Henryson or Harrison, who received £2 annually.
(fn. 26) The tithes, which had been leased (with those of Wyken) to Thomas Trye in 1538,
(fn. 27) were granted in 1553 to John Wright and Thomas Holmes,
(fn. 28) while the right of presentation remained with the Crown. It is exercised on the Crown's behalf by the Lord Chancellor.
(fn. 29) A full list of chaplains or vicars begins in 1598.
(fn. 30) About 1593 both the chaplain, then called a curate, and the living were said to be inadequate.
(fn. 31) A church house, with land appertaining to it, was first mentioned in 1605.
(fn. 32) In 1612 the living was worth £5, in addition to two sums, 13s. 4d., the rent of the house then called the rectory with a quarter virgate, and £1, the rent of another house.
(fn. 33) In 1616 Coventry corporation gave part of a rent in Stoke for the repair of the church there.
A complex dispute about the great tithes, then worth £30 a year, began in 1636 and lasted at least until 1657; it was between the owners, the Smith family and others, the lessee, Abraham Boune, and the sublessees, Henry Horne and Christopher Randle, farmers in the parish. In the course of the dispute Randle, 'a passionate old man', had attacked a man sent by the owners to prevent him collecting the tithes.
On the arrival of a new vicar, Richard Adrian, in 1669, a new dispute began, primarily about the small tithes, but also involving the status of the church Adrian described how he had been presented by the Lord Chancellor, instituted by the Bishop of Lichfield, and inducted by the Vicar of St. Michael's, and he claimed that at his presentation he was told that the church had been a chapel of ease until the reign of Henry VII, a parochial church thereafter, and presentative since the reign of Elizabeth. On Adrian's arrival his income had been discussed at a parish meeting. Two-thirds of those present had agreed to pay sums in lieu of small tithes, but the others had been in favour of a permanent arrangement, presumably the investment of a lump sum. After the meeting, only those who had agreed in fact paid for their small tithes. The others refused, excusing themselves with arguments about whether all the parish was titheable and what exactly were great and small tithes; when evidence was heard in 1689, however, the witnesses in general said that only the land of the impropriator himself was free of tithes, and the great tithes were grain and hay.
In 1698 and 1701 the total value of the living was not stated; the rents, worth £1 8s. 4d., including £1 for the vicarage, a building of two bays, and £1 5s. interest from a sum of £25, were spent by the churchwarden on repairs to the church. Otherwise, the vicar was said to have the church dues and a rate of 3d. in the £ on the parish in lieu of small tithes.
(fn. 37) By his will dated 1715 Christopher Horne gave nearly 23 acres of glebe land to the incumbent.
(fn. 38) In 1730 the vicar was receiving £15 annually from the impropriator out of the great tithes, a shilling rate from the other occupiers in the parish for small tithes, and another £1 annually, probably from a sum invested.
(fn. 39) The £15 a year was still being paid in 1765 and 1775 out of the tithes of corn and hay, together with a composition of £6 for small tithes.
(fn. 40) The annual value of the living was £80 in 1778 and again in 1830.
(fn. 41) The tithes were commuted by an award of 1840.
(fn. 42) The gross income of £198 in 1886 was made up primarily of commuted tithes, which amounted to nearly £100, and the rent of £85 from the glebe which was then reckoned at just over 23 acres.
(fn. 43) The income was £200 in 1911, £400 in 1929, and £750 in 1946.
From 1669 to 1778 the livings of Stoke and Sowe were regularly held by one vicar.
(fn. 45) In 1701 Coventry corporation (presumably as rector of St. Michael's) wrote to thank Lord Archer for procuring the two livings for their nominee.
(fn. 46) The list of curates begins in 1763; from time to time they are described as curates of both Stoke and Sowe.
(fn. 47) In 1778 the two benefices were formally united, and so remained until 1884.
(fn. 48) Some indication of the temper of the parishioners at this time is given by the events on the arrival at Sowe of the new vicar, F. D. Perkins, in 1817
(fn. 49) at the time of the 'Stoke Wake' in October which was then still kept as a riotous holiday. Perkins himself was the first of a new type of clergyman which was to characterize the 19th century: he made additions and alterations to the fabric of the church and was active in local affairs in the parish, in Coventry, and in Foleshill Union. He also took a leading part in organizing a petition within the Archdeaconry of Coventry against the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts.
(fn. 50) A Sunday school was opened at Stoke in 1818, partly as a reaction to the building of the Independent Sunday school in 1813. It was first held for a time in Biggin Hall, before being transferred to two rooms in the parish workhouse. In 1839 it was moved to the building formerly occupied by the National school.
After Perkins's death, the new vicar, Robert Arrowsmith, made further extensive alterations and repairs to the church which had been reported to be in poor condition in 1844.
(fn. 52) Although the Stoke vicarage building was disused and let as glebe land, and the vicars were living at Sowe,
(fn. 53) Arrowsmith insisted that a curate should live in Stoke. In 1866 he and the parishioners agreed that the parishes should be disunited when a vacancy occurred, and for at least part of his ministry there were curates at both Stoke and Sowe.
(fn. 54) Arrowsmith, like Perkins, was active in public affairs. The Education Act of 1870 aroused strong feelings. Arrowsmith opposed the Act and its implementation, though most of the parishioners and the National School Committee welcomed it. He agreed to serve on the school board, but after a difficult period of office he resigned in 1878. He left his curate, Charles Paterson, to carry on the fight for the church's interests, and Paterson's hostility led to the resignation of the clerk to the board in 1883.
On the resignation of Arrowsmith in 1884, the benefices of Stoke and Sowe were divided, and T. A. Blyth became the first Vicar of Stoke alone since the 17th century. Blyth was a scholar and a prolific author on a wide range of subjects, and in 1897 he published a discursive history of the parish. J. B. Twist, the prominent Coventry solicitor who died in 1885, left £250 for the building of a vicarage in Stoke,
(fn. 56) and a house in the Gothic style was completed in 1894.
(fn. 57) The church was also restored at this period
(fn. 58) and the Brays Lane Parish Hall was built in 1908 to replace the National Sunday school.
In 1913 part of Stoke parish was assigned to St. Margaret, Walsgrave Road, then recently built as a chapel of Stoke.
A mission church, St. Chad, Upper Stoke, a redbrick building with a red-sandstone porch, was begun in Stratford Road in 1915.
(fn. 61) The mission was transferred to Wyken as the result of a change in the boundaries of the ecclesiastical parishes made in 1924
(fn. 62) and was replaced in the same year by the building of the mission church of St. Andrew, Copsewood, off Binley Road. St. Andrew's was enlarged in 1949
(fn. 63) and the name changed in 1962 to St. Michael's Hall. It is also used as a Sunday school and parish hall.
(fn. 64) St. Catherine, Stoke Aldermoor, a hall church in the Pondfield, was transferred from St. Anne's parish to that of Stoke in a boundary alteration of 1959.
(fn. 65) The building was being enlarged in 1964.
The parish church of ST. MICHAEL stands in its graveyard on rising ground to the north of Walsgrave Road. It consists of an aisled nave, a chancel flanked by organ chamber and north chapel, north vestries, south porch, and west tower. The tower, the three western bays of the nave, and the corresponding bays of the south aisle, represent the only medieval work in the church; there are no visible remains of the 12th-century building.
The three bays at the west end of the south aisle are built of grey sandstone with red sandstone dressings and date from the 14th century. From at least the 18th century, and probably earlier, this was known as Home's aisle
(fn. 66) and this fact has led to the belief that it was built by a member of the Home family
(fn. 67) whose connexion with Stoke is first mentioned in the 16th century.
(fn. 68) The architectural evidence does not, however, confirm this dating. To the east of the south doorway is a three-light window containing reticulated tracery, typical of the mid 14th century; the other windows have interlacing tracery of the same period. The pointed arch of the south doorway has large headstops internally and the corbels which supported the original roof are still in position. The three westernmost bays of the nave are probably also of the 14th century, but have been much restored. The arcade between nave and aisle consists of pointed arches supported on octagonal piers. The tower, of grey sandstone ashlar, has diagonal buttresses and rises in three stages to an embattled parapet. The interlacing tracery in the west window of the lowest stage suggests that the building of the tower was begun in the 14th century. The windows of the belfry stage, however, are characteristic of the following century.
The first extant reference to alterations in the church concerns the removal of a gallery in 1734.
(fn. 69) An organ was acquired and set in a gallery at the west end of the church in 1819, soon after the arrival of F. D. Perkins as vicar. In 1822 a brick-built north aisle of three bays was erected and a vestry was built on the north side of the chancel.
(fn. 70) By 1829 the accommodation had been further increased by 114 sittings.
A major eastward extension of the church took place in 1860-1 during the incumbency of Robert Arrowsmith; the architect was James Murray. The existing small chancel and north vestry were demolished, the nave and aisles were all enlarged by two bays, and a new chancel was built. This work was carried out in stone in the style of the 14th century, the buttresses and windows of the original south aisle being copied in its eastward extension. The design of the existing nave arcade was also reproduced. Also in the 1860s the organ gallery was removed, the base of the tower was converted into a vestry, and the whole church was re-pewed and re-roofed.
(fn. 72) The building was extensively repaired and restored in 1894-5.
(fn. 73) Further improvements made in the early 20th century included the construction of a stone screen at the west end of the nave.
A new south porch, of stone and timber, was built as a war memorial in 1931.
(fn. 75) This replaced an earlier porch of unknown date.
(fn. 76) In 1929 clergy and choir vestries were added on the north side of the church.
(fn. 77) After the Second World War, during which the building had been shaken by bombing, the foundations were strengthened and alterations were made to the east end. These included the addition of a north chapel and a south organ chamber in 1952.
The octagonal stone font is of the 14th or 15th century, and a carved piscina of about the same date has been re-set in the chancel. Some fragments of armorial glass were assembled in the west window of the tower during the extensions of 1860-1.
(fn. 79) The church contains a Jacobean chair and chest, and a painted Royal Arms of 1820. The present organ, on the south side of the chancel, was presented in 1956.
(fn. 80) Mural tablets, mostly re-set, include those to Mary Harwar (d. 1719), Ann Brockhurst (d. 1760), Charles Newcombes (d. 1815), and Canon T. A. Blyth (d. 1913).
Up to 1902 there were three bells only, which at that date were never rung, owing to the decay of the woodwork; two (no. 6 and the former no. 2) were by John de Colsale and of early-15th-century date, and one (no. 4) of 1624 by Hugh Watts. In 1902 new fittings and framework were installed, no. 2 was recast, and nos. 3, 5, and 7 added as the gift of Joshua Perkins, who also gave a new treble and tenor in 1905. All the new bells were the work of John Taylor and Co. of Loughborough.
(fn. 82) The ancient plate consisted of a large chalice and paten of uncertain date and a smaller chalice inscribed 1675. These vessels were replaced in 1882 by a silver set which was presented by Edward Ralphs.
(fn. 83) Registers survive from 1573 and are largely complete, apart from a gap between 1649 and 1672.
The remains of several medieval buildings, presumed to have been chapels, have been found in Stoke. Derelict farm buildings were said to have stood at the north end of Aldermoor Lane in the 1860s. Within an enclosure were the remains of two buildings, a two-storied, 16th-century house and a cottage with a barn attached; the barn apparently included walls of a medieval structure with two round-headed windows and what were thought to be traces of a piscina and a priest's door. The building seems to have been demolished by 1869. It was assumed to be the medieval Pinley chapel and was marked as such by the Ordnance Survey.
(fn. 85) It is unlikely, however, that the attendance of residents in Pinley at a chapel in Stoke would have been unremarked in the records of St. Michael's parish, of which Pinley has always been part, but no such reference has been found. The building may more probably have been a chapel connected with the hamlet or manor-house of Bigging or with some other farm-house.
In the early 20th century during the construction of the Harefield building estate another building was found in St. Osburg's Road, just off Walsgrave Road. It was described as orientated east-west, and as including an apparently Norman capital and remains of early-13th-century work. It was then presumed to be the medieval Bisseley or Shortley
(fn. 87) chapel, but this seems unlikely. It would have lain a quarter of a mile inside the ancient parish of Stoke, whereas Shortley formed part of St. Michael's parish, and as the chapel would have been only 500 yards from Stoke church on the east it is not clear what its function on this site could have been. It is possible that one or other of these buildings had been merely a substantial medieval farm-house.
The chapel of St. Chad of Stoke was mentioned in two deeds of about 1250 and 1300 which between them provided for the maintenance there of a chantry, the yearly obit of Rose, widow of Thomas de Ardern, and a light before St. Mary's altar.
(fn. 88) This chapel was assumed by George Eld, the 19thcentury antiquary, to have been the same as the present parish church which seems to have been dedicated to St. Michael
(fn. 89) for most of its history. It is possible that the 12th-century chapel, which was superseded by the present church building in the 14th century, was originally dedicated to St. Chad, but nothing is subsequently recorded of the upkeep of the chantry, the obit, or the light in St. Michael's, and there is, as already indicated, enough evidence for the existence of several other medieval chapels in Stoke to suggest that St. Chad's may have been one of them.
In 1410-11 a piece of land in Shortcroft was described as lying next to the chapel of St. Anne.
(fn. 90) This chapel may have been one of the buildings mentioned above, but is more likely to have been the chapel or hermitage of St. Anne in Shortley.
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This time of year you see lots of spring green at Brunswick Crossing! Not only do we have almost 100 acres of beautiful, mostly wooded, conservation area in our community, we continue to plant thousands of trees and shrubs in the open areas, green space and forest conservation areas within Brunswick Crossing. Several varieties of trees and shrubs not only add to the beauty of the community, but serve as a means to be environmentally responsible and socially enriching. Brunswick Crossing development was fortunate to have a large forested area from the start. There are nearly one hundred acres of wooded stream valley and forest conservation area for all to enjoy complete with eight foot wide paved paths for hiking and biking.
Did you know that landscaping, especially with trees, can increase property values as much as 20%? And, one acre of forest absorbs six tons of carbon dioxide and produces four tons of oxygen? This is enough to meet the annual needs of eighteen people according to the USDA Forest Service. Did you also know that for every 10,000 miles driven in a vehicle that gets 20 mpg’s one must plant 15 trees to offset the CO2 production?
Tree reforestation promotes healthy communities. Studies show that contact with nature fosters positive mental health. Access to trails, green space, public gardens, and parks encourage activity and exercise. The Brunswick Crossing community has just under 100 acres of forest conservation that provides both aesthetic and recreational value, both of which are increasingly valued as our community experiences increasing density and our residents seek to raise their quality of life experiences.
A little bit of history about Forest Conservation:
Did you know when the first colonists arrived in Maryland in the early 1600′s, forests covered most of the State. Very little vegetation grew under the age old trees. Hardwoods predominated, and the forests contained extensive stands of oak and hickory. In western Maryland, endless waves of American chestnut and white pine covered the ridges of the Appalachians. Oak, walnut, poplar, locust, hickory and cucumber trees grew in the bottomlands.
The settlers regarded these forests as an obstacle to progress. They cleared the land of timber to grow their crops. Vast areas of forest were destroyed by burning or girdling. No effort was made to regenerate the depleted areas, and forest fires were frequent.
By the late 1800’s, the nation grew concerned about the abuse of its forest resources, and their protection and management became a politically popular issue.
Aware of the need for conserving Maryland’s forests, John and Robert Garrett of Baltimore offered 2,000 acres of woodland to the state in 1906. The bequest was contingent upon the organization of a state forestry department to manage the land.
As a direct result of the Garrett’s generous and farsighted gift, the legislature passed Maryland’s first forestry law. It dealt mainly with the control of the forest fires which made the practice of forestry financially impractical. Specifically the law called for the establishment of a State Board of Forestry, the appointment of a State Forester and the organization of a corps of local fire wardens. The law also provided for education of woodlot owners about better management and harvesting methods. The Forestry Board’s total operating budget in 1906 was $2,500.
Throughout the 1920′s and 1930′s, Maryland’s forestry program continued to stress protection of the resource. Federal-State fire control legislation and a “Keep Maryland Green” campaign strengthened this effort.
Maryland’s Forestry Conservancy District Act of 1943 was one of the most progressive forestry laws in the nation. The act stated, “It is…the policy of the State to encourage economic management and scientific development of its woodlands to maintain, conserve, and improve soil resources of the State to the end that an adequate source of forest products be preserved for the people…where such interests can be served through cooperative efforts of private forest landowners, with the assistance of the State, it is to be the policy of the State to encourage, assist and guide private ownership in the management and fullest economic development of such privately owned forest lands.”
As a result of the legislation, scientific forestry principals were applied to all types of privately owned forest land in the State.
In the 1950′s and 1960′s more and more people began to visit Maryland’s forests. The general public, as well as professional foresters, recognized the fact that forests were valuable for reasons other than simply supplying timber.
The philosophy of multiple use management began to evolve, and the passage of federal legislation made it the cornerstone of forest management throughout the country. Management of Maryland’s state forests expanded to encompass outdoor recreation, wildlife, fish, and water, as well as fiber production.
The environmental movement of the 1970′s and the 1980′s produced a growing awareness of both the benefits and adverse effects of various forest management practices on the ecosystem. Managers began to coordinate their multiple use management practices more effectively with potential environmental, economic, and social impacts.
A system evolved for intensive long-range planning for forest service management. Now the Maryland Forest Service inventories and closely examines the supply and demand for all forest resources. More attention is given to collecting data and to planning programs, legislation and activities that involve the public in forestry affairs.
Our forests make a very direct and visible contribution to our economy. Every year, Maryland households spend over $454,000,000 on the many products produced from trees. Furniture alone accounts for $170,000,000. Wages and salaries of individuals involved in the manufacture of goods and services in the wood industry amount to $327,840,000 annually. Indirect business taxes add up to $21,314,000 each year. The pulpwood paper products industry alone employs 9300 people across the State.
At this volume, it would require the wood from two acres of our forest to build the average house.
In the next ten to twenty years, a large amount of sawtimber will be sold. The future of our trees and forests depends on sound forest management.
Brunswick Crossing invites everyone to hike the paths in our conservation forested area and walk our sidewalks enjoying the newly planted trees and landscapes throughout our community. Visit Frederick County’s most beautiful, green, planned community.
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CDC: Flu-Related Deaths Exceed Epidemic Levels
The CDC, which tracked the week of December 31 to January 5, reported widespread flu activity in 47 states. That means the number of flu cases are well above what is expected in a normal year.
Since the beginning of the season, 20 children have died as a result of the flu, the CDC reports.
Flu season is particularly bad this year due to a nasty strain of flu, called H3N2, that has not been seen in around nine years. As a result, our bodies have not built up the proper defenses against it.
The last time the H3N2 strain circulated was during the 2003-2004 flu season, which was also an early and severe flu year.
This flu surveillance map from the CDC gives you an idea of how widespread flu activity is.
Get Science Emails & Alerts
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A Tolbert Elementary student in Mrs. Stephanie Pearson’s second grade class gets an opportunity to use the school’s new Ipad to learn.
Tolbert Elementary School received an iPod touch, an iPad, a case, and an iTunes gift card. These items are used daily in the classroom in several ways. Students use this technology to practice math facts, and learn and practice math concepts. They are used during reading stations to read stories, play educational games, create stories, and practice spelling words. They are used as a reward for good behavior and earning Tribe Tickets, and as an extension activity for students who complete work early.
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Scorpionflies / Hangingflies
The name Mecoptera, derived from the Greek words "meco" meaning long and "ptera" meaning wings, refers to the shape of both the front and hind wings.
Classification & Distribution
- complete development (egg, larva, pupa, adult)
Distribution: Present worldwide, but seldom common. Most abundant in humid temperate and subtropical climates.North America
Worldwide Number of Families59 Number of Species68~500
Life History & Ecology
The Mecoptera (scorpionflies) are a curious group of terrestrial insects that usually live in moist sylvan habitats. Both larvae and adults are omnivorous. Mostly, they feed upon decaying vegetation and dead (or dying) insects. Larvae generally remain in the soil; they have chewing mouthparts and resemble caterpillars (Lepidoptera) or white grubs (Coleoptera). Most adults have an elongated head with slender, chewing mouthparts near the tip of a stout beak. Front and hind wings are similar in shape (occasionally reduced in size or absent), and often mottled with patches of color. The common name of this order (scorpionfly) refers to the distinctive appearance of male genitalia in members of the family Panorpidae: the terminal segments are enlarged and held recurved over the abdomen like the tail of a scorpion. Despite its appearance, the scorpionfly's tail is quite harmless.
Hanging scorpionflies, family Bittacidae, are predators of small flying insects. Their legs, especially the tarsi, are unusually long and slender. At the tip of each leg there is a single opposable claw. The adults hang from vegetation with their front legs and catch small flying insects with their middle and hind legs. These scorpionflies, which bear a striking resemblance to crane flies (Diptera: Tipulidae), may have developed from the same ancestral lineage that also give rise to the caddisflies (order Trichoptera) and the true flies (order Diptera).
- Body eruciform (caterpillar-like) or scarabaeiform (grub-like)
- Head capsule well-developed, with mandibulate mouthparts
- Abdomen usually has 8 pairs of prolegs
- Head elongate with slender mandibulate mouthparts
- Front and hind wings narrow, elongate, and similar in size; crossveins numerous. Some species are secondarily wingless.
- Tarsi 5-segmented
- Males of some species have enlarged external genitalia held recurved over the abdomen like a scorpion's tail.
None of the scorpionflies are considered pests. Most species are not abundant enough to have much of an environmental impact.
- Panorpidae (common scorpionflies) -- Scavengers
- Bittacidae (hanging scorpionflies) -- Long legged predators
- Snow scorpionflies (family Boreidae) are adapted to cold climatic conditions. They often live on the surface of ice or snow, and may die if exposed to the heat from a human hand.
- Some female scorpionflies will accept a male suitor only if he brings her a gift of prey. Males occasionally mimic females in order to get a free meal!
- Scorpionflies have been known to rob freshly caught prey from spider webs.
- Hanging scorpionflies are the only predatory insects that catch prey with their hind legs.
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“In every life we have some trouble. But when you worry you make it double. Don’t worry, be happy. Don’t worry, be happy now.”
Ironically, after being played on the radio ad nauseam back in 1988, Bobby McFerrin’s song “Don’t Worry, Be Happy” likely made more than a few listeners a little angry.
However, almost a quarter of a century later, it appears as if the vast majority of Canadians are living their lives in tune with the sentiments expressed in McFerrin’s chart-topper.
The Ottawa-based Centre for the Study of Living Standards (CSLS) released a report earlier this week titled “Canadians are happy and getting happier: an overview of life satisfaction in Canada, 2003-2011.”
The word “happy” might be a bit of a misnomer in that the centre based its findings on how “satisfied” Canadians are with their lives. Is there a difference? The Canadian Oxford Dictionary defines happy as “feeling or showing pleasure or contentment.” One definition for satisfied is “contented or pleased with.” So, the two words can be interchangeable.
“The measure of life satisfaction used in this report is based on the perceptions and emotions of respondents, not the objective realities of life in Canada,” reads the report. “This is not a flaw as life satisfaction and happiness are based on subjective reactions to physical realities and one’s subjective evaluation of one’s life.”
The CSLS compiled data collected as part of Statistic Canada’s Canadian community health survey of 65,000 respondents, which found that 92.3 per cent of Canadians aged 12 and older are either “satisfied” or “very satisfied” with their lives in general.
And of all the provinces and territories, Nova Scotia boasts the highest average per cent of the population who claim to be satisfied or very satisfied, at 94.1 per cent.
What’s noteworthy about those figures is that about 10 per cent of Canadians live below the poverty line. That would indicate that even some people living in poverty are satisfied with their lives. Yet that anomaly might be explained by the fact that the community health survey excluded people living on reserves and other aboriginal settlements, and the “institutionalized” population.
According to the CSLS, its report has practical applications. For instance, the report found that life satisfaction is decreasing for those 45 and older, and at an even greater rate for those 65 and older. The CSLS argues that research is needed to explain that phenomenon, and that public policy might address it. Perhaps therein is an argument against the federal government’s plan to gradually raise the age of eligibility for Old Age Security from 65 to 67.
But is the report valuable beyond its practical applications? Sure. Because it puts things in perspective. It indicates that the vast majority of Canadians — when they step back from their everyday tribulations and look at the big picture — conclude that we’re a pretty lucky bunch.
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NAVIGATION: You are presently looking at Part 23.1
We begin a new chapter from Tom Lee's exploration of the First 500 Years of Christianity. At the end of the fourth century the Empire becomes permanently divided. Today's excerpt is principally concerned with looking at the input of John Chrysostom elected Bishop of Constantinople in 398.
Barbarians at the Gate, Predestination & Erotic Penitence. Part 23.1
The permanent division of the Empire...
After Emperor Theodosius' death in 395 the empire was again divided, and this time the division was permanent. The east went to his eighteen-year-old son Arcadius, and the western throne at Milan to his younger son Honorius, aged eleven. Spoilt and inept, as they grew older the brothers proved both unintelligent and incompetent. The task of running the empire fell to their regents. In the same year a boy was born who would become Attila, the Scourge of God. The son of Mundzuk, Attila traced his ancestry back through thirty-five generations to Schongar, the Bird-King, who ruled all flying things. Of mixed Mongol and Hun lineage he was born somewhere along the plains of the Danube and his name was the Hunic name for the great river. By age six he was reputed already a fearless and skilled horseman and hunter.
The full-scale German invasion of the west began on the death of Theodosius. Pressured by the inflow of Huns to the north and east of them, the Visigoths, under their great leader, Alaric the Bold, revolted against Roman containment and ravaged Macedonia and Greece, before sailing up the Adriatic Sea into Italy.
The only man who could save Italy was general Stilicho, the stately Vandal. Indeed the best generals and ministers of the empire, both east and west, were now Germans, as were the best soldiers in the legions. But Stilicho's hostility to the eastern empire affected his thinking. He arranged for the assassination of his eastern counterpart Rufinus, and was unwilling to deal firmly with Alaric, who showed his aggressive intentions by invading deep into Italy (401-3), leading the timid Emperor Honorius to move his capital from Milan to the coastal city Ravenna, which was protected by marshes on the landward side and was easy to escape from by sea.
Stilicho also ordered the burning of the remaining Sibylline Oracles, the prophecies attributed to those ancient soothsaying women who had predicted the future in fits of inspired madness, lest any be attached to his name and exploits. But from their ashes new ones arose, consulted seriously well into the Reformation.
In 398 John Chrysostom was elected bishop of Constantinople. A man of great faith, he had little tact, and his ascetic refusal to entertain lavishly offended the wealthy and the aristocrats, including other bishops who enjoyed the pomp of high office.
Although previous Church fathers had regarded marital sex as a grievous hazard, John conceded that, as long as a husband and wife rationed their embraces, wedded bliss need not be an insuperable obstacle to salvation. But he did castigate profligate monks, of whom there were apparently quite a number in the eastern capital, and roundly condemned members of the regular clergy who shared their homes with women of dubious character. His remark about his fellow bishops, that the number of them who might be saved was only a small proportion of those who would be damned, was hardly likely to earn him many friends.
The rancor of Chrysostom...
Homosexuality was so rampant among the clergy, Chrysostom complained, "Those very people who have been nourished by godly doctrine, who instruct others in what they ought and ought not to do, who have heard the Scriptures brought down from heaven, these do not consort with prostitutes as fearlessly as they do with young men." He also attacked lesbianism and read Paul's ambiguous language about women "changing the natural order" as an explicit reference to "women who abused women". Moreover, he assured his hearers "natural intercourse is more pleasurable than sodomy" — as if he knew.
The rancor of Chrysostom's oratory was not reserved for the rich and powerful and the sexually sinful. His pulpit wrath was poured out most notably on the Jews, for whom he bore a special hatred. In the eight sermons that he delivered in Antioch in 387, he denounced the Jews as "sensual, slippery, voluptuous, avaricious, and possessed by demons, harlots, and breakers of the Law". He condemned them as murderers of "the prophets, Christ, and God". The virulence of his attack is surprising even in an age when rhetorical denunciation was frequently indulged with complete abandon. The effects of his preaching had a baneful effect for centuries thereafter on the Jews, and enforced and encouraged homophobia.
Despite Emperor Constantine's injunction that pagan religion would never pollute his new capital at Constantinople, some pagan relics of ancient Byzantium survived, if only as decorations. The statue of Priapus, a hugely endowed fertility god of immemorial antiquity, gazed benignly on the vessels sailing into harbor. The triumphal arch that Theodosius built to his own glory was adorned with the exploits of the pagan heroes Prometheus and Hercules. In the senate house stood statues of Jupiter and Athena. When John Chrysostom preached hell-fire and destruction in the city, the building was destroyed by earthly fire, but the statues were amazingly preserved, considered by many a miraculous sign that the old gods still extended their protection.
John Chrysostom preached in the Goths' church in Constantinople, where they used their own language for Bible and liturgy, and he also sent missionaries to the Goths in the Crimea and north of the Black Sea.
The Eucharistic liturgy had been imbued by this time with such a deep reverence, because of the growing belief (not yet dogma) that Christ was truly physically present in the bread and the wine after the invocation of the Holy Spirit and the words of consecration, that John spoke of the Lord's Table as a place of "terror and shuddering." Some eastern churches were already celebrating this part of the rite behind a screen, away from the gaze of the vulgar.
Pope Siricius died at Rome in 399 to be succeeded for an uneventful two years by Anastasius I. He was succeeded in 401 by his son, Innocent I, who had been his deacon. The first year of Innocent's reign saw the last Christian martyrdom in Rome, if a suicidal act can be so characterized. The supposedly Christianized populace of the city still indulged its blood-lust by cheering on gladiators in mortal combat in the arena. In protest a Christian monk, Telemachus, leapt into the ring and tried to separate the combatants. The enraged spectators stoned him to death, but his desperate act led to legislation banning such bloody man-to-man butchery. The public slaughter of animals, however, continued for another hundred years.
NAVIGATION: You are presently looking at Part 23.1
IMAGE CREDITS: Clicking on the images in the body of the article will take you to the original source.
What are your thoughts on this commentary? You can contribute to the discussion in our forum.
©2009 Tom Lee (Star Concepts LLC) 15633 N. 17* Drive, Phoenix, AZ 85023-3409
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The Father William Most Collection
Crisis in Scripture Studies
To be exact, we should speak of one crisis following on the heels of another. And even though we intend to focus primarily on events since Vatican II, yet the roots for these things go back farther, and cannot be ignored.
We go back briefly to the sixth century B.C. Xenophanes of Colophon was worried about the immoral effects of the myths about Zeus -- reasonably so, for those who believed in Zeus. A teenager debating with himself about having sex could turn to the example of Zeus, and decide to imitate the greatest and best of the gods! So, he proposed to reinterpret the stories allegorically. Others too, such as Plato, feared the same thing. So there was a tendency to allegorical interpretation of texts.
In passing we might note that just as the more intellectual Greeks around 400, began to disbelieve the myths about the gods, so also did the Romans, though later, around 100 B.C. Then arose Marcus Terentius Varro, who led what we might call the great renewal of pagan theology - change the content, keep the outward form. St. Augustine scathingly attacked him in books 6 & 7 of City of God.
Jewish writers took up the same allegory even before Christ, to make Jewish dietary laws seem reasonable to gentiles. A shining example is Philo.
It was into such a world that the first Christian writers, even St. Paul, moved. The sort of schools to which St. Paul went often would take a text whose words could carry the desired meaning, and cite them as proof texts. When St. Paul does this, the meaning he gives the words is always something correct in itself, even if not the original sense, e.g., a major text of Habakkuk 2:4: "The just man will live by faith."
The Alexandrian school, where these tendencies to allegorizing were strong even in pagan literature, was the center for early Christian interpretation of Scripture. Origen is of course a great example, who went so far as to say that everything has a spiritual sense, but not everything has a literal sense (De principiis. 4. 3. 5) .
St. Augustine, worried by the Manichean attacks on the great men of the Old Testament, was ripe for allegory, which he found fully in the sermons of St. Ambrose, who as Augustine tells us, cited 2 Cor 3:6: "The letter kills, but the spirit gives life," totally without regard to original context, and made it mean that a literal reading of some things in Scripture can be deadly, e.g., the story of the deception practiced by Jacob to get his Father's blessing. But, said Ambrose, the spiritual interpretation is life-giving.
This bore bitter fruit when Augustine turned to the imagery of the potter and his clay in Romans 9. He thought the gob of clay on the table was the whole human race, made into a massa damnata et damnabilis by original sin. God could throw the whole damned gob into hell without waiting for any individual sins. But He wanted to display mercy and justice, Augustine thought. To display mercy, He would rescue a small percent from the massa. The rest He would desert, to their eternal ruin. Only a small percent were to be picked for salvation, and blindly, without looking at their lives, to show everyone should have gone to hell. In such a system God would not love anyone at all, not even those whom He would rescue, for to love is to will good to another for the other's sake. God would will good to some, but not for their sake - He would pick them blindly, would not really care about anyone.
The school of Antioch tried to go back to what the author really meant to say, but did not have nearly so many adherents, especially after The Second Council of Constantinople in 533 condemned a great exponent of that school, Theodore of Mopsuestia. The Council called him "wicked". He had anticipated the "Last Temptation", saying Christ had disorderly emotions. His school wanted to make Jesus very human.
Even where a scholar tried to find what the inspired author really meant to say, there was commonly a neglect of the context. This helped drag out the debates De auxiliis from 1597 to 1607 -- both sides were misusing Scripture at practically every turn. This neglect of context was not to be avoided by many Catholic scholars until our own times. And even now it is not entirely dead. In 1980 at a CBA convention in Duluth, after discussing various things in Scripture with another exegete present, I brought up the case of Gal 3:28: "In Christ there is neither male nor female." It was and is being used to support women's ordination. I pointed out the context of Galatians was justification by faith. In seeking it, it makes no difference if one is male or female. We may not extrapolate the non-difference to everything else. My companion was so angered at my saying that that he walked away, would not any longer speak to me. It so happened that CBQ not long before had published a report of a sort of task force on women's ordination, which made that same unfortunate appeal to Gal 3:28.
The real beginning of the modern historical critical method appeared with a Catholic priest, Richard Simon (1638 - 1712) . His proposals suggested the direction of supposing the Pentateuch was made up of four documents. The worst extreme here was that of Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918) . This tendency is by no means dead today. No less than John Paul II in his series of audiences on Genesis spoke of the JEPD theory with obvious favor, without however, meaning to impose it on the Church. (Cf. John Paul II, Original Unity of Man and Woman, Catechesis on the Book of Genesis, Boston, St. Paul Editions, 1981. It contains audiences from Sept 12, 1979 to Jan 2, 1980) .
Interestingly, many who are hardly conservative are now strongly rejecting the JEPD theory. Thus Joseph Blenkinsopp in his review of R. N. Whybray, The Making of the Pentateuch (JSOT Suppl. 5, Sheffield, 1987) wrote (CBQ, 1989, pp. 138-39) that the documentary hypothesis, "is in serious trouble, with no viable alternative yet in sight." Whybray has no difficulty in showing the fragility of many arguments used to support it the old theory. The criterion for telling one source from another "called for an unreasonable level of consistency within the sources... . the same consistency was not required of the redactors." A computer study done at the Technion Institute in Israel (Y. T. Radday and H. Shore, Genesis: An authorship Study in Computer-assisted Statistical Linguistics in Analecta Biblica 103, 1985) concluded there was only one author for all of Genesis.
Two currents that started early, and are still running are these: tendency to deny the supernatural, the tendency to fit everything into a mold suggested by Hegel.
A major influence in our time is still R. Bultmann - even though some scholars refuse to admit that influence. But J. Fitzmyer in his recent (1987) little book, Paul and His Theology, cites Bultmann about 15 times - not using the latter's errors, but still showing much respect to the king of eisegesis. Eisegesis is the opposite of exegesis. The latter tries to bring out what is really in the text - eisegesis reads things into the text. Bultmann, despairing of being able to know much for certain about Christ, said we had better make the Gospels mean the same as the foolish existentialism of M. Heidegger.
Strange to say, Bultmann had a pastoral purpose, and thought he was working against the wild excesses of Liberal exegesis. He proposed, inter alia, finding scientific criteria for discerning what was and was not genuine in the accounts about Jesus. So he proposed four criteria. Cardinal Ratzinger, in his 1988 lecture, "Biblical Interpretation in Crisis" (p. 8) said that while the form-critical work of Dibelius and Bultmann has been surpassed and even corrected, his "basic methodological approaches continue even today to determine the methods and procedures of modern exegesis."
An example of this sort of thing is found in a most influential work by John P. Meier, Professor of Scripture at C. U. A. The book is called A Marginal Jew - not much of a compliment for the Son of God! But the book has received most lavish interfaith praise, from Rabbis, Protestants, and Catholics. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, recently retired from CUA said that, "Meier asks all the right questions... and invariably comes out with the right answers." Rabbi Burton Visotzky said: "Careful, cautious and prudent, John Meier's work will for generations serve as the guide on the quest for the historical Jesus." Paul Achtemeier of Union Theological Seminary in Virginia said, "Meier has set a new standard against which all future studies of this kind will have to be measured."
Meier proposes first (p. 168) the, "criterion of embarrassment." It means that the Church would hardly have made up things that weakened its position. A "prime example is the baptism of the supposedly superior and sinless Jesus by his supposed inferior John the Baptist... ." Meier adds that the "radical" Fourth Evangelist... locked as he is in a struggle with latter-day disciples of the Baptist... takes the radical expedient of suppressing the baptism of Jesus... altogether."
We comment that John did not really "suppress" a loaded word - the baptism - he merely did not have occasion to use it.
Another example given by Meier (p. 170) is "the unedifying groan" of Jesus in saying, "My God, why have you forsaken me?" Which John replaces by a cry of triumph: "It is accomplished." To be fair, we add that in the next paragraph Meier says that form-critical studies of the Passion narratives show that the early form of these used OT Psalms.
Another criterion is that of discontinuity (p. 171) inherited directly from Bultmann. A thing may be true if it "cannot be derived either from Judaism at the time of Jesus or from the early Church after him." What a reduction! Jesus was a Jew, came fulfilling the OT prophecies, yet anything that is Jewish is open to suspicion! And again, if we believe He founded a Church, we must drop all that the early Church repeats.
Again, we give Meier credit for pointing out that if we used the same sort of criterion on Luther, little representative would be left.
Since we have scant data outside the Gospels, and since they are, "suffused with the Easter faith... and were written from forty to seventy years after the events," Meier thinks we cannot know much about Jesus. Actually, sources were abundant. We will outline them later.
But Meier continued: "... how can we tell what comes from Jesus or what was 'created' by the oral tradition of the early church." In at least 16 places Meier speaks of the "creativity" of the early community - no control by Apostles of course. And although Meier is so very demanding of proof for things in general, when he makes such repeated assertions of creativity, not once does he offer a shred of evidence for such creativity. We wonder: How creative would he think St. Ignatius of Antioch would be, who was eaten alive by the wild beasts in the arena about 107 A.D., after urging the Christians in Rome that in case they had influence, they should not get him off: he wanted to die for Christ. It would be good to take a copy of his letter to Rome to the zoo, and read it by the lions' den, and ask how creative a man can be in such a situation? This belief in creativity is inherited from the Form and Redaction critical work of Bultmann. Thus Bultmann had said that the "controversy dialogues" are,"creations of the Church" (History of the Synoptic Tradition 40, n. 2) . So again we need the criteria!
Did Jesus work miracles? Bultmann had said that one who has seen the electric light and the "wireless" can no longer believe in miracles (in Kerygma & Myth I. 5) . In fact, he said, if science cannot explain a cure, to consider it miraculous would be superstition - while if science can explain it, it would be all right to all it a miracle (in Kerygma & Myth I, 197, . 199) ! Meier is not outdone. He admits that the contemporaries of Jesus thought he worked miracles, but,"Whether what people thought happened actually did happen is obviously another question."
So, with scant sources, mostly late, and with a creative community, can we really know much about Jesus? Bultmann thought all we can be sure of it the dass. Meier is not far behind. We need to add that even though he does not go so far, yet Cardinal Ratzinger insists that it is impossible to escape subjectivity (p. 7) : "Pure objectivity is an absurd abstraction... interest itself is a requirement for the possibility of coming to know."- We notice the ambiguity of the word: "interest". For example, I have much interest in natural science, have had it for years, I read Science News weekly. But that interest does not make me biased about natural science.
All the reviewers that I have seen have said that Meier forgets we need faith. But to say that is to fall into the trap of fideism. Bultmann would be pleased. He wrote (KM 211) ."The man who wishes to believe... must realize that he has nothing in his hand on which to base his faith." He boasts that Luther had removed all security in the moral sphere, with his teaching on justification by faith - he, Bultmann, added that there is no basis for belief.
Not only Meier seems to favor such fideism. Thomas Hoffman, of Creighton University (in CBQ of July 1982, pp. 447-69) wrote that Scripture is so full of errors that to try to answer the charges is, "basically patching holes on a sinking ship." But on p. 467 Hoffman said if one has real faith he will not want such answers. That would be a search for security, "that is not only nonexistent but incompatible with total dependence upon the faith-covenant". For, he said, an inspired work is simply,"a writing in which they experience the power, truth, etc. of the spirit of Christ... ."
A major Protestant problem, which is genuine according to Meier's criterion of embarrassment, is the question of how to know which books really are inspired. In 1910 a Baptist professor, Gerald Birney Smith, gave a paper at the national Baptist convention, in which he reviewed all possible ways of determining which works are inspired. He rejected all of them, saying it could be done only if there were a providentially protected teaching body . Of course he denied that there is such a body. So poor Smith admitted, "Nothing is more noticeable than the gradual disappearance of that word 'infallible' from present-day theologies."
Incidentally, Smith reviewed and rejected the proposal of Calvin (Institutes 1. vii) :"The word will never gain credit in the hearts of men till it be confirmed by the internal testimony of the Spirit." The resemblance to Hoffman's proposal is obvious.
Smith's article appeared in The Biblical World 37, 1911, pp. 19-29. More recently, in 1937, the Lutheran Concordia publishing house presented Gerhard Maier, The End of the Historical Critical Method, ." in which we find (on pp. 61 and 63) "Only scripture itself can say in a binding way what authority it claims and has." So inspired Scripture is inspired because inspired Scripture says inspired Scripture is inspired!
Raymond E. Brown in many places, such as NJBC (p. 1169) , insists that Vatican II allows us to say that there are all kinds of errors in Scripture, in science, history and even in religion - only things needed for salvation are protected by inspiration. Hence he insists that Job 14. 13 ff raises the possibility of an after life, and then denies it. Brown said that if anyone tries to differ from this position of his, it is an "unmitigated disaster". He claims to found his view on a line in Vatican II, DV §11: "since all that the inspired authors or sacred writers assert should be regarded as asserted by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully and without error teach the truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to be confided to Sacred Scripture." Brown insists the underlined passage is restrictive, not descriptive, i.e., that it means to say only such things are inerrant. Brown points to the "prevoting debates", i.e., the day when Cardinal Koenig arose and gave a list of errors in Scripture. Sadly, a large number of bishops chimed in with him. Yet the Holy Spirit was at hand, and no trace of this idea is found in the final text of Vatican II. Most importantly, Brown ignores the fact that the Council itself gave several notes on the very passage, sending us to earlier pronouncements of the Church, including the statement of Vatican I that God Himself is the chief author of Scripture. Of course, Brown thinks he can get around it. He says there are two ways to look at Scripture. One is a priori, in which we say God is the author, and so error is possible. But there is also, he asserts, the a posteriori way:look at the text, see all the errors, decide there are errors.
The incredible thing is that today, now that we have new techniques for studying Scripture, not possessed by earlier scholars, even at the beginning of the 20th century, we have the means of answering countless claims of error, which earlier exegetes could not answer. Yet at this very point, those, like Brown, who are supposed to know these techniques, insist on saying the problems cannot be solved, that to try, e.g., to solve the problem of Job 14:23 - which is really easy -- is an "unmitigated disaster"!
As if for our consolation, if we do not know much, neither did Jesus, really a "marginal Jew". Brown (Jesus God and Man) accumulates NT text after text to show ignorance in Jesus. Yet, twice, on pp. 42 and 68) Brown admits that all his evidence is inconclusive. Why then not just believe the Church? Brown is not even sure Jesus knew much about the afterlife ( p. 56) : "We cannot assume that Jesus shared our own sophistication on some of these questions... how can we be sure that he knew it [heaven] was not above the clouds?" Jesus even had at least one superstition (St. Anthony's Messenger, May , 1971, pp. 47-48) in supposing demons inhabited desert places, while Paul thought they lived in the upper air." Care for the genre of the passages referred to ( Mt 12:43-45, where Jesus is giving a sort of parable, and Eph 2:2 in which Paul is using the language of his opponents to counter them) should show that there is no real problem, or at least, a consideration of the context. Again, we note: How odd that those who know so well the modern tools of research should leave them unused at times! Really, the use of the approach via literary genres, plus form and redaction criticism can solve a host of previously unsolvable problems about freedom from error in Scripture.
For good measure, we add that Meier spends page after page trying to show Jesus had four blood brothers, and at least 2 Sisters -- and yet asked an outsider, John, to take care of His Mother. Also Meier tells us that rabbinic tradition, starting with Philo, held that Moses after his first encounter with God, no longer had sex with his wife. What about Our Lady and Joseph!
(Other arguments of Meier can be met as easily) .
We have given a good sampling of some, not nearly all, of the worst results of the historical-critical method. Now we had better add that many Scripture scholars are abandoning that method for various other things. Thus Reginald H. Fuller, one of the leading form critics, today has said that the whole method is "bankrupt."
But enough of this chamber of horrors. Is there any way out? any salvation? We are so bold as to say loudly: yes, there is.
