What is chitosan and what are its key properties as a natural coagulant?

The coagulant also could be synthetic material or natural coagulant with the properties of coagulant having +ve charge, these positive charge proteins would bind to the -ve charged particles in the solution that cause turbidity 3. Coagulants normally in form of natural (as shown is Table 2) & inorganic (as in Table 3). Both coagulants aim to remove pollutant in form of physical (solids & turbidity) or chemical (BOD & COD).
Table 2. Natural coagulants Efficiency
Table 3. Inorganic Coagulants: Advantages and Disadvantages
Some inorganic coagulants like Aluminum and iron are used in most industries, when aluminum is used as coagulant in water treatment, it can have caused several bad effect on human health such as intestinal constipation, loss of memory, convulsions, abdominal colic’s, loss of energy and learning difficulties. In recent years, chitosan and moringa oleifera have been applied as coagulant in water treatment 4. Chitosan is a derivative of chitin which naturally occurs in shells of crustaceans, fungi and insects. Chitosan is obtained from partial deacetylation of chitin which is removal of acetyl groups (-CH3CO) on N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc) units of chitin polymer to reveal amino groups (-NH2) (as shown in Figure 1).
Figure 1: De-acetylation of chitin to obtain chitosan, acetyl group (-CH3CO) on acetyl glucosamine monomer on chitin chain is removed to reveal amino group (-NH2) becoming glucosamine monomer making chitosan.
It is a long chain carbohydrate that is non-soluble in water but dissolves in most acids, and contains positively charged moieties. Possessing properties such as non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, chitosan has been studied for its application in many sectors such as industrial wastewater treatment, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, and biomedical use. Chitosan is a weak base and is insoluble in water and in organic solvent. However, it is soluble in dilute aqueous acidic solutions (PH<6.5), which can convert glucosamine units into soluble form R-NH3.

INVESTIGATION / RESEARCH
Effectiveness of chitosan as a natural coagulant in treating turbid waters
Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2019.04.02.7
Aluminum, Lime and iron coagulants are commonly used in most industries for many decades to coagulate particles in surface water also removing turbidity from the water prior to flocculation, sedimentation or filtration. Although effective, inorganic coagulants have several disadvantages, there has been a concern about the relation between aluminum residuals in treated water and Alzheimer disease and toxic effects of metallic coagulants on the aquatic environment. Hence nowadays, there has been great attention in the improvement of natural coagulants in treated water such as chitosan; chitosan is a natural linear cellulose-like copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl-glucosamine widely distributed in nature. The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of chitosan on the removal of suspended solids (bentonite clay) from water. A series of batch flocculation tests with chitosan under different conditions was conducted. The results indicate that chitosan is a potent coagulant for bentonite suspension. Coagulation of chitosan showed efficiency of 96.9%. The coagulant performed well at concentration of 1g chitosan/100 ml water at PH=6.
Key words: Chitosan, coagulation, flocculation, bentonite, turbidity, water
Water is a key substance in all natural and human activities, the production of potable water from rawest water sources usually use coagulation-flocculation techniques for removing turbidity in the form of suspended and colloidal materials.1. Coagulants are used that added to the water to withdraw the forces that stabilize the colloidal particles and causing the particles to suspend in the water 2. Once the coagulant is introduced in the water the individual colloids must aggregate and grow bigger so that the impurities can be settled down at the bottom of the beaker and separated from the water suspension (as shown in table 1).
Table 1. Factors Affecting Coagulation
Various types of coagulants show potential application in treating water and wastewater. It ranges from chemical to non-chemical coagulant.

Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide and is obtained from chitin. Marine life is responsible for its commercial production.Its unique chemistry is responsible for its application in food industry, agriculture and plant sciences, textile industry, waste water treatment and biomedical sciences. In the form of biodegradable materials it is present abundantly.
Chitosan is present in nature as decomposed molecules of chitin in soil and water. Chitosan hemostatic products have been sold to United States army and recently used by the United Kingdom army. United States and United Kingdom along with allied forces used chitosan made bandages for injuries during war with Iraq and Afghanistan.
Chitosan is hypoallergenic and has natural antibacterial properties, which support its use in field of bandages. Chitosan’s properties of blocking nerve endings also allow it to reduce pain. Chitosan can cluster blood rapidly that is the reason it prescribed in the United States and Europe for the utilization in swathes and other hemostatic specialists. Chitosan hemostatic products have been proved by the United States navy to quickly stop bleeding and to reduce blood loss and result in 100% survival of otherwise harmful arterial wounds in swine.
It is applied in pharmaceutical industry; as filler in tablets; to improve drugs dissolution and to mask bitter tastes in solutions taken by mouth. FDA has proved that it’s different forms lower down obesity. It reduces blood high cholesterol because it is a fat binder and to treat crohn’s disease. It is also used to treat complications that kidney failure patients during dialysis often face, including high cholesterol, anemia muscle elasticity, appetite and insomnia. It can be applied directly to gums to treat inflammation that can lead to periodontitis. It is added to chew gum that contains chitosan to prevent dental cavities. In surgery, it helps “donor tissue” rebuild itself; so surgeons sometimes apply it directly to places from which they have taken tissue to be used elsewhere. The use of chitosan depends on the degree of deacetylation of chitin.
In agriculture and plant sciences it has been applied for mitigation of abiotic stress. It is very effective in mitigation of heat stress, cold stress,drought stress and salt stress. Its foliar application leads to higher vegetative and reproductive growth of plants so categorizedas plant growth enhancer.