First of all, Vatican II is not at all responsible for the chaos. Quote the opposite. If its principles had been followed, these things would not have happened. However, before we can cite Vatican II, we must, logically, show that the Church does have a divine authority to teach. Sadly, the reviewers I have seen of Meier's book have merely said that we need faith. But that is like jumping up onto Cloud 9, with no basis for faith. Meier had proposed this situation: Let us lock up in a good library a group of Catholics, Protestants, and people of other denominations. They cannot get out until they can agree on some things about Jesus. What he offers is what he thinks they would come up with. They were not supposed to appeal to faith at all. And so we cannot do that either until we have shown by reason that faith is reasonable and even demanded.
Faith does have a place, but only after one has first, without the use of faith, shown that the Church does have a teaching commission from Christ. Can this be done? Emphatically yes, but we make so bold as to say that we need a somewhat different method of apologetics to do it. We will sketch it presently. ,
But first, we said there was one crisis on top of another. It is this: as we said, many major scholars are now saying the whole historical-critical method, which has reigned for two centuries, must be dropped. We mentioned specially Reginald. H. Fuller, one of the most prominent form critics, who says, as we reported, the method is "bankrupt" and should be supplemented with feedback from the believing community. Not a few others have joined him.
Really, the essential features of the historical critical method are not wrong, if only excesses are avoided - we will take that up shortly. But the practitioners were guilty of bad judgment long ago in not seeing the limitations of the method. Instead they built one house of cards on top of another, and in shocking cockiness called it "the assured results of science." Now they see the flimsiness, and overreact.
Not all scholars are giving up. But many are, and many are doing it more quietly. Some abandon historical-critical method by just shifting to other methods. Hence we can speak of a crisis on top of a crisis.
For a time there was a flurry with Semiotic studies - with meager results, sometimes skewed by a priori notions. Others are turning to psychological analysis or sociological analysis. These can be useful, but only as supplements, not as the whole method. Some are using it for the whole work now.
There is a considerable vogue now for Narrative Criticism, which involves much subjectivity. In this, one speaks not of the real author, e.g., Luke, but of the implied author, who is not a flesh and blood person, but just a literary entity to be found in the text. For example, if we read a sonnet of the real Shakespeare we do not understood the full person, Shakespeare, but just the feelings, values, concerns etc. that are expressed in the text. So one and the same real author might write a wide variety of different works, each having its own different implied author. Similarly we are not concerned with the actual readers of Luke but of the implied reader. Here is more subjectivity: the role of the implied reader may vary from one actual reader to another, since the reader and the text are indeterminate. Now when people become implied readers, to the extent that they fulfill the role the text presupposes, to that extent the actual reader makes a strong commitment to the act of reading and so comes to know himself more deeply: the act of reading may transform one's life. Reader-response critics say if one does not become as it were a slave of the ideology involved in the text and share it, one simply cannot read it. But only a believer can take the role of the implied reader of a given biblical text.
But further, in a narrative, such as Luke's Gospel, there is a narrator - who is the one who tells the story, which of course need not be Luke. The person and activity of the narrator may be the key to understanding the true nature and purpose of a particular implied text. There is also the narratee, the one to whom the narrator tells the story . Again, this narratee is different from the real reader and even from the implied reader.
Some narratees, in this view, are supposed to know nothing, to be almost idiots.
And there is more, but let this suffice for an example of the sort of thing that now develops if one has stopped trying to use the historical critical method.
What can we do positively to prove that the Catholic church has teaching authority from God? There will be two phases to our work:
We need a source for the truth about Jesus. What kind of a source? We must take care to avoid a vicious circle -- that would come if we said: Believe the Gospels because the Church says so; believe the Church because the Gospels say so."
But it is easy to avoid that vicious circle. We will start with the Gospels, but for some time we not look on them as inspired or sacred - that needs to be proved later. We will look on them as simply ancient documents.
What do we need then:
a) We need to see that the Gospels intend to give us the truth about Jesus, not just some imaginations. This is obvious, for the first Christians, as well as we, believe that their eternal fate depends on the truth about Jesus.
But there is an objection. Norman Perrin, famous Professor at University of Chicago, in Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (N. Y. 1967. , p. 26) wrote: "No ancient texts reflect the attitudes characteristic of the modern western world."- We wonder if Perrin ever actually read the ancient texts. Herodotus, earliest Greek historian, said in 7. 152: "... my duty is to report all that is said, but I am not obliged to believe it all alike - a remark which may be understood to apply to my whole History." He knew that the remote periods were very foggy, but did try with great care to get the facts on things of his own time. Thucydides in 1. 22: "I have not ventured to speak from any chance information... . I have described nothing but what I either saw myself, or learned from others from whom I made the most careful and specific inquiry." Polybius, another Greek historian, in 3. 59 said the historian is obliged, "To give his own first allegiance to the truth... and nothing but the truth." Livy, great Roman historian, on the problem of how the Lacus Curtius got its name (7. 6. 6) : "I would make every effort to find out the truth if there were a path that would lead me to it..." Modern historians say that the Roman Tacitus, around 100 A.D. should get an A for facts - they think he may have been hostile to some persons, e.g., Tiberius, but we can tell who.
The Gospel writers write in this current, and have much more reason to get at the truth. As we said, they knew their eternal fate depended on the truth about Jesus.
b) Could the Gospel writers get at the truth? Yes, in spite of the sloppy claims of Meier and others. Here are some of the sources for them: (1) Clement I was elected in 88 or 92. In his letter to Corinth, c. 95, he said that Peter and Paul were of his own generation. Peter and Paul died around 66 or 67. So Clement must have heard them preach in Rome. (2) St. Ignatius was Bishop of Antioch, where not long before Peter himself had been the bishop. And Paul had made Antioch his base of operations. So the facts would be well known there. Ignatius was eaten by animals in Rome c. 107. He wrote to the Roman Christians saying that if some had the influence to get him off, they should not use it. He wanted to die for Christ. Again, let those who charge creativity take his letter to the lion's den in the zoo, and read it there, asking: Did this man just make things up? (3) Quadratus, writing an apology c. 123, said in his day some were still alive who had been cured by Christ or raised by Him. That would easily cover 80-90, the period where the critics want to put Matthew and Luke. (4) Imagine a teenager at the time of the death of Christ, c. 30. Fifty years later he would be 65, and it would be 80 AD, when Mt. and Lk should have written. Not so many lived to 65 then, but many did.
c) It is said, "There is no such a thing as an uninterpreted report." Even Cardinal Ratzinger (p. 6) , said: "Pure objectivity is an absurd abstraction." We answered him above. Now we add: Yes, in so many things reports are interpreted by subjectivity. But there are some things of such simple structure that there is simply no room for subjective distortion, e.g., when the leper stood before Jesus asking to be healed, and He said: "I will it, be healed." Anyone present could report it, with no room for subjectivity.
Second Phase: Six points:
Here the sequence is of vital importance. Some apologists try to prove the divinity of Christ before proving the commission of the Church. The Arian experience shows how terribly difficult it is to work from Scripture alone on this.
We should notice too as we go along that these six points are all of such simple structure that they are not affected by the fear of subjectivity we have just answered.
(1) There was a man named Jesus. This is evident all over the Gospels. Besides, Tacitus, whom modern scholars consider highly accurate on facts (cf. Sir Ronald Syme, Tacitus, 2 vols. who has checked everything possible in Tacitus) wrote in Annals 15:44:
"The author of the name, Christ, was executed in the reign of Tiberius, by the procurator Pontius Pilate."
(2) He claimed he was sent by God as a sort of messenger. This is obvious all over the Gospels. He claimed authority over the sacred law (Mt 5:21-44) , said He was greater than Jonah and Solomon (Mt 12:42-43) , claimed He could forgive sins (Mark 2:1-12 and parallels) .
(3) He did enough to prove He was such, by means of miracles worked in contexts where there was a tie between the miracle and the claim. For example he cured the paralytic in Mk 2:1-12 to prove He had forgiven the man's sins. He often made such a connection, e.g., Mk 5:21-43; Mt 8: 5-13 and 9:27-29.
Foolishly, the New Jerome Biblical Commentary claims He never made such a claim (p. 1371) . It cites Mt 4:5-7 (refuses to work a miracle at suggestion of devil) ; Luke 23:6-12 (refused a miracle to please curiosity of Herod) ; Mk 8:11-13 (refuses the bad faith of Pharisees asking a sign, when they had seen so many) ; Mk 15:31-32 (enemies challenge Him to come down off the cross) . These claims are unworthy of any scholar.
Equally foolish is the claim that many, such as Apollonius of Tyana, were much the same. The slander comes from Hierocles governor of Bithynia in 307, who tried to make such a claim. But the differences are immense and obvious. He had a discussion on the breeds and intelligence of elephants (2:11-16) . In India he saw dragons about 60 feet long (3:7) , whose eyes contained mystic gems, so large if hollowed out they would hold enough drink for four men. He saw robot tripods that served meals (3:27) . He found source of Nile, where demons gathered: he was afraid of them and of the roar. Miracles were never done with a tie to the claim. In 6:27 he found a satyr annoying women, and quieted the satyr with wine. He met a woman who had a possessed son - the demon was the ghost of man who fell in battle. When his wife married in 3 days he was disgusted with women, became homosexual (after death!) over a 16 year old boy and possessed him. Met a woman who suffered in labor 7 times, told her husband whenever his wife was about to bring forth he must go to the room with a live rabbit, walk around her once, then release the rabbit and drive it out of the room - otherwise the womb would be expelled with the child: 3:39. Philostratus (8:29) said, "About the manner of his death, if he really did die, there are many stories." On alleged other parallels, cf. Laurence J. McGinley, "Hellenic Analogies and the typical Healing Narrative" in Theological Studies 4 (1943) 385-419.
Even the non-conservative NJBC on pp. 1320-21, admits that even in His own day, enemies did not deny His cures and exorcisms - might attribute them to devil or magic.
For those who deny possibility of any miracles, we point to scientifically checked cases: the miraculous host of Lanciano, which has had three checks by teams of Doctors and biologists, was found to be part of human heart, containing type AB blood, no preservative, while the clots of blood from the chalice are of same type, and are true human blood; the tilma of Guadalupe, with its picture unexplained by science, fresh after 450 years; the cures of Lourdes, e.g., the cure of Madame Biré, in 1908, who had atrophy of the papilla, was able to see even before the nerve recovered, after Blessed Sacrament passed in procession (this really implies the abiding Real Presence too, which no other church holds for) .
We add: since God's power is ultimate agent in miracles, He will not supply power to prove a lie.
(4) In the crowds, He had a smaller group to whom He spoke more, the Twelve. Really, this is just what we would expect. Nor did He intend His work to be for just one generation. That would be foolish. Many parables spoke of Him as the final judge, and He promised to be with them all days.
(5) He sent them out to preach, and told them to continue His work. This is only what we would expect.
(6) He told them that God would protect their teaching. Really, we would expect a messenger sent by God with so great a mission to provide for this. So He told them (Lk 10:16) :"He who hears you hears me; and he who rejects you, rejects me, and he who rejects me, rejects him who sent me." Similar statements come in Mt 18:17-18, plus Mt 16:19 and Mt 18:18, Mt 18;16-19, Jn 13:20.
Protestants object: He merely identified with the apostles as He did with the poor. We reply: Yes, but notice under what aspect: identifies with the poor as poor, with His teachers as His teachers.
Conclusion to the six points: What have we before us now? A group or church, commissioned to teach by one sent by God, and promised God's protection. Then we not only may, intellectually, but intellectually should believe what they tell us, and that in spite of the character of later recipients of the commission.
We can then ask this group many things: Are the ancient documents inspired? Yes. Is the messenger divine? Yes. Is there a Pope? Yes, and they will tell us what authority the Pope has. In this way we have no need to struggle against all the objections in Mt 16.
And we have also by this means a bypass around the worries of Meier and others. We need only the 6 simple facts for that. Then this group or Church can tell us whatever else we need to know about Jesus in the Gospels.
This may seem long and complex, but it is really very simple. As preliminary we notice that we can use the Gospels as merely ancient documents, we know the writers - we need not know their names - were intent on the truth about Jesus, for eternity depends on it. We know they had many sources to get at the facts, if they were not eyewitness themselves. We know that there are some thing so simple in structure that subjectivity cannot be injected. We then sought and found 6 points: There was a man Jesus who claimed He was sent by God, did enough to prove that by miracles in cases with a tie between the claim and the miracle. In the crowds He had a smaller circle, spoke more, told them to continue His work, promised God's protection.
Now the Church does not directly teach Scriptural method, except indirectly inasmuch as a wrong method would be harmful to faith. It does teach that God is the chief Author, and therefore there can be no error or clash between one part of Scripture and another (DV §12) : "Since Sacred Scripture is to be read and interpreted by the same Spirit by which it was written, to rightly draw out the sense of the sacred texts, we must look not less diligently to the content and unity of all of Scripture, taking into account the living Tradition of the whole Church and the analogy of faith." Therefore an interpretation that might be proposed which would clash even by implication with the teaching of other books, with the Tradition of the Church and basic teachings of the Church, is to be rejected out of hand.
Hence the proposal to see in Job 14:13 a denial of afterlife must be rejected, and it is not "unmitigated disaster" to reject it even if one would not know the how of explaining the fact. Again, even though we may note that one Evangelist has a different scope and method of presentation than another, this does not allow us to propose a clash, as Wilfrid Harrington did, who said that in Mk 3:20-35 Our Lady is surely part of the group mentioned in the first part, and so she did not believe in her Son, and therefore was (Mark, Glazier, 1979, pp. 47=-48) ,"outside the sphere of salvation." For Luke, and the Church, insist she already at the annunciation, (DV §56) ."embracing the will of God with full heart, held back by no sin, dedicated herself totally as the handmaid of the Lord to the person and work of her Son."
Pius XII in Divino afflante Spiritu, in 1943 positively encouraged the approach via literary genres. That approach was not forbidden before, as some charge. Rather, on June 23, 1905 the Biblical Commission was asked if we could hold that some books that seem historical are really something else. The reply was: yes, provided we have proof, and stay with the Church. Pius XII as we said positively encouraged this approach. But that is not teaching or legislation, it is pointing out what in the nature of things is needed. Vatican II, in DV § 12 pointed out that the truth can be expressed in various ways in various literary patterns or genres. For example, in a modern historical novel we find a mixture of history and fiction. The key word is assert. So DV §11 said: "Since everything which the inspired authors... assert should be considered as asserted by the Holy Spirit, hence the books of Scripture are to be professed as teaching firmly, faithfully, and without error the truth which God wanted entrusted to the Sacred Letters for the sake of our salvation."
There were other early decisions by the Commission, most of them having to do with authorship - which does not pertain to faith. We mention specially the decision that there was only one Isaiah. Really, the arguments given for three Isaiahs were never really convincing. Stylistic arguments are never conclusive. And the pattern of threats of punishment, exile, promise of restoration - this is merely the well-know Deuteronomic pattern. Why could not Isaiah use it?
Really it would not be faithful to the sacred text to read it as if written by a modern American. That would be to impose our ideas on the text. Rather, we must try to find what the sacred writer meant to say, what he asserted. If we do this, we find the answers to a whole host of problems of seeming errors which could not be answered without this help.
The Biblical Commission in 1964 spoke of Form and Redaction Criticism. It warned that in practice scholars often inject rationalism into it, denying the possibility of any real revelation, prophecy or miracle. But it said that if we avoid these things, we can find the method profitable. And indeed we can. We mention just one thing which the critics have overlooked. If we drop their totally unfounded claim that the early community was creative, we get the following three stages for the development of the Gospels: 1) The words and actions of Jesus, who would adapt His language to the current audience; 2) the way the Apostles and others preached these things, again, with adaptation to the current audience. So they might change the wording, but would be diligent to keep the sense; 3) Some individuals within the Church, moved by the Holy Spirit, wrote down some part of this basic preaching. This was the Gospels. Therefore the Church has something more basic than the Gospels, its own ongoing teaching. There are other services this method can give to the truth, as long as we work with care. Then we will not find it bankrupt.
So we need not wait a generation to learn sound Scriptural method. We already know. We see we can prove teaching authority of Church without a fideism that just jumps onto Cloud 9. Then we can let the Church settle points Meier and others worry over. And we can and should use approach via genres, plus at times Form & Redaction criticism, without going into the excesses of which the Church warned. So now we can really do solid work.
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Until recently, if you were one of the millions of people with a refractive error (which means that light rays do not focus precisely on the retina, causing you to be nearsighted, farsighted, or astigmatic), eyeglasses and contact lenses were the only options for correcting vision. But with the development of refractive surgery, some people today can have their vision corrected through refractive surgery.
Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) is one of several refractive surgery procedures used by ophthalmologists (Eye M.D.s) to permanently change the shape of the cornea to improve the way it focuses light on the retina.
PRK is an outpatient procedure performed with topical anesthetic eyedrops. It takes only about 15 minutes. The epithelium, the outer cell layer of the cornea, is removed with a blade, alcohol, or a laser. An excimer laser, which produces ultraviolet light and emits high-energy pulses, is used to remove a thin layer of corneal tissue. Your ophthalmologist guides the laser with a computer, and the laser beam sculpts the surface of the cornea. By breaking the bonds that hold the tissue molecules together, your cornea is reshaped, which corrects your refractive error and eliminates or reduces the need for eyeglasses or contact lenses. Because no incisions are made, the procedure does not weaken the structure of the cornea.
Immediately following surgery, the eye is patched or a “bandage” contact lens is placed on the eye. Vision is blurry for several days following PRK. It may take a month or longer to achieve your best vision. You may need to use medicated eyedrops for up to three months.
Possible complications of PRK surgery include undercorrection, overcorrection, poor night vision, and corneal scarring. Permanent vision loss is very rare. In recent studies monitored by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 95% of eyes were corrected to 20/40, the legal limit for driving without corrective lenses in most states.
To be a candidate for the procedure you must have a stable and appropriate refractive error, be free of eye disease, be at least 18 years old, and be willing to accept the potential risks, complications, and side effects of PRK.
© The American Academy of Ophthalmology, The Eye M.D. Association, the Academy logo, and Personal-Eyes are registered trademarks of the American Academy of Ophthalmology. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
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Originally created as a covering cherub and given great powers and beauty, the angel known as Satan the Devil became transformed into the Adversary through pride, leading him into rebellion against the government of God. From the angels first estate here on earth, he led one-third of his fellows to attack God in heaven, who cast them down to earth in defeat where they remain restrained to this day. As the god of this world and man's mortal enemy, Satan now uses his power and beauty to deceive all of mankind. He and his demons, though they have already been defeated and their fate is sealed, are doing all they can to frustrate God's purpose for man.
Ezekiel 28:14-17; Isaiah 14:12-15; Jude 6; II Peter 2:4; II Corinthians 4:4; Revelation 12:4, 9; Luke 22:31; Ephesians 6:12; Jude 13; Revelation 20:10;
Satan (Part 1)
Holy Days: Atonement
Did God Create a Devil?
Pride, Contention, and Unity
Basic Doctrines: Satan's Origin and Destiny
Stalked by Satan
The First Prophecy (Part One)
The Great Conspiracy
Should a Christian Play Devil's Advocate?
The Miracles of Jesus Christ: Two Demon-Possessed Men Healed (Part One)
The Miracles of Jesus Christ: Exorcism in the Synagogue
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Description: This tiny migrant is most often seen in wooded areas in very early in spring and late in fall.
One day in early spring, two dainty birds, just 4 inches long, wearing golden crowns on their heads, flitted below eye level among the still-bare branches at the English Walled Garden. Using their thin, tiny bills, they snatched the first of spring's emerging insects and larvae hidden in branches.
These Golden-crowned Kinglets seemed fairly tame as they searched for food, giving the observer a chance to see their bright golden heads, and even the red color atop the male's head he flares when excited.
Two kinds of kinglets migrate through the Garden in fall and spring — the ruby-crowned, which has a red crown, a white eye ring and two white wing bars; and the golden-crown, which has a white eyebrow and a black border around its golden crown.
The heartier Golden-crowned Kinglet arrives ahead of the ruby-crowned in spring and leaves later in fall. A few may spend winters in Illinois, seeking the company of chickadees, brown creepers, and woodpeckers, skilled at finding food in the colder months. Golden-crowned Kinglets eats insect eggs and adults, including aphids and bark beetles, which they find in twigs, bark, evergreens, and bushes.
Sometimes you'll see them in deep woodlands, other times in backyard gardens. They seem playful and lively as they grab flying insects or larvae hidden in a branch's nook. They'll snatch food right side up and upside down.
Golden-crowned Kinglets once nested only in the boreal forests of North America, but they have expanded their breeding range southward and have even been documented occasionally nesting in northern Illinois. They may spend winter as far south as northern Mexico, but many remain in the United States year-round.
April and October are prime months for seeing Golden-crowned Kinglets at the Garden. When walking past conifers where they often feed, listen for four soft, high-pitched notes, and see if you can find one of these avian gems.
Golden-crowned Kinglets keep warm during cold winter nights by snuggling. That's what well-renowned author and scientist Berndt Heinrich discovered when he studied kinglets to see if, as speculated, they slept in squirrel's nests at night in winter. He found no evidence of that; instead he discovered something else more intriguing — groups of kinglets huddling tightly together throughout the night in a spruce tree. They had their tails turned outward and their heads tucked into their feathers, appearing almost as if they were one larger bird. Big birds have a lower surface area to body size ratio and can maintain heat better than a small bird. So the key for a kinglet to keep warm is to cuddle.
- enjoy your visit
- at the garden
- your garden
- support us
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A Convention of Compromise: 1860
Lincoln in 1860 in Springfield.
In May 1860, Republican delegates flooded into Chicago's "Wigwam" for their second national convention. The Democratic Party had split over the issue of whether slavery should be extended into the territories, increasing the Republicans' chances of winning the general election.
New York senator William H. Seward was the favorite going into the convention. On the eve of the presidential balloting, however, the campaign staff of Abraham Lincoln, as well as some members of the Illinois delegation, bartered with key delegation leaders to secure Lincoln's nomination. Chicago mayor John Wentworth packed the galleries of the convention with Lincoln supporters while Seward's backers were absent for a parade. The cheers from the gallery helped convince the delegates of Lincoln's strong support.
These tactics paid off on the third ballot when the convention unanimously nominated Lincoln for president. Sen. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was voted in as the vice presidential nominee. Lincoln supporters then traveled to Springfield, where the candidate had waited throughout the convention, to formally notify him of his nomination.
Al Capone - Chicago Black Sox - A Century of Progress - Chicago Fire
The World's Columbian Exposition - Parades, Protests and Politics
The Pullman Era - The Stockyards
Fort Dearborn (Coming Soon!)
Back to the Chicago Historical Society Home Page
Copyright © 1999 by the Chicago Historical Society
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Molecule of the Month
Diamond has been prized for centuries as a gemstone of exceptional brilliance and lustre. But to a scientist diamond is interesting for its range of exceptional and extreme properties. When compared
to almost any other material, diamond almost always comes out on top. As well as being the hardest known material, it is also the least compressible, and the stiffest material, th
e best thermal conductor with an extremely low thermal expansion, chemically inert to most acids and alkalis, transparent from the deep uv through the visible to the far infrared, and is one of the few materials known with a negative electron affinity (or work function).
| Diamond lattice || Graphite lattice |
You'll need a Java-aware browser for these images to work properly. If you haven't got one, please view the HTML-only page, the Chime-enhanced page, or go to the main MOTM page to find out more details.
Diamond and Graphite
Diamond is composed of the single element carbon, and it is the arrangement of the C atoms in the lattice that give diamond its amazing properties. Compare the structure of diamond and graphite, both composed of just carbon. In diamond we have the hardest known material, in graphite we have one of the softest, simply by rearranging the way the atoms are bonded together.
The relationship between diamond and graphite is a thermodynamic and kinetic one, as can be seen in the phase diagram for carbon. At normal temperatures and pressures, graphite is only a few eV more stable than diamond, and the
fact that diamond exists at all is due to the very large activation barrier for conversion between the two. There is no easy mechanism to convert between the two and so interconversion requires almost as much energy as destroying the entire lattice and rebuilding it. Once diamond is formed, therefore, it cannot reconvert back to graphite because the barrier is too high. So diamond is said to be metastable, since it is kinetically stable, not thermodynamically stable. Diamond is created deep underground under conditions of extreme pressure and temperature. Under these conditions diamond is actually the more stable of the two forms of carbon, and so over a period of millions of years carbonaceous deposits slowly crystallise into single crystal diamond gemstones.
Natural diamonds are classified by the type and level of impurities found within them.
- Type Ia diamond - Most natural diamonds are of this type, which contain up to 0.3% nitrogen.
- Type Ib diamond - Very rare (~0.1%) in nature, but almost all synthetic (industrial) diamonds are of this type. They contain nitrogen at concentrations of up to 500 ppm.
- Type IIa diamond - Very rare in nature, these diamonds contain so little nitrogen that it can't be easily detected by the usual IR or UV absorption measurements.
- Type IIb diamond - Extremely rare in nature. These have such a low concentration of nitrogen (even lower than type IIa) that the crystal is a p-type semiconductor (due to uncompensated B acceptor impurities).
Synthetic Industrial Diamond
These have been made since the early 1950's, by a process called High Pressure High Temperature synthesis (HPHT). This is an attempt to mimic the conditions under which natural diamond forms deep in the earth. Graphite is put into a huge hydraulic press at high temperatures and pressures, and with the addition of a metallic catalyst, converts to diamond over a period of a few hours. The diamond crystals that are produced by this method are typically a few mm in size, which are too flawed for use as gemstones, but are extremely useful as hard-wearing edges on cutting tools and drill-bits.
Thin Film Diamond
This is a relatively recent development (past 10 years or so), which allows thin films (µm to mm) of polycrystalline diamond to be deposited onto a range of materials, using a technique called Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
. This is creating a great deal of excitement in the academic community, since for the first time we have access to all the superlative properties of diamond in a form that is useful for engineering applications. We can imagine hard-wearing diamond coatings on machine parts, diamond windows, diamond electronics, diamond displays, diamond fibre reinforcements, and a whole host of other applications. A review of the recent developments in this area can be found here.
A CVD polycrystalline diamond film.
- J.E. Field, The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond, Academic Press, London, 1992.
- F.P. Bundy, The P,T Phase and Reaction diagram for elemental Carbon, 1979; J. Geophys. Res. 85 (B12) (1980) 6930.
- Acknowledgments to Cambridge Crystallographic Database at the Daresbury CDS for supplying the crystal structures of diamond and graphite.
University of Bristol, School of Chemistry.
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Eight-eyed robot blasts off for Mars
By Richard Stenger
Delta 2 rocket lifts off from Cape Canaveral, carrying a Mars-bound robotic rover.
(CNN) -- A NASA robot packed with eight cameras, geology instruments and super-rugged wheels roared into space on Tuesday, one of three missions headed to Mars this summer during the most favorable cosmic conditions in centuries.
The rover, named Spirit, launched atop a Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, following two days of rain delays. An identical twin, named Opportunity, is scheduled to lift off the last week of June.
"Finally, the Spirit has left the nest and is heading to Mars," said Orlando Figueroa, NASA's Mars exploration program director.
The droids, which together cost $800 million, are expected to land on opposite sides of Mars in January.
Their geologic studies, scheduled to last three months, are designed to find physical evidence of water activity on Mars from billions of years ago, when the planet was thought to have been wetter and warmer -- and possibly inhabited by microbes.
"That's where we believe the records of life will be read," said James Garvin, NASA's chief Mars scientist.
Mars pull too strong for droid armada
Like surfers who have been waiting for the big wave, the spacecraft are riding to the red planet as Mars and Earth make their nearest pass to each other since prehistoric times.
As they orbit the sun, the two planets come into proximity every 26 months, offering ideal opportunities to launch Martian missions.
But during the alignment this summer, they will pass within 34.7 million miles (55.8 million kilometers), thought to be the closest encounter since Cro-Magnon man ruled the Earth.
"Mars is closer to the Earth than it has been in 73,000 years. I find that an amazing number," said Nagin Cox, an engineer at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Pasadena, California. Cox and JPL colleagues are working with the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
A closer approach won't take place until 2287, according to Sky & Telescope Magazine.
The rare alignment is an engineer's dream. It shaves months off the cruise to Mars. Normally such trips take 10 to 12 months, but these two missions need only seven months, according to NASA.
Since the planets are closer, the communications link between the rovers and Earth will be shorter, allowing faster transmissions back home.
The Mars Exploration Rovers are designed to function as roaming mechanical geologists.
"We're close enough and the geometry works out that we have an excellent data return. So that means we can bring more pictures, more information about Mars back to the people of Earth," said Cox.
Moreover, NASA is sending larger payloads than during other alignments in 2001 or 2005.
The individual rovers weigh 384 pounds (173 kilograms), about four times that of NASA's Pathfinder lander in 1997. Each rover is 4 feet 9 inches high (1.5 meters), 7.5 feet wide (2.3 meters) and 5.2 feet long (1.6 meters)
The alignment also attracted the attention of the European Space Agency, which on June 2 sent the Mars Express to the red planet, with an arrival scheduled in December. The mission includes a satellite orbiter and the British-built Beagle 2, a miniature lander.
Many attempts, few successes
Just reaching the red planet would be a milestone. Of about 30 attempts to reach Mars, only one-third have succeeded. Of nine attempts to land there, only three have succeeded.
A lot of people have had bad days on Mars. They don't call it the death planet for nothing.
-- Ed Weiler, NASA deputy administrator
"A lot of people have had bad days on Mars. They don't call it the death planet for nothing," said Ed Weiler, NASA deputy administrator.
NASA has the best track record. All three landings were by U.S. missions. But the U.S. space agency lost two Mars-bound craft in 1999.
One presumably crashed landed. And another burned up in the atmosphere because of a mix-up over metric and English measurements.
CNN Space Producer David Santucci contributed to this report.
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Ken Jennings Shows Us the Last River to Be Added to the U.S. Map
The Escalante River is a tributary of the Colorado River in south-central Utah that runs for 90 miles between the Aquarius Plateau in the north and Lake Powell in the south. Snowmelt every spring makes the river a popular destination for canoeists and kayakers, because the river passes through some of the most stunningly gorgeous red-rock canyons in the West. But its geographical claim to fame is even more profound: the Escalante was the last new river ever added to maps of the United States.
View Escalante River, Utah in a larger map
- In 1871, the famed explorer John Wesley Powell arrived in Kanab, Utah, and he and his party used the town as their field headquarters as they mapped and photographed this still-unexplored region of the American West. During Powell’s surveys of the Colorado River, he managed to pass by the entrance of the Escalante twice without realizing he was missing a major tributary.
- Powell’s assistant was his brother-in-law, Almon Harris Thompson, and it was Thompson who, during an 1872 expedition, led his party up the Escalante, mistaking it for the already mapped Dirty Devil River. (Evidently they were lost, as the Dirty Devil is 50 miles farther north.) Realizing his error, Thompson noted the new river on his map as “Potato Valley Creek.” But he must have had second thoughts about his catchy potato-themed name, because he eventually renamed the river for Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, a Spanish missionary who had explored the region a century earlier (but who never saw his namesake river).
- Thompson’s party also surveyed a 30-mile mountain range they named the Henry Mountains, which became the last mountains added to the national map as well. Previously, travelers in the area had called these the Unknown Mountains, while the local Navajo called them Dzil Bizhi’ Adini—“the mountains whose name is missing.” But Thompson put an end to all that: He’d filled in, effectively, the last blank place on the map. The era of the wide-open American frontier was over.
- When Alaska was later added to the national map, of course, it came with new blank territory for explorers to conquer and mapmakers to fill in. But the Escalante canyons of southern Utah are still one of the most remote parts of the country, more than 100 miles from any interstate and full of almost impenetrably rugged terrain. Every year, millions of tourists flock to Zion and Bryce Canyon and the other popular Utah national parks, but the Escalante canyon looks pretty much how it did in John Wesley Powell’s day.
- Friedrichstrasse Station: The Cold War's Three-Dimensional Border
- Ken Jennings Finds the World’s Lowest Highest Point
- Ken Jennings Quotes TLC, Finds Hard-to-Chase Waterfall
- Five Things that Surprised Ken Jennings on His Trip to Antarctica
- In Monowi, Nebraska, the Town's Only Resident Pays Taxes to Herself
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Green or Greenwashing? Why Internet Geeking May Be Good For the Environment
By Elaine Cohen for CSRwire
You work from home instead of going to the office (most of the time). You read your bank statements, newspapers and you write to your friends and family by email or you keep them informed via a Facebook or Twitter update. You download music and listen to it through your earphones, and buy books online and read them on your screen. You upload all your photos to your computer or view them on your tablet or smartphone. You even take courses online and attend webinars to enrich your knowledge. Much of what you buy, you buy online.
And everything happens at the click of a mouse.
At the speed of light. Instantly.
You have become an internet geek.
The question: Is being an internet geek a good thing in terms of our quality of life and our impact on the environment?
Answer: Absolutely yes!
Does it turn us into dehumanized zombies, glued to a computer screen, devoid of contact with the real world?
Answer: Absolutely no!
In fact, Internet geeking actually frees up time for you to do more meaningful things, like invest in relationships and go for that long-overdue massage at the local spa. In today’s fast-paced, interconnected global village, online IS the real world. Internet geeking takes the drudgery out of a host of daily tasks (and costs) and releases us to live (afford) a better quality life. So said experts from the Global eSustainability Initiative (GeSI), Verizon Inc. and the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) at a recent webinar hosted by CSRwire [See slides below].
Online Activities Save Carbon Emissions
A new study conducted and published by GeSI, sponsored by Verizon, BT, Deutsche Telekom and Ericsson, titled Measuring the Energy Reduction Impact of Selected Broadband-Enabled Activities Within Households reveals that we can contribute to a reduction of energy consumption and resulting carbon emissions at the net rate of around 2 percent of total national levels in the U.S., France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the U.K.
This is the equivalent of taking 55 million cars off the road. And we can do this by greater uptake of eight online activities that were measured by the study.
What are these eight online activities that are helping us save the planet? Is internet geeking actually more sustainable than the energy consumed by all the technology we use? Moreover, is internet geeking good for the quality of our life and the environment? Grab the details and information on how to access a recording of the webinar on CSRwire Talkback.
Published: July 22, 2012 By:
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The EJS Falling Loop Model shows a conducting loop falling out of a region of uniform magnetic field. It plots the velocity of the loop as a function of time. Users can change the size and orientation of the loop as well as the extent and location of the uniform field. If Ejs is installed, right-clicking within the plot and selecting "Open Ejs Model" from the pop-up menu item allows for editing of the model.
The Falling Loop model was created using the Easy Java Simulations (Ejs) modeling tool. It is distributed as a ready-to-run (compiled) Java archive. Double clicking the ejs_em_FallingLoop.jar file will run the program if Java is installed. Ejs is a part of the Open Source Physics Project and is designed to make it easier to access, modify, and generate computer models. Additional Ejs models are available. They can be found by searching ComPADRE for Open Source Physics, OSP, or Ejs.
Please note that this resource requires
at least version 1.5 of
%0 Computer Program %A Cox, Anne %D July 2, 2009 %T Falling Loop Model %7 1.0 %8 July 2, 2009 %U http://www.compadre.org/Repository/document/ServeFile.cfm?ID=9220&DocID=1240
Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
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The sparkling wonders called diamonds are the world’s most cherished and prized possessions. Who could have ever imagined that these glittering jewels have had a macabre history, rooted in bloodshed, especially in Central and Western Africa? Here, rebellious groups and warlords illegally traded diamonds to finance wars and conflicts against established governments. The earnings from these illicit diamonds were used to finance conflicts in Angola, Liberia, Ivory Coast, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and others in the 1990s. Hence, these African diamonds came to be known as conflict diamonds or blood diamonds.
Some historical facts about conflict diamonds
- In the 1990s, the world market was flooded with African conflict diamonds, which were being traded in the underground market.
- The African scenario was characterized by many conflicts launched by rebels, factions and even warlords. The common man was forced to be a part of this gruesome design. Even children were exploited beyond imagination and had to work in inhuman conditions to extract diamonds for these hardcore criminals. The revenues from these blood diamonds financed these conflicts.
- Angola, finally free from Portuguese domination in 1975, witnessed many uprisings since 1974. Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) were actively involved in a civil war that started in 1974, and culminated in 2001. UNITA had traded in illegal diamonds worth US$3.72 billion during the period 1992 to 1998. This astronomical sum was diverted to funding the rebels.
- Liberia was also involved in a gory civil war from 1989 to 2001. The then Liberian President, Charles G. Taylor, supported the Revolutionary United Front, which was actively involved in dreadful and inhuman terrorist activities in Sierra-Leone, a neighbor. The President aided the rebels with weapons and warfare training and techniques in return for the blood diamonds.
Steps taken to eradicate conflict diamonds
Alarmed by the influx of African conflict diamonds, the UN Security Council adopted and passed a resolution in 1998, imposing a ban on buying diamonds from Angola.
The World Diamond Congress came up with a resolution in 2000 that empowered the diamond industry to stop the sales of conflict diamonds. The resolution envisaged:
- International certificates to be issued on the import and export of diamonds
- Only sealed and tamper-proof packages of diamonds should be used
- Right to charge trading in conflict diamonds as a criminal offence
- A ban to be imposed on anyone involved in trading of these illicit diamonds
The governments of 69 countries adopted the Kimberly Process Certification Scheme to uphold human rights and justice. These measures have resulted in 99% of global diamonds being certified as non conflict diamonds.
Conflict free diamonds have benefited millions of people. The income generated by this sector has facilitated healthcare facilities, free education and also resulted in the elevation of the standard of living for the common man.
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A virtual continental island bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Andes Mountains, and the Atacama Desert, the Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests harbors richly endemic flora and fauna.
The Araucaria tree has been declared a national monument in itself, protecting it from logging. The rare Andean cat, the mountain vizcacha, and the Andean condor can also be found in the hotspot.
Reptilian, amphibian, and freshwater fish endemism is also particularly high in this region.
Overgrazing, invasive species, and urbanization have all contributed to the destruction of the original habitat.
Major hydroelectric dams and the development of coastal areas to increase tourism are two specific problems facing the Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests.
†Recorded extinctions since 1500. *Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.
|Hotspot Original Extent (km²)
|Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km²)
|Endemic Plant Species
|Endemic Threatened Birds
|Endemic Threatened Mammals
|Endemic Threatened Amphibians
|Human Population Density (people/km²)
|Area Protected (km²)
|Area Protected (km²) in Categories I-IV*
A virtual continental island bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Andes Mountains on the east, and the Atacama Desert in the north, the Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests Hotspot harbors richly endemic flora and fauna. The hotspot covers 397,142 km² of the central-northern part of the nation of Chile and the far western edge of Argentina, stretching from the Pacific coast to the crest of the Andean mountains. The hotspot encompasses about 40 percent of Chile’s land area and includes the offshore islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio and the Juan Fernández Islands.
The area of central-northern Chile is characterized by a winter-rainfall regime, while the northern part of southern Chile is characterized by rainfall all year round. The winter-rainfall area is divided almost equally between a typical Mediterranean-type climate area (155,000 km²) and a more arid area of winter-rainfall deserts (145,000 km²).
Vegetation types in the more northerly winter rainfall desert area include an extended band of coastal fog (camanchaca) desert and the more southerly inland desierto florido. Other vegetation types include coastal and inland matorral and savannas, deciduous forests and high-elevation alpine vegetation. On the lower western slopes of the Andes and the eastern slopes of the Coast Range, the typical matorral is open and contains a rich assemblage of endemic herbaceous and geophyte species. In the wetter climate of the western side of the Coast Range, the forests are closed. At higher elevations, the typical Mediterranean sclerophyllous vegetation grades up to Nothofagus forest. In addition, there is a small tongue of coastal rainforest along the southern coast from 39ºS southwards.
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About Print S
Use a Crayola® colored pencil to practice writing letters. This page shows an example of the letter S. Practice writing both the lowercase and uppercase letters. Can you draw some objects that begin with this letter? Draw the picture in the box, and then label it in the lines provided.
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| 0.847844 | 66 | 3.21875 | 3 |
GLOBALIZATION, RELIGION AND CULTURE:
BEYOND CONFLICT, BEYOND SOVEREIGNTY
If states cannot solve pressing global problems alone, who can? Can Italian and Italian-American institutions, such as the Roman Catholic church in the United States, play a constructive role in helping to address global problems? Greater attention to the role and resources of adaptive religious and cultural institutions may help to create effective public-private partnerships for managing global problems. In ad hoc attempts to manage global problems and bridge globalization’s gaps, however, alternative ideas of authority and identity may evolve which over time challenge and change Westphalian sovereign norms. The state is not going away, but it is increasingly contracting out. As states downsize and decentralize in response to the pressures of globalization, and as states innovate in response to global problems, nonstate actors such as religious and cultural organizations perform functions previously performed by states and promote ideas with unintended consequences for sovereignty. Italian culture, as an ancient global culture, and the Italian-American experience, as an adaptive immigrant population reconciling old world and new world values, bring important contributions to bridging the gaps in globalization.
“Globalization Demands a New Culture, New Rules, and New Institutions at the World Level.” Pope John Paul II, May 1, 2000.
Italy, the Roman Catholic bishops of Sicily and a movement of civil society took
a courageous stand against corruption and the activities of international
organized crime, with great effect. They
are intent on curbing crime and corruption and creating a “Culture of
Lawfulness,” in Italy and beyond.[i]
“In recent decades, the movement has mobilized all levels of society
simultaneously and has attempted to reeducate citizens at the local level on the
need for alternatives to the mafia. The primary objective of nearly all the
antimafia associations is to educate children to know and respect the law and to
prevent them from acquiring a 'mafia mentality' of distrust and antagonism
towards public institutions which may lead to a life of crime."[ii]
Such programs were introduced in the early 1980s by the first anti-mafia groups
but obtained additional impetus in the early 1990s in response to the Anti-Mafia
Commission and the pressures of the mass anti-mafia organizations of civil
society. Libera, the umbrella of 800 nation-wide anti-mafia organizations works
with urban communities, the school and the church to implement anti-mafia
The Sicilian bishops travel
regularly, advising religious and civil society leaders in Georgia, Mexico, and
elsewhere in ways that religious organizations and civil society can mobilize to
create a “Culture of Lawfulness” to curb international organized crime and
the United States, the Roman Catholic church mobilized with civil society
organizations in the Jubilee Justice/ Drop the Debt campaign for international
debt relief. Their efforts were
pivotal in changing the U.S. government and international financial
institutions’ policies toward debt relief for the world’s poorest.
The U.S. government gave $434 million to the international financial
institutions for debt relief toward highly indebted poor countries (HIPC), and
credited Jubilee USA/ Drop the Debt for the policy switch. The IFIs initially forgave $34 billion in debt to 22
countries, and have pledged to raise that to $70 billion over time.[v]
cultural and religious organizations are considered at all in the study of
International Relations, they are generally viewed as a source of conflict,
parties to ethnic and nationalist conflict, violent partisans of tradition and
local particularity, opposed to globalization, change and modernity (Jihad vs.
McWorld, the Clash of Civlizations).[vi]
While theologians have considered the intersection of religion and
globalization,[vii] too few political scientists have examined the
nexus. Samuel Huntington predicts an inevitable clash of civilizations, of the
West vs. the rest. This view has
gained greater credibility since September 11th.
But this view does not explain the previous examples, in which Italian
and Italian-American religious and cultural institutions play constructive roles
in managing global problems.
are religious and cultural organizations imagined to play only a reactionary
role? Some religious and cultural
groups feel threatened by globalization, and thus retrench to a more reactive,
and sometimes violent fundamentalism as a way to preserve their culture, which
they perceive as under siege.[viii] Other
religious and cultural groups are able to adapt to globalization and modernity,
and may play constructive roles in taming globalization, addressing global
problems, and bridging globalization’s institutional gaps.
states cannot solve pressing global problems alone, who can?
Can Italian and Italian-American institutions, such as the Roman Catholic
church in the United States, play a constructive role in helping to address
global problems? Greater attention to the role and resources of adaptive
religious and cultural institutions may help to create effective public-private
partnerships for managing global problems.
In ad hoc attempts to manage global problems and bridge globalization’s
gaps, however, alternative ideas of authority and identity may evolve which over
time challenge and change Westphalian sovereign norms.
is the fast, interdependent spread of open society, open economy, and open
From the first movements of migratory peoples across the continents, to
colonization and the establishment of global trade routes, globalization is not
new. But the
speed, reach, intensity,[x]
cost, and impact of the current period of globalization are new. Colonization
and evangelization took decades during earlier periods of globalization.
Today people and products cross borders in hours; ideas and capital move
around the globe at the touch of a keystroke.
terrorism to human smuggling to international crime to environmental
degradation, globalization creates or exacerbates a host of problems which cross
state borders, and which even the most powerful states cannot solve
unilaterally. There are a number of
reasons for this.
by design, state power has not grown as rapidly as private sector power in the
modern period of globalization. Open
economies, open societies, and open technologies have increased the power,
reach, and resources of the private sector (both licit and illicit), while
constraining the size and reach of the public sector. Market liberalization, the spread of capitalism, and economic
privatization has expanded the resources and autonomy of the private sector,
while state control over markets has receded (as evidenced by the Asian economic
flu, for example). For the first time in history a majority of states are
democracies. As democratization
spreads globally, the power of civil society and the private sector grow, while
state power is placed under democratic constraints. The spread of cheap and readily available information
technologies also facilitate the growth of the private sector (both licit and
illicit). Public sector
organizations often lag behind the private sector in adoption and effective use
of information technologies. Also,
the governments of a host of failed or failing, weak or quasi states do not have
the ability to maintain law and order, to project public sector control over
their legally delimited sovereign territories.