Chitosan is inexpensive, and nontoxic for mammals 5. Chitosan molecule has the ability to interact with bacterial surface and is adsorbed on the surface of the cells and stack on the microbial cell surface and forming impervious layer around the cell, leading to the block of the channels 5 , in addition chitosan has been studied for use as a coagulant or flocculants in river water and in wastewater. In laboratory studies chitosan has been reported to perform well as a coagulant for removing Chlorella sp. In algal turbid water 6, removing turbidity from sea water 7, and for microalgae harvesting 8. It has several industrial and commercial uses, can be recycled, and is an excellent chelating agent for many metals such as arsenic, molybdenum, cadmium, chromium, lead, and cobalt 9. The effective coagulation for turbidity removal was achieved in tap water when using lower doses of chitosan required for complete charge neutralization of the bentonite 10.
Figure 2: Infrared spectra of chitin (A) and chitosan (B) (12)
The infrared (IR) absorption spectra of chitosan and chitin are presented in (figure 2). It can be observed that three types of absorption bands exist: the amide (I) bands of chitosan characterized by absorption at approximately 1655-1630 cm-1, the amide (II) bands of chitin at approximately 1560 cm-1 and the absorption bands for -OH groups at 3450 cm-1 11 and the presence of very reactive amino (-NH2) and hydroxyl (-OH) groups in its backbone, which makes chitosan to be used as an effective adsorbent material for the removal of water pollutants. Anionic particles of bentonite are electrostatically attracted by the protonated amino groups of chitosan 12. This reaction facilitates the neutralization of the anionic charges which can bind together and settle rapidly by the effect of gravity. The practical application of chitosan in terms of chitosan dose, PH, stirring and time effect. As water treatment coagulant is examined in the study presented here.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of synthetic water
10 gm.

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Chitosan (chitosan) N - chitin, chitin, chitosan and cellulose with similar chemical structures and hydroxyl groups on the cellulose in C2, chitin and chitosan on the C2 a respectively replaced by an amino and acetyl amino, chitin and chitosan has biodegradability, cell affinity and biological effects, such as many unique properties, especially with free amino groups of chitosan, is the only basic polysaccharide in natural polysaccharide.
Using chitosan soluble and membranous, with chitosan and chitin can be mutual conversion characteristics of chemical structure, using acetic anhydride as the transformation of chitosan and chitin fixative, thus made from a type of chitin and a new type of textile finishing agent really does not contain formaldehyde (both retain the advantages of natural polymer chitin, and ensure the finishing agent and finishing technology of non-toxic harmless). Chitosan gels prepared with formaldehyde and acetic acid as cross-linking agents and chitosan as the matrix are insoluble in water, dilute acid and alkali solutions, and general organic solvents. They have excellent mechanical strength and chemical stability.
This product is non-toxic,odorless,off-white or light yellow powder,and soluble in acid,insoluble in water and base or normal organic solutions.Dissolved in 185℃.

Natural macromolecular coagulants are promising and have attracted the attention of many researchers because of their abundant source, low price, multi-purposeness, and biodegradation[11,14,15]. Okra, rice, and chitosan are natural compounds which have been used in turbidity removal [16-18]. The extract of the seeds has been mentioned for drastically reducing the amount of sludge and bacteria in sewage .
In view of the above discussion, the present work has been taken up to evaluate the efficiency of various natural coagulants on the physico-chemical contaminant removal of water. To date, most of the research has been concentrated on the coagulant efficiencies in synthetic water, but in this study, we move ahead making an attempt to test the efficiency of the natural coagulants on surface water. The efficiencies of the coagulants as stated by  might alter depending on many factors: nature of organic matter, structure, dimension, functional groups, chemical species, and others.
Natural coagulants and their preparation
Sago is a product prepared from the milk of tapioca root. Its botanical name is ‘Manihot esculentaCrantz syn. M. utilissima’. Hyacinth bean with botanical name Dolichos lablab is chosen as another coagulant. Both the coagulants were used in the form of powders (starches). Starch consists mainly of a homopolymer of α-D-glucopyranosyl units that comes in two molecular forms, linear and branched. The former is referred to as amylose and the latter as amylopectin . These have the general structure as per  (Figure 1) .
Figure 1. General structure of amylose and amylopectin.
The third coagulant was chitin ([C8H13O5N]n), which is a non-toxic, biodegradable polymer of high molecular weight. Like cellulose, chitin is a fiber, and in addition, it presents exceptional chemical and biological qualities that can be used in many industrial and medical applications. The two plant originated coagulants were taken in the form of powder or starch. Chitin was commercially procured.
The first stage included testing the efficiency of the four coagulants on the synthetic waters.

Chitosan is the active agent in Tricol Biomedical’s HemCon and OneStop hemostasis products and in order to understand how it works, you should first know about chitin. Chitin is the second most abundant naturally occurring biopolymer, after cellulose. In the natural world, chitin functions as scaffold material that gives structure and strength to insect exoskeletons and crustacean shells, and it is also found in mushrooms. It is often found in association with the mineral calcium carbonate. Our chitin is sourced from shrimp shells of the species Pandalus Borealis. The species naming being a reference to the Aurora Borealis found in the sky above the pristine waters of the North Atlantic Ocean. The shells that are received for processing at Primex in the very north of Iceland are caught under carefully regulated quota systems that leave a sustainable balance to the marine environment. These quotas are based on scientific criteria for sustainable utilization of natural resources and the dedicated work of the Marine Research Institute.
Once the chitin is extracted from the shells, it undergoes a process called de-acetylation that molecularly transforms the chitin to chitosan. So now that we know where Chitosan comes from, what exactly is it? Chitosan is a natural biopolymer that possesses a positive molecular charge and is the hemostatic component in HemCon bandages and coated gauzes. This positive molecular charge is the basis of chitosan’s medical uses. For bandage and gauze products like ours, the positive charge attracts negatively-charged blood cells like a magnet, rapidly creating a tight seal over an injury.
Often a first reaction to the use of Chitosan in medical devices are concerns with shellfish allergies. Most allergic reactions to shellfish are caused by the protein part of the shellfish, not by the shells. Any residual proteins are eliminated during the conversion of chitin to chitosan. There have been no reported cases of an allergic reaction to our chitosan products in the 20 years we have made them. Keep an eye out for more detailed information to come on the use of chitosan by people with shellfish allergies!
Due to chitosan’s many attractive properties such as its natural origin, abundance, and positive charge reactivity, it has a multitude of real-world applications.

Chitosan – properties and application
Chitosan is one of the most popular ingredients for slimming preparations.But this is not his only use.Chitosan is used as a fertilizer in agriculture, material for dressings that accelerate wound healing, and perhaps soon objects of everyday use will be produced from it.
Chitosan is an extremely versatile material obtained from chitin – a building component of marine crustaceans shells.As a result, a biodegradable polymer with a wide application in medicine, veterinary, cosmetics and environmental protection is obtained.
The chemical structure of chitosan is similar to hyaluronic acid.Thanks to this structure, it inhibits, among others, the growth of microorganisms and accelerates wound healing, which is the result of stimulation of immune cells.Preparations with chitosan form a delicate protective layer on the skin that protects against harmful external factors and effectively retains water in the skin.Strong moisturizing properties also cause that it is often used as an ingredient in skincare cosmetics.Due to its complete biodegradability and high nitrogen content, it is also used in agriculture as a fertilizer for seed treatment and a biological plant protection product combating fungal infections.
Great hopes are also associated with the use of chitosan for the production of ecological products of everyday use.It has a biopolymer structure that allows forming three-dimensional shapes from it.It is already used for the production of drug capsules.And what results in its use in slimming preparations?
Chitosan as a fat blocker
In the case of chitosan, the mechanism of action supporting slimming is the binding of fats in the gastrointestinal tract.As a result, the degree of digestion and absorption in the small intestine is reduced.In the normal digestion process, fats are gradually broken down by enzymes secreted by the gall bladder and pancreas (so-called lipases).As a result, small particles of fatty acids reach the small intestine and are absorbed into the body.
Chitosan binds large fat molecules already in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, preventing them from being broken down by enzymes and thus making it difficult to absorb.As a result, they are excreted in the faeces.In other words, this substance does not accelerate the burning of fats, it only eliminates them from the digestive tract.

CHITOSANHC is a natural product resulting from a treatment of Chitin, in order to make this highly reactive and soluble in water. (See here the production process)
The product is effective in:
- Land, Horticulture and Turf Amenities (sport fields) as a stimulator for the natural defensive mechanism of the plants.
- Water purification as flocculant, adsorbent, surface-active agent.
- Remediation of contaminated soils by heavy metals and pesticides, as chelating agent and dechlorinating agent.
CHITOSANHC offers many possibilities thanks to its many properties, its natural origin and its reasonable price.