These weak states are sovereign by international law, de jure, but in
practice lack capacity to effectively govern their territories.
Failing states or states in transition from authoritarian to liberal
forms experience declining state capacity.
But even in strong states, the size of the public sector has been trimmed
in recent decades, or has not grown as much as the private sector.
globalization creates a host of institutional gaps, as global problems move
faster than the state’s or multilateral institutions’ abilities to manage
these problems. Global economic and
technological change is fast, while government, legal, and intergovernmental
responses are slow. This creates
institutional gaps between the problems of globalization and attempts to manage
these problems. The problems
move faster than institutional responses, so governments cannot manage these
problems alone. For example,
terrorists and tourists alike use the same global infrastructure.
While the terrorist attacks of September
11th took an hour to conduct and news of the attacks spread
instantly, even the strongest state in the world, the U.S. government, cannot
combat the problem of global terrorism alone or instantly.
Prior to September 11 U.S. governmental institutions were poorly equipped
to respond to the problems of global terrorism.[xi]
Even the strongest state in the system faces institutional gaps.
There are several types of institutional gaps:
capacity gaps, jurisdiction gaps, participation gaps, legitimacy gaps,
and ethical gaps.
nonstate actors are on the rise. The
number, resources, reach, personnel, functions, and networks of multinational
corporations and nongovernmental organizations are increasing exponentially.
MNCs and NGOs have increasing standing, representation, and functions in
international law and organizations, and increasingly perform functions once
done by states. Not coincidentally,
illicit organizations such as terrorist groups, drug trafficking organizations,
international criminal cartels, and human smuggling networks are simultaneously
on the rise. Illicit networks
benefit from the same open economy, open society, and open technology dynamics
which facilitate the growth of the legal private sector.
speed, reach, intensity, and interconnectedness of the current period of
globalization create institutional crises, as existing institutions struggle to
catch up with changing circumstances. Institutions
range from “formal organizations, which have explicit rules and forms of
administration and enforcement, to any stabilized pattern of human relationships
Existing states and international regimes are having difficulties coping
with the challenges globalization brings, because globalization creates and
exacerbates institutional gaps. These
institutional gaps fall into several categories:
capacity gaps; jurisdictional gaps; participation gaps; legitimacy gaps;
and ethical/ values gaps. Capacity
gaps are shortfalls either in organizations or organizational strength,
resources, personnel, competence, or standard operating procedures, which hinder
the ability effectively to respond to problems of globalization.
Jurisdiction gaps are when the writ of the problem extends farther than
the authority of the institutions charged with responding to the problems.
Participation gaps are when people affected by globalization are excluded
from partaking in the decision processes of managing or guiding globalization.
Legitimacy gaps are when the institutions which manage or regulate
globalization are not perceived by society as rightfully representing them.
Ethical or values gaps are when globalization is perceived to have either
no ethical base or to promulgate values at odds with societal values or the
speaking, developed democracies are best placed to adapt to the challenges of
globalization, because they have adaptive and resourced political and economic
institutions capable of responding to the dislocations, disruptions, and
unintended consequences which globalization brings. States with adequate educational and public health systems,
and access to technology and stable governance allow people access, an on-ramp
to the globalization highway. But
for newly democratizing states, and for many developing states, rule of law,
political and economic institutions are weak and lack the capacity and resources
to respond to globalization’s challenges. Weak and strong states both have capacity gaps; these are
more severe for developing states, collapsing states or states undergoing
even strong states cannot manage global problems alone since the issues cross
jurisdictional and territorial boundaries.
The terrorists who perpetrated the September 11 attacks hailed from many
different countries. Bringing the
conspirators to justice is complicated by these jurisdictional gaps.
Additionally, the private sector often has better information and
technology for containing global problems, while public sector capabilities lag
behind, even in the strongest states. For example, the transportation and
financial infrastructures that the September 11 terrorists exploited were all
privately owned and operated, further complicating government’s jurisdictional
reach. Many of globalization’s
problems, such as drug trafficking or other illicit activities, take place in
the economic and social spheres, where the arm of liberal, capitalist states
reaches the least. As
democratization and “the Washington Consensus” spread liberal political and
economic systems globally, more states find themselves constitutionally limited
in what interventions they may undertake in the private sphere.
For example, regardless of U.S. power, terrorism crosses international
and public/private jurisdictions, making the U.S. government’s response to
these problems necessary but insufficient to successful management of these
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are also increasing in number, resources,
functions, and power, IGOs and states alone cannot solve globalization problems,
since many of the factors that constrain individual states also constrain
collections of states. This again
creates gaps, between what institutions can do and what they are needed to do.
gaps also exist between rich and poor. Generally,
the wealthy have institutions capable of acting on their behalf, while the poor
often do not. States without
adequate educational, public health, and governance institutions (developing
countries) are least able to access the globalization highway.
The rural poor have less opportunity to access globalization’s
benefits. Poor countries and
peoples face institutional gaps which fuel the increasing backlash against
globalization. Lacking resources,
the institutions of poor countries are disadvantaged when bargaining with more
powerful countries’ institutions over the rules and regimes that govern
globalization. For example, while
most of the planet’s populations are poor people living in developing
countries, a minority of rich countries led by the United States have prevailed
in creating institutions (TRIPS and TRIMS) that protect the intellectual
property rights and profits of pharmaceutical companies at the expense of the
poor who cannot afford the cure. Western
pharmaceutical companies use the populations of developing countries for human
testing of potential medicines in the research and development phases, but these
poor people and countries often do not share in the benefits of these medicines
creates a world of paradox. Global
transportation, communication, and economic interdependence make possible the
vision of a closer human family, as a million people cross an international
border every day. However,
terrorists, tourists, and dangerous microbes use the same global infrastructure.
While capital flows of 2 trillion dollars crosses borders each day, most
poor people and poor countries see little of that.
infrastructure of open economies, technologies, and societies creates great
benefits, but globalization also carries significant costs that are often not
Some argue[xv] globalization is a means to bring peoples and
cultures together, to route tyrannical governments, to easily and cheaply spread
information, ideas, capital and commerce, and to transfer more power than ever
before to civil society and networked individuals.[xvi]
Others see globalization as merely neo-imperialism wearing Bill Gates’
face and Mickey Mouse ears, extending the web of global capitalism’s
exploitation of women, minorities, the poor, and developing regions, fouling
ecosystems, displacing local cultures and traditions, mandating worship at the
altar of rampant consumer capitalism, and deepening the “digital divide”
between global haves and have nots.[xvii]
costs and benefits of globalization are not shared equally, but are
asymmetrically distributed. Capitalism
is criticized for disparities between rich and poor in terms of income,
political power and participation, and opportunities.
In parallel, the worldwide spread and intensification of capitalism that
globalization represents is criticized for exacerbating the excesses of
capitalism, and exporting these problems worldwide.
For example, before the latest phase of globalization, the disparity
between the richest and poorest quintiles of the earth’s population was 30 to
1. In 1997, at the height of
globalization, the richest 20% were
74 times richer than the world’s poorest.
The wealth of the world’s three richest individuals surpasses the
combined GDP of all the world’s underdeveloped countries (with their 600
While certainly global population growth plays a part, 100 million more
people now live in poverty than 10 years ago.[xix]
Of the now 6 billion people on the planet, 3 billion live on less than $2 a day
and 1.3 billion live on less than $1 per day.[xx] 60
countries are poorer than they were 20 years ago, and 80 countries are poorer
than they were 10 years ago.[xxi]
is only one indicator of globalization’s asymmetries.
Decisions concerning globalization are made in corporate boardrooms and
state capitals located generally in Western and economically developed states.
Environmental degradation from global production facilities fall
disproportionately on the world’s poorest communities, as some corporations
exploit regions where environmental legislation or enforcement is weakest.
Yet most foreign direct investment and collaborative corporate alliances
go to developed states. “Controlling
for the opening of both China and the former Soviet bloc, which attracted almost
no investment before 1985, the share of foreign direct investment going to the
developing world actually dropped” from 1985-95.[xxii] Globalization’s
costs and benefits are unequally distributed, with poor people and poor
countries too often not participating in the full benefits globalization may
bring. Generally, the benefits of globalization accrue disproportionately to the
world’s rich, while the challenges of globalization (environmental damage,
labor abuses, etc.) have a greater impact on the poor.
Maximizing the benefits of globalization while minimizing or managing the
challenges is difficult, because the institution we generally task with managing
global problems, the sovereign state, cannot do the job alone.
Poor peoples and countries do not have adequate participation in the
decision making processes which channel globalization, from corporate board
rooms to the Davos economic summits to the G8 meetings.
The participation gaps, capacity gaps, and the asymmetric distribution of
costs and benefits intensifies dissatisfaction and backlash against
from the violence and death in the protests at the WTO meetings in Genoa last
summer, to the September 11 attacks.
Institutions which do not adequately protect developing countries, or
which exclude them from participating in decision making processes, are
increasingly seen as illegitimate. These
various institutional gaps are reinforcing.
Institutions must be perceived as legitimate to be effective;
participation gaps exacerbate legitimacy gaps, which intensify capacity
participation and legitimacy gaps also further the ethical and values gap.
Many observers believe that corporations rule the world, and that
globalization is thus driven by market values that put profits ahead of people.
While powerful multinational corporations seek profits, states seek
wealth and development in globalization. Many
decry the degree to which rich states, particularly the United States, drive
globalization, also putting the values of profits ahead of people (especially
since many of the citizens exploited by globalization are not citizens in
developed states, thus rich states have no jurisdictional or perceived ethical
obligations to the world’s dispossessed).
Thus whether driven by powerful companies or powerful states, many
observers decry the ethical basis of globalization, believing globalization is
driven by an ethic of crass materialism and consumption, or western (especially
U.S.) cultural imperialism.[xxiv]
To the extent that these ethos pervade globalization, many suggest that
violence and backlash against
globalization will mount, producing a world in which the benefits of
globalization reach too few people and countries, making the dynamics of
globalization politically unsustainable.[xxv]
ethical gaps are large and growing. Today
over half of the world’s population are not receiving the benefits of
globalization, either because they are not plugged into the global economy, or
because they do not have institutions which can advance or protect their
interests as participants in the global economy.
Human life is lost, human
development unfulfilled, and sacred creation destroyed.
This disparity between those benefiting from globalization and those left
behind or vulnerable to the challenges of globalization is increasing.
The world’s poorest populations are growing, while the populations of
developed countries are stable or slightly declining with the graying of the
baby boomers. For example, world
population is expected to grow from its current 6 billion to 7.2 billion in the
next 15 years; 95% of that population growth will occur in developing countries
and in already stressed urban areas (megacities)[xxvi] –think Lagos and Mexico City.
So globalization’s moral
and ethical problems will only get larger.
The values gap is exacerbated by the legitimacy, jurisdictional, and
participation gaps. As Archbishop
Diarmuid Martin, Former Secretary of the Vatican’s Justice and Peace Council,
put it, “What is needed is a network of structures, institutions, principles
and elements of law to help manage in the best possible way the world’s common
good, which cannot be protected only by individual governments.”
religious institutions help to bridge these institutional gaps, helping to forge
a more just and more peaceful globalization which is not driven by market values
alone? Too often religious and
cultural organizations are primarily seen as a source of conflict in
are alternative views. Corporations
and states are not the only engines of globalization, or its only beneficiaries.
Millennia before the current period of rapid, modern globalization (or
religious organizations have long been globalizing forces, spreading ideas,
institutions, flows of people and capital across international borders.
Today religious organizations continue to play an active role in
globalization, both as global actors themselves, and as mediating institutions,
responding to the challenges of globalization, and offering alternative ethical
visions of globalization (beyond market or consumer dynamics). Corporations see
the world as market; in this vision people are all consumers, wealth creators or
wealth spenders. States see
globalization as a world to be governed; people are either governed or
ungovernable, potential taxpayers or soldiers or those beyond government posing
problems for government (illegal immigrants, refugees, terrorists, or
criminals). Religious organizations, however, present alternative visions
of globalization, seeing a world in which we are all people of God.
In such visions, people are not merely soldiers or salesmen, but souls
and spirits, evidence of and participants in the spirit of creation.
Rather than mere opposition to globalization, as the clash of
civilizations, Jihad vs. McWorld
formulations suggest, religious organizations present more varied and
constructive reactions to globalization. They
may represent one of the best ways forward, for globalization to proceed “with
a human face,”[xxviii]
unleashing greater human potential than mere materialism, for more of the planet
than presently participate in the benefits of globalization.
many believe the dynamics of globalization are antithetical to religion, or make
religious institutions obsolete, the opposite may be true.
Some worry that with globalization people will tune into BayWatch, MTV
and other cultural messages and tune out traditional religious institutions. But
the information explosion brings information overload, which increases the need
for mediating institutions like the Catholic Church to help people find meaning
and value amidst the avalanche of data. How
many Americans flocked to churches in the aftermath of 911, looking not only for
comfort and pastoral counseling, but also for a way to make sense out of trying
and bewildering circumstances.
organizations, as non governmental organizations, may have some advantages in
responding to these institutional gaps, to help manage the problems of
globalization. The academic
literature on globalization suggests that non governmental groups are
increasingly important actors in world politics.
Globalization makes it easier for NGOs to form and operate.
Globalization also creates challenges which sovereign states cannot solve
or manage alone, so NGOs increasingly step into the breach to help manage global
NGOs also help represent poor peoples and countries whose voices may
otherwise be marginalized in international relations.
In 1909 there were 176 international NGOs.
Today there are over 47, 098 international NGOs.”[xxx]
NGOs have been growing as more states than ever before in history are
transitioning to democracy, allowing grass roots activism in parts of the world
(such as the former Soviet states) where civil society groups have never been
able to effectively organize before. The
advent of cheap information technologies now makes it easy for NGOs to mobilize.
For example, if the price of an automobile had fallen in the last two
decades as sharply as the price of a microchip, a car would cost us $5 dollars.
NGOs are armed with information technologies which help them connect with
members, with world wide needs, with other civil society groups across borders,
and with the international media. With
increased reach and effectiveness, NGOs are helping to manage global problems.
Certainly the meeting of world religious leaders simultaneous with the
Davos economic summit is one high profile means by which religious groups are
trying to mediate the excesses of globalization.
organizations trade in the currency of ideas, especially ideas of good and evil,
right and wrong. The ideas compel,
even when the organizations cannot. Religious organizations attract support more
than they can enforce compliance. These
groups aspire to be transnational moral entrepreneurs, agents who act as
reformers or crusaders to change rules, out of an ethical concern to curtail a
governments have legal authority, religious organizations rely on moral
authority. Generally, while states
have greater military power, and MNCs have greater economic power, religious
organizations’ strength lies in their idea power.
They seek to occupy the only high ground available to them, the moral
high ground. If they can succeed in
redefining a problem as a moral issue, they will have a greater chance of
prevailing, because states and MNCs may not be able to speak credibly as
bastions or brokers of morality. The
Roman Catholic Church has well-developed ethics and rich institutions, resources
which are useful to transnational advocacy networks.
Morally, religious organizations have legitimacy speaking on moral issues
and a treasure chest of well-developed ideas available for use by transnational
advocacy networks. Tactically,
religious organizations can pool their power with other religious and civil
society groups, and use their direct pulpit access to citizens (who may be
business or government decision makers) as well as their ability to attract
media. While secular NGOs may not command as extensive institutional networks
(schools, hospitals, etc.), they also develop and trade in moral ideas, as
environmental transnational advocacy networks construct and promote
organizations and secular NGOs have information power.
Especially when networked transnationally, these groups have access to
grassroots information about how particular policies affect particular people,
information that governments or IGOs overlook or do not have.
As people gain greater and cheaper access to information technologies,
this can force greater transparency. Transparency
or sunshine politics are an important tool of NGOs.
By expanding the information base of the public or elite discussion
especially around previously closed matters, they often impose the “Dracula”
test– will a particular policy or practice be able to survive in the daylight?
Transparency alone can do much to shrink both government and corporate
abuses. And discussions alone about opening the decision making process to
greater transparency help to reframe issues as moral issues, again moving the
issue to where NGOs have some home court advantage.
religious organizations and NGOs can use reputational power as a force
multiplier to enhance their values, ideas, and information power. Reputational power may derive from important, well-known or
respected figures who are members of the group. Or it may come from the NGO’s own strong advocacy track
record. Or, like MNCs, NGOs may
build a “brand name” around the quality and reliability of their
organization’s information products.
use media and communications power as a force multiplier for their values,
ideas, and information power. While NGOs vary in their skill and access to the
global media, they do have some media advantages.
Global media simplify issues to attract wider audiences, compete against
ever-shorter sound bites, in order to sell their products.
If NGOs often emphasize how policies or practices affect particular
individuals or groups, or how global issues present clear moral choices, they
may be able to attract media attention. NGOs
can use the media as a megaphone for their message if they understand the care
and feeding of the press, and deliver compelling stories with good pictures, and
clear good guys and bad guys, in arenas where government, IGO, or corporate
responses may either be slow or lack credibility.
Since MNCs may have huge marketing investments in their brand names, and
do not want these brands to be sullied or their reputations trashed, even the
threat of negative media coverage can bring greater attention to NGO ideas. It is more difficult to wield this media power against naked,
anonymous commodities and unknown,
unbranded companies, however. Media
and communications power are important to groups that trade in ideas.
NGOs, like others who can persuade but not compel,[xxxiii]
must be good salespeople as well as good preachers in order to mobilize their
institutional deficits and benefits, do U.S. Catholic institutions have in
trying to bridge the capacity, jurisdiction, participation, legitimacy, and
ethical gaps which globalization
are some deficits in terms of capacity. The
leadership of the U.S. Catholic Church is relatively small, and often already
overwhelmed. Vocations have been
steadily declining since the 1960’s, leaving an older, smaller leadership
cadre to deal with the emerging issues of globalization. The leaders of the U.S. Catholic Church are the 289 U.S.
Bishops and their canonical organization, the U.S. Conference of Catholic
Bishops (USCCB). Additionally, the
United States Catholic Conference (USCC) is a civil organization which
collaborates with the Bishops on matters of concern to the Church, including
education, outreach, and advocacy.[xxxiv]
The Bishops meet annually as a whole, but also have standing committees
on specific issues, including the International Policy Committee (the outgoing
chairman is Cardinal Law of Boston; the incoming chair is Bishop Ricard of
Florida), the Domestic Policy Committee (chaired by Cardinal Mahoney of Los
Angeles), the Committee on Migration (chaired by Bishop DiMarzio of Camden, NJ),
etc. The USCC is located in
Washington, D.C.. Its staff of 250
serve the Bishops as well as the ongoing USCC program activities (Diocesan
outreach, creating educational materials for Parishes and Dioceses, running
workshops for Diocesan and Parish ministers --both lay and clergy, communication
of Catholic activities, etc.). Within
the USCC, the Department of Social Development and World Peace is the national
public policy agency of the U.S. Catholic Bishops.
This department has two permanent offices:
The International Justice and Peace and the Domestic Social Development
offices. These staff members assemble research and background
information for the Bishops’ use in developing policy and advocacy positions.
Staff also lobby Congress, the Administration, and intergovernmental bodies at
the Bishops’ request. Beyond
advocacy, the (lay and clerical) staff of the international and domestic offices
also work with other Bishops’ conferences around the world, coordinate
outreach and education to Catholic Dioceses and parishes in the U.S., create and
print educational and advocacy materials, host workshops on Catholic Social
Teaching and current issues, maintain a website, serve as a resource to visiting
Bishops from around the world, and help to coordinate fact finding travels of
U.S. Bishops abroad. Globalization
is on the docket of both the Bishops’ International Policy and the Domestic
Policy Committees, who meet twice a year to discuss advocacy positions, action
items, etc. for the U.S. Bishops. Can
U.S. Catholic Bishops and their limited staff, already spread very thin, do much
to help bridge the capacity gaps of globalization?
in part to their size, the demands on their time, tradition, and the
conservative nature of the institutions, the USCCB can be very slow to act.
For example, the USCCB issued a statement on June 15, 2001,[xxxv]
decrying global warming and calling for more responsible stewardship of
creation. The statement, while
useful, had been in the works for several years, during which time ozone
depletion worsened. Similarly, the Vatican, the Bishops Conferences of South
Africa and Latin America have issued pastoral statements on globalization,
issuing a call to solidarity with the world’s poor to ensure that
globalization does not proceed on the back’s of the world’s most vulnerable. As Pope John Paul II put it, “The globalization of
finances, the economy, trade and work must never violate the centrality of the
human person nor the freedom and democracy of peoples. . . . Globalization is a
reality present in every area of human life, but it is a reality which must be
managed wisely. Solidarity too must
U.S. Catholic bishops, however, have as yet issued no formal statements directly
on globalization. They have been
studying the issue. The Bishops’
International and Domestic Policy Committees, in coordination with the
International and Domestic Policy Committees of the USCC, are currently studying
the moral and ethical challenges of global economic integration, in the Global
Economies Project. While the
Project has not adopted a specific definition of globalization, attention has
focused on moral and ethical dimensions of economic globalization. USCC staff from the Domestic and International offices, as
well as a working group of the Bishops’ International and Domestic Policy
Committees, undertook a series of “listening sessions” in 1999 and 2000, in
between the twice a year meetings of the International and Domestic Policy
Committees. These panel
consultations with experts focused on the benefits and problems of economic
globalization, the moral and ethical dimensions of the global economy, and the
relevance of Catholic social teaching to these problems.
At the joint sessions of the International and Domestic Policy
Committees, committee members heard additional speakers on the topic, and
continued to discuss and discern the issue.
After some work on a preliminary draft statement on economic
globalization, the committees decided to suspend work on the statement for now,
since any possible public statement should flow from and after the listening
process, rather than coming before the listening process was complete.
Bishops and USCC, in coordination with the Bishops of Latin America and the
Canadian Bishops Conference, held a conference on the moral dimensions of the
global economy, January 28-30, 2002, at the Catholic University of America.
The conference was envisioned as a follow-on to the successful conference
on debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries, held at Seton Hall
University in 1998 and also co-sponsored by the US, Latin American, and Canadian
Bishops Conferences. The two day conference was a relatively small meeting
of about 75 bishops selected from the three North American Bishops Conferences.
The objectives were to provide an opportunity for church leaders in the
Americas and elsewhere to dialogue with each other, with policy makers and
leaders of governments and the multilateral organizations, with business and
labor leaders, with academics, theologians, and leaders of civil society, from
both developed and developing countries’ perspectives.
After the conference, the U.S. Bishops will determine what follow-on
activities are called for (a formal statement, specific policy initiatives,
etc.). The U.S. Catholic Bishops
are not built for speed. Thus they
may not be well equipped to bridge the gaps created by global problems moving
more quickly than established institutions.
the hierarchy of the U.S. Catholic Church is all male, predominantly Caucasian,
and currently under intense public scrutiny regarding its handling of sexual
misconduct cases. Women and
minorities have few opportunities to participate in decision making processes,
making the U.S. Catholic Bishops Conference an unlikely candidate institutions
to bridge the participation and legitimacy gaps of globalization.
The recent sexual scandals and the improper handling of these cases of
pedophilia and improper sexual behavior by priests has injured the Church’s
legitimacy and position as a moral leader.
Reviewing and reforming policy, responding to legal charges, making
amends to victims, and dialoguing with the community to increase transparency
and accountability and decrease hostility has consumed the time and energy of
many in developing countries believe that globalization benefits the U.S. at
their expense. The history of the
Catholic church in many regions (the Crusades, complicity with colonialism) may
undermine the Church’s legitimacy as a mediating institution.
Further, the Catholic Church benefits from globalization in many ways.
Catholic theology, particularly the gospel message to
“Go and teach all nations,” and a theology of the universal church as
the body of Christ, has driven the Catholic Church as a global institution from
its inception. However, cheap and
rapid global transportation, communication, and economic flows now make it
easier to be a universal church. In
Held’s terms, relations among US Catholics and Catholics abroad are now more
extensive, intensive, have greater speed and impact than in earlier periods of
Bishops abroad more easily and frequently communicate their needs and concerns
to US Bishops, and US Catholics more easily and frequently travel to visit and
stand in solidarity with Catholics around the world. Sister parishes and lay mission exchanges have blossomed.
While there is a clergy shortage in the United States, the US Catholic
Church is “contracting out,”
relying on the Religious Worker Visa Program to import priests and religious
from abroad to minister to US parishes.[xxxvii]
As perceived beneficiaries of globalization with a mixed history in many
developing countries, can U.S. bishops speak credibly regarding the needs of the
dispossessed in developing countries?
benefits do Roman Catholic institutions bring toward bridging globlazation’s
gaps? The Roman Catholic
Church has over 2000 years’ experience as a global institution. Unlike many
NGOs, the Church has a rich, coherent, unifying theology and principles of
Catholic Social Teaching that motivate and underlie its institutions.
Globalization brings institutional gaps, but the Roman Catholic Church has rich,
extensive networks and institutions, from schools and hospitals to parishes and
social development agencies, which are not only service oriented but in it for
the long haul. Coordination and
conflicting missions are obstacles to many NGOs, but the gospel message and
Catholic Social Teaching provide a unifying ethos that pervades Catholic
institutions the world over. While outside observers notice the Roman Catholic
Church’s centralized, hierarchical organizational system for matters of church
doctrine, outsiders often fail to notice the huge organizational pluralism in
the Church as well. There are
over 62 million American Catholics in nearly 200 dioceses, over 19,000 parishes,
240 Catholic colleges and universities, over 7,000 elementary schools and over
1,300 high schools, over 600 Catholic hospitals and over 400 other health care
centers, and over 700 Missionary groups.[xxxviii]
Dioceses, parishes, schools, religious orders, etc. have social justice
committees, sister parishes abroad, etc. These rich networks of institutions,
unified by common norms, have capacity to help respond to the problems of
globalization. Since many of these
institutions operate transnationally, they may be less constrained by the
jurisdiction gaps that limit state responses to global problems.
example, Catholic Relief Services is active in over 85 countries.
CRS has some 4,000 employees abroad and 300 employees in their Baltimore
headquarters. Most of these
employees are laypersons, non-US citizens, and a large number of CRS employees
abroad are non-Catholics. CRS was founded by the US Catholic Bishops in 1943 to
“assist the poor and disadvantaged outside the country.”[xxxix] CRS
still retains close ties with the bishops; 12 bishops serve on the CRS Board of
Directors. While the Bishops
set overall policy directives, CRS is an operational arm doing fieldwork abroad.
CRS also brings issues to the attention of the Bishops as they arise in
CRS is well known for its relief and development work, CRS is also increasingly
active on issues concerning globalization.
After the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, CRS did a great deal of
organizational soul-searching. CRS
had been active in relief and development work in Rwanda for years, yet somehow
had not anticipated the destruction and violence.
CRS re-organized, placing greater emphasis on strategic planning,
interconnections and interdependencies between issue areas, and reviewing all
CRS activities through the “Justice Lens.”
The idea is that relief activities without adequate attention to
structural injustices led to the problem of
“the well fed dead” in Rwanda. The
Office of Policy and Strategic Issues was created at CRS’ Baltimore
headquarters, with staff tasked to
specific issue areas, including Globalization, Corporate Responsibility, Debt
Relief, Foreign Aid, Refugees/Migration, Food Security, and Complex Humanitarian
Emergencies. CRS’ staff in the
Office of Policy and Strategic Issues does advocacy and lobbying work, as well
as public outreach. They represent
CRS at UN, World Bank, and other international meetings on debt, WTO, TRIPS,
reforming the international financial infrastructure, etc.
has a number of interesting globalization projects.
In India, CRS is working with other NGOs and USAID to alleviate child
labor and prostitution. In the
Philippines, CRS is working on a pilot project with the ILO on social
re-insurance. Globalization allows
capital and jobs to be mobile, but government social safety nets for
unemployment are often weak, under funded, or non-existent as state revenues
shrink relative to need. This pilot
project looks to civil society to provide unemployment insurance, similar to
civil society banking and micro finance initiatives.
Religious Working Group on the World Bank and IMF is a coalition of over 40
organizations pushing for reforms in the international financial
architecture. While non-Catholic
groups are part of the coalition, most of the members are Catholic
organizations, such as the Maryknoll Office of Global Concerns, the Africa Faith
and Justice Network, Bread for the World, Franciscan Mission Service, Catholic
Social Network, Pax Christi, the Center for Concern, U.S. Jesuit Conference,
etc. The coalition has been very
active on debt relief, and on reforming the IMF, World Bank, and emerging
international economic organizations (such as the WTO) to put poverty reduction
and the needs of poor countries first in international financial regulations and
Catholic missionary groups, relief and development groups, labor groups,
academics, and the Catholic leadership have been actively working on
globalization issues, one sector stands out in their absence: Catholic business
organizations. While Catholic
businessmen have been part of the Catholic Bishops’ listening sessions,
Catholic business organizations have been notably low profile on Catholic
efforts on debt reduction, environment, and reform of the international
financial architecture. Catholic
business organizations have come together in the past on health care issues, for
example, writing an ethical code for Catholic health care.
A similar effort is needed now.
U.S. Catholic Church has some special capacities relative to the world
wide Catholic Church on globalization issues.
The U.S. government and U.S. corporations are primary drivers of
globalization. Most of the primary
multilateral institutions, the UN, IMF, World Bank, etc., are all headquartered
in the United States. Thus the U.S.
Catholic Church has proximity and access to important engines and agents of
globalization. The jobs of
lobbying, advocacy, consciousness raising, coalition building, and reform of
these institutions may fall disproportionately to U.S. Catholic institutions
that have better access and proximity to these levers of power.
This creates another irony of globalization for the U.S. Catholic Church.
Catholics abroad see more of the challenges of globalization, while Catholics in
the U.S. see more of globalization’s benefits (relative to their cohorts
abroad). Yet it is US Catholics who
have greater capacity and clearer jurisdiction to speak to the U.S. government,
U.S. corporations, U.S. consumers, and multilateral organizations located in the
U.S. regarding global problems and the needs of the worldwide church.
The Catholic Church abroad frequently asks the U.S. Catholic Church for
help in accessing and making their case to these agents of power regarding
globalization. While the impacts of
globalization are widely dispersed, many of the important agents of
globalization are geographically concentrated in the United States, putting a
special onus on the U.S. Catholic institutions.
example, the U.S. Catholic Bishops, in concert with many other Catholic groups
and other NGOs, intensively lobbied the U.S. government and multilateral
organizations throughout 1998, 1999 and 2000 to forgive the debts of heavily
indebted poor countries. Legislators
and government officials predicted the effort dead-on-arrival at first.
They did not expect legislative priorities to change despite the efforts
of the Bishops, Jubilee 2000, the Catholic Campaign on Debt, and other
organizations. Intense lobbying
included visits and letters from the Bishops personally as well as from staff of
the Catholic Conference, editorials in major newspapers (including a Washington
Post editorial by Cardinal Law),[xl]
public marches and a well-attended rally on the Mall, letter writing campaigns,
etc. On November 29, 2000,
President Clinton signed legislation that forgave most bilateral debt to the
United States, contributed $435 million dollars in funding for debt relief, and
authorized the IMF to spend $800 million in gold investment earnings for debt
relief. Treasury Secretary Summers
wrote a letter to Cardinal Law of the Bishops’ International Policy Committee,
thanking him for the efforts of the Catholic Conference, which he characterized
as “instrumental” in winning Congressional support.
Bishops’ program on Environmental Justice dates back to 1993. While many of the program’s efforts are domestic, focusing
on Brownfields clean up and children’s health issues stemming from
environmental harm, the Environmental Justice Program has also devoted
considerable time and energy to global environmental issues.
In 1994 the Bishops released a pastoral statement “Renewing the
Earth,” on Catholic social teaching regarding responsible environmental
stewardship. They stated,
“In moving toward an environmentally sustainable economy, we are obligated to
work of a just economic system which equitably shares the bounty of the earth
and of human enterprise with all peoples.”
The statement also noted that many of the gravest environmental problems
are global, and these problems are disproportionately borne by the poor.[xli]
The Bishops issued “Global Climate Change:
A Plea for Dialogue, Prudence, and the Common Good,” on June 15, 2001,
which continued in that vein to urge for greater attention to global climate
change, to the common good and to the needs of the poor.
These statements are used by the USCC staff in their advocacy efforts
with government and multilateral officials, and in the public outreach and
education functions for dioceses and parishes.
The Project maintains a database of 4,000 Catholic leaders and
organizations involved in environmental justice activities.
Nearly 30,000 environmental justice resource kits have been distributed
to educators, Catholic parishes, and social action directors.
The program also produces books and videos for educational outreach.
the USCCB and USCC respond to requests for help from other Bishops conferences
around the world, on a host of international issues including the Chad-Cameroon
pipeline, trafficking in persons, migration (including migration and VISA status
for religious workers), and other topics related to globalization.
For example, USCC lobbying intensified last year as Congress passed
legislation to ensure more effective prosecution of traffickers in humans,
supplemented by Bishop Di Marzio’s public statements on the issue.[xlii]
of the USCCB and USCC, individual bishops have also taken the lead in speaking
out about the ethical problems presented by globalization.
Cardinal George of the Chicago Archdiocese gave a major address to the
American Mission Congress on “Globalization: Challenges to the Church’s
Mission.” Others, such as Bishop
Murphy of Long Island (formerly of Boston), have published articles in Catholic
newspapers on the pros and cons of globalization.
previously discussed downsides of U.S. Catholic institutions in bridging global
capacity gaps included the shrinking size and slowness of the church hierarchy.
However, the U.S. Bishops can move more quickly on global issues when
crises mount. During their November
12-15, 2001 meetings, the U.S. bishops released a statement on the September 11
attacks. For all the problems
associated with hierarchy, at least the Catholic Church has a leadership
structure capable of speaking on behalf of church members.
Contrast that with the lack of any such
leadership structure in Islam. Who
speaks for Islam? The silence of
Muslim clerics in speaking out against the September 11 attacks and bin
Laden’s jihad is deafening. While
the capacity of U.S. Catholic institutions may be overtaxed and flawed, there is
capacity that can help to bridge institutional gaps.
tradition provides many norms that help to bridge the ethical gaps of
globalization. Catholic Social
Teaching provides a clear ethical framework for addressing global problems and
promise. The Catholic belief in the
fundamental dignity of all human life, and the Church’s moral obligation to
speak truth to power, are key. The
fundamental dignity of all human life encompasses concern for human rights and
preferential option for the poor signals the Catholic Church’s obligation to
the world’s most vulnerable. The
Catholic principle of solidarity reminds the Church that it must not be divided
into haves and have nots, but the Church must stand together as a united force.
This is particularly important for the U.S. Catholic Church, as the
wealthiest population of the universal Catholic Church, and as the population of
the world church receiving most of globalization’s benefits.
As the parable of the talents instructs, more is expected from those to
whom more is given.
human development means that the Catholic Church’s aim is not merely material
gain, but encompasses health, education, spiritual and environmental concerns.
The Church has a responsibility for responsible stewardship of all
creation, including the environment. Working
toward the common good also unites these principles.
social teachings, as well as Catholic institutions, provide rich ethics and
institutions for addressing global problems.
Other NGOs, corporations, and states attempt to construct corporate and
NGO codes of conduct, and governmental standards for ethical behavior in a
global era, from scratch. But the
Catholic Church has ethical codes developed and tried over centuries, which are
applicable to these pressing moral concerns of our day.
The church has cadres of well-trained ethicists.
Additionally, the Catholic Church has size and reach in both developed
and developing states. Thus
Catholic ethics and institutions are well poised to serve as guides and bridges
across globalization’s gaps.
legitimacy and participation gaps, Catholic lay institutions represent one
sector of civil society. These
groups vary in their records regarding participation in and transparency of
decision making processes. Thus
Catholic institutions vary in their abilities to bridge globalization’s
legitimacy and participation gaps, although theoretically at least they all can
help to represent civil society and thus increase the legitimacy of global
institutions. However, since U.S.
citizens are well represented in international regimes weighing responses to
global issues, some will receive the participation of even more U.S.
institutions skeptically internationally.
needs mediating ethics and institutions to protect the world’s vulnerable, the
poor and future generations, so that the benefits of globalization may be shared
more widely, and the problems of globalization curtailed.
In the February 2001 meeting of the U.S. bishops with the Latin American
and Canadian bishops on increased cooperation on migration issues, they noted
the centrality of economic globalization to many of the problems they were
considering. They endorsed the
Pope’s call for a “globalization
of solidarity,” “globalization without marginalization,” to ensure that
human rights and responsibilities remain at the center of concerns for economic
development and global economic integration.[xliii]
Other Catholic organizations are also working together on issues ranging
from debt relief to reforming the international financial architecture to ensure
that the needs of the poor and marginalized are represented.
But since organizations and individuals learn by doing, it will take time
before the US Catholic Church fully recognizes and acts upon the value added
which Catholic ethics and institutions can provide, as guides and bridges across
globalization’s gaps. Catholic
institutions have great resources they can provide to bridging globalization’s
ethical gaps; they have some resources for bridging capacity and jurisdiction
gaps. Participation and legitimacy gaps may be the most challenging, for the US
Catholic Church to speak for those who have no voice.
often the debates over globalization are portrayed as a choice between a
globalization that puts profits over people, versus no globalization at all.
Religious organizations, when they are considered at all, are generally
depicted as reactionary forces opposed to globalization.
In reality there are more choices than that.
We do not have to choose between the present form of globalization, with
its mix of benefits along with its excesses and problems, or a return to a more
closed, isolated and less interdependent world.
Even the harshest critics of globalization use the tools of globalization
to broadcast their messages and solicit support for their anti-globalization
causes. Instead of debating over
false choices, we can build institutions which better represent important
values, better distribute the benefits of globalization and better mitigate the
problems of open economies, open societies, and open technologies, and better
protect and promote the common good. Religious
organizations, including the institutions of the U.S. Catholic Church, have
valuable competencies they can bring to the task of taming globalization, of
building global infrastructure that advance more authentic human development.
As states increasingly turn to the private sector for help in managing global problems, what effect does this have on sovereignty over time?
is instructive to remember Hendrik Spruyt’s story of how fundamental change
came ushering in the Westphalian sovereign state: the economy changed; new
elites were created who benefitted from the new economic system and needed a new
form of political organization to better accommodate them and their economic
practices. Ideas changed, new
organizational forms emerged and competed, and after centuries of flux the
sovereign state eventually won out.[xlv]
There are a number of parallels today. The economy has changed. The new
economic system is increasingly based on information, technology, and services,
which is less dependent on the control of territory. The means of production,
capital, and labor are mobile, not fixed. Players who make use of modern
information, communication, transportation, and financial technologies reap the
benefits of increasingly open borders and economies. Political systems that make
room for the new economic system reap profits in foreign direct investment, and
so regime types as distinct as the Chinese communist system, the Australian
parliamentary system, and the Iranian theocracy are all simultaneously
undertaking reforms to make themselves more attractive to investors’ capital
and technology flows.
New elites are emerging who profit from the new economic system. Typified
by George Soros, Bill Gates, and Ted Turner, these “new imperialists”
increasingly follow no flag. They are passionate about expanding technologies
and markets, and they are frustrated by what they see as anachronistic state
barriers to investment and trade flows. The international business classes
attend the same schools, fly the same airlines, vacation at the same resorts,
eat at the same restaurants, and watch the same movies and television shows.
Independent of national identities, these elites mobilize to try to make states
facilitate market dynamics. Some call it the “Davos culture,”[xlvi]
after the annual World Economic Summit that meets in that Swiss luxury resort.
Sociologist Peter Berger calls it the “yuppie internationale,” typified by
the scene in a Buddhist temple in Hong Kong of “a middle aged man wearing a
dark business suit over stocking feet. He was burning incense and at the same
time talking on his cellular phone.” He believes these cultural ties have made
peace talks in South Africa and Northern Ireland go more smoothly. “It may be
that commonalities in taste make it easier to find common ground politically.”
Can it be that leaders who all shop at the Gap and Bennetton and eat at
McDonald’s find political antagonisms quaint and unnecessary? Thomas Friedman
argues that no two countries with a McDonald’s have ever gone to war with one
Even though clearly there are many economically underprivileged around the world
who do not partake of this lifestyle, the values of this new elite percolate
into the rest of society as people mimic the behavior of the elites and as they
strive to better their economic situations one day to rise into the wealthier
Ideas are changing (including ideas of authority,
identity, and organization), facilitated by the new information technologies and
changes in the economy. Never before in human history have we been able to
spread ideas so quickly and widely. Modern communication technologies allow an
ever wider swath of the planet to be tuned in to the same advertisements, the
same television shows, and thereby, to some of the same ideas about consumerism
and personal freedoms. Identity is becoming less tied to territory. If identity
and authority do not stem from geography, what is our new church, our new
religion? In the Middle Ages identity came from Christendom, the church, while
authority stemmed from spiritual connections. In the modern era identity was
tied up with the nation-state; authority corresponded with geography.
Now authority and identity are increasingly contested. Susan strange
believes we now have Pinocchio’s problem: the strings of state control,
authority, and identity have been cut, but no new strings have been fastened.
States no longer are the supreme recipient of individual loyalties, especially
as states no longer fulfil basic services and functions, and other actors step
into the gap. Firms, professions, families, religions, social movements have all
significantly challenged the state’s territorial and security-based claim to
individual loyalty. We are left to choose among competing sources of allegiance,
authority and identity, with no strings to bind us like puppets to one source of
authority, and with more freedom to let our conscience be our guide. [xlviii]
Certainly the new economy would like identity to be formed around
consumer productsCyou are what you wear, what you consume. Advertisers spend
billions to imprint brand loyalty at an early age, and all the advertising of
Planet Reebok, I’d-like-to-buy-the-world-a-Coke, and Microsoft’s One World
Internet Explorer icon share a common theme, that identity stems not from
national borders but from consumer products. Identity is therefore just as
mobile as the economy; you are not born with it.
You can buy it. Alternatively, some see identity as increasingly flowing
from professions and firmsCyou are what you do, and your commitment is to your
profession rather than to a specific nation-state.
As Richard Rosecrance describes it, “Today and for the foreseeable
future, the only international civilization worthy of the name is the governing
economic culture of the world market.”[xlix]
Benjamin Barber refers to this popular, consumer market culture as “McWorld.”[l]
As market values permeate various cultures, certain ideas emerge as prized: the
value of change, mobility, flexibility, adaptability, speed, and information. As
capitalism becomes our creed, with technology as our guide, distinct national
and religious cultures are becoming permeated with common market values.
are alternatives to market values, however.
Religious organizations and some NGOs promulgate alternative ethics to
materialism, a globalization in which we are not merely consumers or a
governance problem, but human beings each with irreducible sacred dignity.
This vision of globalization prescribes putting people before profits,
ethical values before market values.
Religious organizations are increasingly using the tools of globalization
to promote their views. The
Internet has been a popular tool for organizing and proselytizing by many faith
Ideas of organization are also changing and are based on models from the
marketplace and technology: the computer, the Internet, and the market are
diffuse, decentralized, loosely connected networks with a few central organizing
parameters but strong ties to the activities of individual entrepreneurs.
Foreign policy organizations are in some instances going beyond bureaucracy,
creating flexible, innovative, coordinating networks.
Creative public-private partnerships are the wave of the future in
solving global problems. Rather than trying to become draconian, “big
brother” states (which would conflict with open society, open economy, open
technology goals) it makes sense for governments to look toward civil society
for help in managing global problems. But states must be aware of the costs of
contracting out. In privatizing, not only do governments lose some control over
policy, but additionally, private entities may present obstacles to the
government’s agenda as profit or other motives conflict with important public
policy goals. Although
privatization and moving beyond bureaucracy are popular buzzwords in today’s
budget-conscious political climate, changes in state architecture have
consequences for how we think about political authority, identity, and
Perhaps, as in Spruyt’s analysis of the late Middle Ages, ideas drawn
from the new economic system are helping to shape new ideas of political
organization. A resurgence of IGOs simultaneous with increased attention to
local governance may not seem at all strange to a civilization used to surfing
the Net, using a system that is simultaneously globally connected but only as
good as your local link.
James Rosenau believes that as individuals become more analytically
skillful, the nature of authority shifts. People no longer uncritically accept
traditional criteria of state authority based on historical, legal, or customary
claims of legitimacy. Instead, authority and legitimacy are increasingly based
upon how well government authorities perform.[li]
While scholars disagree about the sources of identity and authority in
the emerging era, they agree that these ideas are changing.
Spruyt acknowledges that new forms of political organization are beginning to
emerge, as evidenced by the European Union and the increasing roles and profile
of IGOs. Thus, even if, as Spruyt maintains, the sovereign state is still
supreme, three out of four of his indicators of fundamental change are already
here: change in economy, elites, and ideas are in evidence, and while no new
form of political organization has unseated the sovereign state, new forms are
beginning to emerge around the sovereign state that are chipping away at
functions previously performed by the state and changing the role of the state.
In attempting to solve global problems, states partner with a variety of
nonstate actors, including religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic
Church. Over time, these
public-private partnerships may have unintended consequences for Westphalian
sovereign norms, changing the way that people think about and relate to
sovereignty. As nonstate actors
bridge globalization’s gaps, people may identify more with nonsovereign
institutions that work beyond geographic borders.
Keck and Sikkink note, “If sovereignty is a shared set of
understandings and expectations about state authority that is reinforced by
practices, then changes in these practices and understandings should in turn
state is not going away. Rather the state is increasingly contracting out. As states
downsize and decentralize in response to the pressures of globalization, and as
states innovate in response to global problems, nonstate actors such as
religious and cultural organizations perform functions previously performed by
states and promote ideas, with unintended consequences for sovereignty.[liii]
Italian culture, as an ancient global culture, and the Italian-American
experience, as an adaptive immigrant population reconciling old world and new
world values, bring important contributions to bridging globalization’s gaps.