It has been used as non-toxic floccules in the treatment of organically polluted wastewater .
The effects of coagulation process on hardness are observed for varying levels of hardness, which resulted in significant decrease of hardness removal. The study correlates with the results obtained by , wherein they had a maximum hardness removal of 84.3% by chitosan in low turbid water with initial hardness of about 204 mg/l as CaCO3.
Several experiments were carried out to determine the comparative performance of chitosan on E. coli in different turbidities. E. coli negative is present in the chitin-treated waters in all of the turbidities. The conclusive evidence was found for the negative influence of chitosan on E. coli. The regrowth of E. coli was not observed in the experiments after 24 h, which was similar to the observations by .
As far as sago is considered, the starch was effective both individually and as blended coagulant. Unlike polyaluminium chloride, the efficiency of the natural coagulants is not affected by pH. The pH increased their efficiency, which is one of the advantages of natural coagulants. The principle behind the efficiency of the sago from the literature can be stated as follows: Sago starch is a natural polymer that is categorized as polyelectrolyte and can act as coagulant aid. Coagulant aid can be classified according to the ionization traits, which are the anions, cations, and amphoteric (with dual charges). Bratskaya et al.  mentioned that among the three groups, cation polymer is normally used to remove adsorbed negatively charged particles by attracting the adsorbed particles through electrostatic force. They discovered that anion polymer and those non-ionized cannot be used to coagulate negatively charged particles.
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction is influenced by the concentration of sago used; the lower the concentration the better the removal of the COD. Using less than 1.50 g L-1, better COD reduction is observed. At this low concentration, settling time did not influence the COD reduction. Similarly, concentration of sago used at lower than 1.50 g L-1 reduced the turbidity in less than 15 min of settling time.

The worldwide shellfish harvest is estimated to be able to supply 50,000 tons of chitin annually.63 The harvest in the United States alone could produce over 15,000 tons of chitin each year.64
Chitin has a wide range of uses but that is the subject of another book. Chitosan was discovered in 1859 by Professor C. Rouget.65 It is made by cooking chitin in alkali, much like the process for making natural soaps. After it
is cooked the links of the chitosan chain are made up of glucosamine units. Each glucosamine unit contains a free amino group. These groups can take on a positive charge which gives chitosan its amazing properties. The stucture of chitosan is represented schematically in Figure 2. Research on the uses of chitin and Chitosan flourished in the 1930s and early 1940s but the rise of synthetic fibers, like the rise of synthetic medicines, overShadowed the interest in natural products. Interest in natural products, including chitin and chitosan, gained a resurgence in the 1970s and has continued to expand ever since. Uses of Chit osan Some of Chitosan's major uses—both Industrial and Health and Nutritional—are listed in Tables 5 and 6.
Chitosan has been used for about three decades in water purification processes. 67 When chitosan is spread over oil spills it holds the oil mass together making it easier to clean up the spill. Water purification plants throughout the world use chitosan to remove oils, grease, heavy metals, and fine particulate matter that cause turbidity in waste water streams.
Fat Binding/ Weight Loss
Like some plant fibers, chitosan is not digestible; therefore it has no caloric value. No matter how much chitosan you ingest, its calorie count remains at
fibers, chitosan’s unique properties give it the ability to significantly bind fat, acting like a “fat sponge” in the digestive tract. Table 7 shows a comparison of chitosan and other natural fibers and their ability to inhibit fat absorption.

It stabilizes cell membranes structure through increasing enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. It protects cell membranes commencing oxidative stress and improves plant cell structure and permeability. So, protection against oxidative stress takes place. It is used in post-harvest techniques to extent shelf life of fruits and vase life of cut flowers.It does not create harmful effects making environment safe bio-pesticide. According to Environmental Protection Agency and United States Department of Agriculture,it can be used in organic farming.
Due to safe use it is found to be as an environment friendly bio-pesticide substance. It enhances the innate ability of plants to cope themselves with fungal and bacterial infections, so have very important role inmitigation of biotic stress. The natural bio control active ingredients, chitin/chitosan are found in the shells of crustaceans, such as lobsters, crab sand shrimp, many other organisms, including insects, fungi cell wall and hard outer skeleton of shellfish. It is one of the most abundant biodegradable materials in the world. It is used in paint industry because it has properties as fining agents.
Oregon University recommended its application in food industry. Thin edible films/coatings of chitosan were added inside the polythene sheets to cover the foods. So it protects the food from bacterial infection. This process isusually called bio-printing. It did not change the taste, appearance and smell of food items. Chitosan was spread on strawberry for 20 days. It reduces 99% anti-microbial agents.
It is used in treatment of waste water and clarifying wine becauseit has phosphate binding ability and removes phosphate and micronutrients like Zn, Fe, Mn. It is also used in improvement of fiber quality. It is applied as finishing/pigment, dying of cotton and formaldehyde scavenger in clothes. But need of the day is that by using our sea creatures to produce it locally as is valuable as a pearl.
Mujahid Ali (NCSU, US), Dr.C.M. Ayyub and Dr. Zaid Mustafa IHS (UAF)