Louise Shelley, John Picarelli, and Chris Corpora, “Global Crime,
Inc.,” in Maryann Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a
Global Agenda. Second Edition
(New York: Wadsworth, forthcoming July 2002); Umberto Santino, Storia del
Movimento Antimafia (Rome: Editori Riuniti), 2000.
Alison Jamieson, The Antimafia: Italy's Fight Against Organized Crime
(London: Macmillan), 2000, 148.
Louise Shelley, John Picarelli, and Chris Corpora, “Global Crime, Inc.,”
in Maryann Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda.
Second Edition (New York: Wadsworth, forthcoming July 2002);
Rita Borsellino, “In Spite of Everything, The Popular Anti-Mafia
Commitment in Sicily,” Trends in Organized Crime (5, no. 3, Spring
2000), pp. 58-63.
Special Issue: Furthering a
Culture of Lawfulness. Trends
in Organized Crime. Spring
2000. Volume 5, Number 3.
Maryann Cusimano Love, “NGOs: Politics Beyond Sovereignty,” in Maryann
Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda. Second
Edition (New York: Wadsworth, forthcoming July 2002).
Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996);
Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Ballantine
Max L. Stackhouse (Ed.). God
and Globalization, Volumes 1, 2, and 3 (Harrisburg, PA:
Trinity Press International, 2001);
Peter Beyer. Religion
and Globalization (London: Sage Publications, 1994); Jeff Haynes (ed.)
Religion, Globalization and Political Culture in the Third World
(London: Macmillan Press LTD, 1999); “Religion and International
Relations,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies (London
School of Economics, 2000), (Vol. 29, No. 3).
Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God (Toronto: Ballantine Books,
2001); Karen Armstrong, “Was It Inevitable?
Islam Through History,” in How Did This Happen?
Terrorism and the New War (New
York: Public Affairs, 2001), 53-71.
Maryann K. Cusimano. Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for A Global Agenda
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 4.
David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton. Global
Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1999).
Maryann Cusimano Love, Unplugging the Cold War Machine: US Foreign Policy
and Globalization. Forthcoming,
An earlier version of the next four sections appeared in a conference paper,
Maryann Cusimano Love, “Bridging the Gap:
Globalization and Religion, and the Institutions of the U.S. Catholic
Church,” Panel on Contributions from the Social Sciences to the Study of
Religion: Globalization and Religion, American Academy of Religions
Conference, Denver, Colorado, November 20, 2001.
Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1996), 2.
Maryann K. Cusimano, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for A Global Agenda
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000).
The following remarks are taken from Maryann Cusimano Love,
“Globalization: A Virtue or a Vice,” Chapter Five in Globalization: A
Virtue or A Vice? Siamack
Shojai, Ed. (New York:
Praeger Publishers, Forthcoming 2001).
The White House, “The Engagement and Enlargement Strategy,” Washington,
DC: May 1995.
Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, DC:
Institute for International Economics, 1997);
Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism
Are Reshaping the World (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995); Hans-Henrik
Holm and Georg Sorensen Whose World Order?
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
United Nations Development Program Report.
Globalization With A Human Face (United Nations, 1999).
James Wolfensohn, President of the World Bank, “Coalitions for Change:
Address to the Board of Governors,” Washington, DC: September 28, 1999, 3.
Wolfensohn, President of the World Bank, “Coalitions for Change: Address
to the Board of Governors,” Washington, DC: September 28, 1999, 6.
Malloch Brown, “Forward,” United Nations Development Program Human
Development Report 1999.
Reinicke, “Global Public Policy,” Foreign Affairs,
November/December 1997, 128.
R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping
the World (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995); Samuel Huntington, Clash
of Civilizations, 1993;
James Mittelman, The
Globalization Syndrome: Transformation and Resistance
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000); Mark Juergensmeyer.
“The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism,” in Journal of
International Affairs, 1996, (Vol. 50, No. 1,).
Nations Development Program Report. Globalization
With A Human Face (United Nations, 1999).
K. Cusimano, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for A Global Agenda (New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000).
of International Associations, ed., Yearbook of International
Organizations 2000/2001 (Brussels, Belgium:
K.G. Saur Verlag, Munchen, 2000), 1762-1763.
Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies
in the Sociology of Deviance (New York:
The Free Press, 1963), 148; Ethan A. Nadelmann, "Global
Prohibition Regimes: the
Rvolution of Norms in International Society," International
Organization 44, 4, Autumn 1990, 482.
Paul Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civil Politics (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1996); Paul Wapner, "Politics
Beyond the State: Environmental
Activism and World Civic Politics," in Debating the Earth:
The Environmental Politics Reader.
John S. Dryzek and David Schlosberg, eds. (Oxford Univesity Press, 1999), 518-519.
Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents: The
Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan (New York: Free Press,
Information from the USCC and NCCB websites, as well as interviews.
U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Global Climate Change:A Plea for
Dialogue, Prudence,and the Common Good, A Statement of the U.S. Catholic
Bishops,” June 15, 2001. http://www.nccbuscc.org/sdwp/international/globalclimate.htm
David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global
Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1999).
National Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Bishop Urges Quick Action on
Extension of Religious Worker Visa Legislation.”
Washington, DC: June 29,
Statistics from the Official Catholic Directory (New York: P.J.
Kennedy & Sons, 1999).
Catholic Relief Services. “Mission
Statement” (Washington, DC:
Cardinal Law, “Statement on Insufficient Funding for Debt Relief.” September 2000.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops.
Renewing the Earth: An Invitation to Reflection and Action in
Light of Catholic Social Teaching (Washington,
DC: 1991). http://www.nccbuscc.org/sdwp/ejp/bishopsstatement.htm
Bishop Nicholas DeMarzo, “Statement on Trafficking in Persons.” May 16, 2000. http://www.nccbuscc.org/comm/archives/00-124.htm
National Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Bishops of America Call for
Increased Cooperation Addressing Migration Issue in Western Hemisphere,”
Washington, DC: Feb. 14, 2001.
This section is drawn from Maryann Cusimano Love, “Chapter 14,
Sovereignty’s Future: Changes Among Us,” in Beyond Sovereignty:
Issues for a Global Agenda. Second
Edition (New York: Wadsworth, forthcoming July 2002).
Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1994).
Peter L. Berger, “Four Faces of Global Culture,” The National
Interest (Fall 1997): 24.
Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, 1999.
Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the
World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Richard Rosecrance, “The Rise of the Virtual State,” Foreign Affairs
(July/@August 1996): 59B60.
Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Ballantine Books, 1996).
James N. Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1998), 37.
Maryann Cusimano Love, “NGOs: Politics Beyond Sovereignty,” in Maryann
Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda. Second
Edition (New York: Wadsworth, forthcoming July 2002).
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Parents pass on 'irrational fear' of spiders and snakes to their children
If you're terrified of spiders, or fearful of snakes, then blame your parents.
A study challenges the widely held view that we are hard-wired to fear creepy crawlies and instead suggests we learn to be scared of them in the first years of life.
Fear of snakes is one of the most common - and in Britain - irrational phobias. Half the population is thought to suffer even though most have never actually seen a snake.
Irrational phobia: People are not born with an innate fear of creepy crawlies - but we learn how to be scared of them in the first years of life, scientists believe
Experts at Rutgers University in Newark showed seven-month-old babies two videos side by side – one of a snake and another of a non-threatening animal.
At the same time, the babies were played a recording of either a fearful human voice or a happy one.
The infants spent more time looking at the snake videos when listening to the fearful voices, but showed no signs of fear themselves, the researchers report in the journal Current Directions in Psychological Science.
Past studies have shown that people can be taught to fear almost anything. In one Swedish study, scientists showed volunteers images of snakes, spiders, flowers and mushrooms while giving them a small electric shock.
Unsurprisingly, the volunteers learnt to associate all the images with fear.
In Britain half of women and a fifth of men are thought to be frightened of spiders, irrespective of whether they are dangerous or not.
Many scientists argue that the phobias, exploited by Hollywood movies such as Arachnophobia and Snakes on a Plane, evolved millions of years ago when our ancestors lived alongside a host of deadly reptiles and insects in Africa.
Natural selection is likely to favour people who stay away from potentially dangerous animals, they say.
But the latest study challenges the theory that snake and spider phobias are innate.
Babies recognise potentially dangerous animals, but are not yet scared of them
In a second experiment, three-year-olds were shown a screen of nine photographs and told to pick out a named object.
They identified snakes more quickly than flowers, and more quickly than other animals that looked similar to snakes such as caterpillars and frogs.
The children who were afraid of snakes were just as fast at picking them out than children who had not developed a snake phobia.
'What we’re suggesting is that we have these biases to detect things like snakes and spiders really quickly, and to associate them with things that are yucky or bad, like a fearful voice,' said Dr Vanessa LoBue of Rutgers University, an author of the paper.
Babies detect snakes quickly - and then learn to be afraid of them really quickly, she said.
In one Swedish study, scientists showed volunteers images of snakes, spiders, flowers and mushrooms while giving them a small electric shock.
The volunteers learnt to associate an electric shock with all the images - but the effect lasted a lot longer with snakes and spiders.
Another U.S. study found that monkeys raised in a laboratory are not afraid of snakes, but will learn to fear snakes more quickly than they learn to fear rabbits or flowers.
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The U.S. Navy is attempting to develop a stealth underwater system capable of providing worldwide “operational support and situational awareness,” according to a Jan. 11 release from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).
The announcement, called “Falling Up”, cites cost and complexity that limits the Navy from operating over vast areas.
That makes a lot of sense, considering the cost of ships, which are expensive and limited in scope – keep going up.
And as the technology of unmanned systems has been realized in Iraq & Afghanistan with the use of drones, the Navy wants to get in on the action.
The concept of DARPA’s Upward Falling Payloads (UFP) would be “deployable, unmanned, distributed systems that lie on the deep-ocean floor in special containers for years at a time.” They can then be woken up remotely and recalled to the surface to send back data.
The contact is broken down into three phases, which cover the communications, risers, and payload.
The communications aspect requires “key technology such as transmitters, UPF receivers, and methods for health monitoring.”
The required risers, which will help in the capsule’s ascent upon recall, “should be designed to balance the [flexibility] of hosting a range of possible payloads.”
But the most interesting aspect of the UFP project is in the last area: payload.
DARPA gives some examples of what could be inside the capsules, including waterborne or airborne cameras, sensors, decoys, network nodes, beacons, jammers, obscurants, or “other useful technology.”
read full darpa proposal: here===darpa proposal
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The National Hurricane Center issued a report on the impact of Hurricane Sandy and the amount of death and devastation is still shocking. Here are some of their findings and conclusions from other resources:
1. Hurricane Sandy ranks in the top twenty-five most deadly hurricanes ever to hit the United States. With the exception of Hurricane Katrina, it was the most deadly hurricane since Hurricane Audrey killed over 400 in 1957.
2. The total direct and indirect death toll for Hurricane Sandy is 161 people in the United States. A vast majority of those killed where in New York and New Jersey.
3. The hurricane is the second costliest hurricane in the nation's history. Only Hurricane Katrina did more damage.
4. The estimated damage for Hurricane Sandy is over $50 billion.
5. Over 650,000 homes were destroyed or seriously damaged.
6. At least 8.5 million people lost their power.
7. The Hurricane was the largest hurricane in size ever since records started being kept. Winds were felt as far away as Wisconsin and into Canada.
8. New York City storm surge smashed the previous records and reach just below 14 feet.
9. For every dollar spent in building future infrastructure to protect the city from storms, we will save $4 in future costs.
10. Shore Birds migrating might suffer because of the storm. The Delaware Bay (known as the Serengeti for birds) suffered major damage to its eco-systems.
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| 0.958124 | 295 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Launched in December 1981, the 941-'TK-208' was the first of the six Russian Typhoon-class heavy ballistic missile submarines to enter service. Typhoon-class submarines are the world's largest and were one of the most feared weapons of the Cold War as they prowled the world's oceans. They are quieter than their predecessors, and despite their enormous size, they are also more maneuverable. A few of these submarines may still be in service.
- Length: 570 ft (174 m)
- Beam: 75 ft (23 m)
- Draft: 39 ft (12 m)
- Displacement: 24,000 tons surfaced; 40,000 tons submerged
- Crew: 150
- Armament: 6 torpedo tubes, 20 R-39 ballistic missiles
- Maximum Speed: Approx. 26 knots
- Maximum Diving Depth: 500 meters
- 2 pressurized water nuclear reactors, 190 MW each
- 2 steam turbines, 50,000 hp each
- Propellers: two 7 blade fixed-pitch, shrouded.
This fully textured Bryce model is ready for placement into any Bryce scene. Modular design allows for easy customizing.
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| 0.944726 | 244 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Gas Chromatograph used for analyzing organic
chemical contaminants such as PCBs
The Environmental Monitoring Section in the DFWMR Bureau of Habitat annually plans, carries out and reports on biological monitoring related to contaminant trackdown, fish consumption advisories, contaminated site cleanup, and biotic disturbances resulting from pesticides and other chemicals and toxic substances in the aquatic environment. Monitoring occurs statewide and is conducted by staff of the Environmental Monitoring Unit, the Aquatic Toxicant Field Research Unit, and regional fishery biologists. Analytical and quality control work is conducted at the Hale Creek Field Station by staff from the Analytical Services and Quality Assurance Units. Results from fish tissue analyses are used by the NYS Department of Health to issue the annual health advisories for consuming sportfish and game. The advisory explains how to minimize your health risks from eating sportfish and game that are likely to contain elevated levels of chemical contaminants. The Ecotoxicology and Standards Unit develops water quality and other standards for protection of fish and wildlife and conducts risk assessments for pesticides proposed for registration in New York State. For further information on environmental monitoring in fish and wildlife, contact Wayne Richter at 518 402-8974.
- Some Xenobiotic Chemicals in Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and Striped Bass (Morone saxatilus) in the Hudson River (PDF) (1.04 MB). A study examining the concentration distributions and cogener distributions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) and PCBs in smallmouth bass in an approximate 246 km portion of the freshwater Hudson River and in striped bass from a 203 km portion of the tidal Hudson River.
- PCBs and Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Young-of-Year Fish From Western Portion of New York State's Great Lakes Basin, 2009 (PDF) (3.28 MB). This study reports the results of September 2009 sampling of young-of-year fish, collected from near-shore areas in New York State's western Great Lakes Basin, for PCB and organochlorine pesticide residues.
- 2009 Environmental Monitoring Report (PDF) (280 KB). A brief review of work conducted and/or reports finalized by the Bureau of Habitat's Environmental Monitoring Section in 2009. This section annually plans, carries out and reports on biological monitoring of contaminants and other toxic substances in the aquatic environment.
- New York State Fish Mortalities, 2009 (PDF) (374 KB). A summary report for fishery professionals describing the 90+ statewide freshwater and marine incidents reported to the Department's regional offices in 2009. The report describes causes, number of fish and waters affected, and makes comparisons to fish mortality data dating back to 1984.
- Chemical Residue Concentrations in Four Species of Fish and American Lobster from Long Island Sound, Connecticut and New York: 2006 and 2007 (PDF) (706 KB). A report of the bistate effort, supported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, to update information on chemical residues in important fisheries, and in fisheries with existing health advisories or having a significant potential for health advisories.
- Data Report for Residues of Organic Chemicals and Four Metals in Edible Tissues and Whole Fish for Fish Taken from the Buffalo River, New York (PDF) (785 KB). This report of chemical residue data from fish taken from the Buffalo River is to be used in conducting both human health and ecological risk assessments of the contaminated resource. These risk assessments are necessary to establish criteria for a dredging project designed to remove contaminants from the Buffalo River and to restore some of the beneficial uses of the resource.
- Analysis of Fall Fish Data Collected Under the Baseline and Remedial Action Monitoring Programs of the Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site from 2004 through 2009 (PDF) (661 KB). This report analyzes fish collected in the fall period during each of five years prior to dredging PCBs from the Hudson River in 2009, and compares their contaminant levels to fish collected in 2009, which had been exposed for four months to elevated water column PCB concentrations due to dredging.
- PCB, Organochlorine Pesticide and Mercury Changes in Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) from Five Finger Lakes, New York State (PDF) (1.02 MB). Data is presented on PCB, organochlorine and mercury residues measured episodically in lake trout of known age over an approximate 25 year period from four Finger Lakes (Canadice, Canandaigua, Keuka and Seneca), and from Cayuga Lake for nearly 40 years.
- Draft Screening and Assessment of Contaminated Sediment (PDF) (1.04 MB) This draft document provides information and guidance to DFWMR staff for screening, evaluating and assessing contaminated sediments in New York State.
- Dioxins and Furans in Fish Below Love Canal, New York (PDF) (4.45 MB) A report detailing the monitoring of young fish for dioxins and furans as a means for examining the efficacy of remedial work conducted at the Love Canal inactive hazardous waste site.
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The use of hydrogen is significant today, but tomorrow the demand could increase for a future of domestic energy use. Currently, we use hydrogen to make nitrogen fertilizers, to convert low-grade crude oils into transport fuels, and to process other chemicals. But in the future, as oil becomes more expensive, hydrogen could become the fuel of choice, to drive transportation and replace gasoline, diesel, and other fossil fuels. World consumption is already at 50 million tons per year of H2, and is growing at about 10% per year. The best part is, the technology is already available to produce hydrogen cheaply with a dramatic reduction in pollution. Hydrogen production is clean, and burning hydrogen releases only water vapor with no CO2. Nuclear power plants are ideal for this task: the production of hydrogen in large quantities. So, let’s talk about it.
Although hydrogen is common, it does not exist in nature by itself. It is part of other compounds such as water, H2O. Therefore, to get H2 from compounds, we must add energy through heat absorption to break the molecules apart. “There are two main ways for producing H2; thermochemical and electrolysis of water,” according to Dr. Ibrahim Khamis, IAEA.
- Thermochemical processes combine heat with chemicals to separate the water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen. This is a closed loop cycle where water is supplied and the chemicals are by-products of the final reaction and reused again.
- In high temperature electrolysis, energy is passed through the water which causes the water molecule to dissociated and produce H2 and 1/2 O2. About 96% of hydrogen, today, is made from fossil fuels: 50 % natural gas, 30 % from liquid hydrocarbons and 18 % from coal. The most current hydrogen separation processes use fossil fuels to raise the temperature and separate H2 from either water or natural gas. This process releases CO2, which adds to environmental pollution.
Pages: 1 2
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The HTTP protocol is stateless, but sometimes it is necessary to make web applications store or remember information. This is sometimes referred to as persistent storage, and it takes on a number of different forms. This six-part series of articles will explain the concept and show you various ways to give your web applications a memory.
Very often, youíll hear web developers to say (sometimes with a subtle sense of arrogance) that a certain application uses a persistent storage mechanism to save the data it needs to work properly. This is nothing but an elegant way to say that a web program uses a relational database, a simple text file or even a single cookie, to store pieces of data across different HTTP requests.
The stateless nature of the HTTP protocol frequently requires working with these storage mechanisms, even in their simplest form. Moreover, if youíve developed a few web-based programs that interact with MS SQL, MySQL, or an Oracle database, then youíve already created persistent data layers, whether or not you realized it.
Unquestionably, when using PHP 5 the most common type of persistent storage system associated with the language is one or multiple MySQL databases, but as I said before, cookies and plan text files also fall under this category. Typically, though a persistent storage mechanism will store chunks of data that donít have an explicit meaning when analyzed separately, such as strings or numbers, itís also possible to save entire objects, or a particular state of those objects.
This possibility brings to the table the concept of persistent objects, or objects that are capable of maintaining themselves or their state across several HTTP requests. The best part is that these objects are much simpler to create than you might think; the creation process requires only an intermediate background in using the object-oriented paradigm with PHP 5, as well as a basic idea of how to serialize and unserialize objects. Thatís all youíll need, really.
So, in this set of articles, Iím going to explain, with code samples, how to build persistent objects in PHP 5. First we'll use simple cookies to ďpersist,Ē and once you've properly digested the the key concepts, Iíll utilize text files, and finally, a single MySQL database table.
Finally, Iíd like to say that some of the classes that Iím going to build in the subsequent tutorials of this series will be inspired partially by the example class developed by Martin Jansen in its excellent article on Object Overloading in PHP 5. Kudos to him for that.
Having clarified that point, letís leave the boring theory behind and start learning the basics on creating persistent objects. Letís begin right away!
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Term Paper Categories
Nursing Ethics And Malpractice
|Term Paper Title
||Nursing Ethics And Malpractice
|# of Words
|# of Pages (250 words per page double spaced)
Nursing Ethics And Malpractice
In every nurse's career, the
nurse is faced with many legal or ethical dilemmas. One of the professional
competencies for nursing states that nurses should " integrate knowledge of
ethical and legal aspects of health care and professional values into nursing
practice". It is important to know what types of dilemmas nurses may face
during their careers and how they may have been dealt with in the past. It
is also important for nurses to understand what malpractice is and how they
may protect themselves from a malpractice suit.
LAW VS. ETHICS
It is important
to first understand the difference between law and ethics. Ethics examines
the values and actions of people. Often times there is no one right course
of action when one is faced with an ethical dilemma. On the other hand, laws
are binding rules of conduct. When laws are broken, it is punishable by an
There are four types of situations that pertain to law
vs. ethics. The first would be an action that is both legal and ethical. An
example of this would be a nurse carrying out appropriate doctor's orders as
ordered. A nurse may also be faced with an action that may be ethical but
not legal, such as allowing a cancer patient to smoke marijuana for medicinal
purposes. The opposite may arise where an action may be legal but not ethical.
Finally, an action may be neither legal or ethical. For example, when a nurse
makes a medication error and does not report it.
have many ethical duties to their clients. The main ethical duties are: nonmaleficence,
beneficence, fidelity, veracity, and justice.
The duty of nonmaleficence
is the duty to do no harm. The nurse first needs to ask him or herself what
harm is. When a nurse gives an injection she is causing the patient pain but
she is also preventing additional harm such as disease development or prolonged
pain. Therefore, the nurse must ask herself a second question about how much
harm should be tolerated.
The duty of beneficence is to do good. In a sense,
it is at the opposite end of nonmaleficence or at the positive end of the nonmaleficence
> beneficence continuum.
The duty of fidelity means to be faithful, or to
keep to your promises. Therefore, if a nurse tells his patient that he will
be back with her pain medication within fifteen minutes then he has an ethical
duty to follow through with what he has said.
Truth telling or, information
disclosure, is the principle behind the duty of veracity. The main argument
against information disclosure is that the disclosure of bad news may shatter
the patient's hope. Those in favor of information disclosure state that it
is part of the patient's rights to know what is happening and that patients
with potentially fatal illnesses are capable of handling the truth.
are three types of justice: distributive justice, compensatory justice, and
procedural justice. Distributive justice concerns the comparative treatment
of individuals in the allotment of benefits and burdens (Purtilo, 1993). An
example in which a question of distributive justice may arise is when there
is a limited amount of federal grants and research money is needed for AIDS,
cancer, and many other deserving medical research projects. Compensatory justice
deals with the compensation for wrongs that have been done (Purtilo, 1993).
An example of this would be a jury awarding a victim money based on pain and
suffering from medical malpractice.
Finally, procedural justice deals with
ordering something in a "fair" manner (Purtilo, 1993). An example would be
the process in which people are eligible to receive organ transplants, the
sickest patients are at the top of the list.
three ethical rights that are relevant to health care. These rights are: the
right to life, autonomy, and health care.
Most people think of antiabortion
activists when t...
Read entire document
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Research: The Sweet-Tooth-Fruit Connection
A new study claims people who crave sugary treats like cookies and cake are more likely to eat fruit than salty snack foods. Since fruit is nutrient dense, some experts believe these findings may redeem the eating habits of the typical “sugar-eating machine”. The Associated Press reports:
A group led by Cornell University marketing professor Brian Wansink looked at the eating habits of thousands of people and concluded the craving for something sweet spans both candy and fruit. The study published in the journal Appetite found people who eat candy, cakes and other sweet snacks eat more fruit than people who prefer salty snacks like nuts and chips.Wansink thinks this research can help ease kids into eating more fruit:
"I think it shows there is some hope for the typical dieter," he said. "... Maybe you're not just a sugar-eating machine — that there are some redeeming traits to your diet."
Wansink said parents and public health officials could use this information to encourage the phase-in of more fruits among kids and other people with a sweet tooth.However, not everyone is sweet on the study’s findings. Dr. Beverly Tepper, a professor of food science at Rutgers University has doubts:
"I think it's something that can be done a little bit at a time at the dinner table," he said.
She said it was difficult to interpret the results since the study was vague in defining terms like "fruit lovers" or what specific salty and sweet snacks were considered. She questioned how meaningful the statistical difference was that researchers used to conclude there was a higher connection between eating sweets and fruits compared to salty snacks and fruits.Dr. Fuhrman says the best way to get children to eat healthy foods, like fruit, is limit their exposure to junk food and let them gravitate towards good food on their own (of course parents need to eat healthy too!). This excerpt from Disease Proof Your Child explains further:
"I think it's an interesting idea," she said. "But I don't think this is the ideal approach to get at the question."
Control your children’s environment, limit their exposure to junk food, teach them about nutrition, and then as they get older allow them to make their own choices in the real world, outside the home. You may be surprised at how wise they are. As they have become older, my children are in more and more situations where poor food choices are present, and they choose to limit their consumption of unhealthy food. They are extremely sensible, but not perfect. It makes common sense to them to take proper care of their bodies, as they learned that eating right was a gift that parents give their children when they are loved, to protect their future. The ongoing sharing of information about life, ethics, art, education, and nutrition can be interwoven into the education they receive in the home in an entertaining, caring, and loving manner.
An important point to emphasize is that you should not purchase and bring into the home foods that you do not want your children to be eating. For example, if you buy ice cream and eat it, it makes no sense and is counterproductive to restrict your children from eating it. One sensible alternative is to have ice cream only outside the home, at a party or special occasion when the whole family has it together. Children understand that the reason it is consumed rarely is because it is not a safe food to consume more frequently. When eaten on a special occasion together there is no guilt or hidden “cheating” involved. In place of ice cream in the home, healthy desserts and ice cream made predominantly with fresh and frozen fruits can be eaten and enjoyed as high-fat, artificially sweetened, or sugary ice cream.
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Dr. Fuhrman's Executive Offices
4 Walter E. Foran Blvd.Flemington, NJ 08822
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|THE DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY||HOME||TEACHINGS||MESSAGES||RELIGIONS||DISCOURSE||SAINTS||SWAMI SIVANANDA|
What is Yoga?
Sri Swami Chidananda
Yoga is the practical aspect of the inner side of manís religion. The outer side of religion in its institutionalized and organized social aspect is its traditional form, made up of the periodical common or collective worship, be it in church, synagogue, mosque, temple or prayer house; its sacraments, ceremonial, ritual, etc. Whereas the inner side of religion in its deeply personal aspect of the individualís effort to spiritually progress towards God and obtain vital religious experience is termed Yoga.
The practice of Yoga implies and constitutes your sincere attempt to realize the ultimate truths of your religion as actual personal experience. Religion as an organized outer structure is a social phenomenon. And religion as an inner discipline and daily practice is its systematic mystical dynamics, is a spiritual phenomenon. The entire practice of Yoga is verily this universal latter part of religion just refered to above.
These two terms, religion and Yoga, are almost identical in their meaning. The term "religion" is of Latin origin, meaning the re-linking or binding man to God. The term "Yoga" is of Sanskrit origin, meaning uniting manís spirit with the Divine Spirit or God.
The special feature to be noted regarding Yoga is that it represents the universal spiritual mystic that underlies all religions of mankind, and is therefore a common and thus unifying factor in the religious life of human society.
Whereas, as an observed historical phenomenon, the diversified religious systems have tended to separate man from man and split up human society into mutually exclusive groups that refuse to harmonize with one another.
Yoga tends to bring out the inner unity that exists at the central core of all religions, and its non-sectarian techniques bring people closer in spiritual ties of inner unity.
Yoga is to religion what food and eating are to the science of nutrition. Yoga is to religion what actual physical exercise is to the subject of physical culture and national health. Yoga is a scientific methodology of religion and Yoga practice guides the Yoga follower in the path of practical religion towards the true goal of all religion, namely God-experience.
Yoga constitutes manís purposeful movement towards God, which actually comprises the very quintessence of all religion. This surely is the truth about Yoga.
While Yoga divides its practices to suit the different temperaments and capacities of the various individuals, it declares at the same time the indivisible oneness of the aim of all religious life, and the oneness of the goal of all religious strivings, namely Godóthe Universal Spiritówho is addressed by various names like Jehovah, Allah, Almighty Father, etc. Yoga and religion are inseparable if you understand them right.
Minus Yoga, religion would be but a dead shell lacking spiritual substance. Yoga is the unfolding process of practical religion, the inner personal religious life of each individual. It enriches your religious life, makes you a better human individual, and elevates the standard of human conduct and behaviour upon all levels of human relationship.
Last Updated: Sunday, 17-Oct-2004 08:51:50 EDT
Mail Questions, Comments & Suggestions to :
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Why Do Dogs Paw & Scratch at Certain Things and at Certain Times?
Everyone has a little bedtime ritual. For children, it's toothbrushing, stories, and lights-out. For their parents, it might be pillow fluffing or putting on satin pajamas. For dogs, it's pawing the ground - or the carpet - before settling in. Some dogs' routines are so precise that you can tell even before they start moving what they're getting ready to do. You can just see that look in the eye that says, “Okay, I'm going to turn around four times, paw six times, lie down, sigh, and fall right to sleep.”
Sparky Was Here!
A thick pile carpet or a plaid cedar bed doesn't need this sort of treatment, but dogs are creatures of habit. They tend to do the same things they've always done. Every dog develops a slightly different set of bedtime rituals, and for the most part, they'll follow these rituals every time they lie down. Once they get in the habit of pawing or scratching or circling around before they lie down, they're going to always want to do it.
Comfort and ritual are only part of the story. Another reason for pawing is that dogs are territorial animals, which means they stake out and claim areas that they consider theirs. One way of marking territory is to scratch at the ground. In the wild, dogs who happened by would see the scratch marks and know that the place was occupied. They'd smell the marks, too. Dogs have scent glands in their paws. Pawing at the carpet is one way of depositing their personal scent. Female dogs may be somewhat more likely than males to paw before lying down, especially if they happen to be pregnant. It's because they have a biological urge to prepare a safe, comfortable nest for their puppies.
It Also Feels Good to Scratch!
From the time they're puppies, dogs will scratch and dig just about anywhere - on the carpet, in the garden, even on linoleum floors. They're not really trying to make a bed in all of these places. They just enjoy scratching.
It feels great on their paws. If it's hot outside, they'll scratch and get a little cool dirt under their nails. Before long, they're hooked.
This is why some dogs spend an inordinate amount of time pawing the carpet or their beds before lying down.
They don't need to make things more comfortable than they already are. They're just enjoying the activity. And since they find it relaxing, it's a natural prelude to taking a nap. They don't necessarily have a goal in mind. They do it because it feels good...do you know someone who owns a dog? Our colorful dog charms are a perfect gift for any dog lover. Take advantage of our limited-time introductory sale price of just $3 with free shipping! Let me see it...
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Economy in Numbers
Thirty-Five Years of Economic Indicators
This article is from the November/December 2009 issue of Dollars & Sense: Real World Economics available at http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2009/1109ein.html
This article is from the November/December 2009 issue of Dollars & Sense magazine.
at a 30% discount.
For many years, the “Economy in Numbers” department provided current data on standard economic indicators: unemployment, wages, interest rates, and so on. Once that data became available in real time online, the department switched gears. This Economy in Numbers returns to its roots—but with data showing the trends over the past 35 years in some key indicators.
Two deep recessions in the 1970s and 1980s sent the official unemployment rate soaring over 10%, a height it did not approach again until this year. African-American unemployment has been higher, in both “good” times and bad.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Note: Not seasonally adjusted, 16 and over.
The inflation rate spiked over 10% during the 1970s and early 1980s but has been much lower since. In the current recession, the rate has actually been negative (“deflation”), belying fears of renewed inflation.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index.
Union density has been falling since the 1950s, but increased employer attacks and anti-labor government policies have sped the decline since the 1980s. Employers’ use of permanent replacements has made strikes difficult to win, and large strikes have become rare.
Sources: Gerald Mayer, Union Membership Trends in the United States, CRS Report for Congress, August 31, 2004, Table A1, Union Membership in the United States, 1930-2003; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Work Stoppages Involving 1,000 or More Workers, 1947-2008.
Income inequality has increased dramatically over the last three decades. As the average incomes of lower- and middle-income people have stagnated, the incomes of those at the top have soared.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Historical Income Tables—Households, Table H-3, Mean Household Income Received by Each Fifth and Top 5 Percent All Races: 1967 to 2006 (2006 Dollars).
More Economic Indicators:
Over the last 35 years, as the decline of unions and the shift toward “pro-business” government policies have tilted the balance of class power in favor of capitalists and against workers, a growing percentage of total income has gone to those who make their incomes from property rather than labor. Forms of income like business profits, rents, dividends, and interest make up a substantially larger share of total income than three decades ago, while wages and other labor income account for a smaller share.
Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Economic Accounts, Table 1.10., Gross Domestic Income by Type of Income .
Women’s labor-force participation rate—the percentage of working-age women who either work for pay or are actively looking for paid employment—has grown dramatically since the 1970s. The reasons include increased work opportunities for women, including the growth of employment in some predominantly female occupations and the entry of women into some fields from which they had been previously excluded, along with increasing consumption standards making “two-earner” families the norm. Most of the increase, from a little more than 40% to nearly 60%, took place between the mid 1970s and the early 1990s, with the rate increasing little over the last 15 years or so.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
The federal government has run deficits for most of the last 35 years. Deficits that do not rise and fall with the business cycle are known as “structural deficits” (in contrast to “cyclical deficits,” which are due to business-cycle downturns and turn to surplus during periods of economic growth). Surpluses run during a short period in the 1990s were reversed by a frenzy of tax cuts and spending increases under Bush II and, more recently, by a deep recession that has dramatically reduced tax revenues and increased some forms of “automatic” spending (adding a cyclical component to the structural deficit). “Stimulus” policies, which are designed to increase the total demand in the economy with one hand (by increasing government spending) but not withdraw demand with the other (by not raising taxes), deliberately increase deficits as a temporary anti-recession measure.
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Series FGDEF, Net Federal Government Savings.
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Chances are there are tons of people out there who don’t know much about your cause or how many people it affects. Make some catchy flyers so they can be in the know and learn how they can make a difference too.
First, make sure you are allowed to post your signs around school or on telephone poles and community bulletin boards. If your town won’t allow you to post around town, see if you can pass out flyers at your town hall, public library, a local business or at school.
Do Some Research
Gather some data for the signs and figure out how you want to present it. DoSomething.org has some great info on animal homelessness including facts about spaying and neutering and how to be sure your new pet comes from a responsible breeder , as well as a list of ways to fight animal homelessness .
Find out about some cause-relevant stuff in your area. Check out DoSomething.org's project page to find out what young people are doing to fight animal cruelty in your town. And don't be afraid to call your local ASPCA or Humane Society to ask about the statistics on animal cruelty in your area. Don’t be afraid to include this info on your posters.
See if you can get a quote from an expert. You can handle this during your call to the ASPCA. See if they can connect you with someone who has adopted an animal that was once abused. Interview him/her and include it in your campaign. Real stories are powerful!
Sometimes pictures make stronger statements than words and are as much a part of the message as the chosen words, so don’t be afraid to use them. If that woman who adopted the battered animal is willing to show his or her face, let them!
Power in People
Now that you’ve got all this info, get some friends together to help you design and complete the posters or flyers. They can also help you put them up when you’re done.
Variety is Key
Keep in mind, that in order to make this campaign effective, you have to vary your strategy. So think about making a few different kinds of signs: Small flyers to pass out to people; Big, colorful posters to post on telephone polls: you want these to stand out because people will be driving and/or walking by them so you want to grab their attention; Informative flyers to post on cork boards or town message boards.
Timing is everything so find a time that is cause appropriate. April is Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Month, but if you’ve missed the date, don’t be hesitant to start a campaign regardless.
Think of strange places you can put up posters and see if you can get permission to post them there. Marketers have put up ads in odd places because it’s an effective tactic. Like the doors in bathroom stalls of restaurants, cafes, and/or even in restrooms of your local bus or train station. Try it out!
Post and Repost
While going out one day and posting is great, keep in mind that weather may damage posters so you’ll want to go out periodically and repost your signs. You also won’t catch everyone in one day so schedule a few days to go out and distribute fliers.
The Extra Mile
You can also recruit speakers to come in and speak to students at your school, church, or community center about your cause. Visit your local animal shelter or hospital to see if you can speak to someone about cases of animal cruelty he/she has witnessed. You can even go to your local police station and ask for resources. They’re usually more than willing to help support a positive cause.
And don't forget to let DoSomething.org know the amazing things you've done! You can also show off what you've done on our projects page .
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Einstein's Most Important Writings
Part of the Einstein For Dummies Cheat Sheet
Albert Einstein shared his scientific theories and discoveries through numerous books and papers. His theory of relativity made its first appearance in 1905 but was expanded upon and explained in many subsequent writings. The most important of Einstein's writings are listed here:
1905 March 17. The light quantum paper: "On a heuristic point of view concerning the production and transformation of light." This paper gave birth to quantum theory.
1905 June 30. The special theory of relativity: "On the electrodynamics of moving bodies." In this paper, Einstein stated that the laws of physics are the same for all observers in non-accelerated motion and that, for these observers, the speed of light never changes.
1905 September 27. The E = mc2 paper: "Does an object's inertia depend on its energy content?" This paper explained Einstein's discovery that mass and energy are aspects of the same thing; mass and energy are equivalent, and one can be converted into the other.
1911 June. The bending of light prediction: "On the effect of gravity on the propagation of light." This prediction (which was confirmed in 1919) was based on the idea that large objects, like the sun, warp space.
1915 November 15. "On the general theory of relativity." This paper extended Einstein's special theory of relativity to include all types of motion. It took Einstein four years to develop the general theory.
1915 March 20. Einstein's first book, The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity. This book provided the first complete description of his general theory of relativity.
1916 December. Einstein's best known book, Relativity: The Special and General Theory. This book, which has been reprinted continuously in every major language in the world, contains an accessible description of the two theories of relativity. It uses simple high school mathematics to explain the theories.
1917 The cosmological constant: "Cosmological observations on the general theory of relativity." In this paper, Einstein introduced a correction term to prevent his equations from describing an expanding universe. Although he failed to predict the expansion of the universe (which was discovered later), his cosmological constant is now helping to explain observations about the shape of space and the rate of expansion of the universe.
1935 April. The quantum reality problem: "Can the quantum-mechanical description be considered complete?" Einstein wasn't convinced that quantum theory described reality. Most physicists disagreed with him on this issue. In this paper, he proposed a clever experiment to settle the argument. This experiment was finally performed in the 1980s, and the results indicate that Einstein may have been wrong in this case.
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The Roeliff Jansen Kill watershed is a major tributary of the Hudson River, which empties to the Hudson at Linlithgo. Most of the watershed lies outside of Dutchess County in Columbia County, although parts of the northern Dutchess Towns of Northeast, Stanford, Pine Plains, Milan, and Red Hook, are within the Roeliff Jansen Kill watershed. Major streams in the watershed include the Roeliff Jansen Kill and Shekomeko Creek.
According to the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the Roeliff Jansen Kill is a large cool-water tributary with a medium stream gradient located six miles south of the city of Hudson at river kilometer 175 (river mile 109). The riverine habitat includes six miles of accessible area, extending from the mouth to a natural barrier at Bingham Mills, which is available to migratory and resident fishes. In 1992, based on macroinvertebrate sampling, the water quality in the Roeliff Jansen Kill was found to be good (non-impacted), but this may have changed since that time. The area provides important spawning habitat for alewife, blueback herring, white perch, and resident smallmouth bass and the introduced brown trout (Salmo trutta). At the mouth of the Roeliff Jansen Kill, there are shallow waters that provide important spawning sites for American shad. Small areas of marsh and mudflats at the mouth support at least one rare plant species, the kidneyleaf mud-plantain. (For more information, see: http://usasearch.gov/search?query=roeliff&v%3Aproject=firstgov&affiliate=fws.gov).
Parts of the Roeliff Jansen Kill are also considered to be part of the Harlem Valley calcareous wetlands complex, which encompasses the valleys and adjacent ridges in the Taconic Highlands of easternmost Putnam, Dutchess, and Columbia Counties in New York. According to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the northern portion of the Panhandle wetlands and the Drowned Lands area drain into the Roeliff Jansen Kill. The area encompasses the calcareous wetlands, uplands, and ridge-top habitat which support rare reptiles, waterfowl, and raptors, as well as rare plant habitats and communities. Most of the wetlands and uplands in this habitat complex are in private ownership (For more information, see: http://library.fws.gov/pubs5/web_link/text/hvc_form.htm).
Top threats to the Roeliff Jansen Kill include non-point source runoff from agricultural operations in the watershed (including chemical and biological), and increasing population density and development, which is exacerbating problems of flooding, erosion, deposition, water quality impairment, and ecosystem degradation.
Double click on the map to zoom in, or click on an icon to get more information about a public access site!
View a larger version of this map
Indicates a public access site for the Roeliff Jansen Kill
Indicates a public access point to the Hudson River or a Hudson Direct drainage stream
Indicates a public access site on the Casperkill
Indicates a public access site on the Fall Kill
Indicates a public access site on the Fishkill Creek
Indicates a public access site on the Ten Mile River or a tributary to the Ten Mile River
Indicates a public access site on the Wappinger or a tributary to the Wappinger
Roeliff Jansen Park, Hillsdale, NY
The park’s organization is is through many different partnerships. After the purchase of this land, the NYS Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation formed an innovative partnership with the Town of Hillsdale, NY, which manages the park. Roeliff Jansen Park, PO Box 305, Hillsdale, NY, 12529. The park is located at 9140 Route 22, Hillsdale, NY 12529.
Columbia Land Conservancy
The Columbia Land Conservancy works with the community to conserve the farmland, forests, wildlife habitat and rural character of Columbia County, strengthening connections between people and the land.
Cornell Cooperative Extension Dutchess County
CCEDC provides research-based information and resources to watershed organizations and officials in Dutchess County to help protect natural resources.
Hawthorne Valley Farm, Farmscape Ecology Program
The Farmscape Ecology Program is a research and outreach branch of the Hawthorne Valley Association, its general focus is agriculture and land use change in Columbia County.
Hudson River Watershed Alliance:
Hudsonia Ltd., founded in 1981, is a not-for-profit institute for research, education, and technical assistance in the environmental sciences.
Stream Alliance of Northern Dutchess (SAND)
Dutchesswatersheds.org does not endorse any of the above organizations, or the information provided on their websites.
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| 0.88801 | 1,041 | 2.75 | 3 |
In 165 B.C.E., under the penalty of death, Jews were prohibited from studying sacred texts or celebrating Jewish holidays. Also, the holy temple had been defiled with pagan rituals, and they had been ordered to worship other gods. Maccabees, a small group of faithful Jews, managed to drive the Syrian army out of Jerusalem and reclaim their temple. Within the temple, there was a huge menorah that had to be lit. This light was supposed to remain always lit within the temple. But the sacred olive oil needed to burn in the menorah took eight days to prepare. And there was only a one-day supply of oil on hand. They decided to light the flame anyway. And, a great miracle occurred. The oil burned continuously for eight days, long enough for new oil to be purified.
Therefore, Hanukkah has been celebrated for eight days to recall the miracle when the menorah burned for eight days with only one day’s supply of oil in the temple. This Festival of Lights is marked by lighting chanukiot, special eight-branched candelabras with a ninth branch for a so-called “helper” candle, and playing with a driedle, a four-sided top with a Hebrew letter on each side that represent the phrase “A great miracle happened there.” Also, latkes (potato pancakes) and soofganiyot (doughnuts) are eaten on Hanukkah because they are fried in oil, to symbolize the miracle of the oil that lasted for eight days instead of one.
The Brattleboro Area Jewish Community will be celebrating Hanukkah on Friday evening, December 15, the last night of Hanukkah, with “Latkes and Lights,” starting at 6 pm. Bring a menorah and candles to light at 6 pm. Then, as prepared latkes are warming in the oven, there will be a brief service to welcome Shabbat. The service will be followed by stories, music, songs, dreidel-playing, and a potluck supper. Bring already-cooked latkes and/or salad to share. BAJC will provide applesauce, sour cream, and drinks.
For more information visit www.bajcvermont.org.
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| 0.964622 | 478 | 3.078125 | 3 |
600 new species discovered in Madagascar over the past decade
Madagascar, the world's fourth largest island, is home to a huge variety of species due to its long isolation from the continents. Species evolved on Madagascar that are found nowhere else.
WWF compiled a list of the new Madagascan species in their report Treasure Island: New biodiversity in Madagascar. Excitingly, 41 mammals were found - it is rare to find such numbers of undiscovered mammals in one country.
These mammals including Madame Berthe's mouse lemur, believed to be the smallest lemur in the world and weighing a tiny 30 grams. Scientists also discovered a colour-changing gecko to rival Madagascar's famous chameleons.
Nanie Ratsifandrihamanana, WWF Madagascar's Conservation Director said "This report shows once again how unique and irreplaceable the different ecosystems in Madagascar hosting all these different species are."
Despite the fantastic new species, the report also has worrying news. Madagascar's fragile habitats face numerous threats, but deforestation is one of the most serious.
Scientists suggest that the island has already lost 90% of its original forest cover. The majority of people use wood for cooking and building materials, putting enormous pressure on Madagascar's forests.
Civil unrest in 2009 damaged the tourist industry, which is centred on wildlife and conservation, leading to a valuable loss of income for people protecting Madagascar's unique biodiversity. Over 70% of species on Madagascar are found nowhere else.