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide that exhibits properties such as biodegradability, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, hemostatic and bio-adhesiveness and penetration enhancing properties. Moreover, it has anti-microbial properties
As per National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), deacetylated chitosan is a vital additive in filtration and water treatment which eliminates 99% of turbidity. Moreover, chitosan is an easily available product extracted from a waste product in fishery industry with several uses in other industries such as wound care material in pharmaceutical industries, acts as a natural flavor and used to control moisture in food industries leading to high demand of these polymer and further boost the overall market.
Furthermore, as stringent government regulations are forcing manufactures to reduce plastic bag results in the growing demand for biodegradable plastic where chitin is being widely used. This led to the increasing adoption of chitosan and further drive the market growth over the forecast period.
Key Market Trends
Under Application Water Treatment is Expected to Witness a Healthy Growth Rate Over the Forecast Period
Water treatment is expected to witness healthy growth in the future attributing to the growing demand of chitosan in industries, commercial and municipal water treatment plants. Several advantages such as the ability to remove pesticides, surfactants, and phenol from the water making it highly preferable in water treatment plants. Increasing demand for chitosan as a water cleaner because of its non-toxic, non-allergic biodegradable nature will also be leading to propel the segment growth.
The presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in water and wastewater has recently been reported. The stools and masks of the COVID-19 patients were considered as the primary route of coronavirus transmission into water and wastewater.
For instance, according to a research article by Hai Nguyen Tran et al., published in Environmental Research Journal 2021, study confirmed that SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in inflow wastewater. Although the existence of SARS-CoV-2 in water influents has been confirmed. Therefore, in future studies should focus on the survival of SARS-CoV-2 in water and wastewater under different operational conditions and whether the transmission from COVID-19-contaminated water to human is an emerging concern. Thus, use of chitosan for water treatment in near future is expected to encourgae to prevent viral diseases like COVID-19.

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Chitin is the second most abundant natural biopolymer in the world, behind only cellulose. It is also the most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide that contains amino sugars. This abundance, combined with the specific chemistry of chitin and its derivative Chitosan, make for the array of potential applications. Chitin, a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, is a derivative of glucose. It is a primary component of cell walls in fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters and shrimps) and insects, the radulae of molluscs, cephalopod beaks, and the scales of fish and lissamphibians. The structure of chitin is comparable to another polysaccharide - cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. Chitosan is a fine off white, odorless Powder extracted from Crab and Shrimp Shells and its derivatives. It has a wide array of commercial and biomedical uses. It can be used in agriculture as a seed treatment and biopesticide, helping plants to fight off fungal infections. In winemaking, it can be used as a fining agent, also helping to prevent spoilage. In industry, it can be used in a self-healing polyurethane paint coating. In medicine, it is useful in bandages to reduce bleeding and as an antibacterial agent. Itis also used to help deliver drugs through the skin. We supply Chitosan at varied deacetylation values (80 – 95%) and mesh sizes (35 to 100). We also supply High Bulk Density Chitosan (HBDC) ideally suitable for encapsulation, having a bulk density of 0.8gm/ml and 0 mesh size to 100 Mesh.
Chitin & Chitosan have a wide variety of uses in health care.

Pan, J.R., Chih P., Huang, S.C., Chen, Ying C.Evaluation of modified chitosan biopolymer for coagulation of colloidal particles.Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 1999; 147: 359-364.
11. Qin,C., Li,H., Xiao, Q., Liu, Y., Zhu, J., Du, Y.,(2006).Water-solubility of chitosan and its antimicrobial activity. Carbohydrate Polymers. 63:367-374.
12. Roussy,J., Van Vooren, M.,Dempsey, B., Guibal, E.,(2005). Influence of chitosan characteristics on the coagulation and the flocculation of bentonite suspensions. Water.Res. 39: 3247-3258.
13. R.Rajendran, M. Abirami, P. Prbhavathi, P. Premasudha, B. Kanimozhi, A.Manikandan, Biological treatment of drinking water by chitosan based nanocomposites.African J.of Biotechnology, 14(11), 930-936(2015).
14. S.A.Fast, B.Kokabian and V.G.Gude. “Chitosan enhanced coagulation of algal turbid waters-Comparison between rapid mix and ultrasound coagulation methods “Chemical Engineering Journal, vol.244, 2014, pp. 403-410.
15. Shellshear, M.S. Urban storm water treatment using chitosan. B. Eng. In civil Engineering Thesis, Faculty of Engineering and Surveying, University of Southern Queensland, 2008.
Received: 10 April 2019
Approved: 10 May 2019
Approved: 10 May 2019
Department of Basic Science, Valley Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology, Cairo, Egypt.