With deforestation and habitat loss continuing at an alarming rate, these endemic species are under increasing pressure.
Droughts are causing farmers to abandon crops and practice unsustainable fishing methods. Already depleted fishing stocks are decreased even further.
"These spectacular new species show what's at stake in Madagascar and what can be lost if we don't save it" says Nanie Ratsifandrihamanana. "WWF Madagascar will put all its effort and money towards protecting priority land- and seascapes. By protecting the environment and the island's biodiversity, we are helping both the local communities and national government to attain more sustainable long-term development goals, and helping the world to protect irreplaceable natural resources."
Top Image Credit: Grey Mouse Lemur (microcebus murinus) © David Thyberg
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| 0.919985 | 464 | 3.515625 | 4 |
In the ongoing national conversation about the role of clean, alternative sources of power, various measures exist to gauge the success of these industries in grabbing a bigger share of our nation’s total energy consumption.
A recent measure made it clear that wind power has arrived. The Midwest Independent System Operator (MISO) announced that wind power had reached a peak by surpassing 10,000 megawatts (MW). Specifically, the output from wind reached a peak of 10,012 MW overnight on Nov. 23, 2012.
The peak represents a steady growth trend in wind power for the region, reflecting the region’s investment in the industry over a six-year period. MISO, the regional grid operator for 11 states and the Canadian province of Manitoba, first started integrating wind power into its market operations in 2006. The region enjoyed a little more than 1,000 MW of capacity at the end of that year. Wind power has expanded steadily since then, reaching a total generating capacity of nearly 12,500 MW as of September 2012. MISO reports that another 7,000 MW of projects are currently advancing through various stages of interconnection.
The 10,000 MW peak also represents a milestone for the region by various other measures. For example, MISO reports that the Nov. 23 output from wind accounted for more than 25 percent of the total generation output being used at the time. By comparison, that would exceed the total renewable-energy portfolio standard of many states.
At 12,500 MW, the total wind-generating capacity accounts for about 9.5 percent of MISO’s total market generating capacity of 132,313 MW. Wind is also by far the largest source of renewable power for the region. Generating capacity for all renewables is 14 percent for the region. By contrast, coal represents 48 percent of the region’s total generating capacity, while gas and oil represent a combined 32 percent.
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| 0.942582 | 389 | 3.296875 | 3 |
1. What are the issues ?
It is estimated that up to 5 children per day may be victims of sexual exploitation in Pakistan. Pakistan is also particular in being one of the only countries in the world where boys are as, if not more, vulnerable to sexual abuse than girls, where this exploitation is culturally accepted and for which there exists no legal protection.
One of the highest levels of child trafficking in the world has developed in Pakistan where a situation of permanent migration exists due to its extremely porous borders. The figures are alarming: it is estimated that between 200 and 400 people may be “passed” illegally across its borders each day. Internal trafficking supplies the brothels of the big cities and the country is a hub, constituting a destination, place of transit as well as a provider of trafficked children for the Middle East and, more recently, Europe.
2. What is the objective of the project ?
The main objective of the project is to protect vulnerable children and to take children who are victims of sexual exploitation into care in order to facilitate their psychosocial and economic rehabilitation.
This project also encourages a progressive transformation within the communities themselves, with the participation of the groups concerned, women and children included, through awareness-raising activities.
Furthermore, the project aims to analyse the causes, trends and perceptions (social and cultural) related to exploitation, sexual abuse and child trafficking in Pakistan in connection with the countries of the region in order to improve understanding of the issue and to develop effective strategies.
3. What are the activities carried out by the project?
- Analysis and research into the phenomenon of child sexual exploitation
- Creation of a resource centre
- Literacy, schooling and education through education programmes
- Training of teachers in innovative and modern pedagogy
- Provision of counselling and psychosocial rehabilitation in centres of protection for youths and children who are marginalised or victims
- Medical care of children
- Legal aid
- Economic rehabilitation through vocational training and micro-credit (small loans)
- Education campaigns in the community
- Continuous awareness-raising campaigns in the media
- Training, mobilisation, networking and coordination of actors and beneficiaries
4. Which groups are targeted by the project?
- Children from rural areas or slums that constitute sources of trafficking (prioritising girls, children not in school, very poor families or ethnic minorities)
- Children in the street or bus terminals
- Afghan refugee children
- Child labourers
- Children who have been rescued from a situation of trafficking or prostitution and sheltered in an NGO or state-run centre
- Adolescents in prison
- Various adult resource persons in the field of child protection:
- Staff of non-governmental organisations, associations, charities (educators, social workers, medical staff, managers…)
- Institutional actors (police, border police, local and federal authorities, legislative and judicial authorities, community leaders and village committees, staff of youth detention centres
- Professionals who play a role in child protection (doctors, lawyers, the media, journalists…)
- Others (teachers, travel agents, local youth clubs, families and villagers…)
5. What are the main achievements of this project?
- 1770 children have received informal education based on life skills in 12 educational centres for street children
- 120 children have been enrolled in four schools of informal education
- 2928 children have had their awareness raised regarding the subject of trafficking related to camel racing and are being taught life skills
- 200 children (particularly girls) have received technical training in Quetta
- 1588 children have benefited from a safe environment in the centres of protection
- 33 children have been admitted to the children’s home at Rawalpindi
- 70 street children have been reunited with their families in various parts of the country
- 28 street children addicted to drugs have undergone a 3-month rehabilitation programme in Karachi. From these 28 children, 7 have been reunited with their families.
- 271 street children have begun vocational training in Karachi
- 111 children have been taken into emergency refuges in Lahore and Peshawar
- 405 children repatriated from the Gulf were identified at Rahimyar Khan
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| 0.944616 | 862 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Say, “Now we put it all together. Got your pencil ready? I’m going to make two groups of fish. Write the number for each one. Put a ‘plus’ sign between them, and an ‘equals’ sign after. How many all together? Write it after the ‘equals’ sign. You’re making a math sentence code! Write it and you get the fish.” In this activity, you’re helping your child make a crucial bridge between concrete reality and abstract math symbols for it. It’s almost impossible to practice this too much.
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| 0.935414 | 131 | 4.46875 | 4 |
the teacher might say, “That’s a good
answer. Can you think of anything else?”
Parallel tasks focus on the same big
ideas but have different levels of difficulty,
Creating Open Questions
Teachers create open questions by
allowing for a certain level of ambiguity.
2 For example, rather than asking
for two numbers that add up to 37,
a teacher could ask for two numbers
that add up to about 40. Or instead of
asking for the third angle size in a triangle with one angle of 20° and another
of 38°, a teacher could ask for three
possible angle sizes in a triangle with at
least one narrow (or sharp) angle.
Students may initially be
uncomfortable with ambiguity in a
subject that has, until now, seemed so
clear-cut. However, they almost always
warm up to and appreciate the latitude
that this ambiguity allows. Four strategies for creating open questions follow.
Strategy 1: Start with the answer. A
teacher can take a straightforward
question and present it backward. For
example, instead of asking, “What is
23 + 38?” a teacher could say, “I added
two numbers. The sum is 61. What
numbers might I have added?”
Students can provide multiple
responses, including 60 + 1, a simple
and straightforward answer that might
be accessible to students who have
struggled with more closed questions.
Teachers can use Strategy 1 to probe
student thinking in computation or
measurement. They might ask,
n The area of a rectangle is 20 square
inches. What might be its length and width?
thus taking into account the variation
in student readiness.
Strategy 2: Ask for similarities and
differences. Asking students how two
things are alike and how they are
different can provide teachers with
valuable assessment for learning information. A teacher might ask,
n How are the numbers 4 and 9 (or 350
and 550 or 100 and 1,000, and so on)
alike? How are they different? (Students
might point out whether the numbers are
even or odd or divisible by numbers other
n How is the formula for the perimeter
of a rectangle like the formula for its
area? How is it different? (Students might
indicate that both formulas involve using
values for the length and width of the
rectangle, but that one involves addition
and the other doesn’t.)
n A pattern starts at £, and you add D
each time. Choose values for £ and D.
Will 40 be in your pattern? Explain.
Strategy 4: Ask students to create a
sentence. Asking students to create a sentence using specific mathematics vocabulary is a good way to assess student
understanding of the vocabulary and to
foster creativity. A teacher might ask,
n Use the words even, more, and always,
and the number 10 in a sentence. (
Students might say, “If you add 10 to an
even number more than 10, the answer
is always even and always has at least two
n Use the words length, width, formula,
and the number 10 in a sentence.
n Use the words increasing, decreasing,
pattern, and the number 18 in a sentence.
n A 3D shape has 8 vertices. What might
it look like? (Students might suggest a
n How are these two patterns alike? How
are they different?
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, . . .
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, . . .
Strategy 3: Allow choice in the data
provided. Students are empowered by
the opportunity to choose one or more
numbers with which to work. For
example, teachers might ask,
n Choose a number for the box on the
left. What is the length of the hypotenuse
of this right triangle?
n The 10th term in a pattern is 36. What
might the 8th and 9th terms be? Describe
the pattern. [Students might think
36 = 26 + 10, so the pattern might start
27 ( 26 + 1), 28 ( 26 + 2), and so on, with
the students realizing that the 8th and 9th
terms are 34 ( 26 + 8) and 35 ( 26 + 9).]
n Choose a value for the fourth number
in the series that follows and calculate the
mean: 4, 5, 6, ___.
Another approach to differentiation is
using parallel tasks. Although test creators think of parallel tasks as having
similar levels of difficulty, in this
context parallel tasks focus on the same
big ideas but have different levels of
difficulty, thus taking into account the
variation in student readiness.
For example, using multiplication to
simplify the counting of equal groups is
useful no matter the size of the numbers
involved in the computation. Parallel
tasks might allow students who are
ready to deal with only simpler values to
use those simpler values, whereas students who are ready for more complex
work could use more challenging
values. Common questions that focus
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| 0.90845 | 1,110 | 4.375 | 4 |
A campaign team (which may be as small as one inspired individual, or a heavily-resourced group of professionals) must consider how to communicate the message of the campaign, recruit volunteers, and raise money. Campaign advertising draws on techniques from commercial advertising and propaganda. The avenues available to political campaigns when distributing their messages is limited by the law, available resources, and the imagination of the campaigns’ participants. These techniques are often combined into a formal strategy known as the campaign plan. The plan takes account of a campaign’s goal, message, target audience, and resources available. The campaign will typically seek to identify supporters at the same time as getting its message across.
Campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers, radio, television, etc.) to influence the decisions made for and by groups. These ads are designed by political consultants and the campaign’s staff.
The public media (in US parlance ‘free media’ or ‘earned media’) may run the story that someone is trying to get elected or to do something about such and such.
Mass meetings, rallies and protests
Holding protests, rallies and other similar public events (if enough people can be persuaded to come) may be a very effective campaign tool. Holding mass meetings with speakers is powerful as it shows visually, through the number of people in attendance, the support that the campaign has.
Modern technology and the internet
The internet is now a core element of modern political campaigns. Communication technologies such as e-mail, web sites, and podcasts for various forms of activism to enable faster communications by citizen movements and deliver a message to a large audience. These Internet technologies are used for cause-related fundraising, lobbying, volunteering, community building, and organizing. Individual political candidates are also using the internet to promote their election campaign.
Signifying the importance of internet political campaigning, Barack Obama’s presidential campaign relied heavily on social media, and new media channels to engage voters, recruit campaign volunteers, and raise campaign funds. The campaign brought the spotlight on the importance of using internet in new-age political campaigning by utilizing various forms of social media and new media (including Facebook, YouTube and a custom generated social engine) to reach new target populations. The campaign’s social website, my.BarackObama.com, utilized a low cost and efficient method of mobilizing voters and increasing participation among various voter populations. This new media was incredibly successful at reaching the younger population while helping all populations organize and promote action.
A husting, or the hustings, was originally a physical platform from which representatives presented their views or cast votes before a parliamentary or other election body. By metonymy, the term may now refer to any event, such as debates or speeches, during an election campaign where one or more of the representative candidates are present.
- Writing directly to members of the public (either via a professional marketing firm or, particularly on a small scale, by volunteers)
- By distributing leaflets or selling newspapers
- Through websites, online communities, and solicited or unsolicited bulk email
- Through a new technique known as Microtargeting that helps identify and target small demographic slices of voters
- Through a whistlestop tour – a series of brief appearances in several small towns
- Hampering the ability of political competitors to campaign, by such techniques as counter-rallies, picketing of rival parties’ meetings, or overwhelming rival candidates’ offices with mischievous phone calls (most political parties in representative democracies publicly distance themselves from such disruptive and morale-affecting tactics, with the exception of those parties self-identifying as activist
- Organizing political house parties
- Using endorsements of other celebrated party members to boost support (see coattail effect)
- Remaining close to or at home to make speeches to supporters who come to visit as part of a front porch campaign
- Vote-by-mail, previously known as ‘absentee ballots’ have grown significantly in importance as an election tool. Today, campaigns in most states must have a strategy in place to impact early voting
- Sale of official campaign merchandise (colloquially known as chum, in reference to the baiting technique) as a way of commuting a competitor’s popularity into campaign donations, volunteer recruitment, and free advertising
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| 0.951747 | 891 | 3.375 | 3 |
Oral Cancer (cont.)
IN THIS ARTICLE
Researchers are studying how people can make changes in their lifestyles to reduce their risk for cancer. One lifestyle change that may reduce the risk for oral cancer is eating fruits and fiber-rich vegetables.
Take the following steps to prevent oral cancer:
Some combinations, such as using tobacco and drinking alcohol, increase the risk more than using tobacco or drinking alcohol. The same is true for using marijuana if you have high-risk HPV infection.
What To Think About
Treatment for oral cancer is usually provided by a team of doctors who are experts in treating head and neck cancers. The team may include a medical oncologist, a head and neck surgeon, an oral (maxillofacial) surgeon, or a radiation oncologist. Depending on your treatment, you may have help from other specialists, such as a speech therapist or a plastic surgeon.
Clinical trials for oral cancer look at new ways to treat oral cancer. Treatments being studied include:
Sometimes a clinical trial offers the best treatment choice. Your medical team will let you know if there is a clinical trial that might be good for you. For more information, see www.cancer.gov/clinical_trials or http://clinicaltrials.gov.
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
Find out what women really need.
Pill Identifier on RxList
- quick, easy,
Find a Local Pharmacy
- including 24 hour, pharmacies
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| 0.922184 | 349 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Hands-free is probably the future of computer interaction. Gesture control is already moving toward this future and now we can add eye-tracking to the roster. Just like many other technologies we cover here at Engineering on the Edge, eye-tracking tech has long been a staple of science fiction. What could be easier than pointing your peepers at part of a screen?
Tobii has developed functional eye-tracking hardware and software compatible for Windows 8 with its Tobii REX interface. The hardware takes the form of a slim sensor that looks similar to a Kinect. Calibrating the Gaze software requires following a moving dot around the screen with your eyes, and you’re ready. Users can move around the screen and select specific areas just by using their eyes. Continue reading
I’d guess that, as a child, almost everyone had a friend that loved remote controlled toys. I knew a kid that had a bunch of remote controlled cars, and another that had a remote controlled plane (I’m pretty sure he crashed it). I was never all that interested in that sort of thing when I was younger, but even I think this new device is pretty cool.
Puzzlebox has designed a toy helicopter called the Orbit, which uses EEG to control its movement. The Orbit uses a NeuroSky MindWave Mobile EEG headset, a sort of miniature broadcast tower (made via 3D printing), and a smartphone to control the movements of a miniature helicopter. The harder you think, the more it moves around. Continue reading
Microsoft has been busy incorporating new user interface technology into its products for some time, and now scientists at the company’s University of Cambridge lab (along with help from Newcastle University and the University of Crete) have come up with a new gesture recognition device that builds a 3D model of the user’s hand to virtually control electronic devices. Continue reading
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| 0.961593 | 388 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Luxuriant means "characterized by thick or abundant growth." It is usually applies to the growth of plants, fur, or hair. The noun form is luxuriance.
Luxurious means "characterized by wealth and comfort," more directly from our modern word luxury. The noun form is luxury or luxuriousness.
Examples: Captain Cook named the place Botany Bay because of the luxuriant jungle vegetation surrounding it.
They checked into the most luxurious suite in the hotel.
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| 0.922439 | 101 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Threatened Species Unit, Western
The State of New South Wales, Department of Environment and Conservation, 2004
1 Current conservation status
Caladenia arenaria is listed on Schedule 1 (endangered) of the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act, 1995 (TSC Act, 1995), and on Part 1 (endangered) of the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999. The species is known from five locations, with a total population of around 2,000 individuals. Under the modified IUCN criteria of Keith et al. (1997) the species is ranked as endangered due to the restricted number of populations, small total area occupied, limited capacity to regenerate after a decline, and occurrence outside conservation reserves.
Caladenia arenaria is a tuberous, summer-deciduous perennial herb of the spider caladenia group. A single hairy leaf up to 15 cm long emerges from the ground in autumn or early winter from the tuber, with the flower stem appearing later from the centre of the leaf. Usually one, but occasionally two flowers are produced on a stem from c. 10 30cm high. The flowers are large, with the individual floral segments (tepals) being up to 6 cm long. The segments are white to pale yellow, narrow, and taper to fine maroon tips (the colour being conferred by crimson glandular hairs). The labellum (lip) is of a similar colour to the tepals but the tip is often marked with crimson. Flowering occurs from late August until early October. If fertilised the ovary develops into a capsule, and after a maturation of 3-4 weeks the seeds are released as the capsule dries. The above ground parts wither and die, and the plant persists underground as a tuber over summer and early autumn.
Caladenia arenaria is potentially a very long-lived perennial herb. At the commencement of growth before the winter spring growing season the more or less spherical summer dormant tuber (mother tuber) produces a new tuber (daughter tuber) which matures in spring at the end of the growing season. By this stage the mother tuber is exhausted and dies. In this way the whole plant is renewed annually and theoretically has somatic immortality. Reproduction in C. arenaria is almost exclusively by seed; vegetative production (occurring with the production of two rather than one daughter tuber) is very rare.
Plants are self fertile (ie. able to produce seed if pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same individual) but most seed production is believed to be the result of outcrossing (pollen transfer between different plants). Seeds are extremely small and without nutrient stores; they are believed to have a short longevity (perhaps one or two seasons only).
Caladenia arenaria has been beautifully illustrated by Fitzgerald (1882) and also by Bernhardt (1993) and Bishop (1996).
Caladenia arenaria was described by Fitzgerald in 1882 from the "Edwards, Murrumbidgee, Yanco and Columbo Rivers, growing on the sand-hills among pines" (Fitzgerald 1882). Collections cited by Fitzgerald in the 1880s were from Deniliquin Station, Bethungra and Murrumburra. The linear distance between Deniliquin and Bethungra is about 330 km. Other collections determined as C. arenaria from the 1880s were from Yass and just north of Mudgee. If these specimens (particularly the specimen from Mudgee which appears to be an outlier by approximately 250 km) are C. arenaria, the range of the species exceeded 500 km.
The species was rediscovered in 1983 on a roadside north of Narrandera. In 1996 the species was found on private property near Urana, and survey in 1998, 1999 and 2000 has revealed three other populations on State Forest in the Riverina (G. Robertson unpubl. data; Carr 2000, 2001). Two of these populations in State Forest account for the bulk of the total known population. In Lonesome Pine State Forest there are an estimated 1,000+ individuals growing in about 5 ha. In Buckingbong State Forest over 200 were counted in about 50 ha of forest, but the plants are scattered. Total size of the populations or sub-populations is not known. In Yarranjerry State Forest the numbers are not known. The distance between the northernmost and southernmost populations is around 150 km. The estimated population numbers and area occupied by each population are given below:
|Area of population (ha.)||0.5||12.5||60||45.6||5.1|
There are reports that may be attributable to C. arenaria at two other locations in the south western slopes and Riverina. These locations were surveyed in 1999 and 2000, but no plants were found despite precise location data. In 2000 at one of these locations a hybrid (one plant) considered to be C. arenaria x C. callitrophila (another Riverina endemic) was found. At the other location an experienced orchidologist found a plant in 1996. Both sites show evidence of heavy grazing pressure and weed invasion and it is possible that populations are extinct.
The species has suffered a massive contraction in range and abundance in the last century, given the documented historic range and variety of habitat in which the species now occurs. There do not appear to have been any specimens lodged at herbaria between the collections in the 1800s and 1983, when the species was found north of Narrandera.
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We thought you may like to start your tour
of our Environmental Practitioner ProgrammeTM by signing in
at www.epaw.co.uk to recognise our
copyright and receive our monthly Impacts e-bulletin.
This short trip shows how an environmental
practitioner can be motivated through growing environmental
awareness of the problems, check out relevant information
to carry out an environmental risk assessment, then plan
to reduce environmental impacts, and finally promote the wider
vision of sustainable development.
Before you start you may like to test your
knowledge about environmental matters at work with an interactive
The tour starts with the big
environmental issues. Choose one of the seven
main environmental issues you want to find out more about.
You will find that there are "pop up's"
that give you a 'factoid" and "more info" buttons
that lead to more in depth information - here concerning climate
change. Everywhere you can access other relevant outside
web sites. We have permission to link with over 60 organisations.
each stage, there are activities to translate the text into
learning by doing. E.g With Activity
1.1 you work out the possible impacts when carrying out
an everyday activity like making a cup of tea. The activities
get progressively more practical and more related with the
workplace. There are guides for
each unit and a site_map if you get lost.
The next unit equips potential practitioners with ways
to help managers of environmental management systems. One
of the first things to do is clarify the meaning of "aspects"
and "impacts", so there is an interactive drop
and drag game to your understanding.
are layers of information about energy,
and food, and environmental
law to help you
carry out an environmental risk assessment. This is used to
set targets against indicators
and measure progress.
Unit 3 turns environmental policies into work
practices and is based on a set of nine
principles for environmental improvement. One of the principles
is Environmental Management, where you can take a quiz
to test your EM knowledge. People check out how principles
become practices and then take steps
to carry out environmental practices - hence the name of the
Environmental Practitioner Programme.
The final unit gets Environmental Practitionersto step outside
their own organisation and find out what
is meant by sustainable development before checking what
other companies may doing to promote sustainable development.
They then suggest
ways of working with partners to
help promote sustainable development.
our online materials are written for competence-based assessment
and have been piloted among
small, medium and large companies. The materials have been
written to comply where possible with existing national training
standards (see the national environment
training framework), or for internal continuing professional
development. The Environmental Practitioner Programme is suitable
for candidates at Advanced Level (or level 3 in NVQ speak).
completed the programme, Environmental Practitioners can help
achieve the targets set by ISO 14001, make suggestions for
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support all employees either complying
with ISO 14001 or improving environmental
Now enjoy the complete
keep up to date with environmental e-learning developments,
'Impacts' - EP@W's on-line monthly bulletin.
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| 0.877459 | 699 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Eastern Fence Lizards are rampant across the American southeast but, in recent years, they’ve begun to coexist with invasive red fire ants from South America. Because the lizards and the ants have similar requirements (terrestrial areas with abundant sunlight), they often find themselves occupying the same space. And the ants don’t like it.
Tracy Langkilde of Penn State University studies the interactions of these territorial animals in Arkansas, Louisiana and Alabama. She’s found that fire ants will attack lizards not just when they’re near the ants’ territory or their mound, but also when they’re simply wandering by. The opportunistic ants will swarm a lizard, roaming its body and stinging it by pulling up the lizard’s spiny scales and stinging the soft skin underneath. Twelve ants can kill a three-inch lizard in under a minute.
So how do the lizards defend themselves against such ambushes?
“Lizards do pretty much what we would do. They shake the ants off using this big body shimmy, and then they run away from the mound. “
Langkilde also found that the longer a population has coexisted with the introduced ants, the more common is this behavior. Further, these lizard populations have longer legs than populations that don’t coexist with fire ants, which may improve their shimmy shake and allow them to live another day.
Langkilde talks about how this adaptation is indicative of rapid evolution in this month’s edition of ESA’s podcast series Field Talk, titled “Lizard Evolution and the Ants In Your Pants Dance.” Listen above or on ESA’s podcast page.
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Bethesda, MD—Are you genetically predisposed to tuberculosis? Scientists may now be able to answer this question and doctors may be able to adjust their therapeutic approach based on what they learn. That's because new research presented in the Journal of Leukocyte Biology (http://www.jleukbio.org) suggests that two frequent mutations in an immune system gene called TLR1 are responsible for cellular changes that ultimately make us less likely to resist the disease.
"The study may help to characterize individuals with increased susceptibility to tuberculosis, which might result in faster and more effective recognition and therapy of this disease," said Lothar Rink, Ph.D., a researcher involved in the work from the Institute of Immunology at RWTH Aachen University Hospital in Aachen, Germany. "We hope that our results have implications for understanding the pathogenesis of mycobacterial infections associated with TLR1."
To make this discovery, scientists tested 71 healthy individuals and found that about half lacked the toll like receptor 1 (TLR1) proteins necessary for the immune system to adequately recognize Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Using specific TLR1 agonists, researchers found that cells without TLR1 (TLR-negative) showed a decreased functionality when compared to cells with TLR1 (TLR-positive). Sequencing and genotyping of TLR1-positive and TLR1-negative cells from healthy individuals revealed that lack of TLR1 surface expression accompanied by impaired function was strongly associated with increased susceptibility to tuberculosis. Further studies are needed to confirm that a TLR1-negative genotype accounts for hyporesponsiveness to mycobacterial infections or for tuberculosis vaccination.
"Antibiotics have been helpful in managing tuberculosis in the developed world," said John Wherry, Ph.D., Deputy Editor of the Journal of Leukocyte Biology, "but unfortunately, these treatments are expensive, take a long time and are becoming less effective against drug-resistant strains. Understanding why some people are more likely than others to become infected should help prioritize who should receive drug treatment in the developing world and lead to strategies for universal vaccines or therapeutics."
According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, tuberculosis one-third of the world's population are infected with TB, with more than 9 million people around the world becoming sick with tuberculosis each year. Nearly 2 million people die from tuberculosis each year worldwide. In the United States, there were 11,545 tuberculosis cases reported in 2009. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis usually attack the lungs, but they can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. If not treated properly, tuberculosis can be fatal. The disease is spread through the air from one person to another. The bacteria that cause the disease are put into the air when a person with active tuberculosis of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected.
The Journal of Leukocyte Biology (http://www.jleukbio.org) publishes peer-reviewed manuscripts on original investigations focusing on the cellular and molecular biology of leukocytes and on the origins, the developmental biology, biochemistry and functions of granulocytes, lymphocytes, mononuclear phagocytes and other cells involved in host defense and inflammation. The Journal of Leukocyte Biology is published by the Society for Leukocyte Biology.
Details: Peter Uciechowski, Heidi Imhoff, Christoph Lange, Christian G. Meyer, Edmund N. Browne, Detlef K. Kirsten, Anja K. Schröder, Bernhard Schaaf, Adnan Al-Lahham, Ralf René Reinert, Norbert Reiling, Hajo Haase, Adelheid Hatzmann, Daniela Fleischer, Nicole Heussen, Michael Kleines, and Lothar Rink. Susceptibility to tuberculosis is associated with TLR1 polymorphisms resulting in a lack of TLR1 cell surface expression. J Leukoc Biol August 2011 90:377-388; doi:10.1189/jlb.0409233 ; http://www.jleukbio.org/content/90/2/377.abstract
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.
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| 0.922287 | 926 | 3.53125 | 4 |
The Evolution Deceit
When you ask the people around you, "What is mercy?" or "How would you define mercy?", you would, most probably, receive a variety of responses and illustrations. Some say that a neighbour feeding stray dogs on the street is the most compassionate person they have ever met. Others illustrate mercy with the interest and sincerity shown by a relative when they were sick. Others, on the other hand, regard a friend weeping for someone who has passed away as a "symbol of mercy". These definitions largely resemble one another. However, none of them offers the definition of mercy in its real sense.
The source of true compassion is love of Allah. An individual's love of Allah leads him to feel an intimacy towards all these beings to whom Allah has given life. Someone who loves Allah feels a direct link with and closeness to His creatures; he feels compassion and mercy towards them. Out of this profound love and attachment to Allah, Who created him and all other people, he behaves towards others in accordance with good morals as set forth in the Qur'an. He fulfils Allah's orders regarding mercy. Real mercy is manifested when one fully complies with these commands of the Qur'an. That is because the Qur'an is the very source that describes, in the most accurate way, what real compassion means and what a compassionate human being should do. There are numerous verses in the Qur'an which guide people to act with true mercy.
However, there is an important difference between the love felt for Allah and a feeling of compassion. This difference results from the fact that love for Allah is sincere and pure. Compassion embraces love mixed with feelings of mercy that is felt for someone because of his weaknesses. Whereas, there is no compassion in the love felt for Allah, because Allah is far from all kinds of incompleteness, weaknesses and defects. The feeling for one's own Creator can only be a powerful feeling of "love", which inspires enthusiasm, excitement, admiration and adoration. Hence, sincere and pure love can be felt only for Allah, whereas compassion can be felt for beings created by Allah to be weak and powerless.
The Qur'an provides a detailed description of true mercy, the attributes of a compassionate person, the kind of differences compassion brings forth in one's morality and finally the positive influence compassionate people have on their environment. Allah also gives an account of cruelty originating from a lack of compassion and mercy. Accordingly, the good and the bad, the unjust and the compassionate have been distinguished from one other.
Believers, by nature, are those who enjoy the sublime morality of the Qur'an. Therefore, they feel peace of mind only when they truly experience this morality. This being so, they do not feel any difficulty in showing compassion as portrayed in the Qur'an. On the contrary, they experience it as a natural good, originating from their faith. Allah summons believers to experience compassion as follows:
… And take the believers under your wing. (Surat al-Hijr: 88)
Allah expresses the sort of compassion demonstrated by believers as "taking under the wing", because, compassion is perceived by them as a form of moral understanding extending to every moment of human life, rather than an attitude displayed in particular situations. Consequently, numerous moral and ethical characteristics emerge reflecting their compassion.
This book provides an account of the believers' understanding of mercy, which depends on the love of Allah, their practicing this goodness at every moment of human life, in accordance with the injunctions of the Qur'an, and the persons to whom they show mercy.
Similarly, this book is an invitation to all people to live by the moral standards with which Allah is pleased and to demonstrate mercy as described in the Qur'an. Allah has promised "forgiveness and an immense reward" (Surat al-Fath: 29) to His servants who believe, who are compassionate towards believers and engage in righteous deeds.
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Malware, Hacking Remain Preferred Methods of Cyber-Criminals
Hacking: Exploiting Default of Guessable Credentials
Attackers exploited default or easily guessable credentials for about 29 percent of the breaches analyzed by the Verizon RISK team. Many vendors often ship devices, appliances and software with a default password assigned. While it is possible to change them, that is not always the case. Industrial control systems are an example of devices with default passwords that can't be changed. Even if the password can be changed, many administrators don't bother. With a little bit of searching, attackers can find the passwords online, and the gates are wide open.
The user is either tricked into downloading and installing malware on the system, or a malicious Website exploits a vulnerability in the software or operating system to download and install itself. Once the computer is infected, it acts as a backdoor, allowing the remote attacker access to the network or executing code. Even if the original vulnerability is patched, if the malware can still communicate with the remote server, the attackers can continue to operate. Backdoors were found in about 26 percent of the cases.
Hacking: Using Stolen Log-In Credentials
Found in about 24 percent of the cases, stealing log-in credentials remains popular with cyber-crooks. This method may have been used in tandem with malware, such as a keylogger. Once the criminal has access to the log-in information for email accounts or online banking, they have free rein to steal and loot. The number of dumped password lists after data breaches and the high incidence of password reuse by end users makes it is easier than ever to succeed with stolen credentials.
Hacking: Exploiting the Backdoor or Command and Control Channel
Slightly different from using malware to open a backdoor, this threat vector relies on the attacker somehow intercepting communications, using an unsecured port or other means to open up a backdoor themselves to transfer data or receive instructions. This method is the fourth most popular technique and is found in 23 percent of the cases.
Malware: Keylogger, Form-Grabber Spyware
Used in about 18 percent of the incidents analyzed by Verizon, attackers rely on data-capture malware, such as keyloggers, form-grabbers and other forms of spyware, to capture data directly from the user. The user is generally unaware that there is a tool monitoring everything they type on their system. Once that information has been captured, it is sent back to a remote server for future use.
Malware: Send Data to External Site
Several data-stealing Trojans fall in this category, as their sole purpose is to find specific types of data, such as configuration files, documents, spreadsheets and source code, and just send it back to the remote control server. Verizon's RISK team found that cyber-crooks used this method in about 17 percent of all the incidents last year.
Hacking: Use System or Network Utilities
System tools, such as Pstools and netcat, are popular with IT professionals because they simplify the task of managing several systems on a network. Cyber-criminals like them, too, and they were used in about 14 percent of Verizon's caseload. Pstools is a utilities suite that allows a user on the network to send commands to other connected Windows machines. This is similar to how attackers use legitimate penetration tools, such as Metasploit, to find holes in applications and Websites.
Hacking: SQL Injection
It was a bit surprising that Verizon found only 13 percent of its cases involve SQL injection. The SANS Institute has identified SQL injection errors as one of the most common errors in software. Developers don't properly handle inputs in the application and allow malicious perpetrators to submit SQL commands that are executed on the database.
Malware: Capture Data Resident on System
Specific types of malware look for cookies and data stored in memory and cache that can be transferred to the remote attacker. There have been several cases of malware that are able to extract user names and passwords from memory. This occurred in 9 percent of the cases Verizon examined.
Malware: Download Install Additional Malware or Updates
Sometimes, the malware that is downloaded to the user's computer after clicking on a malicious link or opening up a suspicious attachment is just a dropper file. Once installed, its sole purpose is to download additional malware or update itself with new instructions. This appeared in 9 percent of Verizon's caseload.
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| 0.921816 | 924 | 2.640625 | 3 |
windmill, apparatus that harnesses wind power for a variety of uses, e.g., pumping water, grinding corn, driving small sawmills, and driving electrical generators. Windmills were probably not known in Europe before the 12th cent., but thereafter they became familiar landmarks in Holland, England, France, and Germany. The typical Dutch windmill, also called the tower type, has a huge tower of stone, brick, or wood, in contrast to the German, or post, mill, the distinctive feature of which is that the whole building revolves on a central post. At the top of either type there is a revolving apparatus to which four to six arms are attached. The arms, usually 20 to 40 ft (6–12 m) long, bear sails constructed of light wood, or of canvas attached to a frame. A small fan serves as a rudder to keep the wheel facing the wind.
More modern American windmills have high towers of light steel girders; at the top is a wheel with many sheet-metal concave and "warped" vanes (sails) about 4 ft (1.2 m) long. The wheel is kept automatically facing the wind by a broad tail geared to a shaft. They have been widely used for pumping water in rural parts of the United States. Such windmills can also be used to generate about one kilowatt of elecricity.
Larger windmills, such as the modern propellerlike wind turbines, can have rotors (the blade assembly) that span 200 ft (60 m) or more. These wind turbines, often joined together in wind farms, can produce 1.5 MW or more of electricity and can serve as a significant source of electric energy in plains and coastal areas (including offshore locations). Wind turbines have been most extensively used in Europe, where Denmark, for example, is undertaking to generate 50% of its electricty using wind power by 2030. As many as 2,000 small wind turbines are used in Inner Mongolia to provide local electric power to nomadic people.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on windmill from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Technology: Terms and Concepts
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| 0.952346 | 470 | 3.390625 | 3 |
By James Hubbard, M.D., M.P.H
Good News! If you stop smoking, you can lower your risk of dying almost back to the risk of those who have never smoked. It takes some time and lung cancer risks never completely go away, but hey, did you really think it was a free ride?
“Most of the excess risk of vascular mortalitydue to smoking in women may be eliminated rapidly upon cessationand within 20 years for lung diseases,” the authors conclude in the study published in the May 7, 2008 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association.
The observers began studying over 100,000 female nurses in 1980. Much valuable medical information has been gleaned from them over the years. This most recent study reviews the rate of deaths among smokers, non-smokers and smokers who quit the nasty habit. They found almost 3 times more deaths, from any cause, in the smokers. The amount of smoking increased the risk. More colon cancer was seen in the smokers, and 7 times more lung cancer.
Now for the good news (something patients ask me all of the time). In those that quit smoking, the risk of death gradually became that of non-smokers over time. The cardiovascular disease (heart, circulation, strokes) death rate risk was halved in those who had quit for five years. By 20 years the overall deaths, including from lung disease, were close to the same in both groups. Lung cancer risks were still 13 percent more (but had come down 87 percent) than in the never-smokers.
Since death was the endpoint in this observed study, the authors did not comment on nonfatal, debilitating disease.
The bottom line is that this study shows it is definitely worthwhile to quit smoking and the sooner the better.
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http://www.familydoctormag.com/blog/tag/smoking/
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| 0.976242 | 367 | 2.546875 | 3 |
So you ditched your energy-sucking incandescent light bulbs and replaced them with efficient compact fluorescent bulbs. They seem safe enough--sure, they contain mercury, but that’s only a problem if the bulbs break. Even then, it’s not a huge deal. Researchers have discovered a real reason to be wary of CFLs, however: they can hurt healthy human skin.
The researchers tested a number of CFL bulbs from across New York State, examining the bulbs’ impact on collagen-producing skin cells and the epidermal cell that generates keratin (a structural material in the skin’s outer layer). After comparing skin cells exposed to the CFL bulbs with those exposed to incandescents, they discovered that only the skin exposed to the former bulb type experienced damage.
“Despite their large energy savings, consumers should be careful when using compact fluorescent light bulbs,” explained Miriam Rafailovich, professor of materials science and engineering at Stony Brook University, in an interview with Futurity. “Our research shows that it is best to avoid using them at close distances and that they are safest when placed behind an additional glass cover.” However, please do not use this as an excuse to not use CFLs. They remain better than regular light bulbs.
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http://www.fastcoexist.com/1680221/the-dark-side-of-cfl-bulbs-they-can-hurt-your-skin
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| 0.943472 | 267 | 3 | 3 |
Keywords: Land, housing, house prices, land prices
Abstract: We combine publicly available data from Freddie Mac, the Decennial Census of Housing,
and the Bureau of Economic Analysis to construct the first constant-quality aggregate price
index for the stock of residential land in the United States. We uncover five main results: (a)
since 1970, residential land prices have grown faster but (b) have also been twice as volatile
as existing home prices; (c) averaged from 1970 to 2003, the nominal stock of residential
land under 1-4 unit structures accounts for 38% of the market value of the housing stock
and is equal to 50% of nominal annual GDP; (d) the real stock of residential land under
1-4 unit structures has increased an average of 0.6% per year since 1970; and (e) residential
investment leads the price of residential land by three quarters. We also estimate that in
2003:Q3 the nominal value of the entire stock of residential land is the same as annual GDP.
Finally, we show for the US data that the logarithms of the nominal price index for residential
land, disposable income, and interest rates are cointegrated.
Full paper (425 KB PDF)
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Last update: June 30, 2004
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http://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2004/200437/200437abs.html
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| 0.899197 | 297 | 2.671875 | 3 |
mcqscript.cgi is a Perl script that generates multiple choice questions from a question data file. The questions are presented to the user who must enter a class number and student id number for data logging purposes. Once the user answers the question, the script evaluates the answer and will log the results into a data file that has the same name as the class number. Answers are either right or wrong, 1 or 0. Users are only allowed to answer each question once, the program will prevent further attempts to change an incorrect answer. The question data file is in the same format as the mcsimple data files. To see the examples in action click on a question below.
View the script
StId,Class 1232134234,Freshman 2134213443,Freshman 2134213412,Senior 3214236324,JuniorThe file is comma delimited, that is, each field is separated by a comma. Create this file and save it, giving it a 4 character name that corresponds to the class number. This is the same number that the students will type in to identify the file so that the script can determine if they're enrolled or not.
After the file is created, you must decide where you will keep the roster file. I suggest a directory outside of Webspace, that is, not viewable to visitors of your Website. You will need to modify the mclog script to point to this directory. The variable $roster_path in the script will have to be changed to reflect your site. Also, at this time you might want to change the $data_path variable to reflect your site (see mcsimple).
Once this is done, create a link to the script with a question file and give it a try. Each time a particular question is tried the script will add a column to the roster file to store student responses. For example, take a look at the roster file 5467 which has 2 students. The file will start out looking like this:
StId,Class 21342343234,Freshman 23412451234,FreshmanAfter the first student tries a question, say Question1.qdf, and answers it correctly. That question will be added to the file along with that students' grades. Students that haven't tried that particular question will have a NA (not applicable) stored as their grade until they complete it. The file would then look like this:
StId,Class,Question1 21342343234,Freshman,1 23412451234,Freshman,NAIf the second student then tries Question3.qdf, and answers it incorrectly, the file will then look like this:
StId,Class,Question1,Question3 21342343234,Freshman,1,NA 23412451234,Freshman,NA,0The program will only allow each student one attempt to answer the question. Since the file is a comma delimited format, it is quite simple to import the file into a spreadsheet for manipulation.
1. Cannot find the roster file - Either the student entered a class number for a file that doesn't exist or the enviroment variable in the script, $roster_path, is pointing in the wrong place.
2. Cannot find student id number - The student entered the id number incorrectly or it doesn't exist in the roster file. The student id's must occupy the first column in the roster file.
3. Cannot fine file:XXXXXXXXXXXX - Can't find the question data file. Check the enviroment varible that points to the question directory and check your A HREF link.
If the script encounters any of these problems it will not log any data into the roster file.
Let us know you're using the scripts.
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By Nicole Rees
from Fine Cooking #109, pp. 38-39
Cookies should be a cinch to bake, right? In reality, though, producing perfect cookies can be a challenge: Sometimes they’re too flat or too dense, crisp when they’re supposed to be chewy, or barely golden on top and practically burned underneath.
The good news is that cookies don’t need to be so unpredictable. If you understand what’s behind the making of a cookie and follow a few basic rules, turning out sheets of delicious, beautiful cookies will be a snap.
Why do my cookies darken on the bottom before they turn golden on top?
In a conventional oven, the heat conducted to the undersides of the cookies through the baking sheet is more intense than the heat radiating from the air around the top of the cookies. If you have a convection oven, though, you’ve probably noticed that your cookies bake evenly. That’s because the fans in these ovens circulate hot air more efficiently, allowing the cookies to cook and color uniformly.
If you don’t have a convection oven, try baking cookies in the top half of your oven, away from the heat source but where the air is hottest. If baking more than one sheet at a time, be sure to rotate and switch their positions halfway through baking.
Also, avoid dark baking sheets, which cause more browning than lighter ones, and thin, flimsy cookie sheets. Insulated sheets (which are thick but lightweight, due to an inner air pocket) help prevent bottom browning. Heavy, light-colored sheets take longer to warm up and can therefore deter excess browning, too. If your baking sheets are on the thin side, use silicone liners or bake your cookies on two nested sheets.
|Chewy Sugar Cookies||Crunchy Sugar Cookies|
What happens if I replace shortening with butter in a cookie recipe?
You can replace some of the shortening, but don’t omit it altogether. Shortening is a great emulsifier. As it’s already processed to incorporate air and contains emulsifiers that help prevent air cells from collapsing, it helps keep dough aerated. With a higher melting point than that of butter, shortening also reduces spreading when the cookies are baked.
When it comes to flavor, though, shortening doesn’t hold a candle to butter. Your best bet is to combine just a bit of shortening with butter, as in the sugar cookie recipe opposite.
What makes a chewy cookie chewy, and a crisp one crisp?
Chewy cookies contain more moisture than crisp cookies. The first—and easiest—trick for turning out softer cookies is to bake them for less time. Pull them out of the oven when they’re still moist in the middle. The cookies will continue to bake on the hot pan for the first minute or two they’re out. (Conversely, to make chewy cookies crisp, reduce their moisture by leaving them in the oven a little longer than the recipe advises.)
To keep your cookies moist and chewy for as long as possible, add a tablespoon or so of honey, corn syrup, or molasses to your recipe. These all contain fructose, a sugar known for attracting and retaining moisture from the air. In the recipe for sugar cookies at right, corn syrup is key to a chewy texture; without it, the cookies would become firmer and drier just a few hours after they come out of the oven.
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Steve Trimble over on The DEW Line reveals Boeing has a DARPA contract to study a disk rotor high-speed rotorcraft. Like most things in aerospace these days, this is not a new idea.
Swiss architect and designer George Vranek, on his diskrotor website, traces the concept of a circular rotor with retractable blades back to Germany in 1962 and also mentions a 1992 NASA Ames study.
US engineering firm owner Frank Black has tried for years to find backers for his Modus Verticraft concept, and now Nowegian firm SiMiCon is working on a retractable-blade disk rotor UAV.
They all see the same attraction - the ability to hover like a rotary-wing aircraft then retract the blades to fly fast like a fixed-wing aircraft. They all take slightly different approaches. While Vranek's concept has conventional rotor blades, the Modus design has a larger number of shorter fan blades.
Some concepts drive the disk rotor conventionally, and need an anti-torque mechanism. Others would duct engine exhaust to the disk's periphery to drive the rotor, avoiding the need for a tailrotor. SiMiCon's UAV is steered by moving the centre of rotation of the circular wing. All need a powerplant that converts from driving to rotor to propelling the vehicle.
It will be interesting to see which approach Boeing takes. DARPA appears to be funding a number of different advanced concept studies and its endorsement is far from a guarantee of success. After all, Boeing and DARPA had to abandon the Canard Rotor Wing after both demonstrators crashed. Maybe the disk rotor will have better luck.
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Poultry production and production facilities have evolved significantly in recent years.
In some countries, poultry is raised outside in meadows or large sheds. This type of production is quite expensive because it needs a lot of space and resources.