Water is generally available during the rainy season, but it is muddy and full of sediments. Because of a lack of purifying agents, communities drink water that is no doubt contaminated by sediment and human feces. Thus, the use of natural coagulants that are locally available in combination with solar radiation, which is abundant and inexhaustible, provides a solution to the need for clean and safe drinking water in the rural communities of India. Use of this technology can reduce poverty, decrease excess morbidity and mortality from waterborne diseases, and improve overall quality of life in rural areas.
The application of coagulation treatment using natural coagulants on surface water was examined in this study. The surface water was characterized by a high concentration of suspended particles with a high turbidity. At a varied range of pH, the suspended particles easily dissolved and settled along with the coagulants added. Research has been undertaken to evaluate the performance of natural starches of sago flour, bean powder, and chitin to act as coagulants individually and in blended form. In all three cases, the main variable was the dosage of the coagulant. The study shows that natural characteristics of starch and other coagulants can be an efficient coagulant for surface water but would need further study in modifying it to be efficient to the maximum. Thus, it can be concluded that the blended coagulants are the best which give maximum removal efficiency in minimum time.
It is chitin and chitosan which can readily be derivatized by utilizing the reactivity of the primary amino group and the primary and secondary hydroxyl groups to find applications in diversified areas. In this work, an attempt has been made to increase the understanding of the importance and effects of chitin at various doses and pH conditions, upon the chemical and biological properties of water. In view of this, this study will attract the attention of academicians and environmentalists.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Luis D�az Soto": Agasut-Q, covered with chitosan (healing properties) and Agasut-QE, covered with chitosan and streptomycin (healing and antimicrobial properties). After pre-clinical and clinical trials were approved, both surgical thread types were introduced and successfully used in several Cuban hospitals.
The study, however, was not restricted to biomedicine. In co-operation with the Cuban National Centre for Agricultural and Livestock Health (CENSA), this group worked in "seed coating to boost farming yields as well as in encapsulation of somatic embryos to design artificial seeds".
In trials, tomato seeds of variety 1-17(140) were coated with chitosan. Under laboratory conditions, treated seeds showed significantly higher growth speed and percentage of successful germination when compared to non-treated seeds.
In Peniche's words, the research group concluded that "chitosan works as a bio-stimulant in tomato seed treatment by producing better seed germination and greater plant height, stem thickness and dry mass about a week earlier than usual".
Chitosan proved to be a natural polymer with great film-generating capacity, apart from other highly interesting properties: chitosan does not produce polluting substances, it is non-toxic and bio-compatible.

P. Siva Kumari*, Gowramma A2, P. Ratna kala1, B. Prathibha1, E. susanna1, A. Mounika1
1Jagan’s college of Pharmacy, Jangala kandriga, SPSR Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India
2Asst professor, Dept. of pharmaceutics, Jagan’s college of Pharmacy, Jangala kandriga, SPSR Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India.
A B S T R A C T
Chitin and chitosan are unique and these are standard marine polysaccharides, attracted the interest of many researches. Chitin and its derivatives exhibit a variety of physicochemical and biological properties. In the present study, chitin and chitosan properties will be reviewed and their potentialities as promising biomaterials. Chitosan nanoparticles have gained more attention as drug delivery carriers because of their better stability, low toxicity, simple and mild preparation method, and providing versatile routes of administration. The sub-micron size not only suitable for parenteral application, but also applicable for mucosal routes of administration, i.e., oral, nasal, and ocular mucosa, which are non-invasive route.
Keywords: Chitosan, nanoparticles, chitin, applications

Figure 14. Chloride removal efficiency of blended coagulants.
Although many studies have used synthetic water in the experiments, this work chose to use raw water collected directly from the surface source. Therefore, it is important to consider that the natural compounds may cause variations in their composition, which interfere in the treatment process. All those factors are taken into account when evaluating the obtained results.
The characteristics of the superficial water used in this study are observed as that the water used has apparent color, turbidity, solids, and amount of compounds with a relatively high absorption in UV (254 nm). It is noticeable that the water has high turbidity and color.
The effectiveness of alum, commonly used as a coagulant, is severely affected by low or high pH. In optimum conditions, the white flocs were large and rigid and settled well in less than 10 min. This finding is in agreement with other studies at optimum pH [24,25]. The optimum pH was 7 and was similar to the obtained results by Divakaran . At high turbidity, a significant improvement in residual water turbidity was observed. The supernatant was clear after about 20-min settling. Flocs were larger and settling time was lower. The results showed that above optimum dosage, the suspensions showed a tendency to restabilize.
The effectiveness of the chitin in the present study in the removal of various contaminants with varied pH individually and also in blended form can be traced to the explanation from the literature that chitin has been studied as biosorbent to a lesser extent than chitosan; however, the natural greater resistance of the former compared to the last, due to its greater crystallinity, could mean a great advantage. Besides, the possibility to control the degree of acetylation of chitin permits to enhance its adsorption potential by increasing its primary amine group density. Recent studies regarding the production of chitin-based biocomposites and its application as fluoride biosorbents have demonstrated the potential of these materials to be used in continuous adsorption processes. Moreover, these biocomposites could remove many different contaminants, including cations, organic compounds, and anions .
Chitosan has high affinity with the residual oil and excellent properties such as biodegradability, hydrophilicity, biocompability, adsorption property, flocculating ability, polyelectrolisity, antibacterial property, and its capacity of regeneration in many applications .

A.L.Ahmad, N.H May Yasin, J.C.Derek, and J.K.Lim.”Optimization of Microalgae Coagulation Processes Using Chitosan.” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol.173, 2011, pp.879-882.
3. Divakaran, R., Pillai, V.N., (2002). Flocculation of river silt using chitosan. Water. Res., 36:2414-2418.
4. Folkard, G.K., Sutherland, J., Shaw, R., (2000). Water clarification using Moringa oleifera seed coagulant. On Electronic products: http: // www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/technical-briefs/60.
5. Ganjidoust H, Tatsumi K, Wada S, Kawase M: Role of peroxidase and chitosan in removing chlorophenols from aqueous solution. Water Sci.Technol.1996; 34(10): 151-159.
6. H. Altaher.” The use of chitosan as a coagulant in the pre-treatment of turbid sea water.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol.233-234, 2012, pp. 97-102.
7. L. Rizzo, A. Di Gennaro, M. Gallo, and V.Belgiorno “Coagulation/ chlorination of surface water: a comparison between chitosan and metal salts. “Separation and Purification Technology, vol.62, 2008, 79-85.
8. M.A.Abu Hassan and M.H.Puteh. “Pretreatment of palm oil effluent (POME): a comparison study using chitosan and alun.” MJCE, vol.19, 2007, 128-141.
9. Mackenzie, L.D., Cornwell, D.A., (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering.2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 157-163.
10.