On the other hand, modern poultry production uses expensive equipment and housing to accommodate large numbers of birds in a high density with the minimum amount of labour.
Most of these facilities operate on a contract system, with integrators providing birds, feed, management advice and marketing channels, while the producer provides buildings, equipment and labour.
Turkeys and broilers are housed in widespan, one-story rectangular buildings, with the birds moving freely on a floor covered with deep litter (usually wood shavings).
The litter usually remains too dry for fly breeding to occur, except around leaking waterers, or in cases where improper grading allows surface water to run into the house.
In houses for breeder flocks and for commercial egg production, however, accumulations of moist manure frequently result in serious fly problems.
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When You Have Difficult Decisions
Explore the Bible Series
February 21, 2010
Background Passage: Mark: 14:1-72
Lesson Passage: Mark 14:32-39, 41-50
In Chapters Fourteen through Sixteen, the gospel of Mark reaches its crescendo in the account of Jesusí death and resurrection.† In a sense, the entire narrative has led the reader to this point, and the meaning of the first thirteen chapters crystallizes as we hear of the passion of Jesus.† Again, I encourage a Christocentric approach to the study of Chapter Fourteen, thus centering attention on the redemptive work of the Savior.† Several other characters play important roles in this drama (Mary of Bethany, Judas Iscariot, the Twelve, Simon Peter, and the Sanhedrin), but the story recounts, primarily, the approaching death of Jesus on the cross.† Indeed, some people made poor decisions, as recorded in this section, but the narrative focuses on the decision of Christ to obey the Fatherís redemptive design to die for the sins of the world.†
Observe, for instance, the actions of the unnamed woman who anointed Jesus with spikenard (The Gospel of John indentifies her as Mary of Bethany, sister of Martha and Lazarus). To the disciples (Judas, in particular, see John 12:4), Maryís action seemed wasteful and extravagant, but Mark makes clear that her behavior mirrored well the circumstances leading to Jesusí death and burial.† Maryís story just seems like an eccentric sidelight unless seen against the backdrop of the Lordís passion.
William Lane, in his useful commentary on the Gospel of Mark, rightly concludes that the author brings together, in this chapter, several of the motifs and themes introduced earlier in the Gospel.† For example, the opposition of the religious authorities is a thread that runs through the entire narrative.† This antagonism began in Mark 2:1f, and it culminates in the conspiracy of the Sanhedrin in Chapters Fourteen and Fifteen.† In fact, the charge of blasphemy resurfaces in this part of the story (See 14:63f). Also, the betrayal by Judas Iscariot, in collusion with the Sanhedrin, was anticipated as early as Mark 3:19.
Those accustomed to modern biographical materials might find curious the inordinate attention to the passion; however, we must recall that the Gospels are not biographies, in the modern sense.† This book, like the other Gospel accounts, served a liturgical, didactic, and missionary purpose that transcended mere biography.†
I. The Anointing at Bethany (vv. 1-9): Mark juxtaposed remarks about the conspiratorial opposition of the scribes with the costly act of worship by the woman of Bethany.† This opening paragraph depicts Jesus as a polarizing figure, hated by many and beloved by others.
A. The renewed opposition of the chief priests and scribes (vv. 1-2): Under normal circumstances these two groups did not get along; yet, when it came to Jesus, they found themselves in perfect agreementóJesus had to die.
B. Maryís act of costly worship (vv. 3-): Jesus had friends in the village of Bethany, and one of these followers hosted Jesus during Passover week.† Perhaps Jesus had healed Simon of his leprosy, and the grateful man opened his home to the Lord and the Twelve.† As he enjoyed a feast with his host, a woman interrupted the meal and anointed Jesus with spikenard, a very precious unguent. The Gospel of John identifies the woman as Mary, sister of Lazarus and Martha, and Matthew recounts that the criticism of her actions arose primarily from Judas.† Jesus, in opposition to the critical disciples, commended the woman and observed that her actions foreshadowed the Lordís death and burial.
II. The Last Supper (vv. 10-21): Again, Mark contrasts the actions of Judas with the wonderful and meaningful observance of the Passover.
A. Judasí plot to betray Jesus (vv. 10-11): We cannot know the motives that persuaded Judas to betray the Lord.† Perhaps he grew disillusioned with the Jesusí refusal to engage and address the political situation with the Romans; or, maybe he saw an opportunity to ingratiate himself to the ruling council.† Whatever the case, he sold the Lord for thirty pieces of silver, a fraction of the cost of Maryís alabaster flask of nard.
B. The observance of the Passover (vv. 12-25)
1. Preparation for the Passover (vv. 12-16): Apparently Jesus had already made arrangements for the sacred meal.† Two of the disciples were sent by Jesus to look for a man carrying a large water jar.† Men, under normal circumstances, did not carry water in pots (this task usually fell to women). The man, Jesus said, would lead the disciples to a suitable venue for the Passover.†
2. The Passover meal (vv. 17-25): Comparison of the Synoptic Gospels with the Gospel of John creates some problems for Bible students.† What meal, in the Jewish liturgy, did Jesus observe with his disciples?† As I understand the practice, the Jews marked the Passover meal on Friday evening (by modern reckoning), but these events, as recorded in Mark, seem to occur on Thursday night. This outline does not afford opportunity for a detailed analysis of the interpretive problems, but †William Lane provides a helpful discussion for those interested in additional study (See The Gospel According to Mark, in The New International Commentary, pp. 500-510). However we resolve these difficulties, the Jewish liturgy was led by the head of the household, and it followed a carefully prescribed pattern.† It involved a commemorative meal, Scripture recitation (from Psalms 113-118), and a series of cups of wine (four, as I recall). During the meal, celebrants dipped unleavened bread into a bowl of specially prepared bitter herbs, and Jesus used this observance as an opportunity to predict the betrayal of Judas.† As the apostles reached the third cup of wine, Jesus infused the commemoration with a new and deeper meaning, and the supper became, for Christians, a permanent ordinance. As I see it, the early church centered Lordís Day worship on the Lordís Table.† This practice helped guarantee the centrality of the cross to early Christian worship, and modern believers marginalize the gospel message when they neglect communion (See, for instance, the account of early worship as reflected in the writings of Justin Martyr).
III. Events in Gethsemane (vv. 26-52)
A. Prediction of Peterís denial (vv. 26-31): After the meal, Jesus and the disciples walked to the Garden of Gethsemane, on the Mount of Olives. Here, Jesus anticipated the scattering of the disciples and his resurrection from the dead. Peter, impetuous as always, protested that he would not fall away; so, Jesus predicted that Simon would deny the Lord three times before morning.
B. Jesusí prayer in Gethsemane (vv. 32-42): The hour had grown late, and Jesus withdrew for a time of prayer.† His humanity longed for fellowship with his friends, in this critical moment, but the disciples failed to grasp the gravity of the situation.† As Jesus faced the cross, he found himself essentially alone except for the consolation of the Father.† We do not know how the Gospel writers knew of the content of Jesusí prayer, since they slumbered; however, the Bible records the solitary struggle of the Savior as he stood at the threshold of his passion.† After a season of prayer, Jesus faced Judasí betrayal resolutely.
C. The arrest of Jesus (vv. 43-52): Judas had arranged to identify Jesus to a violent posse led by the chief priests, and, after the Lordís arrest the disciples fled in a panic.† Some commentators believe the young man (vv. 51-52) was Mark, the author of this Gospel
IV. Jesusí in the Court of Caiaphas (vv. 53-72)
A. Trial in the court of Caiaphas (vv. 53-65): The Sanhedrin served as the Jewish ruling council and was made up of seventy-one members. The high priest presided over this ruling body. The Romans granted the Sanhedrin considerable autonomy, but the council did not have the authority to execute transgressors.† False witnesses brought spurious testimony against Jesus, and the judicial ruling of the council seemed a foregone conclusion.† Finally, Caiaphas asked Jesus about the Lordís messianic identity, and Jesus answered clearly and unmistakably.† Again, the religious leaders accused Jesus of blasphemy, and the guards proceeded to violently mock the Lord.
B. The denial of Simon Peter (vv. 66-72): Just as Jesus had anticipated, Peter denied the Lord three times. According to Mark, Peterís interrogation began with the accusations of a slave girl.† Peter, profoundly agitated by the accusations of the girl, resorted to profanity as he denied his connection with Jesus.
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YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, Calif. – The number of hikers allowed to scale Yosemite's iconic Half Dome could be severely restricted by 2013 if an environmental assessment of the wilderness area is approved as written.
Park officials have been studying how to balance the preservation of wilderness with the growing popularity of the day hike to the top. In years past up to 1,200 people a day would make the trek, crowding the cables that allow hikers to hoist themselves up the final ascent.
Rangers say crowds make the climb unsafe because hikers can't quickly descend the slick granite if a storm arises. They say 300 people a day is a more manageable number. Some argue the cables should be removed from a federally designated wilderness area.
Public input will be accepted until March 15.
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| 0.923019 | 158 | 2.75 | 3 |
This is list of some Java fundamental questions and answers, which are commonly asked in a Core Java interview for Experienced Developers.
As a senior and matured Java Programmer you must know the answers to these questions to demonstrate basic understanding of Java language and depth of knowledge.
The competition for getting a Java job is getting fierce, and its really important that you be well prepared for you dream interview.
You may also want to checkout Must Read Core Java Books for Developers.
Below is a list of some tricky core java interview questions that may give you an edge in your next Java interview.
A Java object is considered immutable when its state cannot change after it is created. Use of immutable objects is widely accepted as a sound strategy for creating simple, reliable code. Immutable objects are particularly useful in concurrent applications. Since they cannot change state, they cannot be corrupted by thread interference or observed in an inconsistent state. java.lang.String and java.lang.Integer classes are the Examples of immutable objects from the Java Development Kit. Immutable objects simplify your program due to following characteristics :
- Immutable objects are simple to use test and construct.
- Immutable objects are automatically thread-safe.
- Immutable objects do not require a copy constructor.
- Immutable objects do not require an implementation of clone.
- Immutable objects allow hashCode to use lazy initialization, and to cache its return value.
- Immutable objects do not need to be copied defensively when used as a field.
- Immutable objects are good Map keys and Set elements (Since state of these objects must not change while stored in a collection).
- Immutable objects have their class invariant established once upon construction, and it never needs to be checked again.
- Immutable objects always have "failure atomicity" (a term used by Joshua Bloch) : if an immutable object throws an exception, it's never left in an undesirable or indeterminate state.
To create a object immutable You need to make the class final and all its member final so that once objects gets crated no one can modify its state. You can achieve same functionality by making member as non final but private and not modifying them except in constructor. Also its NOT necessary to have all the properties final since you can achieve same functionality by making member as non final but private and not modifying them except in constructor.
The main difference between the three most commonly used String classes as follows.
- StringBuffer and StringBuilder objects are mutable whereas String class objects are immutable.
- StringBuffer class implementation is synchronized while StringBuilder class is not synchronized.
- Concatenation operator "+" is internally implemented by Java using either StringBuffer or StringBuilder.
- If the Object value will not change in a scenario use String Class because a String object is immutable.
- If the Object value can change and will only be modified from a single thread, use a StringBuilder because StringBuilder is unsynchronized(means faster).
- If the Object value may change, and can be modified by multiple threads, use a StringBuffer because StringBuffer is thread safe(synchronized).
It is very useful to have strings implemented as final or immutable objects. Below are some advantages of String Immutability in Java
- Immutable objects are thread-safe. Two threads can both work on an immutable object at the same time without any possibility of conflict.
- Security: the system can pass on sensitive bits of read-only information without worrying that it will be altered
- You can share duplicates by pointing them to a single instance.
- You can create substrings without copying. You just create a pointer into an existing base String guaranteed never to change. Immutability is the secret that makes Java substring implementation very fast.
- Immutable objects are good fit for becoming Hashtable keys. If you change the value of any object that is used as a hash table key without removing it and re-adding it you will lose the object mapping.
- Since String is immutable, inside each String is a char exactly the correct length. Unlike a StringBuilder there is no need for padding to allow for growth.
- If String were not final, you could create a subclass and have two strings that look alike when "seen as Strings", but that are actually different.
The Java Spec says that everything in Java is pass-by-value. There is no such thing as "pass-by-reference" in Java. The difficult thing can be to understand that Java passes "objects as references" passed by value. This can certainly get confusing and I would recommend reading this article from an expert: http://javadude.com/articles/passbyvalue.htm Also read this interesting thread with example on StackOverflow : Java Pass By Ref or Value
This Error is thrown when the Java Virtual Machine cannot allocate an object because it is out of memory, and no more memory could be made available by the garbage collector. Note: Its an Error (extends java.lang.Error) not Exception. Two important types of OutOfMemoryError are often encountered
java.lang.OutOfMemoryError: Java heap space
The quick solution is to add these flags to JVM command line when Java runtime is started:
java.lang.OutOfMemoryError: PermGen space
The solution is to add these flags to JVM command line when Java runtime is started:
What is the use of the finally block? Is finally block in Java guaranteed to be called? When finally block is NOT called?
Finally is the block of code that executes always. The code in finally block will execute even if an exception is occurred. Finally block is NOT called in following conditions
- If the JVM exits while the try or catch code is being executed, then the finally block may not execute. This may happen due to System.exit() call.
- if the thread executing the try or catch code is interrupted or killed, the finally block may not execute even though the application as a whole continues.
- If a exception is thrown in finally block and not handled then remaining code in finally block may not be executed.
From the JavaDoc of java.sql.Date:
A thin wrapper around a millisecond value that allows JDBC to identify this as an SQL DATE value. A milliseconds value represents the number of milliseconds that have passed since January 1, 1970 00:00:00.000 GMT. To conform with the definition of SQL DATE, the millisecond values wrapped inside a java.sql.Date instance must be 'normalized' by setting the hours, minutes, seconds, and milliseconds to zero.Explanation: A java.util.Date represents date and time of day, a java.sql.Date only represents a date (the complement of java.sql.Date is java.sql.Time, which only represents a time of day, but also extends java.util.Date).
The marker interface is a design pattern, used with languages that provide run-time type information about objects. It provides a way to associate metadata with a class where the language does not have explicit support for such metadata. To use this pattern, a class implements a marker interface, and code that interact with instances of that class test for the existence of the interface. Whereas a typical interface specifies methods that an implementing class must support, a marker interface does not do so. The mere presence of such an interface indicates specific behavior on the part of the implementing class. There can be some hybrid interfaces, which both act as markers and specify required methods, are possible but may prove confusing if improperly used. Java utilizes this pattern very well and the example interfaces are
- java.io.Serializable - Serializability of a class is enabled by the class implementing the java.io.Serializable interface. The Java Classes that do not implement Serializable interface will not be able to serialize or deserializ their state. All subtypes of a serializable class are themselves serializable. The serialization interface has no methods or fields and serves only to identify the semantics of being serializable.
- java.rmi.Remote - The Remote interface serves to identify interfaces whose methods may be invoked from a non-local virtual machine. Any object that is a remote object must directly or indirectly implement this interface. Only those methods specified in a "remote interface", an interface that extends java.rmi.Remote are available remotely.
- java.lang.Cloneable - A class implements the Cloneable interface to indicate to the Object.clone() method that it is legal for that method to make a field-for-field copy of instances of that class. Invoking Object's clone method on an instance that does not implement the Cloneable interface results in the exception CloneNotSupportedException being thrown.
- javax.servlet.SingleThreadModel - Ensures that servlets handle only one request at a time. This interface has no methods.
- java.util.EvenListener - A tagging interface that all event listener interfaces must extend.
Why main() in java is declared as public static void main? What if the main method is declared as private?
Public - main method is called by JVM to run the method which is outside the scope of project therefore the access specifier has to be public to permit call from anywhere outside the application static - When the JVM makes are call to the main method there is not object existing for the class being called therefore it has to have static method to allow invocation from class. void - Java is platform independent language therefore if it will return some value then the value may mean different to different platforms so unlike C it can not assume a behavior of returning value to the operating system. If main method is declared as private then - Program will compile properly but at run-time it will give "Main method not public." error.
The only difference between experienced and inexperienced software developers is that the experienced ones realize when they're making a mistake.
Can you think of a questions which is not part of this post? Please don't forget to share it with me in comments section & I will try to include it in the list.
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Compartment Managed Selection
||To provide financial and silvicultural capabilities of different
silvicultural management programs.
||Topography is gentle to moderately steep with a northerly
Uneven-age, old-growth northern hardwood forest covering 277
||4 management programs on six compartments.
|Likelihood of Locating Study Areas:
||Selection cut to remove 40 square feet per acre which yielded
7 cords per acre.
Selection cut to remove 20 square feet per acre which yielded
5 cords per acre.
4 management programs applied to 6 compartments in areas usually
<1 acre in size:
1) Liquidation - removal of trees >8" d.b.h.
2) Diameter limit cut - removal of trees < 13" d.b.h.
3) Single-tree selection cut.
4) Patch cut - removal of vegetation >2" d.b.h.
1953, 1975, 1992-93
1953, 1958, 1964
|Variables and Sampling Frequency:
||100% initial inventories were taken of the growing stock on
each compartment prior to the first harvest cuts (0.5" or larger,
by 2" d.b.h. classes).
Prior to cutting , all marked trees were tallied by d.b.h. class
and grade, and a post-logging compliance check was made after
each cut (1952, 1953, 1972, 1976).
||Record keeping manuals were followed.
||data on tally sheets. summarized on paper.
|Global Change Research Applications:
||Studies of Ecosystem Processes
|Publications and Reports:
||Working plan. 1951. Stanley Filip.
Working plan Revisions. 1963. Barton Blum.
The above are office reports of U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Durham,
1975. Impact of Beech Bark Disease on uneven management of
a northern hardwood forest (1952-1976). Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-45.
Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.
||William Leak, USDA Forest Service, P.O. Box 640, Durham NH
03824. (603) 868-7655
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<urn:uuid:d0b10fb1-13f3-4d2f-98c0-dac218a11df6>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/global/ltedb/catalogs/cat19.html
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en
| 0.757757 | 495 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Listing Ozark chinquapin under Endangered Species Act ‘not warranted’
June 27, 2011
Ozark chinquapin leaves and male flowers. Photo provided by: Brent Baker, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission.
Fruits of an Ozark chinquapin. Photo: Gerald L. Klingaman. Photo provided by: Brent Baker, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will not list the Ozark chinquapin, a chestnut tree, under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) because it is widespread in the interior highlands of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma.
The Ozark chinquapin is a medium-sized tree which once grew to 65 feet, but now rarely reaches heights of more than 30 feet. It develops from stump sprouts as well as seeds, but in recent years, new growth is generally from sprouts due to chestnut blight disease.
Chestnut blight has posed a long term threat to the Ozark chinquapin since 1940. Due to the life history traits of the Ozark chinquapin, it appears that cross pollination and production of seeds is not uncommon. Based on the documented widespread distribution and abundance of Ozark chinquapin and its life history traits, chestnut blight does not threaten the continued existence of Ozark chinquapin at this time or in the foreseeable future.
The Service announced its decision today in the Federal Register, after conducting a comprehensive, range-wide, scientific review of the species’ current status, known as a 12-month finding. On January 6, 2004, Mr. Joe Glenn, a private citizen from Hodgen, Oklahoma, filed a petition requesting the listing of the Ozark chinquapin as candidate species under the ESA. On June 1, 2010, the Service published an initial finding that the petition presented substantial information indicating the requested action may be warranted in the Federal Register.
However, the status review indicated the species is currently widespread on both public and private lands throughout its current range. Individual location records commonly report multiple sprout clumps, and these vary from tens to thousands of individual sprout clumps per site record.
In addition, the majority of Ozark chinquapin populations are found on state and federal lands which are being managed to benefit the species. Hot Springs National Park in Arkansas uses periodic, prescribed fire for habitat restoration on Sugarloaf Mountain, the only site in the park with a population of Ozark chinquapin. At Buffalo National River in Arkansas the National Park Service is conducting a habitat restoration study to determine the best soil types for Ozark chinquapin populations. The National Park Service also is working with an arborist to gather seeds from trees at Buffalo National River that are seemingly unaffected by chestnut blight for propagation. The U.S. Forest Service lists Ozark chinquapin as a sensitive species and provides specific protection guidelines in its land management plans.
The Service will accept any pertinent, new information regarding the Ozark chinquapin’s population status or threats to its habitat. Please contact Chris Davidson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arkansas Ecological Services Field Office, 110 South Amity Road, Suite 300, Conway, Arkansas 72032.
For more information about the Service’s finding on Ozark chinquapin, please see www.fws.gov/arkansas-es/castanea.html.
The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people. We are both a leader and trusted partner in fish and wildlife conservation, known for our scientific excellence, stewardship of lands and natural resources, dedicated professionals, and commitment to public service. For more information on our work and the people who make it happen, visit www.fws.gov. Connect with our Facebook page at www.facebook.com/usfwssoutheast, follow our tweets at www.twitter.com/usfwssoutheast, watch our YouTube Channel at http://www.youtube.com/usfws and download photos from our Flickr page at http://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwssoutheast.
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<urn:uuid:095bf63d-f6f7-4814-9f3f-0962681bfe60>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2011/11-046.html
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en
| 0.908087 | 888 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Power Struggles—Striving for a Win-Win Scenario
The Clerc Center hosted a free live webinar on May 19 on the topic of "Shared Power: Practical Solutions for Power Struggles with Deaf/Hard of Hearing Children" given by Robert Whitaker, a Kendall Demonstration Elementary School (KDES) psychologist.
In the webinar, Whitaker addressed how students can express opposition to mask anxieties or frustrations. For deaf and hard of hearing students in particular, many power struggles relate to communication barriers or accessibility. He defined the classic power struggle as "two people engaged in a struggle for dominance, each equally committed to winning." Whitaker explored different aspects of power struggles-first recognizing when a power struggle is taking place, and then applying strategies for de-escalating and resolving conflict situations.
For example, in a typical classroom scenario, a teacher encounters a student struggling with an academic task. The teacher wants the student to comply and complete the task and the student responds with resistance or avoidance. To start the de-escalation process, Whitaker advises that teachers in this situation to first manage their own emotions and model the behavior he or she wants from the student. Then the teacher could distract the student with switching to another task the student feels more comfortable with and come back to the challenging task later. Once emotions are modulated, the teacher can begin resolution. They could work together with the student to figure out what the real problem is and name it. Also involving the student in finding solutions so that the student feels he or she is being listened to rather than being dictated to by the teacher.
The webinar was presented in American Sign Language with CART captioning available. During the lecture, participants could post questions. After the lecture, Whitaker responded to as many of those questions as time allowed. The participants were from 75 locations and various regions around the United States as well as from Canada, Norway, and the Virgin Islands. Many sites hosted group viewing locations. Teachers and counselors from schools for the deaf and mainstream programs, mental health counselors, psychologists, behavior specialists, interpreters, administrators, and members of university faculties were among the many viewers.
Whitaker, Psy.S., NCSP, ABSNP, is a nationally certified school psychologist with accreditation from the American Board of School Neuropsychology. He has over 15 years of experience working with deaf and hard of hearing children in educational settings. Whitaker received both his master's degree in developmental psychology and his specialization in school psychology from Gallaudet University. The webinar will be posted to the Clerc Center website.
The Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education offers technical assistance and professional development workshops to families, educators, and other professionals working with deaf and hard of hearing children.
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<urn:uuid:bf338f2b-15ba-4822-bf25-34bce98fc062>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.gallaudet.edu/Clerc_Center/Power_Struggles%E2%80%94Striving_for_a_Win-Win_Scenario.html
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| 0.959864 | 564 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The main goal of GENSO is to realise a worldwide network of radio amateur and university ground stations to support the operations of university satellites.
In order to achieve this goal, GENSO has been designed as a distributed system connected via the internet. The software applications that facilitate the data sharing have been developed in Java by an international team of students.
Mission controllers of university satellites can normally gather around 20 minutes of data per day with their own university ground station. GENSO will give them free access to potentially hundreds of stations around the globe via the internet and increase their data return to many hours per day. It will also allow them to command their spacecraft from the other side of the world.
GENSO offers the capability to plan and schedule utilisation of ground station resources, predict the trajectories of spacecraft over the ground station and automate tracking and hardware control during a pass. The downlinked mission data is provided to the mission controllers within a few minutes of the end of the pass. A real-time communications link for transmission of telecommands and reception of telemetry is also possible.
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<urn:uuid:c0450678-36c8-4add-98eb-b0cb26c17d06>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.genso.org/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708143620/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124223-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.95117 | 218 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Student Creating Shelter in Haiti With Recyclables
June 8, 2011 – A Georgetown student will return over the summer to earthquake-ravaged Port-au-Prince, Haiti, to continue work on the solar-powered structures he oversaw using recycled materials over spring break.
Luke Schoenfelder’s (C’12) project this past April involved the plastic bags used by aid organizations shipping rations to disaster areas.
While the bags are usually thrown away after a single use, the government major realized that once the bags were empty, they could be filled with earth or rubble and formed into bricks to create livable, permanent structures.
With the help of the New Leaf Initiative, a nonprofit that supports “immersive” and environmentally conscience projects, Schoenfelder was able to gain local contacts in Haiti to begin work on his project.
“We ended up going [to Haiti] for spring break, which was incredible because it enabled us to get this project completed and have something concrete to go with when looking at larger projects for the summer,” he explained.
The building in Port-au-Prince was constructed in an international compound, so that both the local crew and aid workers from across the world could learn how to make the 12-foot-high, nine-foot-wide insulated and bulletproof structure.
Micro-solar technology was used in the building as well as an environmentally conscious septic system.
“We want to be really responsive [to] what the needs are in a community,” Schoenfelder explained. “For [Haitians] right now, it’s sanitation. So we ended up building this incredible septic system that uses gray water recycling from a shower that they have set up, which goes to flush toilets, which then composts the waste into a garden.”
Schoenfelder notes that all the materials (besides the plastic bags) for the building were purchased in Port-au-Prince and the project used local labor, “so we were very much community integrated.”
Another student, Sam Apgar (C’13), will travel to Haiti over the summer to oversee new projects with Jessica Robbins (SFS’12), who will conduct research for her senior thesis on human waste recycling.
Schoenfelder will return to Port-au-Prince at the end of the summer and also visit Mexico and Venezuela to research “how we can integrate these designs in an urban context and also multi-level structures.”
He hopes that the technology will have far-reaching applications, so that it may be offered international NGOs.
“We feel like we can have a bigger impact if we harness the power of larger organizations,” he explained.
Schoenfelder also works with Georgetown Energy —a student-run nonprofit that focuses on accessible solar energy, retrofitting neighborhood row houses with macro-solar panels.
“Our generation is going to be willing to and is going to hold the companies they do business with accountable for their environmental practices,” he said.
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<urn:uuid:17f64241-82e6-40a1-84eb-e74b780d64a7>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.georgetown.edu/story/environmental-help-for-haiti.html
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| 0.951284 | 643 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries is said to have inked an order for two 9,000-teu containerships from a Singapore-based shipowner.
However, this is not always possible. If the ship is found to be within the storm area, the proper action to take depends in part upon its position relative to the storm center and its direction of travel. It is customary to divide the circular area of the storm into two parts.
In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right of the storm track (facing in the direction toward which the storm is moving) is called the dangerous semicircle. It is considered dangerous because (1) the actual wind speed is greater than that due to the pressure gradient alone, since it is augmented by the forward motion of the storm, and (2) the direction of the wind and sea is such as to carry a vessel into the path of the storm (in the forward part of the semicircle).
The part to the left of the storm track is called the less dangerous semicircle,or navigable semicircle. In this part, the wind is decreased by the forward motion of the storm, and the wind blows vessels away from the storm track (in the forward part). Because of the greater wind speed in the dangerous semicircle, the seas are higher than in the less dangerous semicircle. In the Southern Hemisphere, the dangerous semicircle is to the left of the storm track, and the less dangerous semicircle is to the right of the storm track.
A plot of successive positions of the storm center should indicate the semicircle in which a vessel is located. However, if this is based upon weather bulletins, itmay not be a reliable guide because of the lag between the observations upon which the bulletin is based and the time of reception of the bulletin, with the ever present possibility of a change in the direction of the storm. The use of radar eliminates this lag at short range, but the return may not be a true indication of the center. Perhaps the most reliable guide is the wind. Within the cyclonic circulation, a wind shifting to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere indicates the vessel is probably in the dangerous semicircle. A steady wind shift opposite to this indicates the vessel is probably in the less dangerous semicircle.
However, if a vessel is underway, its own motion should be considered. If it is outrunning the stormor pulling rapidly toward one side (which is not difficult during the early stages of a storm, when its speed is low), the opposite effect occurs. This should usually be accompanied by a rise in atmospheric pressure, but if motion of the vessel is nearly along an isobar, this may not be a reliable indication. If in doubt, the safest action is usually to stop long enough to define the proper semicircle. The loss in time may be more than offset by the minimizing of the possibility of taking the wrong action, increasing the danger to the vessel. If the wind direction remains steady (for a vessel which is stopped), with increasing speed and falling barometer, the vessel is in or near the path of the storm. If it remains steady with decreasing speed and rising barometer, the vessel is near the storm track, behind the center.
The first action to take if the ship is within the cyclonic circulation is to determine the position of his vessel with respect to the storm center. While the vessel can still make considerable way through the water, a course should be selected to take it as far as possible from the center. If the vessel can move faster than the storm, it is a relatively simple matter to outrun the storm if sea room permits. But when the stormis faster, the solution is not as simple. In this case, the vessel, if ahead of the storm, will approach nearer to the center. The problem is to select a course that will produce the greatest possible minimum distance. This is best determined by means of a relative movement plot.
As a general rule, for a vessel in the Northern Hemisphere, safety lies in placing the wind on the starboard bow in the dangerous semicircle and on the starboard quarter in the less dangerous semicircle. If on the storm track ahead of the storm, the wind should be put about 160° on the starboard quarter until the vessel is well within the less dangerous semicircle, and the rule for that semicircle then nofollowed. In the Southern Hemisphere the same rules hold, but with respect to the port side. With a faster than average vessel, the wind can be brought a little farther aft in each case. However, as the speed of the storm increases along its track, the wind should be brought farther forward. If land interferes with what would otherwise be the best maneuver, the solution should be altered to fit the circumstances.
If the vessel is faster than the storm, it is possible to overtake it. In this case, the only action usually needed is to slow enough to let the storm pull ahead.
In all cases, one should be alert to changes in the direction of movement of the storm center, particularly in the area where the track normally curves toward the pole. If the storm maintains its direction and speed, the ship's course should be maintained as the wind shifts.
If it becomes necessary for a vessel to heave to, the characteristics of the vessel should be considered. A power vessel is concerned primarily with damage by direct action of the sea. A good general rule is to heave to with head to the sea in the dangerous semicircle, or stern to the sea in the less dangerous semicircle. This will result in greatest amount of headway away from the storm center, and least amount of leeway toward it. If a vessel handles better with the sea astern or on the quarter, it may be placed in this position in the less dangerous semicircle or in the rear half of the dangerous semicircle, but never in the forward half of the dangerous semicircle. It has been reported that when the wind reaches hurricane speed and the seas become confused, some ships ride out the storm best if the engines are stopped, and the vessel is left to seek its own position, or lie ahull. In this way, it is said, the ship rides with the storm instead of fighting against it.
In a sailing vessel attempting to avoid a storm center, one should steer courses as near as possible to those prescribed above for power vessels. However, if it becomes necessary for such a vessel to heave to, the wind is of greater concern than the sea. A good general rule always is to heave to on which ever tack permits the shifting wind to draw aft. In the Northern Hemisphere, this is the starboard tack in the dangerous semicircle, and the port tack in the less dangerous semicircle. In the Southern Hemisphere these are reversed.
While each storm requires its own analysis, and frequent or continual resurvey of the situation, the general rules for a steamer may be summarized as nofollows:
Right or dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the starboard bow (045˚ relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with head to the sea.
Left or less dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the starboard quarter (135° relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with stern to the sea.
On storm track, ahead of center: Bring the wind 2 points on the starboard quarter (about 160° relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. When well within the less dangerous semicircle, maneuver as indicated above.
On storm track, behind center: Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind the tendency of tropical cyclones to curve northward and eastward.
Left or dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the port bow (315° relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with head to the sea.
Right or less dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the port quarter (225° relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with stern to the sea.
On storm track, ahead of center: Bring the wind about 200° relative, hold course andmake as much way as possible. When well within the less dangerous semicircle, maneuver as indicated above.
On storm track, behind center: Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind the tendency of tropical cyclones to curve southward and eastward.
It is possible, particularly in temperate latitudes after the storm has recurved, that the dangerous semicircle is the left one in the Northern Hemisphere (right one in the Southern Hemisphere). This can occur if a large high lies north of the storm and causes a tightening of the pressure gradient in the region.
The Typhoon Havens Handbook for the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans is published by the Naval Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research Lab (NOARL) Monterey, California, as an aid to captains and commanding officers of ships in evaluating a typhoon situation, and to assist them in deciding whether to sortie, to evade, to remain in port, or to head for the shelter of a specific harbor.
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<urn:uuid:d2b8f7db-dfd3-474d-84d8-857b3be3be1b>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.globmaritime.com/maritech/marine-navigation/item/5372-maneuvering-to-avoid-the-storm-center
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708143620/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124223-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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| 0.942348 | 1,930 | 2.75 | 3 |
Here is the complete text of the version 22
(defun copy-region-as-kill (beg end) "Save the region as if killed, but don't kill it. In Transient Mark mode, deactivate the mark. If `interprogram-cut-function' is non-nil, also save the text for a window system cut and paste." (interactive "r") (if (eq last-command 'kill-region) (kill-append (filter-buffer-substring beg end) (< end beg)) (kill-new (filter-buffer-substring beg end))) (if transient-mark-mode (setq deactivate-mark t)) nil)
As usual, this function can be divided into its component parts:
(defun copy-region-as-kill (argument-list) "documentation..." (interactive "r") body...)
The arguments are
end and the function is
"r", so the two arguments must refer to the
beginning and end of the region. If you have been reading though this
document from the beginning, understanding these parts of a function is
almost becoming routine.
The documentation is somewhat confusing unless you remember that the
word `kill' has a meaning different from usual. The `Transient Mark'
interprogram-cut-function comments explain certain
After you once set a mark, a buffer always contains a region. If you wish, you can use Transient Mark mode to highlight the region temporarily. (No one wants to highlight the region all the time, so Transient Mark mode highlights it only at appropriate times. Many people turn off Transient Mark mode, so the region is never highlighted.)
Also, a windowing system allows you to copy, cut, and paste among
different programs. In the X windowing system, for example, the
interprogram-cut-function function is
which works with the windowing system's equivalent of the Emacs kill
The body of the
copy-region-as-kill function starts with an
if clause. What this clause does is distinguish between two
different situations: whether or not this command is executed
immediately after a previous
kill-region command. In the first
case, the new region is appended to the previously copied text.
Otherwise, it is inserted into the beginning of the kill ring as a
separate piece of text from the previous piece.
The last two lines of the function prevent the region from lighting up if Transient Mark mode is turned on.
The body of
copy-region-as-kill merits discussion in detail.
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<urn:uuid:6fcbaeff-084e-4dae-be04-319b00347994>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-lisp-intro/html_node/Complete-copy_002dregion_002das_002dkill.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708143620/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124223-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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| 0.803692 | 544 | 2.765625 | 3 |
US 6891500 B2
The time difference of arrival for a signal received at two or more receiving sites as transmitted from a wireless communications device, is determined by a frequency domain technique. The constituent frequencies of the signals received at the two or more receiving sites are determined, including the phase, or a value representative of the phase, of each frequency component. The phase values for the same frequency are subtracted to yield a phase difference values as a function of frequency. The slope of the function represents the time difference of arrival for the wireless communications device signal as received at the two receiving sites. To determine the mobile location based on the determined time difference of arrival values, a seed or initial location is first assumed for the wireless communications device and the distance difference of arrival (the time difference of arrival multiplied by the speed of light) is calculated. The calculated time difference of arrival is then used to adjust the distance difference of arrival by continuously iterating the position of the wireless communications device until the calculated distance of arrival and the calculated time difference of arrival (as multiplied by the speed of light) are within a predetermined margin.
1. For a transmitting unit transmitting a signal, a method for determining the time difference of arrival of the a signal received at two or more receiving sites, said method comprising:
(a) for the signal received at the two or more receiving sites, determining a frequency domain representation of the signal, wherein the frequency domain representation comprises a two dimensional number for each of a plurality of frequencies, wherein the two dimensional number comprises a phase and a magnitude;
(b) determining the time difference of arrival using the two-dimensional numbers for like-frequency component pairs from at least two frequency domain representations; and
(c) generating a phase angle versus like-frequency function and determining the time difference of arrival from a slope of the function;
(d) determining the location of the transmitting unit from the determined time difference of arrival, wherein a y-intercept of the function represents a frequency offset between the signal received by at least two of the plurality of receiving sites; and
(e) for a plurality of transmitting units, determining the transmitting unit of interest using radio frequency signature parameters including the frequency offset.
This patent application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/365,104 filed on Mar. 18, 2002, entitled An Alternative Solution to the Problem of Geolocating a Portable Radio Transmitter, and the U.S. provisional application No. 60/419,366, filed on Oct. 18, 2002, entitled An Alternate Solution to the Problem of Geolocating a Portable Radio Transmitter.
This invention relates to methods and apparatuses for determining a geographic position of a portable or mobile wireless communications device, including a mobile cellular telephone, a personal communications device or a location tracking device (referred to generally as a wireless communications device), and in particular to such methods and apparatus using a frequency domain analysis of the received signal to determine the geographic position.
It is desired to provide emergency service to users of wireless communications devices, through a “911” type service (referred to as E911 or enhanced 911 service). The familiar “911” telephone number is used nationally as an emergency landline telephone number. When making a 911 call, a geolocating process is activated, and once the calling party's location has been determined, emergency personnel can be dispatched to the site. The effectiveness of emergency services depends on the ability of the emergency personnel to locate and deliver emergency services at the caller's site without undue delay. Given the widespread growth of mobile telephone use, the U.S. government has recently promulgated regulations requiring that providers of cellular telephone service provide a geolocating capability for E911 calls.
A problem with responding to a request for emergency assistance from a wireless communications device is the inability to use the calling telephone number as an aid to position location. Also, a wireless communications device user may be in unfamiliar territory and therefore unable to provide location information directly to the emergency services personnel. This lack of information regarding the caller's location hampers and delays efforts to provide emergency assistance to the caller.
A mobile cellular telephone system comprises a plurality of cells, each having a transmitting/receiving base station for sending and receiving signals from wireless communications devices, commonly referred to as cellular telephones, operating within the cell on pre-assigned frequencies. As the cell phone user moves into the coverage area of an adjacent cell, the cell phone signal is handed off from the base station of the original cell to the base station of the adjacent cell. The geographic size and shape of each cell coverage area in a cellular telephone network is determined by such factors as the beam shape and gain of the base station transmit/receive antennas, transmitter power levels, call handoff parameters and the surrounding terrain. In open flat country, cell coverage areas are substantially circular with overlapping borders. Where buildings or uneven topography block radio-frequency transmissions, the cell coverage areas may be quite irregular in shape. The cell coverage areas are designed to be smaller in urban areas to allow for closer frequency reuse, i.e., to allow more users in a given area using the same limited number of channels available to the cellular service provider.
A cellular telephone call is handed off from one cell base station to another base station based on the received signal strength or another signal quality metric determined at the base stations and/or at the cellular telephone, with the call being routed through the base station cell receiving or providing the best signal. In many areas, a number of cell sites may be capable of receiving calls from a cellular telephone, although the call is typically carried by the base station providing the highest quality service.
According to the prior art, when it is desired to determine the position of a wireless communications device in a cellular telephone system, for example, in response to a 911 call initiated from the wireless communications device, a two step process may be employed. First, the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of a signal sent from the wireless communications device and received at different base stations is determined. Second, the TDOA data and the known location(s) of the base station receiving sites are used to determine the sender's relative position.
Note that the time when the transmission of a signal begins is unknown. However, to determine the location of the wireless communications device, it is necessary to calculate the difference in the arrival times for the same signal at the several receiving sites. These time differences correspond to differences in distance between the wireless communications device and the receiving base stations, since all signals travel at the speed of light. The distance between the wireless communications device and the receiving base station is given by d=ct, where c is the speed of light (299,792,458 m/sec in vacuo), t is the transmission time and d is the distance between the wireless communications device and the receiving base station. The speed in air is essentially the same as in a vacuum. With the TDOA approach, a signal received at n receiving sites (or base stations as applied to a cellular telephone network) yields n(n−1)/2 pairs of time difference of arrival values that can be used to determine the location of the wireless communications device.
According to the prior art, the time difference of arrival of a signal received at two receiving sites is calculated in the time domain by determining the cross correlation of the two received signals. The correlation is carried out directly according to the cross-correlation integral or by the discrete time equivalent of the cross-correlation integral. Using these equivalent methods, the cross-correlation function is generated. This function represents the time offset between receipt of the signal at the two receiving sites, with the peak value of the function identifying the minimum time offset, or the highest correlation between the two signals. Thus the time difference of arrival of the signal at the two receiving base stations equals the time offset at the function peak. This is the conventional prior art time domain approach to geolocating a wireless communications device.
It is known that the signal received at each of the base stations is nearly identical, with differences typically caused by non-identical noise characteristics of the signal paths between the wireless communications device and the receiving site, multipath effects, fading and non-identical matched filters at the receiving sites. These signal differences can impact the results obtained from the cross-correlation technique described above, making the function peak difficult to locate or shifting the peak from the true TDOA value.
As illustrated in
At the central processing site, the signal time-of-arrival information at the receiving stations RS1, RS2, and RS3 is used to calculate the time difference of arrival of the signals. According to the prior art, the TDOA is determined by the cross-correlation function as described above. If three receiving stations report the time of arrival, three time difference values are calculated. Knowing the location of the receiving stations RS1, RS2 and RS3 and the propagation speed of the signal transmitted from the wireless communications device 2, (i. e., the speed of light) the central processing site can determine the geolocation of the wireless communications device.
Generally, the time difference of arrival of the same signal at any two receiving stations is a constant (ignoring motion of the wireless communications device) and assuming flat terrain, yields a locus of points along a hyperbola. If the terrain is not flat, a hyperbola of rotation is the surface to be considered as it intersects the terrain. For example, with continued reference to
It is known that in certain situations it may be possible to determine the location of the wireless communications device using the TDOA results from three receiving stations by calculating only two time difference of arrival values. The two generated hyperbolae will generally intersect at two points and thus the mobile location is not uniquely determinable. However, when the two points of intersection are overlaid with an area map showing various man-made and natural features, it may be possible to eliminate one of the two intersections as a possible mobile location. For example, if it is assumed that the wireless communications device is on a road, and only one of the two intersections occurs along a road, then the other potential location is eliminated from consideration. Alternatively, one of the receiving sites may be able to determine the sector of the azimuth plane (or more precisely the angle of arrival) from which the wireless communications device signal is received. When coupled with the two possible locations at the intersection of the two hyperbolae, this angle of arrival information allows for the selection of the correct location from the two possible locations.
As understood by those skilled in the art, the TDOA calculations may be adjusted for factors that affect the results, such as local terrain effects, time reference, etc.
Note that the prior art technique described above determines the TDOA between two signals received at spaced-apart receiving sites by performing time domain operations to first generate the cross-correlation function of the two received signals. The cross-correlation function represents the time offset between receipt of the two signals at their respective receiving sites. The peak value of the function identifies the minimum time offset, or the highest correlation of the two signals. Thus the time difference of arrival of the two signals at their respective base stations equals the time offset at the function peak.
To determine the cross-correlation function according to the prior art, the segment of both signals for which the TDOA is to be calculated must be transmitted to the central processing site, or at a minimum the segment of one received signal must be transmitted to the other receiving site for processing there. The cross-correlation function can be determined only by processing these received signal segments. Disadvantageously, there must be a relatively wideband transmission path between the various receiving sites, and the central receiving site, if applicable, to carry these signal segments and allow the calculation of the TDOA value in a relatively short period. Recall that in one embodiment the geolocation is being determined in response to an emergency (E911) call placed from the wireless communications device and thus time is of the essence in calculating the TDOA and then the caller's position.
Once the cross-correlation function is determined, it is necessary to find the function peak, which defines minimum time offset or the highest correlation of the two signals. This is typically carried out by sampling the cross-correlation function and comparing the sample values until the peak is found. In this search process, there can be some difficulty in accurately determining the peak's location because the peak is unlikely to fall directly on a time sample. Thus, if time difference of arrival values are to be determined more precisely than the sampling period, the cross-correlation function must be interpolated between sample periods to find the function peak. Alternatively, the cross-correlation function can be over sampled during the peak search process, but this is accomplished at the expense of increased computational overhead and time.
According to the present invention, the location of the wireless communications device is determined by calculating the TDOA of a radio frequency (RF) or other electromagnetic signal (an optical signal for example) received at two or more spaced-apart receiving sites using frequency domain computational techniques, as compared with the prior art time-domain techniques. The TDOA value is determined by first transforming a segment of each received signal from the time domain to the frequency domain. The transformed signal segment can comprise, for example, a segment of the control signal that occurs at known intervals (registration, for instance) or that associated with a call initiation attempt, preceding the voice (or data) transmission between the wireless communications device and the receiving sites. In the frequency domain, the received signal comprises a plurality of frequency components, each having a magnitude and phase value. Figuratively, to find the TDOA the phase difference between the signals received at two (or more) receiving sites is plotted as a function of frequency. The result approximates a straight line. The line slope is directly proportional to the time shift between the two signals, or the time-difference of arrival. The y-axis intercept is the relative frequency error between the received signals.
The frequency domain approach of the present invention avoids certain disadvantages of the prior art time-based cross-correlation technique discussed above, and offers unique advantages, such as avoiding the computation time required to form the cross-correlation function and to then locate the function peak. The frequency domain approach also permits the use of frequency domain filtering to select only those frequency components having a relatively high signal-to-noise ratio for determining the phase versus frequency line, as described above, from which the TDOA is determined. Also, in one embodiment the TDOA frequency domain approach exploits the computational efficiency of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) to transform the time domain signal to the frequency domain.
The method of determining the TDOA according to the present invention is computationally simple and robust. Advantageously, the method can utilize the FFT algorithm since the calculations are done in the frequency domain. The robustness is further enhanced by two filtering processes. The first is the aforementioned frequency domain window filter wherein the high signal-to-noise components (or components selected based on a different signal quality metric) are selected for determining the line and the remaining components are either not considered or less heavily weighted. The second filter process is the regression analysis to find the best fit line, as will be discussed further below.
The techniques of the present invention can be employed in TDMA and FDMA cellular systems. Although the teachings can also be employed to determine the TDOA in a CDMA-based cellular system, conventional CDMA signal processing at the receiving site inherently determines the signal time of arrival, from which the time difference of arrival of a signal at two receiving sites can be easily determined.
As will be described below, a second aspect of the present invention relates to an iterative process to determine the location of the wireless communications device once the TDOA has been determined. This aspect is applicable to TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, trunking systems, and any communication system where the location of a wireless communications device must be determined from time difference of arrival information received at two or more receiving sites.
The methods of the present invention for locating a wireless communication device can also be employed for fleet vehicle tracking, non-emergency location services, etc. Thus for the purposes of the description herein, the “911 calls” may include non-emergency transmissions or any mobile registration actions that can be used to determine the location of the transmitting device.
The foregoing and other features of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different figures. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.
Before describing in detail the particular method and apparatus for locating wireless communications devices in accordance with the present invention, it should be observed that the present invention resides primarily in a novel combination of hardware elements and software elements related to a method and apparatus for locating wireless communications devices. Accordingly, the hardware and software elements have been represented by conventional elements in the drawings, showing only those specific details that are pertinent to the present invention, so as not to obscure the disclosure with structural details that will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the description herein.
As shown in
A wireless communications device 2 (also referred to as a transmitting unit) includes a cellular telephone station, either mobile, portable, or hand-held, used by a person on foot or in a vehicle, including ground vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft. Although the teachings of the present invention are described with reference to a cellular telephone system, the teachings are not limited to wireless communications devices operating under the protocols and spectrum regulations of the cellular telephone service. Instead, these teachings can be applied to determine the geolocation of any radio frequency transmitting device having a signal capable of being received by at least two receiving stations, including PCS (personal communications systems) devices, push-to-talk communications devices, and trunked radio system devices. The teachings of the present invention can also be applied to the geolocation of a portable transmitting device within a structure.
Most communications systems to which the teachings of the present invention can be applied, such as a trunked radio system or a cellular telephone system, employ brief control transmissions over a control channel prior to the sustained voice or data transmissions. These control channel transmissions can be used for geolocation without the necessity of monitoring all active voice channels and/or TDMA time slices within all the channels.
With continued reference to
To locate the position of the wireless communications device 2, signals transmitted by the wireless communications device 2 are received at one or more receiving sites, including the base station(s) 12 serving the wireless communications device 2, other base stations 12 receiving the transmitted signal, and/or one or more of the monitoring stations 10. Although any transmitted signal received at multiple receiving sites can be used to perform the geolocation function, in one embodiment a “call access attempt,” signal is preferred. As used herein, a call access attempt signal includes a call originating from the wireless communications device 2, a response from the wireless communications device 2 to an incoming call, or a registration signal transmitted by the wireless communications device 2 to a base station 12 for registering the device's presence in the coverage area 14. In the various embodiments of the present invention, detection of a call access attempt, such as a specific dialed number, e.g., 911, or the detection of a specific user identity number, initiates the process of determining the location of the calling wireless communications device 2.
In one embodiment, when a location determination is initiated, the receiving sites (one or more of the monitoring stations 10 and/or the base stations 12) mark the arrival time of the signal, the electronic serial number/mobile identification number or similar identifier of the calling wireless communications device 2, the channel on which the call is received, and/or the received sector. Although this information may be useful, it is not required according to the geolocation process of the present invention. Other information that can be recorded, but that is not necessarily required, includes the DCC (digital color code) or other parameters that identify the base station 12 that is being accessed, and the signal strength. In yet another embodiment, angle of arrival information may be determined to aid in the position determination as discussed further below.
The location determining process is based on signal information collected at one or more of the monitoring stations 10 or base stations 12. The algorithm of the present invention for geolocating the wireless communications device 2 can be executed at any of the receiving monitoring stations 10 or base stations 12, at a central processing site on a general purpose computer within the cellular telephone system, or on a dedicated E911 computer specifically designated to determine the location of the calling wireless communications device 2. The communications link for carrying the time of arrival information and the identification information described above from the receiving monitoring stations 10 and the receiving base stations 12 to the algorithm execution site may include a dial-up call (either land-line or cellular), a wireless link, a dedicated circuit or the existing communications link between each base station 12 and the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), where the land line system interfaces to the cellular system. Typically, the site where the position determination is made is linked to the MTSO and from there to the landline telephone system so that the geolocation information can be delivered to the emergency service providers.
The present invention teaches a frequency domain approach for determining the TDOA of a signal received at two (or more) different locations, i.e., including one or more of the monitoring stations 10 and the base stations 12. At each receiving site the received signal is demodulated and decomposed into its constituent frequencies, i.e., the signal is transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain. Pragmatically, a time ‘slice’ of each received signal is decomposed; in one embodiment the time ‘slice’ is on the order of about 100 msec long. In one embodiment, the fast Fourier transform algorithm is employed to perform the time to frequency transformation. Other known transform methods that relate the dual time/frequency nature of a signal, such as the Fourier integral, the discrete Fourier transform, the Hilbert, Laplace and Hartley transforms can be used in other embodiments.
In the frequency domain, each frequency component of the time domain signal has a phase angle and magnitude, which can be represented by a two-dimensional number, e.g., the phase and magnitude values or the real and imaginary parts of a complex number. Thus the time domain signal received at two receiving sites may now be represented in the frequency domain by complex numbers having a phase angle and magnitude, for each frequency component of the received signal. As is known to those skilled in the art, these complex numbers can also be represented as the sum of a real part and an imaginary part, or can be represented with other notations depending on the selected coordinate space.
In the embodiment where the mobile signal is received at the two receiving sites and transformed, there are two frequency domain representations of the two received signals. More generally, and to increase the position determination accuracy, the received signals at N receiving sites, where N>2, are transformed to the frequency domain for subsequent processing according to the present invention.
The TDOA information is derived from the frequency domain representations by determining the phase difference for each of the like-frequency components (i.e., frequency components that appear in each of the frequency domain representations), and in one embodiment, observing the phase difference values as a function of their like-frequency component. If one were to plot these phase values as a function of the frequency, the plot is a straight line with a slope that is directly proportional to the time difference of arrival. The “y” intercept of the line is the observed frequency difference between the two signals.
In other embodiments described below, it is not necessary to construct the referred-to plot, as the TDOA is derived from mathematical manipulation of the phase values of the like-frequency domain components. For example, the Hermitian product or derivative approach, as described below, can be used. The latter technique produces the TDOA directly through a wholly mathematical process and thus does not require graphing the pairwise phase difference values as a function of frequency
In practice, additive noise causes the phase values to be scattered about the ideal line and thus a regression analysis can be employed to determine the best fit line. The regression analysis can be employed in the wholly mathematical approaches to finding the TDOA as described herein.
The frequency error as represented by the y-axis intercept has several possible causes, including frequency inaccuracy in base station and monitoring station receivers at 12 and 10, in the wireless communications device 2, and Doppler frequency shifts due to the motion of the wireless communications device 2. If a particular wireless communications device 2 has a significantly resolvable frequency error, then the error can be used as an “RF signature” to separate the various signals received at a receiving site to further identify the signal from the wireless communications device of interest, i.e., the signal from the wireless communications device 2 for which the location is to be determined. The frequency offset can also be used to “tune” the system, adjusting components of the system until the frequency offset is reduced.
According to the Hermitian product (also known as the inner product) methodology, the time domain signal received at each of the N receiving sites is first transformed to the frequency domain, forming N vectors, one vector (or array) for each site. The elements of each vector comprise m complex valued phasors representing the magnitude and the phase for each frequency component in the transformed signal. The N vectors are then considered on a pairwise basis by forming the Hermitian or inner product for each frequency component present in the two pairwise vectors, i.e., the Hermitian product is formed for like-frequency components in each of the pairwise vectors. As is known the Hermitian product is the product of the magnitudes and the difference of the phase angles of the frequency components. The result of this operation is a vector having complex elements that include the phase difference for the like-frequency components present in the two vectors. Since the N vectors (for the N receiving sites) are considered in pairs, there are N(N−1)/2 pairwise combinations and thus N(N−1)/2 resulting vectors.
When the complex vector elements are represented as the sum of a real and an imaginary part, in lieu of representation as complex phasors, the inner product can be determined for the same frequency components as the product of the complex value of one vector element times the complex conjugate of the like-frequency element from a second vector.
Since the result of the inner product computation produces phase difference values for each frequency component present in the pairwise receiving site vectors, it is possible to determine a function that describes the relationship between the like-frequency values and their associated phase difference values. Taking the derivative of this function yields the slope of the phase difference versus frequency line and thus the TDOA. Ideally, the function is a constant valued function of frequency that may be smoothed by filtering or regression analysis.
This function derivative approach offers the advantage of avoiding the discontinuities that accompany the phase unwrapping process that must be undertaken when determining the phase difference as a function of frequency. The phase unwrapping process is described in detail below. This approach also avoids the requirement to construct a plot or determine a linear equation directly from the phase difference values, from which the slope can in turn be determined.
Advantages of the frequency domain approach according to the present invention as compared with the prior art approach include: 1) finding the TDOA directly, thus avoiding the prior art computation of the time-domain cross-correlation function and the subsequent peak search to find the time offset and 2) allowing direct frequency domain filtering to optimize the TDOA by using (or heavily weighting) the phase values of only those frequency components that have a useful signal-to-noise ratio (or satisfy another signal quality metric). That is, these components can be used to weight or shape a filter transfer function such that the phase values of frequency components falling below a useful quality level are effectively disregarded. Also, the present invention allows use of the efficient fast Fourier transform and in one embodiment avoids the phase unwrapping problem associated with finding phase shifts by using a derivative of the frequency/phase function.
According to the teachings of the present invention, in one embodiment, to determine the TDOA of a signal at two or more receiving sites each receiving site (either a base station or a monitoring station 10) time stamps (also referred to as a time hack or a time marker) the receipt of the same known signal time slice. The magnitude and phase of the frequency spectrum components of the signal time slice are determined by a transformation to the frequency domain (note that only the phase is required for further processing). The phase value for each frequency component is sent to a central site or another receiving site to determine the TDOA.
This aspect of the present invention is a substantial improvement over the prior art process, wherein an entire raw time domain signal interval or digital samples thereof must be transmitted from each receiving site to the central processing site to perform the aforementioned time domain cross-correlation. Since this can represent a considerable quantity of data, a wide bandwidth (i.e., high speed) transmission medium may be required to ensure that the data is quickly transmitted to the central processing site so that the TDOA value, and thus the geolocation, can be calculated with minimal delay. In contrast, according to the methodology of the present invention, the amount of data that must be sent from each receiving site to a TDOA processing site is reduced as only the frequency spectrum information (more specifically the phase information for each spectral component) is required. Thus substantially less data must be transmitted than that required by the prior art time-domain TDOA approach. As a result, the present invention may not require a wide bandwidth channel from each receiving site to the TDOA processing site for the data to be transferred quickly and the TDOA determined.
Alternatively, in another embodiment of the present invention, the raw time domain signal and the time marker can be transmitted to the TDOA processing site, although this technique may not yield a TDOA determination in the shortest time.
There are several available choices for the time slice signal from which the TDOA is calculated. As is known, in the conventional cellular system each monitoring station 10 is configured to monitor the control channels usable by a wireless communications device 2 within the coverage area of the monitoring region 11. In a cellular system, time utilization of reverse control channels (i.e., control communications from the wireless communications device 2 to the cellular base station 12) is statistically low. Therefore a monitoring station 10 at a higher elevation than nearby cell sites 12 may provide a coverage area extending over multiple reusers of the same control channel as utilized within multiple cells 14, with a low probability of interference from signal “collisions.” Thus the control channel signals received at one or more monitoring stations 10 can be advantageously used in the position determination process by determining the TDOA of a signal received at a monitoring station 10 with respect to the same control channel signal received at another monitoring station 10 or at a cellular base station 12. Because the cellular telephone system in the United States is structured so that each area is served by two cellular service providers and possibly several PCS providers, a monitoring site 10 may be designed to monitor channels including those of more than one provider, with potential sharing of signal monitoring resources and thus geolocation determining functions by more than one carrier.
In systems constructed according to certain protocols, such as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service), EAMPS (Extended Advanced Mobile Phone Service) and systems employing a time division multiplex access (TDMA) protocol, precise time of arrival information at a receiving site can be derived from a priori knowledge of certain segments of the transmitted message from the wireless communications device 2. For instance, in EAMPS a ‘dotting sequence’ followed by a Barker code always precedes a reverse control channel message. This sequence alerts the receiving sites that a message is arriving, and each word in the sequence is repeated five times. Each receiving site can calculate the time of arrival of a specific reference point within this sequence, from which the time difference of arrival between two or more receiving sites can be determined as described herein.
In one embodiment of the present invention, emergency service providers can use a wireless communications device with a known location to test the geolocation system, determine the accuracy of the calculated location and calibrate system components. For example, the operational parameters of receiver components at the receiving sites can drift out of calibration. These components can introduce an offset in phase delay in the received signal and thus introduce errors in the position determination. Periodic testing of the system can detect these errors, in response to which the receiver components can be calibrated. Also, the receiving elements can include a self-calibration process to ensure accurate position determination.
The mathematical basis for the frequency domain TDOA technique of the present invention is set forth below. Let f1(t) and f2(t) be the received signals at two spaced-apart receiving stations 1 and 2, such as a monitoring site 10 and/or a cell site 12, and let f(t) be the transmitted signal. Then, neglecting multipath, dispersion and other propagation effects in the interest of clarity,
The operative Fourier transform pairs are then:
This equation depicts the ideal result, for perfect signals without noise or other corruptions, such that Φ(ω) is a linear function whose slope is the TDOA and the y-axis intercept is zero.
Note that according to this mathematical process for finding the TDOA, it is not necessary to actually plot the phase difference values as a function of frequency to find the line slope, which equals the TDOA. Instead, the TDOA is found mathematically from the two functions F2(ω) and F1(ω), which are the frequency domain representations of the received signals, with each signal component in F2(ω) and F1(ω) having a magnitude and a phase value. The process described above can be easily extended to three receiving sites, and thus three TDOA (Δt) values are calculated. For N sites, N(N−1)/2 values are calculated.
Since practical implementations of the teachings of the present invention will contain noise effects, a methodology to remove or minimize these effects must be employed. According to two embodiments of the present invention the following two methods can be employed to find the TDOA, given the phase difference function Φ(ω).
According to the first embodiment, a statistical process is used to find the slope estimate. In one embodiment a simple linear regression suffices, but a frequency-weighted linear regression can also be employed. Both linear regression formulae are set forth below.
However, both methods also require, to avoid discontinuities in the phase function, that the phase in the Φ(ω) function be unwrapped before the TDOA value can be found. Since the argument function has a period 2π, and likely the time offset spans more than 2π radians, multiples of 2π must be added to the phase function to make the phase function continuous. Various phase unwrapping techniques are known to those skilled in the art.
Once the phase function (i.e., Φ(ω) above) has been successfully unwrapped, the slope can be found and the Δt value calculated. Typically, the Δt value calculated above does not present a constant valued function of frequency due to noise and other influences, such as multipath effects, fading etc. Thus a linear regression or weighted linear regression can be used to find the best fit line to the Φ(ω) values as a function of frequency.
The practical computations set forth herein use a discrete version of the aforementioned functions. Using Φk and ωk to be R length vectors (k=1 to k=R) containing samples of the Φ(ω) function (where the samples are the Δt values designated by Φk) and the corresponding frequencies are represented by ωk, the least squares linear regression for finding the slope (that is, the TDOA estimate or average Δt) is:
In another embodiment where a frequency domain weighted least squares technique is employed, the TDOA estimate or average At is found from:
Another technique to determine the TDOA avoids the phase unwrapping process and reduces the order of the curve fit from first degree to zero degrees. According to this process the argument function is differentiated, then simple weighted averaging is used to find the TDOA estimate. First the argument function is separated into its real and imaginary components, namely I(ω) and Q(ω). Then the derivative process is performed on the two real valued functions. Let
As discussed in conjunction with the previous methodologies, although the result of equation (3) is ideally a constant valued function of frequency corresponding to the TDOA, in practice the signals contain noise and thus an averaging and/or smoothing process is employed to improve the quality of the TDOA estimate. This averaging process can be performed as a linear or weighted regression analysis as described above or as a weighted average, where the “out of band” signals are weighted lightly or removed from consideration (including any signals where a signal quality metric indicates that the signal value should no be considered).
When the received time-based signals are transformed to the frequency domain to perform the TDOA calculations as described above, certain frequency components having a low signal to noise ratio can be removed to improve the location precision and avoid the computing time required to process these signal components. One technique for removing these components uses the weighed averaging technique described above. In another embodiment, these components can be removed by frequency domain filtering. Since according to the teachings of the present invention the TDOA calculation is performed in the frequency domain, a simple frequency domain window (i.e., filter) may be applied to remove frequency components or assign lower “weights” to these less important components. For example, if signal-to-noise ratio information (or any other signal quality metric, such as bit error rate or signal power) is available, a filter can be constructed to reduce the weighting of or remove the components falling below a useful value of the signal quality metric. In this way the influence of the noise or other signal degradation is minimized. The filter function can also be adaptive according to changes in the signal and noise characteristics.
In yet another embodiment, the power spectrum is determined for a plurality of sample signals in the frequency domain. The power spectra can be added and the sum divided by the expected noise power. The resulting value serves as a mask for filtering out the frequency components and thus reduces the computational time of the geolocation algorithm.
In another embodiment, a statistically-based mask can be determined by calculating the variance of the energy or entropy in each frequency component. This variance value can serve as filter mask, removing those components that fall outside the calculated variance. In yet another embodiment a matched filter can be employed as the filter function.
The preferred filter is a real valued frequency domain window filter, i.e., a filter with a transfer function W(ω), for removing the components falling below the useful signal quality metric value. The real valued characteristic is preferred so as not to add a phase angle value to the Hermeitian product and thus distort the TDOA value. Several different filter transfer functions are available to perform this function. The simplest such function is a conventional pass band filter where the frequency components above and below the pass band (where the pass band is defined based on a signal quality metric of the components of interest) are filtered out or attenuated. More complex filters (such as matched filters) can assign a weight to each signal component, where the weight is representative of the signal quality metric as described above. Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filters are suitable for this application. Higher quality signals are weighted with higher value weights to reduce the effects of noise on the TDOA determination. It is recognized that the filtering process is not necessarily a required step according to the present invention, but it can improve the location accuracy under certain conditions.
The filter transfer function is represented by W(ω) and thus equation (1) above becomes,
In the idealized case, the y-intercept for the argument plot is zero, as the ideal case assumes no frequency offset at the two or more receiving stations. In any case, if there is a frequency offset, caused by either motion of the wireless communications device (i.e., Doppler shifting) or mismatched receiving components at the two receiving sites, the line slope remains unchanged, but the y-intercept changes in accordance with the frequency offset, that is, the line is merely shifted on the x-y coordinate plane with no change in slope. Thus the techniques of the present invention can be employed notwithstanding a non-zero frequency offset (y intercept). The offset may be used to retune the receiving components at the receiving sites, as part of a feedback loop until the offset is minimized or eliminated.
According to the prior art cross-correlation technique, this frequency shift changes the location of the cross correlation function peak, and since the frequency offset is unknown, the peak location can be accurately determined only be assuming a frequency offset, calculating the cross correlation function and finding the peak, then assuming a different frequency offset and repeating the process. The highest peak from among the multiple iterations through the process represents the time offset of the two received signals. This is clearly a laborious process and is avoided according to the teachings of the present invention.
Once the TDOA value has been determined according to one of the techniques set forth above, it is possible to determine the location of the wireless communications device 2. Since the equations that relate the TDOA and the wireless communications device location are not readily invertible, an iterative scheme is used to find the location of the wireless communications device given the TDOAs and the locations of the receiving sites, that is, either the monitoring sites 10 or cell sites 12.
One prior art scheme uses a grid approach to subdivide the region encompassing the location of the wireless communications device 2 into a set of smaller grid regions. A search is conducted over the grid regions by calculating the error between the actual TDOA value as calculated above, and the TDOA value resulting from placing a test wireless communications device in each of the grid regions. The process steps though each of the grid subdivisions, and after all grid regions have been checked, the “best” region is determined. That region is further subdivided and a subsequent iterative search is performed for each of the subdivided regions. Again, after all regions are checked, the “best” region is found. The process continues until a region of sufficiently small size (i.e., as determined by the desired accuracy of the final position determination) is found. This region represents the position of the wireless communications device.
This known prior art process uses pairs of receiving sites for each grid search. That is, a pair of receiving sites is selected and the grid process executed as above until the best location with the desired accuracy is determined. Then another pair is selected and the grid process executed again. After all the pair TDOA values have been used to find a mobile location, all locations are averaged to find the final mobile location.
A method according to the present invention uses “differential correction,” which is essentially a predictor-corrector method, to find the wireless communications device location. In this method the errors in the DDOA (distance difference of arrival, which is the difference between the distance from each receiving site to the wireless communications device 2, or the product of the TDOA and the speed of light) are linked to the errors in the wireless communications device's location via a differential equation. Solving the differential equation provides a correction for the location of the wireless communications device 2. The correction process is iterated until the location error is less than a predetermined minimum value. Advantageously, this method does not use individual pairwise location determinations as taught by the prior art, but instead uses all the TDOA values (i.e., from all of the receiving site pairs) to create a mathematical system that can be over determined if a sufficient number of sites receive the mobile signal. In any case, a more accurate and faster result is obtained.
The method of differential correction involves the following steps.
(a) Pick a “seed” or initial location for the wireless communications device. In one embodiment this is the geographic center of the receiving sites for which a TDOA value has been calculated.
(b) Calculate a distance difference of arrival (DDOA) using the receiving site locations and the seed location.
(c) For each pair of receiving sites, calculate the pairwise DDOA error, that is, the measured DDOA less the predicted DDOA, where the measured value is the TDOA calculated above multiplied by the speed of light and the predicted value was determined in step (b) above.
(d) Using the DDOA error value and the TDOA equation, solve for the error in the wireless communications device's location. In one embodiment, this step is performed by placing the data in a matrix and finding the least squares solution to an over determined system.
(e) Update the mobile's location by adding the error found in the step (d) to the seed location above or the previously calculated location.
(i) If the magnitude of the correction added to the mobile's location is greater than a predetermined threshold, go back to step (b) and repeat the process, otherwise the location has been found with the desired degree of accuracy.
The primary advantage of the method according to the present invention is its computational efficiency. Instead of searching “all over the grid”, this method quickly converges to the result. Another advantage is the adaptability of the algorithm to a variable number of receiving sites. Finally, since no grid is used, there is no concern or restriction associated with the geometry of the sites and the shape and size of the search space in the grid.
Since N receiving sites yield N(N−1)/2 site pairings, the process continues by enumerating these sites beginning with 1 and continuing to N(N−1)/2. Some possible pairing counts are shown below:
The operative TDOA equation for a pair of receiving sites (designated 1 and 2) is:
For other receiver site pairings, the subscripts can be changed to the appropriate numbers identifying the receiving sites. Thus the number of Δxy values according to equation (4) equals the number of receiver site pairings.
To determine the difference between the predicted location and the actual location based on the TDOA values, it is helpful to determine the differential form of the TDOA equation (4), which is found by implicit differentiation with respect to Δ12, with the variables x and y treated as functions of Δ12. The result is:
Following is a detailed example of the differential correction process of the present invention. The differential correction process begins, as described above, by determining a seed location for the wireless communications device. In one embodiment the following formulae can be used to determine the starting values (i.e., the x and y coordinates) for the wireless communications device's position (x,y) at the geographic center of the N receiver sites, each located at (Xi, Yi)
Given the N receiving sites and the corresponding N(N−1)/2 TDOA values determined as described above, the following matrix is found for the data according to equation (4) and its differential form of equation (5). For this example N=4, but the process is easily adaptable to other values of N. For N=4 there are six TDOA values.
The delta values are the distance difference errors calculated from the measured distance value based on the TDOA between the two stations represented by the subscripts, minus the predicted value for the location. For the first iteration the predicted value is the initial seed location. For subsequent iterations the predicted value is determined as follows. Since the differential form of the equation contains a minus, we reverse the order of the terms when forming the dΔ values below, that is, the dΔ values are shown as the predicted value (ξ1−ξ2) less the measured value (ct′12). For N=4:
The matrix, A, as defined below, is used to determine the wireless communications device's location correction vector.
Thus the following formula is used to determine an updated position (x′, y′) of the wireless communications device, based on the previous position (x,y).
The primed values represent the updated location, from which a new predicted value of DDOA is determined for insertion into equation (6) above, and the calculation of a new dΔ for another iteration through the process. In another embodiment, the number of iterations through the location determining algorithm as described above can be limited to a predetermined number to avoid a situation where the process does not converge within a given time interval.
The above process assumes a flat earth. It is known to one skilled in the art that extension to a curved earth or an irregular terrain is possible according to known techniques. For example, equation (4) is modified to account for the spherical earth as follows.
In this embodiment the differential correction formula (5) becomes
The matrix for solving this three-dimensional problem contains three columns, however the solution methodology is the same as set forth above with respect to the two dimensional problem.
It is known that in the process of determining the location of the wireless communications device through the above technique wherein the error is minimized during each iteration, it is possible that a local minima may be identified as the location of the wireless communications device, instead of a global minima representing the location with respect to the entire search space. To avoid the conclusion that a local minima is the global minima, in another embodiment, several seed locations can be identified and the above algorithm executed for each such seed location. Since it is highly improbable for the local minima for each seed location to coincide, if the executions converge to the same location, then it is likely that the result represents the actual location (i.e., the global minima) of the wireless communications device, rather than a local minima.
Various methods are known for determining the angle of arrival (AOA) information from the signal received at one or more of the receiving sites. In one embodiment the angle of arrival information can be advantageously combined with the TDOA values to determine the location of the wireless communications device. For example, the AOA can be used as a test to ensure that the location calculated above is a global minima and not a local minima. Further, if TDOA information is not available from a sufficient number of sources to determine the location, due to noise, for example, the AOA information can be advantageously combined with the available TDOA information and the location may be therefore determinable from the combination of the TDOA and AOA information. The AOA information may also be useful in determining a “seed” location and as a result the location algorithm may converge more quickly to the location value.
At a step 54 the frequency spectrum values are weighted and/or a filter function is imposed on them to reduce the influence of noise components and out-of-band components on the subsequent processing steps. This step is not necessarily required, but can advantageously affect the results by eliminating or attenuating the affect of noise-induce components in the received signals.
At a step 56 the phase difference, as a function of frequency, is determined for each of the common frequency components in the spectra of the signal received at two receiving sites. At a step 58 these phase values are used to determine the TDOA according to the various techniques set forth above. As indicated at step 60, the slope is the TDOA for the signal as received at the two receiving sites.
At a step 82, the DDOA is calculated (as set forth in equation (4) above) by determining the distance between the wireless communications device 2 and each pair of receiving sites, then taking the difference of these two distance values. The DDOA error is calculated at a step 84 (according to equation (5) above) by determining the difference between the DDOA value calculated at the step 82 and the product of the previously calculated TDOA value (see the step 58 of
A decision step 90 compares the location error with an error threshold. If the error is less than (or equal to in one embodiment) the convergence threshold, the algorithm processing terminates according to a step 92. Otherwise the process returns to the step 82 to redetermine the DDOA value based on the new location coordinates.
Generally, the method processes of the present invention can be executed on a dedicated processor, at one of the receiving sites or the processing site. Alternatively, the processes can be executed on general purpose processor on a time-shared basis.
In the embodiment of
The restrictive description and drawings of the specific examples above do not point out what an infringement of this patent would be, but are to enable one skilled in the art to make and use the invention. Various modifications can be made in the construction, material, arrangement, and operation, and still be within the scope of our invention. The limits of the invention and the bounds of the patent protection are measured by and defined in the following claims.
While the invention has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalent elements may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the present invention. The scope of the present invention further includes any combination of the elements from the various embodiments set forth herein. In addition, modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation to the teachings of the present invention without departing from its essential scope thereof. For example, the teachings of the present invention can applied to different communication schemes to find the geolocation of a wireless communications device. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.
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For 62 years the Potomac River Coal Plant has been burning coal in Alexandria, VA. On October 1, 2012 (or hopefully sooner), the plant will cease its operations and the citizens of Alexandria can start breathing a little easier.
The announcement came today from the city of Alexandria after a deal worked out with the plant’s owner, GenOn.
With our coalition partners Sierra Club, Chesapeake Climate Action Network and Greater Washington Interfaith Power and Light, we have stood united in our determination to shut this plant down. The work that has gone into this has made that a reality. Thousands of people have taken pushed to shut down this plant. Now the work of putting the riverfront to a better use can get done.
Here's a video of recent actions by local and national environmental groups to shut down the Potomac plant:
One by one coal plants are falling throughout this country.
Potomac River Coal Plant is just the latest example of people rising up against polluters in their community. As this isn’t the only dirty plant GenOn owns, the campaign against them will continue.
The fight to Quit Coal will continue.
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- What is Marijuana
- Ways of Using Marijuana
- Different Names of Marijuana
- Medical Uses of Marijuana
- Cannabis Cup Strains
- Germinating Marijuana Seeds
- How To Transplant Seedlings
- Plant Stress
- Fertilize Seedlings
- Planting Pot Seedlings
- Growing Hydroponically
- Aeroponics And Growing
- Hydroponic System Water
- Nutrients Mixture Guide
- Hydroponics Soil
- Cropping Techniques To Cannabis
- Cloning Flowering Plants
- Pruning Weed
- Pests And Diseases
- Transplanting Procedures
- Breeding Pots
- Identifying Female / Male Plants
- How To Choose The Proper Strain
- Lowering The Smell & Odor
- How To Make Seeds
- Growing Marijuana Plant Outdoor
- How to Grow Marijuana Outdoors
- How To Grow Pot Outside
- Guidelines of Growing Outdoor
- Outdoor Marijuana Pests
Making seeds from your crops is made possible with the method known as “breeding”. Like most of the growers in the field, you happened to encounter or brought a great stain that you found very satisfying, eventually became your favorite, you definitely would like to produce more of those seeds from your crops in order to continue the strain. And how do you do that? The following method will teach you how to do that.
But remember that you would not be able to produce the exact replica of the said plant unless they are IBL. What breeding can provide for you is to produce seeds that contain most, if not all, of the parent plant’s genetic characteristics (blueprint). Some of the yield would turn out to be like the parents but some will show different characteristics. The difference in characteristics could be in color, potency and taste.
What is so great about marijuana seed growing is that it can be grown and produced sexually and asexually. What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction and propagation?
Taking cuttings and cloning are examples of asexual propagation. The method is when stems or branches, or growth shoots are removed from a mother/donor plant and induced to form roots in a different growing medium. These cuttings with the newly grown roots will then be planted into a uniform crop of genetically identical individuals. This asexual method of propagation is usually used to ensure uniformity in growth, harvest and consistency, which makes it more popular today. This has also been mentioned in the Cloning Section.
On the other hand, sexual propagation is when male and female reproductive cells also referred to as gametes, unites to form a new offspring. This union takes place in the female plant and occurs when the male pollen unites with an ovule inside the ovary of the female flower. This union creates an embryo which eventually develops and matures into a seed.
In the event that the flowering ends, the flower will contain the seed or seeds. You need to check them now and ideally they have to be dark in color. A light or shinny color indicates that they had been harvested too early and this is not good. Patiently wait until the very end of the flowering period for you to harvest the seeds.
The genes from both of the parents attribute to the genetic blueprint uniqueness of each seed. Since offspring may manifest slight difference in their traits, the purpose of advanced breeding methods is to eliminate plants that do not contain desirable traits and continue breeding the ones that shows high superior genetic traits. This will enable you to develop new and high quality strain variety.
The process goes like this: Commercial breeders would mostly large quantity of plants with a little consideration on the type of the specimen used, sometimes disregarding the quality of specimen, often times with a very few outstanding ones. Their offspring are then selected and then more often crossed with other varieties of cannabis with desirable traits.
Here is an illustration, when a plant that matures very early but has a low potency be crossed with a plant that takes a long period of time to mature but has an extremely high potency; the first generation would be fairly uniform. The second generation would tend to sort out into early and late plants of different potency. In most cases of early potent plants only, the desirable-bearing plants are then chosen to be used in breeding further. After several generations, the variety of the cannabis will then be stabilized. This is the goal of commercial seed growers, to stabilize the characteristics of the cannabis the soonest possible time in order for the plants to be uniform.
With the permissibility of an indoor growing with the possible control of many indoor environmental factors, you can breed some good and even premium quality buds.
One of the superb methods for producing lighting fast maturing strain is use and grows in your garden this extremely early-flowering plant known as equatorial cannabis variety. The breeding of this type of plant with a high potency will enable you to develop your own strain of an incredibly fast-maturing high-potent marijuana plant in just a few generations.
Important Point: Always bear in mind that the only way to preserve the exact genetic makeup of any plant is through taking cuttings.
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| 0.943743 | 1,059 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Locals hope to stop a Utah mill from finding new workWHITE MESA, UTAH — If you blink on the drive between Blanding and Bluff, you might miss the White Mesa Ute Reservation. From Highway 191, this small community of 300 Ute Mountain Utes is marked by a gas station, a Mormon ward house and a smattering of trailer homes. But if your window is rolled down, you could catch a whiff of the Utes’ neighbor. When it’s running, the International Uranium Corporation’s mill saturates the air with the stench of sulfur.
The mill — one of only two surviving uranium mills in the country — has switched to a controversial practice in order to stay alive in a depressed uranium market. Instead of processing uranium ore, which is not currently mined in the U.S. because prices are so low, the mill "recycles" mine tailings, contaminated soils and Manhattan Project waste — collectively known as "alternate feed" — to glean any remnants of uranium. It then sells the concentrated, purified uranium, called yellowcake, to nuclear power plants.
The leftover alternate feed, piled out in the open, uncovered, is nasty stuff. Dust sometimes blows off the piles, and the mill’s smokestacks and tailings piles emit radon and thoron gases, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Although those emissions meet national air-quality standards, the toxins still pose long-term risks of cancer and respiratory disease, according to the U.S. Department of Health.
For 53-year-old Ute Mountain Ute Thelma Whiskers, who lives in a small house separated from the mill by only a four-mile stretch of cheatgrass and juniper trees, it’s galling that the mill was built on top of more than 200 Ute, Navajo and Anasazi ceremonial and burial sites.
But even more galling is the fact that the mill may be nothing more than a poorly disguised waste dump. The mill extracts only minute amounts of uranium from the alternate feed, and makes its money from charging recycling fees, not producing uranium. "The uranium values in the feed material are very low," says Loren Morton, a hydrogeologist with the Utah Division of Radiation Control. "It’s the recycling fee that makes the economics (viable)."
Drumming up businessThe Energy Fuels Corporation opened the White Mesa Mill in 1980, and, floundering in bankruptcy, sold it to the International Uranium Corporation in 1997. With the uranium industry hanging by a thread, IUC turned to alternate feed for new business, touting its recycling services as an environmentally superior alternative to direct disposal. Some yellowcake is extracted, but most of the material winds up in the mill’s outdoor disposal cells.
In 1997, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) granted the company an amendment to its license so it could accept uranium tailings from a former mill in Tonawanda, New York. In 1998, the state of Utah appealed that amendment, arguing that the NRC should set a minimum concentration of uranium content for a waste source in order for it to be deemed alternate feed.
The state lost the appeal, and International Uranium raked in more than $4 million in fees for processing the Tonawanda material, which contained less than $600,000 worth of uranium, according to the state. The mill has to gain a license amendment for every new contract, but NRC regulation remains lax: Anything with trace amounts of uranium can be considered alternate feed. And since 1997, International Uranium has processed more than 300,000 tons of radioactive waste from California, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Illinois and Canada.
The mill produces about 1 pound of uranium for every ton of alternate feed it processes, according to Ken Miyoshi, the manager of the White Mesa Mill. It takes years to stockpile enough alternate feed for the mill to operate: The mill was on standby from 1999 to 2002, and then ran from June 2002 to May 2003.
Miyoshi says processing alternate feed is a way to keep the mill running until uranium prices rebound, and that the company pumps money into the local community through jobs and taxes. But the economic benefits for the Ute Mountain Ute tribe are insignificant, says Tom Rice, the tribe’s environmental director. Only two or three of the 50 workers needed by the mill when it’s running are Utes, and the temporary jobs only pay about $8 an hour. And, he says, the mill’s proximity limits the tribe’s ability to create a tourist economy.
State tries to take controlNow, International Uranium wants permission from the NRC to accept about 5,000 tons of uranium — blended to reduce its radioactivity — from a U.S. nuclear weapons complex in Tennessee. The company is also courting the Department of Energy to get a contract for the 13 million-ton tailings pile from the defunct Atlas Uranium Mill in Moab. The Moab tailings would be mixed with water and slurried to the White Mesa Mill through an 85-mile-long pipeline.
Miyoshi says constructing the pipeline and moving the Moab tailings will provide jobs for several years. But the bulk of the tailings are slated for direct disposal — not recycling — in the mill’s tailings cells, with International Uranium retaining the right to process some of the slurry solution, depending on uranium content. A draft environmental impact statement, which will evaluate four different disposal sites for the Moab tailings, is due out in April. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe has asked that White Mesa be removed from the list of alternatives in consideration of health and cultural impacts.
The mill’s opponents — a growing coalition of Utes, Navajos, environmentalists and local business owners — may soon get a stronger voice in how the facility is regulated. The Utah government, which has criticized the operation in the past, is on track to take over regulation of the state’s uranium mills from the NRC this spring. While the state plans to impose stricter groundwater monitoring standards at White Mesa, it will probably continue the NRC’s weak policy on alternate feed. But state control would allow more public access.
The Utah Board of Radiation Control’s meetings are open to the public and anyone can get on the agenda by submitting a request in advance. "Under the NRC process," says Bill Sinclair, deputy director of the state Department of Environmental Quality, "it is very difficult to become a factor in their decision making."
"This facility has to close sooner or later," says Bradley Angel, executive director of the San Francisco-based nonprofit Greenaction and a part-time Moab resident. "If the government won’t do it, then the people are going to have to do it for them."
The author writes from Salt Lake City, Utah.Greenaction Bradley Angel, 415-248-5010, www.greenaction.org
International Uranium Corporation 303-628-7798, www.intluranium.com
Utah Division of Radiation Control 801-536-4250, www.radiationcontrol.utah.gov.
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The Thatchers Craft deals with the history of thatching, the stage-by-stage construction using long straw, combed wheat or water reed, and has chapters on materials, tools and roof construction.
This publication is available only from this site as facsimiles of the book as 10 PDF documents. You can download these by clicking on the title links below.*
- Part 1 (2mb pdf)
- Part 2 (3mb pdf)
- Part 3 (2mb pdf)
- Part 4 (2mb pdf)
- Part 5 (2mb pdf)
- Part 6 (2mb pdf)
- Part 7 (2mb pdf)
- Part 8 (2mb pdf)
- Part 9 (2mb pdf)
- Part 10 (2mb pdf)
*If you experience any problems opening the documents, please do the following:
- 'Right click' on the link.
- Click on 'Save Link Target As' option.
- Choose a destination on your computer to save the file in e.g. Desktop.
- Click Save.
- Open the file from the location in which you saved it.
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The Georgia Department of Public Health, Division of Public Health (DPH) in accordance with the Official Code of Georgia, Title 31-12-1, is "...empowered to conduct studies, research, and training appropriate to the prevention of disease..." All physicians, laboratorians, and other healthcare providers are required by law to immediately report any cluster of illnesses to the Division of Public Health. Clusters or outbreaks may be reported to the appropriate County Health Department or District Health Office, or to the DPH 24/7 reporting hotline, 1-866-PUB-HLTH (1-866-782-4584), or they may also be directly reported to the Acute Disease Epidemiology Section at the Division of Public Health at 404-657-2588.
The Acute Disease Epidemiology Section (ADES) is responsible for supporting the District Epidemiologists in outbreak investigations, coordinating clinical and environmental specimen testing at the Georgia Public Health Laboratory (GPHL), and managing statewide outbreak related data. ADES epidemiologists also work closely with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Georgia Department of Agriculture, and the Food and Drug Administration for technical support and collaboration on multistate investigations.
What is an outbreak?
An outbreak is defined as more cases of disease in time or place than expected. If the condition is rare (i.e. foodborne botulism) or has serious public health implications (i.e. bioterrorism agent), an outbreak may involve only one case.
When two or more cases have the same laboratory diagnosis of the etiologic agent, the outbreak is considered laboratory confirmed. A cluster is a group of cases linked together in place and time (and may represent an outbreak). Not all
clusters are outbreaks but all clusters are investigated thoroughly and rapidly to rule out an outbreak or to implement control measures.
Georgia epidemiologists are responsible for outbreak investigations involving Georgia residents regardless of the exposure location. Outbreaks involving residents from multiple states are usually coordinated by CDC. Investigations into the source of an outbreak or cluster can vary with the etiology involved (viral, bacterial, parasitic, or chemical), the mode of transmission (foodborne, waterborne, environmental, person-to-person), or the setting (restaurant, nursing home, school, community.
Epidemiologists in Georgia use the following ten steps to investigate every outbreak. This standardized approach ensures timely response and thorough investigation into the cause of any outbreak so that it can be stopped and/or further disease can be prevented.
Outbreak Investigation: 10 Steps
- Prepare to investigate
- Identify outbreak investigation team
- Review scientific literature
- Determine if immediate control measures are needed
- Verify the diagnosis and confirm outbreak
- Get laboratory confirmation
- Collect stool specimens from ill persons
- Perform bacteriologic, virologic or parasitic testing at the Georgia Public Health Laboratory (GPHL)
- Link patients and environmental specimens by DNA fingerprinting/Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
- Case definition
- Establish a set of standard criteria for deciding who are the ill persons related to the outbreak ("case-patients")
- Narrow or broad (confirm, probable, suspect)
- DYNAMIC: may change during investigation
- Case finding
- Conduct systematic search based on case definition
- Create line list of possible cases (people exposed)
- Perform descriptive epidemiology
- Tabulate and orient data: PERSON, PLACE, TIME
- Epidemic Curve
- Hypothesis generation - the how and the why
- Compare with known sources or similar outbreaks
- Design questionnaire
- Evaluate hypothesis through statistics
- Perform epidemiologic study: cohort, case-control
- Compare risk factors among ill (cases) vs not ill (controls)
- Additional environmental studies
- Collect food, water, and/ or environmental samples
- Determine what happened with the implicated source or food
- Implement control/prevention measure
- Coordinate with all stakeholders including regulatory partners
- Develop strategies to prevent further or future illness
- Communicate findings
- Disseminate outbreak investigation report - internal and external audience
- Educate community, ill persons, restaurant staff, and Public Health Staff
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It's hard for a young, vigorous person to imagine that tripping on a rug or a slippery sidewalk could cause a life-threatening injury. But for some older people, it could mean exactly that.
Physical ailments and aging bones, which are more likely to fracture, may make it impossible for an older person to get up after a fall, leading to a greater risk of dehydration, confusion, pneumonia, or even death, particularly if the person lives alone. For others, a pattern of falls may not just be the result of environmental factors, but rather of an underlying medical condition.
Understanding the causes of falls among the elderly and finding ways to prevent them is a major subject of research at the Institute for Aging Research of Hebrew SeniorLife.
What causes older people to fall?
- Musculoskeletal changes - age can alter an older person's sense of balance and space perception, often causing a "dizzy" sensation.
- Environmental changes - a loose carpet or a chair out of place can pose hazards.
- Fainting - common daily activities can result in a dangerous drop in blood pressure, often resulting in loss of consciousness and a fall.
- Dehydration - acute illnesses or medications can cause dehydration and a drop in blood pressure, leading to fainting and falling.
- Chronic illnesses - these can cause dizziness, fainting or impaired movement.
Prevention is key
Lewis Lipsitz, M.D., Director of the Institute for Aging Research, a leading authority on falls, offers the following advice for reducing the risk of falling:
- If you are taking medications to lower your blood pressure, ask your doctor or pharmacist if you can take them between meals to avoid a large drop in blood pressure after eating.
- Take prescribed medications as ordered; do not take extra pills for missed doses. Be careful of medications that may make you drowsy. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about how your medications interact with each other.
- Wear shoes that fit well and have low heels, and don't walk around in socks or stockings that could make you slip.
- Have your eyes and ears examined regularly.
- Ask your doctor about exercises that will improve your strength and endurance. Research at the Institute shows that resistance training builds muscle size and strength, and improves gait and mobility.
- Use a cane or walker if one has been prescribed, and make sure it is adjusted to your height and used properly.