It also helps maintain their shape and structure or maintain a favorable environment.
- It’s one of the major components of the cell walls of algae and fungi.
- Cellulose is used to produce paperboard, paper, cardboard, cardstocks, etc.
- It is used to make electrical insulation paper.
- It is used to make gun powder and bio-fuel.
- It’s used as a stabilizer in drugs.
It is a linear, long-chain polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (a derivative of glucose) residues/units. These units are joined together by glycosidic beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages. Chitin is the second most abundant natural biopolymer after cellulose.
It’s biodegradable in the natural environment, in which the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme, chitinases, secreted by some bacteria and fungi. Chitin is closely related to cellulose, which is a linear unbranched chain of glucose units, rather than N-acetyl-glucosamine present in chitin.
- The N-deacetylation of chitin results in the formation of chitosan, which is a crystalline, cationic, and hydrophilic polymer. Chitosans have excellent gelation and film-forming properties.
- Chitin is a polymorphic polysaccharide, present in three different crystalline modifications alpha, beta, and gamma.
- Chitins naturally occur in the exoskeleton of arthropods like shrimps, insects, lobsters, crabs, and the cell walls of certain fungi and molds.
- It helps in the stability and rigidity of the cell wall structures of organisms in which it is present.
- It’s an integral part of an insect’s peritrophic membrane (present in its midgut). The membrane helps insects in digestion processes, protects them from mechanical damages, toxins, and pathogenic attacks.
- It’s used to make fertilizers that are organic, non-toxic, and increases crop productivity by enhancing soil health.
- Chitins in the diet helps to reduce cholesterol absorption efficiency.
- Chitins are used to make a surgical thread that facilitates wound healing.
It’s made of repeating units of D-glucose that are joined together by alpha-linkages. Starch is one of the most abundant polysaccharides found in plants.

You can find chitosan used in the medical field, agriculture, food processing, cosmetics, and water treatment. Chitosan is a prime example of how we can use technology to benefit from naturally occurring materials. And as a bonus, HemCon chitosan is made as a byproduct of the shrimp fishing industry, so our material sourcing helps prevent waste and minimizes our environmental footprint.
Now to answer the question on everyone’s mind: how do you pronounce chitosan? Is it ‘cheeto-san’ or maybe ‘chyto-san’? When you find yourself in a conversation about all the benefits of chitosan, you can confidently pronounce chitosan as ‘kai-tuh-san’.

Under optimal conditions, Chitosan can bind an average of 4 to 5 times its weight with all the lipid aggregates tested.60 (NOTE: This assessment was made without the addition of ascorbic acid which potentiates this action even further.77 Studies in Helsinki have shown that individuals taking chitosan lost an average of 8 percent of their body weight in a 4-week period.76 Chitosan has increased oil-holding capacity over other fibers.108 Among the abundant natural fibers, chitosan is unique. This uniqueness is a result of chitosan’s amino groups which make it an acid absorbing (basic) fiber. Most natural fibers are neutral or acidic. Table 7 summarizes the in vivo effects in animals of various fibers on fecal lipid excretion. As can be seen from the results listed, ingestion of chitosan resulted in 5-10 times more fat excretion than any other fiber tested. D-Glucosamine, the building block of chitosan, is not able to increase fecal fat excretion. This is due to the fact that glucosamine is about 97 percent absorbed while chitosan is nonabsorbable. Fats bound to glucosamine would likely be readily absorbed along with the glucosamine. Chitosan, on the other hand, is not absorbed and therefore fats bound to chitosan can not be absorbed.
Chitosan has the very unique ability to lower LDL cholesterol (the bad kind) while boosting HDL cholesterol (the good kind).78 Laboratory tests performed on rats showed that “chitosan depresses serum and liver cholesterol levels in cholesterol- fed rats without affecting performance, organ weight or the nature of the feces.”79 Japanese researchers have concluded that Chitosan “appears to be an effective hypocholesterolemic agent.”80 In other words, it can effectively lower blood serum cholesterol levels with no apparent side effects. A study reported in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that Chitosan is as effective in mammals as cholestryramine (a cholesterol lowering drug) in controlling blood serum cholesterol without the deleterious side effects typical of cholestryramine.