- Take safety precautions: keep your home well-lighted, remove scatter rugs, remove or tape down telephone and electrical cords, install grab bars in the shower/tub and next to the toilet, and use a non-skid bath mat in the shower.
- If you fall, even if you do not hurt yourself, report it to your doctor. If you fall and have trouble getting up, or you think you lost consciousness, call your doctor immediately.
As researchers at Hebrew SeniorLife are able to identify more precisely the mechanisms that trigger fainting and falls, seniors and their caregivers will be able to better predict circumstances that may lead to a fall and develop more effective prevention strategies. The solution to the problem, however, is not simple. Prevention requires an understanding of many gerontological issues, and Institute for Aging Research findings will continue to shape strategies aimed at helping people maintain a good quality of life as they grow old.
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As in present-day StE, equality is expressed by as ... as and inequality by so/as ... as preceded by a negative. Illustrations include:
That's the bloody truth, true as I'm here (Willingham AA)
I’ve see the snow as deep as what this is (West Wickham CC)
Only it een't (for StE isn’t) so tall as that (Willingham SS)
We don’t have as cold as it did, definitely, and yet so hot summers (Waterbeach BB)
As can be seen, the first as is not always included, and redundant what is sometimes added (cf. 7.5.6). As is also used as the first item in cases in which a negative precedes, although some grammarians recommend so as the first item. Thus, Cambridgeshire dialect speakers follow the principle that as … as expresses equality and not as/not so … as denies the existence of equality (cf., e.g., Curme 1968:184).
8.2 Multiple Comparison
The comparative and superlative are formed either by means of the suffixes -er and -est (inflectional comparison) or by means of more and most (periphrastic comparison). In choosing between inflectional and periphrastic comparison, Cambridgeshire informants usually observe the rules observed in StE, as in They were more religious that time o’ day (i.e. StE in those days) than they are today (Willingham ES) and She were me oldest sister (Rampton TR). (In StE, elder and eldest are often used in the attributive position, particularly when referring to the order of birth of members of a family. In the material for the present study, both older/oldest and elder/eldest occur in this context.) However, the comparative of the adjective spruce is constructed with more: to look a bit more spruce (i.e., smart) like (Rampton HP), contrary to inflectional comparison evidenced in earlier English: Making themselves as spruce as bridegrooms (1876) and the neatest and sprucest leather (1609) (OED, a. and adv. spruce). For the use of like, see 9.3.2. As in StE, the comparative and superlative of certain adjectives are irregular (e.g. better, best).
According to Hughes & Trudgill (1979: 18), many non-standard dialects permit both the addition of more/most and the addition of -er/-est simultaneously: She’s more rougher than he is. As can be seen, their example illustrates multiple (or double) comparative, which is also the construction attested in the interviews carried out for the present study, as shown in examples 8.2 (a-c).
You get more colder there 'n what we do about here (Waterbeach BB)
But they are more stricter in towns 'n they are here (West Wickham CC)
They were more happier then than they are today (Fulbourn CM)
Double superlative is not attested in the present material. In dialects documented by Wright (EDDmore, most) at the turn of the 20th century, both double comparatives and superlatives were recorded with examples such as more longer, more upstandinger and the most wretchedest, with the explanation that more and most are used redundantly to form comparatives and superlatives. Dialects have thus sustained the old constructions, which were common in the earlier periods of the language. Double comparatives and superlatives (more properer, most handsomest) were perfectly acceptable in ME and in the early Modern period, “though they came under corrective treatment” in the 18th century (Strang 1970: 138). In the 15th and 16th centuries, multiple comparison occurred mostly with adjectives of one or two syllables (Mustanoja 1960: 281). The works of earlier English writers abound with examples of -er/-est used in conjunction with more/most, as in This was the most unkindest cut of all (Shakespeare Julius Caesar).
8.3 Proportional Comparative and Comparative of Gradation
As in StE, the adverb the (a survival of the OE instrumental case of the demonstrative pronoun (Mustanoja 1960: 282) (although we no longer feel its original force; Curme 1968: 144) is used with the comparative to indicate or imply that the degree of comparison is dependent upon the context, as in The more you put water on, the brighter the lid (Waterbeach BB). To indicate that a quality increases at a fairly even rate, the comparative is repeated and the two identical forms are connected by and, or the comparative is preceded by ever, as in and that gradually keep getting better and better (West Wickham CC) and and I used to set so = he could watch me ever more (Willingham ES).
8.4 Absolute Superlative
In StE, the absolute superlative, which indicates a very high degree of a quality without any definite comparison with other persons or things, is often expressed using most before an adjective, e.g. Everybody has been most kind. In the material for the present study, constructions of the absolute superlative with most were not attested. To express a high degree of quality, the speakers use intensifying adverbs followed by the positive which, according to Curme (1968: 223), is also the most common way to express the absolute superlative in StE (e.g. very cold weather, an exceedingly intricate problem, etc.). For a discussion of intensifying adverbs, see 9.3.2.
8.5 Two Adjectives with a Similar Meaning Linked Together
In many dialects two adjectives of kindred meaning are combined to express intensity, as ancient old, great big (Wright EDG 1905: §395). This construction, recorded by Wright at the turn of the 20th century, still occurs in the interviews carried out for the present study in the 1970s, as illustrated by examples 8.3 (a-d).
[That was] a lovely pretty bird (Willingham SS)
[I have] a nice comfortable little room (Rampton TR)
I fell in a little- little tiny- little ditch (Waterbeach BB)
er they used to lay the = milk in pans
er = in a- in great big pans (Waterbeach)
8.6 Functions of Adjectives
As in StE, adjectives are used attributively and predicatively, as shown in the examples:
He were a decent bo' (an East Anglian noun meaning ’neighbour’, ’fellow’) (Willingham SS)
What did they look like? These wooden ploughs?
Well, they got a wooden breast and the- and the beam- the beam was wood. (Harston)
This country is dear (’expensive’) (Bartlow CP)
“If he’d been three parts of drunk like he wa sometimes,” he said, “he would-a-shot you.” (Willingham ES)
The attributive adjective drunk meaning ’drunken’, as in example 8.4 (d), is also the SED response (to question VI.13.11) for Lancashire. Both wooden and wood are used as adjectives, the latter form being used predicatively. In example 8.4 (b), the form wooden may mimic the interviewer’s use of this form.
Contrary to the frequent attributive and predicative uses, adjectives are rarely used as nouns. Instead of such common expressions as the rich, the poor, etc., Cambridgeshire informants use an adjective followed by a noun or the ’propword’ one, as in Mostly with poor people, they used to have that Sundays (Waterbeach BB) and Young ones don’t know today = that’s the truth = they don’t know what hardships are (Fulbourn CM).
In more recent grammars, the use of not as ... as is considered equally acceptable, or, as Quirk et al. (1985: 458) write: “Comparison to the same degree is expressed by as (or sometimesso) ... as.” (emphasis added)
In Cambridgeshire, dialect speakers do not thus follow the system of adding -er/-est to all adjectives, which according to Edwards & Weltens (1985: 117), is a practice “in virtually all British dialects” (e.g. beautifuller, beautifullest).
Additional observations come from Edwards & Weltens (1985: 117), who in their survey of Research on non-standard dialects note that the simultaneous application of both the periphrastic comparison and the addition of -er/-est occurs throughout Britain, e.g. more stricter/most strictest.
Similarly Trudgill (1990: 81): “Most Nonstandard Dialects continue to employ forms such as He’s more rougher than what you are and That’s the most stupidest thing I’ve heard.” This common double comparison pattern is reported for Tyneside English and exemplified with She’s got the most loveliest clothes (McDonald 1980: 22) and I think alcohol is much more safer, kind of relaxing if took in small quantities (McDonald 1985) (Beal 1993: 209). It is also “a widespread feature of south-eastern speech: I couldn’t have asked for a more nicer friend and That was the most horriblest experience of my life” (Edwards 1993a: 231-232).
Quirk et al. (1985: 1111) talk about clauses of proportion. These express a proportionality or equivalence of tendency or degree between two situations. They are introduced by the fronted correlative the ... the followed by the compartive forms.
Cf. the Cambridgeshire example If he’d been three parts of drunk... with (Quirk et al.’s 1985: 737) example He came in drunk, in which the adjective phrase assumes an adverbial function in the clause structure (‘He was drunk when he came in’).
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Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited by both Carib and Arawak tribes, who named it Guiana, which means land of many waters. The Dutch settled in Guyana in the late 16th century, but their control ended when the British became the de facto rulers in 1796. In 1815, the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice were officially ceded to Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna and, in 1831, were consolidated as British Guiana. Following the abolition of slavery in 1834, thousands of indentured laborers were brought to Guyana to replace the slaves on the sugarcane plantations, primarily from India but also from Portugal and China. The British stopped the practice in 1917. Many of the Afro-Guyanese former slaves moved to the towns and became the majority urban population, whereas the Indo-Guyanese remained predominantly rural. A scheme in 1862 to bring black workers from the United States was unsuccessful. The small Amerindian population lives in the country's interior.
The people drawn from these diverse origins have coexisted peacefully for the most part. Slave revolts, such as the one in 1763 led by Guyana's national hero, Cuffy, demonstrated the desire for basic rights but also a willingness to compromise. Politically inspired racial disturbances between Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese erupted in 1962-64, and again following elections in 1997 and 2001. The basically conservative and cooperative nature of Guyanese society has usually contributed to a cooling of racial tensions. Racial tensions, however, do constitute Guyanas greatest ongoing social stress point.
Guyanese politics, nevertheless, occasionally has been turbulent. The first modern political party in Guyana was the People's Progressive Party (PPP), established on January 1, 1950, with Forbes Burnham, a British-educated Afro-Guyanese, as chairman; Dr. Cheddi Jagan, a U.S.-educated Indo-Guyanese, as second vice chairman; and his American-born wife, Janet Jagan, as secretary general. The PPP won 18 out of 24 seats in the first popular elections permitted by the colonial government in 1953, and Dr. Jagan became leader of the house and minister of agriculture in the colonial government. Five months later, on October 9, 1953, the British suspended the constitution and landed troops because, they said, the Jagans and the PPP were planning to make Guyana a communist state. These events led to a split in the PPP, in which Burnham broke away and founded what eventually became the People's National Congress (PNC).
Elections were permitted again in 1957 and 1961, and Cheddi Jagan's PPP ticket won on both occasions, with 48% of the vote in 1957 and 43% in 1961. Cheddi Jagan became the first premier of British Guiana, a position he held for 7 years. At a constitutional conference in London in 1963, the U.K. Government agreed to grant independence to the colony but only after another election in which proportional representation would be introduced for the first time. It was widely believed that this system would reduce the number of seats won by the PPP and prevent it from obtaining a clear majority in Parliament. The December 1964 elections gave the PPP 46%, the PNC 41%, and the United Force (TUF), a conservative party, 12%. TUF threw its votes in the legislature to Forbes Burnham, who became prime minister.
Guyana achieved independence in May 1966, and became a republic on February 23, 1970--the anniversary of the Cuffy slave rebellion. From December 1964 until his death in August 1985, Forbes Burnham ruled Guyana in an increasingly autocratic manner, first as prime minister and later, after the adoption of a new constitution in 1980, as executive president. During that time- frame, elections were viewed in Guyana and abroad as fraudulent. Human rights and civil liberties were suppressed, and two major political assassinations occurred: the Jesuit Priest and journalist Bernard Darke in July 1979, and the distinguished historian and WPA Party leader Walter Rodney in June 1980. Agents of President Burnham are widely believed to have been responsible for both deaths.
Following Burnham's own death in 1985, Prime Minister Hugh Desmond Hoyte acceded to the presidency and was formally elected in the December 1985 national elections. Hoyte gradually reversed Burnham's policies, moving from state socialism and one-party control to a market economy and unrestricted freedom of the press and assembly. On October 5, 1992, a new National Assembly and regional councils were elected in the first Guyanese election since 1964 to be internationally recognized as free and fair. Cheddi Jagan was elected and sworn in as president on October 9, 1992.
When President Jagan died in March 1997, Prime Minister Samuel Hinds replaced him in accordance with constitutional provisions. President Jagan's widow, Janet Jagan, was elected president in December 1997. She resigned in August 1999 due to ill health and was succeeded by Finance Minister Bharrat Jagdeo, who had been named prime minister a day earlier. National elections were held on March 19, 2001. Incumbent President Jagdeo won reelection with a voter turnout of over 90%.
Guyana History Bibliography
More To Explore
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Top 7 Life Lessons Learned from Team Swimming
Without a doubt, swimming is one of the most beneficial activities out there for health. Research even shows that swimming is, in a sense, a fountain of youth, with studies that have resulted in slowed physiological factors associated with the aging process among adult swimmers. But what does swimming do for our youths? More.
Certainly, swimming conditions their bodies for strength and longevity, but other plusses of team swimming such as mental, physical and social benefits can ultimately chart their course in life. How? Competitive swimming provides all the necessary life-associated tools to prepare them for success on the terrestrial world.
“Swimmers tend to become hard workers and have the ability to work well with others because of the environment they were in during their years on the team,” says Ron Aitken, head coach for Las Vegas-based Sandpipers of Nevada. As one of the top club swim teams in the U.S., Sandpipers of Nevada provides a premier youth swimming program for novice swimmers to Olympic hopefuls. The organization enriches lives and ensures that participants experience a healthy lifestyle through swimming and learning life-enhancing values.
Here are the top 7 life lessons learned from swimming:
1. Goal-setting – Setting realistic goals in the pool correlate to goals they will set for themselves in life. Understanding what it takes to reach the goal, step-by-step, paves a clearer path for future goals, such as education and career.
2. Managing time – Teenagers juggle school, friends, family and other activities, in addition to swimming. Managing time is critical in today’s world. Learning the importance of attending meets and practices on time, to fitting in homework during down time (even if it’s in the car) give youths a clear understanding and benefits of time management.
3. Cultivating people skills – Swim teams comprised of co-ed swimmers allow teens to socialize and develop interpersonal skills. This translates to social environments at school, work and other communal activities. In addition, swimming is as much an individual sport as it is a team sport. The camaraderie that results from such a dynamic environment offers other life-long benefits, such as self-confidence.
4. Overcoming obstacles - While there will be instances when swimmers don’t achieve their intended goals, they, together with the support of their coach, family and team, learn avenues to cope. Swimmers learn about the importance of sportsmanship and discover how to handle tough competition and emerge victorious every time.
5. Understanding the value of commitment and hard work – The practice schedule of swimmers is demanding. Swimming requires commitment on an ongoing year-round schedule, but swimmers very quickly understand what it directly equates to in everyday life.
6. Boosting self-esteem – Getting good at something positively ignites the impression one has on him or herself. This provides the catalyst for growth and confidence to try anything the future has to offer.
7. Finding your Ohm - The meditative benefits are unparalleled. Swimming provides an outlet to release pent-up energy, clear the mind, and push one’s internal re-set button. Swimmers emerge more energized and ready to take on the day and learn how to tap into their relief outlet when needed.
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The deliciously poised setting of Close thine eyes was one of twelve of Purcell’s devotional songs first published in 1688 in Harmonia Sacra. The text, sometimes misattributed to King Charles, was by Francis Quarles, a Cambridge-educated poet who had made his reputation during the 1620s with a series of biblical paraphrases. As befits its subject matter, Purcell’s setting, for soprano and bass, is restrained and restful, and contains some delicious harmonic turns. There is one short passage with more motion, ‘The music and the mirth of kings’, which is quickly stilled, being ‘out of tune’, and this glorious miniature ends serenely.
from notes by Robert King ©
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Research Area – Social Computing & Computational Journalism
Computing is fundamentally a social activity. Networks link individuals for research, education, business and entertainment.
Today, a computer without a network connection seems almost broken—what can we do with it? Connections among people pervade most computing activity.
Online social networks are complex, cognitive-cultural systems comprising people and technology. How do we design them? In what ways do social networks make fundamentally new kinds of activities possible? Social Computing research at Georgia Tech focuses on:
Health Applications. Can community-based conversations encourage healthy lifestyles and compliance with medical regimes? How can we understand existing culture and leverage that knowledge to reshape individual and shared beliefs and social practices to promote healthy choices?
Computational Journalism. How do computer networks change the fundamental nature of news as well as how (and by whom) it is created and consumed?
Peer Production of Content. What kinds of creative projects can people accomplish online, and how do they do it? How can we help people make interesting things and share them with others? What can be learned in the process? How does massive collaboration make new kinds of resources possible (like, for example, Wikipedia)?
Social Implications. How do social networks affect issues of personal privacy and boundaries between public and private life?
Visualization. Social networks create complex webs of people and data. Can visualization of the networks help us to understand and analyze them? What types of representations are most helpful?
Coordinator: Amy Bruckman
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Darwin's Sacred Imposter: Recognizing Missed Warning Signs
by Randy J. Guliuzza, P.E., M.D. *
In order for a human brain to “see” something external, the data patterns captured by the eyes must be associated with related patterns stored in memory. When they match, the mind accurately perceives things. Thus, prior education greatly influences the correctness of what people see…or are blind to.
Liberty University paleontologist Dr. Marcus Ross referenced this type of flawed knowledge-based blindness as affecting the failure among creation scientists to look for soft tissue in Flood-deposited fossils:
And honestly, no young-earth creationists expected soft tissue to be found in dinosaurs. Perhaps that expectation was an artifact of our training (which is often in evolution-dominated schools). Sometimes evolutionary assumptions are in places we haven’t recognized.1
The lesson? Regularly evaluate all scientific ideas to ensure they are not rooted in unrecognized false assumptions and are instead fixed in reality. Case in point: “natural selection.”
Do the words “natural” and “selection” in any verifiable way accurately describe observable interactions between an organism and its environment? Have the words “natural” and “selection” been effectively employed to divert attention away from recognizing where the power to solve environmental problems really resides—i.e., strictly within well-designed innate capabilities of organisms? Is there a fixation on the apparent self-evident “selection” impacting a population of organisms, with disregard for the fact that the “selector” is simply a mental perception and not grounded on reality?
Since no ideas are exempt from scrutiny, it does help that those ideas grounded on false conjectures are frequently surrounded by warning signs.
Warning 1: Natural Selection Mysteriously Defined
Warning signs are key to identifying flaws in concepts. Ask critical questions, such as: Is the concept too slippery to define? Does the idea have little empirical evidence? Is this concept so plastic that it could very well explain conflicting observations? These are some of the very problems with the concept of natural selection, prompting one leading authority to acknowledge:
Natural selection has always been the most contested part of evolutionary theory. Many people who have no problem with evolution bridle at the thought that it’s all driven by a mindless and unguided natural process….[N]atural selection wasn’t widely accepted by biologists until about 1930. The main problem was, and still is, a paucity of evidence….It’s this difficulty that leads Dawkins to observe that natural selection is on wobblier legs than the other tenets of evolutionary theory.2
A survey of research documents reveals no consensus definition of natural selection. Darwin regularly called it a power.3 In a single paper, some sentences use natural selection as a cause and others as an effect.4 Some authorities say it is only a process,5 or a law, mechanism, or concept. A British expert on natural selection states the problem concisely:
A quite general issue has still received no canonical treatment: what kind of a thing is natural selection anyway? A law, a principle, a force, a cause, an agent, or all or some of these things? The view that natural selection is a law has been countered by the view that it is a principle, while that conclusion has been countered in turn by an insistence that it is neither.6
The ill-defined nature of selection contributes to fundamental, yet profoundly unanswered, questions by serious researchers. What does selection operate on? What exactly is natural selection doing at any moment to organisms? How does natural selection actually modify organisms via descent with modification? Is anything measurable at work? If selection is a process, do the conditions specified for its occurrence actually differ from the unfolding of abilities inherent to organisms themselves? Can this term be used ubiquitously in scientific literature and yet the term itself explain nothing? Something may certainly be real that dodges definition, has little evidence, or explains little, but those attributes are a stronger case against reality.
Yet another familiar warning that something may not be real is when “it” gets shrouded in ambiguous yet very emphatic statements of insistence, like “informed people know it’s real,” “it’s simply a phenomenon,” or “it’s just biblical.” A good example is when a prominent atheist protested attributions of non-real abilities to selection by insisting, “Selective breeding is something that somebody does. But natural selection is not; it is something that just happens.”7
Surprisingly, that common conclusion is echoed by creationists, such as one who contended, “Natural selection does not select anything; it simply happens.”8 Is the conclusion “it happens” scientifically satisfying? Shouldn’t that raise red flags about the validity of selection? And shouldn’t researchers be prompted to look for better explanations?
Warning 2: Natural Selection Contradicts Biblical Truth
This warning is obscured due to confusion about what natural selection is expected to do for evolutionary theory. Darwin made natural selection’s importance clear in his seminal book, where he maintains that selection explains origins. Striking squarely at God the Designer, natural selection is the evolutionist’s way to explain the origin of life’s design without appealing to God. Natural selection isn’t merely something to explain biological diversity. It plainly asserts that there is no intelligent design, that claims to such are lies, and what people see that looks like real design is all an illusion of design. Leading evolutionist Dr. Jerry Coyne boasts of selection’s power to dismiss intelligent design:
Everywhere we look in nature, we see animals that seem beautifully designed to fit their environment, whether that environment be the physical circumstances of life, like temperature and humidity, or the other organisms—competitors, predators, and prey—that every species must deal with. It is no surprise that early naturalists believed that animals were the product of celestial design, created by God to do their jobs.
Darwin dispelled this notion in The Origin. In a single chapter, he completely replaced centuries of certainty about divine design with the notion of a mindless, materialistic process—natural selection—that could accomplish the same result. It is hard to overestimate the effect that this insight had not only on biology, but on people’s world view. Many have not yet recovered from the shock, and the idea of natural selection still arouses fierce and irrational opposition.9
Coyne recognizes that the reach of natural selection into Christian theology is far deeper than just thoughts on diversity. He knows that “certainty” about divine design is crushed by a total substitute for the Divine Designer, a truth his colleague Douglas Futuyma correctly identifies:
Before Darwin, the adaptations and exquisite complexity were ascribed to creation by an omnipotent, beneficent designer, namely God, and indeed were among the major arguments for the existence of such a designer. Darwin’s (and Wallace’s) concept of natural selection made this “argument from design” completely superfluous. It accomplished for biology what Newton and his successors had accomplished in physics: it provided a purely natural explanation for order and the appearance of design.10
In absolute contrast, Romans 1:19-20 teaches that people can know—and are accountable to know—that God is the originator of nature’s design:
Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse.
Key words are related to design, not biology. Everyone has seen that something that was created invariably had a creator, so the penetrating power of this biblical truth is that anybody in any culture at any time is capable of arriving at some true knowledge of God…not just people with Ph.D.’s in biological sciences.
To arrive at the true conclusion about God based on His creation, 1) people must truly affirm the reality they “clearly see”—namely, His intricate designs; and 2) must not falsely affirm seeing something that is not real—in this case, design abilities ascribed in times past to inanimate idols, or to present-day non-volitional things like Mother Nature, selfish genes, or natural selection. “Natural selection” induces thinking that fails both truth tests.
Creation scientists study the claims of evolution very carefully, but have often missed the significant role natural selection has played in chipping away at biblical truth.
Warning 3: Ascribing Intelligence Where None Exists
Naturalists, as noted above, know the immense hurdle they face in selling evolution: People “bridle at the thought that it’s all driven by a mindless” process. Charles Darwin’s extraordinarily difficult task was to find a source of intelligence—a substitute god—to explain how all of life could display countless features that clearly look like they were chosen for specific purposes by intelligence—but not God’s intelligence. “Natural selection” was his extraordinarily clever explanation.
People know that to “select” something is presumptive evidence of volition—a special choice-making capacity implicit in intelligence. Therefore, the word “select” is supremely important to Darwinism. By it, intelligence is appropriated from the living world and ascribed to non-thinking (but now selective) nature. His stroke of genius deflected attention away from an organism’s God-given power to reproduce heritable and variable traits that happen to fit changing environments, and invalidly labeled that as a selection of “nature.”
How could Darwin convince multitudes to accept a selection event without a real selector? By subtly flipping the attribution of power at the organism-environment interface from the proper place of the organism’s DNA and reproductive mechanisms to the environment instead. He extrapolated the idea that nature could make choices, which allows the conclusion that nature possesses a sort of innate intelligence. Darwin had effectively injected the attribute of intelligence into non-volitional nature—a feat many thought impossible.
Since the publication of The Origin of Species, the science literature from both evolutionists and creationists is rife with explanations that ascribe willful abilities to environments that not only “select” organisms, but also “favor,” “weed out,” “deem beneficial,” “punish,” and so on. Advocates of selection defend using these words as simply figures of speech or metaphors akin to how human breeders select for livestock traits.
However, two major problems oppose this thinking. First, “selection” doesn’t have a real mind analogous to a human breeder. Second, falsely ascribing choice-making ability to environments is the only believable way to promote the creative illusion that nature really does have a type of intelligence. And not just a simple intelligence, nature is portrayed as somehow thinking—a talented stand-in god that always “selects” the best traits and “saves” them to “build” things.
Warning 4: Metaphor Replaces Empirical Evidence
As Dr. Coyne noted, natural selection was resisted for decades by most scientists and is still not fully embraced due to an absence of empirical evidence. There is no evidence lacking that organisms generate traits that fit changing environments. But evidence is absent for a real “selector” or real selecting actions, given that “select” is the key word that gives natural selection its power. Lacking this evidence, evolutionary proponents of selection will, like Darwin, inevitably ease acceptance by appealing to the powerful analogy of artificial selection to natural selection. However, without evidence for a real selector, a continuous use of metaphors should be another warning for creation scientists to begin re-evaluation.
Darwin’s 1859 articulation of this analogy (still being promoted) is possibly the best:
I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man’s power of selection. We have seen that man by selection can certainly produce great results, and can adapt organic beings to his own uses, through the accumulation of slight but useful variations, given to him by the hand of Nature. But Natural Selection, as we shall hereafter see, is a power incessantly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man’s feeble efforts.11
The difficulty with this analogy is the lack of anything in the environment that corresponds to the operation of a human mind. Nevertheless, taking the analogy as self-evident, Darwin’s metaphor describes natural selection’s “operation” with idealized god-like attributes:
It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinising, throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good; silently and insensibly working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers.12
Evolutionary approaches to metaphor may be polar opposites. Some, like Darwin, may stretch metaphors to the breaking point. Others express sharp opposition that these metaphors may not be based on reality, as UCLA professor Dr. Greg Graffin recently complained:
The trick is: How do you talk about natural selection without implying the rigidity of law? We use it as almost an active participant, almost like a god. In fact, you could substitute the word “god” for “natural selection” in a lot of evolutionary writings, and you’d think you were listening to a theologian. It’s a routine we know doesn’t exist, but we teach it anyway: genetic mutation and some active force choose the most favorable one.13
Warning 5: Admissions That Natural Selection Is Not Literally True
Illustrations by analogy and metaphor in scientific literature are commonly accepted—provided there are real, measurable properties of the things being likened. Since the publication of Origin, scientists have seen that the power of evolutionary scenarios to leap over any biological obstacle resides in how natural selection “acts” like a literal human agent. Discerning that it possesses nothing analogous to a human mind prompted early criticisms that “selection” was not literally true.
In Darwin’s 1872 edition of Origin, he responded to those calls for him to justify use of the word “selection.” Darwin admitted, like all evolutionists will when challenged, that calling the process of how organisms fit environments “selection” was not true. He confided, “In a literal sense of the word, no doubt, natural selection is a false term…it has been said that I speak of natural selection as an active power or Deity; but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction of gravity as ruling the planets?”14 No one objects to that metaphor, since attractive gravitational forces are real and measurable.
The same disconnect from reality is acknowledged in recent work focused on accurately describing evolution. For example, Harvard’s leading evolutionary authority, Ernst Mayr, in What Evolution Is disclosed the same veiled truth, “The conclusion that these favored individuals had been selected to survive requires an answer to the question, Who does the selecting? In the case of artificial selection, it is indeed the animal or plant breeder….But, strictly speaking, there is no such agent involved in natural selection.”15 Then in 2009, Jerry Coyne wrote in Why Evolution Is True, “And while I said that natural selection acts, this is not really accurate. Selection is not a mechanism imposed on a population from outside.”16
Though all of these authorities concede that tying “selection” to some real agent is “false” and “not really accurate,” they still minimize the magnitude of this inaccuracy through persistent use of words describing natural selection as if it really is “a mechanism imposed on a population from outside.”
A Better Approach
Continuing to argue against natural selection from within its false paradigm ignores the wise counsel of Proverbs 26:4: “Answer not a fool according to his folly, lest thou also be like unto him.” Why? Given that “selection” really is an inaccurate and false term, and since it is only a deceptive figure of speech that attributes selection ability where there is no selector, wouldn’t it be wise to point these facts out? Isn’t it wise to show that that use of the word “selection” has never been justified, but is just the ruse to slip intelligence back into a design process after taking God out? Likewise, it is wise to show that organisms are programmed to fill environments; natural selection steals glory from God.
Since proponents of natural selection erroneously view the organism-environment interface from the environment’s side, the crippled explanation “it just happens” is the best they have. Knowing, however, that things really don’t just happen should prompt a search for a real plan. Indeed, a “process” may be the best description of selection. Advocates of process always include three necessary conditions: 1) reproduction of traits 2) which differ in ability to solve environmental problems 3) and which are heritable.17 Immediately, a major disconnect should become evident in the minds of these believers. The conditions specified to be environmental “selection” are in reality the unfolding of genetic abilities programmed into the organisms themselves. True realization comes when recognizing that the power to solve ecological challenges has always resided in the organism and not in the environment.
The Lord’s purpose for programming capabilities into organisms to adapt to dynamic environments is clear. “And God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish [fill] the earth” (Genesis 1:22, 28; 8:17; 9:1, 7). He commanded organisms to fill all ecological niches. Adaptability is just a tool or stepping stone that enables the ultimate purpose of filling. As traits are expressed in a population of organisms, some will “fit” better to different environmental conditions. This means they are physiologically more suitable and better able to extract resources. Organisms with those traits fill, pioneer, or move into that environment—they are not “selected for.” The organism has the power and is active to either succeed or fail.
Organisms express remarkable diversity of traits and at times quite rapidly—but always within the limits of their “kind” (Genesis 1:11-12.) An organism-based paradigm is biblical. This explains how the process of organisms programmed to fit environments and fill them is the outworking of an intelligent plan, and not the product of an imaginary environment-based selector that “just happens.”
But the power that selection has to captivate a mind must never be underestimated—as it is only in the mind that this kind of “selection” actually takes place. Such a mind has been trained to see the environment as the primary mover in the organism-environment interface, in spite of the fact that there is no real “selector” in any adaptive chain of events. In contrast to this, organisms possess traits they generate to solve the problems of a new environment, ones that enable their descendants to pioneer into new niches. But when people with the “natural selection” mindset see the descendants of these organisms in those niches, paradoxically their minds “see” the environment “select for” the organism—a conclusion contrary to what is indicated by real external stimuli. As a result, they have ascribed intelligence to something inanimate, thereby raising serious scientific and theological implications.
After 150 years, Darwin’s sacred imposter—natural selection—still stands as the only accepted alternative to the design of God in nature. It is presented in most schools as absolutely true in spite of its ill-defined basis, its invisible operation, and the fact that there is no real “selector”—because attributes inherent to organisms actually do all the work. These warnings should influence creation scientists to step back and re-evaluate this convoluted evolutionary idea.
Those who extol the Creator must at some point reject any idea that robs God of His glory.
- Ross, M. 2010. Those Not-So-Dry Bones. Answers. 5 (1): 45.
- Coyne, J. A. The Improbability Pump: Why has natural selection always been the most contested part of evolutionary theory? The Nation, May 10, 2010.
- Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: John Murray, 61.
- Calsbeek, R. and R. M. Cox. 2010. Experimentally assessing the relative importance of predation and competition as agents of selection. Nature. 465 (7298): 613-616.
- Endler, J. 1992. Natural Selection: Current Usages. Keywords in Evolutionary Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 220.
- Hodge, M. J. S. 1992. Natural Selection: Historical Perspectives. Keywords in Evolutionary Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 218.
- Fodor, J. A. 2010. What Darwin Got Wrong. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 155.
- Lester, L. P. 1989. The Natural Limits to Biological Change. Dallas, TX: Probe Books, 71.
- Coyne, J. A. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. New York: Viking, 115.
- Futuyma, D. Natural Selection: How Evolution Works, an ActionBioscience.org original interview. American Institute of Biological Sciences. Posted on actionbioscience.org December 2004.
- Darwin, On the origin of species, 61.
- Darwin, On the origin of species, 84.
- Biello, D. 2010. Darwin Was a Punk. Scientific American. 303 (5): 28.
- Darwin, C. 1872. The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 6th ed. London: Senate, 63.
- Mayr, E. 2001. What Evolution Is. New York: Basic Books, 117.
- Coyne, Why Evolution Is True, 117.
- Endler, Keywords in Evolutionary Biology, 220.
* Dr. Guliuzza is ICR’s National Representative.
Cite this article: Guliuzza, R. 2011. Darwin’s Sacred Imposter: Recognizing Missed Warning Signs. Acts & Facts. 40 (5): 12-15.
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| Artificial arm with four tool attachments, c 1950.
Credit:Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library
Heavy-duty, metal artificial right arm worn by a below-elbow amputee who worked in Steeper's factory, based at Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton (from 1943-85), making metal sockets. Also shown are some of the tools he used: club-hammer, ball pein hammer, double headed ball-pein hammer and a double headed planishing hammer. All have heavy-duty McKay adaptors. Made in England. Full view.
In Collection of: Science & Society Picture Library
Subject(s) > Medicine & Health > OrthopaedicsRelated to:
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Maille is a form of armour. It was invented by the Celts and it became very popular in the middle ages, where it was used as 'standard' armour for allmost all soldiers, because it's flexible and prevents cuts from swords, knives etc. Nowadays maille is made for other re-enactments, as 'alternative' clothing, or just for fun like I do.
Back in the days maille was made out of mild steel rings which were riveted. Which means: a lot of work. Today most of the maille is made out of steel wire. And it's not riveted anymore. It's called "butted".
The most common weave is without a doubt "European 4-in-1" (or E 4-1). This is the way the rings were linked in Europe in the middle ages. I'll come back later on the 4-in-1 thing.
I'm Belgian and I live in Brugge (Bruges). But when I was a child, I visited the "Gravensteen" (that's a castle castle) in Gent. There, someone was making maille at the time. I found it very fascinating and the thought of making some my own never leaved my mind really. Some time ago I started making my own maille. Currently I'm making a coif (have a look on Google Images if you don't know what a coif is).
The technique I use is called "speedweaving" because it's one of the fastest ways to make maille. What I will describe is not the only way to speedweave, but this is the one I use, and which works great for me. I did not invent this technique. I'm just sharing it with the world...
Step 1: Making the rings
I used galvanised steel wire. For two reasons: it's easily obtainable and it's cheap. My wire is 1,5 mm thick.
Making rings starts with transforming your wire into coils. And than cutting the coils with a mini bolt-cutter. I won't describe the whole coil-making process but I'll include some pictures of the way I do it. Perhaps I will come back to writing this piece out one day.
My coils have an inner diameter (ID) of 6 mm, but because of a thing called "springback" the rings have a real inner diameter (RID) of 6,4 mm). My rings have an aspect ratio (AR) of 4,3. This is the ratio of RID and the wire size.
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Interfaith - five major themes
Q. What are five major themes in the interfaith movement?
A. Here are four responses to this question.
The first is from Paul Chaffee, founding Executive Director of the Interfaith Center at the Presidio, San Francisco:
1. In some sense the modern interfaith movement started in 1893 in Chicago at the first Parliament of the World's Religions, and large grassroots interfaith groups (such as Parliament and United Religions Initiative) have tended to be strongest in the United States. But the extraordinary growth of interfaith culture the world over suggests that the next generation of leadership and robust organizations will also be coming from places like India, the Philippines, the Middle East, and Ethiopia, to name just a few places where there is real ferment. Even in the US, most of the growth has been spontaneous and not the result one or two or more organizations reaching out to enroll members. We are on the lip of a tsunami that has changed religion in the world for ever.
2. High tech and the travel industry have meant that the followers of the world's religions live much more closely to each other than ever before. This proximity makes culture inherently multi-cultural and therefore multi-religious. In more and more countries, demography colors us interfaith whether we like it or not. Catching up with that reality, appreciating it, and finally taking advantage of it (for the sake of peace and mutual respect) will take years, but the possibility is a huge source of hope in our conflicted world.
3. Indigenous traditions (such as American Indians and Neopagans) have long been bullied by more established, organized religions, and that fact is finally being acknowledged. Only in the past 20 years have Earth-based religions been invited to the interfaith table. Because they tend to be courageous, they have come, and the results have been and continue to be remarkable and positive.
4. Reconciliation among the Abrahamic traditions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) is being explored in dozens of programs across this country and the world. These are positive, imaginative, and growing - another source of great hope for everyone. It's 'the' big subject right now. That reconciliation will not be fully achieved, it seems to this observer, until the Abrahamic traditions address the rest of the human family, that is, the non-Abrahamic traditions.
5. Interspirituality has become an increasingly important theme in recent years. It is particularly popular among the religiously disenfranchised who distrust established religion but feel drawn to spirituality. But strong minorities within established religions have also become involved. Sharing spiritual practices is a controversial, difficult, and complex theme, distrusted by many interfaith groups who are happy to address particular issues (e.g., collaborating to address poverty) but not something a theologically resonant as our spiritual lives. My sense is that we've only seen the tip of the iceberg on this subject.
I'll stop because that is five. But certainly there are many, many other important themes, including the relationship between violence and religion, collaborating for the sake of social justice, the transformation of Christian ecumenical councils into interfaith councils, and the realignment/restructuring/reformation of dominant traditions in the face of our global multi-religious proximity.
The second is from Jim Kenney, Executive Director of IEP21, former Global Director of the Parliament of World Religions and Co-Editor of Interreligious Insight :
1. The nurturing of interreligious understanding (knowledge, awareness, and insight) as the key to the growth of mutual respect (rather than mere "tolerance").
2. The discovery of pathways to interreligious engagement, that is, authentic partnerships between and among religious communities, dedicated to addressing the most critical issues of our time.
3. The continuation and deepening of the decades-long quest for a global interreligious ethic, a statement of shared religious values in regard to peace and non-violent conflict resolution, social and economic justice and human rights, and ecological sustainability. This is often rendered simply as P, J, S (peace, justice, and sustainability).
4. The widespread rejection by religious communities, religious associations, and interreligious groups of all violence carried out "in the name of religion".
5. The encouragement of awareness of and commitment to the development of approaches to "globalization for the common good". This worldwide interreligious project is one of the most important of our age. Religious and interreligious participation is absolutely essential.
The third is from Mark Gifford, Assistant Chief Executive, Minorities of Europe
1. Promoting positive, cooperative, daily interactions between people of different faiths.
2. Creating cultures of peace, justice and healing across the world.
3. Ending religiously motivated violence
4. Identifying shared and similar values and beliefs between the religious and spiritual traditions of the world.
5. Identifying what is distinct about each tradition.
The fourth is from Fred Stella, Hatha Yoga instructor, president of Interfaith Dialogue Association and host of its weekly radio program, Common Threads :
1. Education. The interfaith movement 1st and foremost promotes educating about the various world religions. This is done through both scholars as well as adherents.
2. Dialogue. We seek to create a safe space of open, honest communication between those of different faiths, as well as those within the different movements of a particular religion
3. Social Solidarity. On those issues of social importance where agreement is met, we encourage the various traditions to unite; working towards a more just world.
4. Communal Worship. We recognize that there are opportunities for us all to gather for worship (national or world tragedies, secular holidays, etc.), where the most universal aspects of one's faith may be shared in an appropriate manner. We acknowledge that the personal theology of some does not permit involvement in this particular expression and fully respect it.
5. Friendship. For some, the ability to form deep personal bonds with those of differing religions have far greater impact than all the conferences, books or special programs that are offered in the interfaith movement. But often it is through such activities that provide the opportunity for such connections to be made.
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March 29, 2012
Technology leading the way to lower-cost day school education
The nondenominational Pre-Collegiate Learning Center of New Jersey doesn’t have a math teacher. The East Brunswick school instead relies on experienced math tutors who help students work through an online math curriculum relying on outside sources.
At Baltimore’s Ohr Chadash, a Modern Orthodox primary school in its first year, students receive iPads beginning in the fourth grade to do more online and group work.
“The things the teachers ask us to do for work are fun,” said 9-year-old Nili Hefetz, a fourth-grader at the school. For example, using Adobe Ideas, Nili and other students draw pictures on the iPads inspired by the Chumash (Bible) lessons.
“The idea was to incorporate technology into the school in a seamless way,” said the school’s president, Saul Weinreb. “It became a way of doing things both in education and administration.”
It’s also a way to save money.
With tuition that can reach $30,000 or more per student, the day school tuition crisis has spurred a search for new options and given rise to a new breed of day schools where technology and blended learning—mixing traditional classroom learning with online education—are reducing costs.
“In the general world, online and blended learning is becoming a wave of the future,” said Rachel Mohl Abrahams, a program officer at the Avi Chai Foundation in New York.
PCLC opened in the fall with 20 students in grades 8 to 11. Its director, Lauren Ariev Gellman, predicts that in 10 to 15 years, all schools—public and private—will have an online component.
“Everybody is going to move in this direction,” Gellman said. “It would serve Jewish schools well to get ahead of the curve. And bring the costs way down.”
Tuition is just $5,000 at the PCLC. The blended learning style has allowed the school to save in a big area: faculty. It employs only two full-time administrators and only part-time teachers. Teachers assign lessons from online curricula, such as math and science lessons from Khan Academy or language lessons from Rosetta Stone, and then provide individual help while students work at their own pace.
The Judaic studies curriculum is more traditional—simply because the resources are not there yet. Two of the classes, however, are run over Skype with a teacher in Israel and students participating from four or five other yeshivas.
Volunteering is also helping to keep down costs at the new schools. At Ohr Chadash, where tuition is $8,400 this year, each family is required to volunteer 25 hours per year. Nili’s mother, Shayna, is co-president of the school’s PTA and volunteers as an art teacher. Other parents have volunteered with office work, on field trips and as lunchtime supervisors.
“We try to utilize parent volunteers as much as possible,” Shayna Hefetz said.
Going paperless also has meant major cost savings, which Weinreb estimates at a few hundred dollars per student. And a budget oversight committee comprised of people otherwise unaffiliated with the school first approves every expense and ensures that budgets are planned around only existing money, not future fundraising. The methods can frustrate administrators, Weinreb acknowledged, but keep the budget in check.
Volunteerism is the main model for keeping down costs at The Jewish Cooperative School in Hollywood, Fla., where 2011-12 tuition ran $7,500. Technology does not play as central a role in the Modern Orthodox school, but as at Ohr Chadash, the administration requires the parents of its 23 students in kindergarten through second grade to volunteer several hours a month.
“I’ve found parents really enjoy being involved in the education of their kids,” said Janessa Wasserman, one of the school’s founders and a parent of two students there. “And the kids really love it.”
Hannah Shapiro, whose 7-year-old daughter, Aliyah, attends second grade at the school, volunteers by putting out a weekly newsletter for each grade, as well as helping once a week in the classroom.
“I love to be involved with my kids’ education, so I try in any way possible to get involved,” she said.
Shapiro says that since Hannah started at The Jewish Cooperative School this year, she jumps out of bed in the morning excited about school.
“It’s like a home for them,” Shapiro said. “It’s something special.”
Avi Chai has provided grants to three of the blended learning schools, including PCLC and Ohr Chadash. The other school is Yeshivat He’Atid in Bergenfield, N.J. Overall, Avi Chai is aware of eight blended learning schools that either opened this year or plan to open next year, from California and Texas to Maryland and Massachusetts.
The concept has started drawing attention from other funders, too.
Determined to figure out new, sustainable ways to ensure that all Jewish parents have the ability to send their children to affordable, high-quality day schools, a group of philanthropists in the New York area formed the Affordable Jewish Education Project, or AJE, earlier this year. The group began with an open mind but honed in on the concept of low-cost day schools, said its executive director, Jeff Kiderman.
“There’s more to them than just their low cost,” he told JTA. “We saw this as a tremendous opportunity to innovate in the world of Jewish education by promoting educational improvements and affordability improvements at a time when our community really needs both.”
AJE discovered several low-cost schools throughout the United States that either recently opened or are in development, but Kiderman noted that there was little connecting them to each other. That’s the role AJE hopes to fill, he said, by creating a network for the schools to share best practices and resources.
Tuition savings at the lower-cost schools can range from 30 percent to 40 percent on the elementary level and 50 percent or more in high school, according to Kiderman. The schools focus on a mix of technology and volunteerism to keep costs down.
Kiderman calls PCLC a “classic example of a school trying to find available, innovative educational models that they can share with the rest of the country.”
The school is “constantly re-examining what they are doing and constantly trying to improve it. That’s what everybody should be doing,” he said.
“This is absolutely the future of education,” said Rebecca Coen, founder and head of Yeshiva High Tech, a Modern Orthodox Los Angeles high school scheduled to open in August with 40 students in ninth through 11th grade and tuition set at $8,500.
Distance learning has been around for years and Jewish schools are actually playing catch-up in online education, Coen said, noting that advances in non-Jewish education often take several years to filter down to the Jewish educational world.
While the students work on online lessons, teachers will rotate from group to group to provide support when needed.
“It’s possible in the same classroom to have ninth-grade students working on ninth-grade English, 10th-grade students working on 10th-grade English,” Coen said. “You can have AP in the classroom, and they can all be working simultaneously with the same teacher because the teacher is no longer the primary source for curriculum delivery.”
This may result in larger class sizes, Coen said, but teachers will “actually spend more time with each student than if they’re standing in front of the classroom.”
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