- Nano Express
- Open Access
Natural Minerals Coated by Biopolymer Chitosan: Synthesis, Physicochemical, and Adsorption Properties
Nanoscale Research Letters volume 11, Article number: 492 (2016)
The Erratum to this article has been published in Nanoscale Research Letters 2017 12:24
Natural minerals are widely used in treatment technologies as mineral fertilizer, food additive in animal husbandry, and cosmetics because they combine valuable ion-exchanging and adsorption properties together with unique physicochemical and medical properties. Saponite (saponite clay) of the Ukrainian Podillya refers to the class of bentonites, a subclass of layered magnesium silicate montmorillonite. Clinoptilolits are aluminosilicates with carcase structure. In our work, we have coated biopolymer chitosan on the surfaces of natural minerals of Ukrainian origin — Podilsky saponite and Sokyrnitsky clinoptilolite. Chitosan mineral composites have been obtained by crosslinking of adsorbed biopolymer on saponite and clinoptilolite surface with glutaraldehyde. The obtained composites have been characterized by the physicochemical methods such as thermogravimetric/differential thermal analyses (DTA, DTG, TG), differential scanning calorimetry, mass analysis, nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to determine possible interactions between the silica and chitosan molecule. The adsorption of microquantities of cations Cu(II), Zn(II), Fe(III), Cd(II), and Pb(II) by the obtained composites and the initial natural minerals has been studied from aqueous solutions. The sorption capacities and kinetic adsorption characteristics of the adsorbents were estimated. It was found that the obtained results have shown that the ability of chitosan to coordinate heavy metal ions Zn(II), Cu(II), Cd(II), and Fe(III) is less or equal to the ability to retain ions of these metals in the pores of minerals without forming chemical bonds.
Application of chitinous products in wastewater treatment has received considerable attention in recent years in the literature [1–8].

Most important are Wound Care, Implants fat & cholesterol –binding drugs, and drug delivery.
In terms of function, it may be compared to the protein keratin.
Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.
Fat Absorbent: The ability of the Chitosan molecule to scavenge fat and cholesterol in the digestive system, plucking it from the stomach and excreting it in the duodenum, has significant implications for its use as a beneficial food additive.
Food containing Chitosan or Chitosan complexed with a fatty acid, could be designed to reduce obesity, cholesterol levels and the incidence of colon cancer.
Wound Healing Ointment: An obvious method of exploiting Chitin’s wound-healing properties is to use the material in ointments for treating wounds.
Wound Dressing: Several research groups and companies, notably in Japan, have devised methods of making wound dressings from Chitin or Chitosan.
This type of dressing is used for burns, surface wounds and skin-graft donor sites.
Surgical Sutures: These work by remaining in tissue long enough to permit healing to occur and then slowly dissolving; therefore, they need not be removed.
Unlike several other suture materials that are absorbed by the body, these do not cause allergic reactions.
Opthalmology: Both contact lenses and the intraocular lenses used in cataract surgery must have one significant characteristic gas permeability.
Chitin and Chitosan can make lenses more permeable to oxygen than other lens materials.
This could be particularly useful for injured eyes, because Chitin & Chitosan also help to heal the wounds.
In addition, Chitin does not adhere to eye wounds; that makes removing the lenses from the eyes safer.
Hard contact lenses can also be prepared using Chitin n-butyrate.
Dental: Since, Chitin can regenerate the connective tissue that covers the teeth near the gums, it has possibilities for treating periodontal diseases such as gingivitis and periodontis.

Chito SAM 100, Z – Folded Gauze
- Additional information
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The special feature of ChitoSAM® 100
Unlike conventional hemostatic agents, in which a gauze bandage or wound dressing is impregnated or coated with a hemostatic (coagulating) agent, ChitoSAM® 100 consists of one hundred percent chitosan. An additional carrier material is not necessary due to the special processing. As a result, the hemostatic effect is 25% higher than that of classic chitosan products.
Active ingredient chitosan
Chitosan, also known as poliglusam, poly-D-glucosamine or polyglucosamine, is a natural biopolymer of the polysaccharide family, first obtained in 1859 by boiling chitin with potassium hydroxide solution. Chitosan is also used in cosmetics and industry, and in medicine as an absorbable suture material in addition to its use as a hemostatic agent. Unlike other hemostatic agents (hemostyptics), chitosan does not activate the body’s own blood clotting factors. The hemostatic effect is based on several properties:
– High absorption capacity: binding of liquids, fats and proteins
– Film forming
– Concentration of clotting factors and blood solids in the wound due to moisture deprivation/binding.
– Electrophysiological reaction = cationically charged chitosan additionally promotes the concentration of anionically charged blood coagulation factors in the wound
Chitosan also works reliably at lower blood temperatures or when using anticoagulants such as Marcumar or Heparin.
Application of ChitoSAM 100
The ChitoSAM tissue is pressed directly onto the bleeding wound for several minutes. This binds blood and wound fluid and causes grafting. This is a great advantage for subsequent wound treatment in a rescue center or hospital, as the gel-like plug can be easily removed. Due to the high absorption capacity of the active ingredient, care must be taken in the case of head injuries to ensure that the dressing material does not come into contact with the eyes.
ChitoSAM 100 is atoxic, anti-allergenic, 100% biodegradable and can therefore be used without hesitation.

Application of chitosan, a natural aminopolysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solutions by adsorption processed using batch studies: a review of recent literature. Prog Polym Sci 2008;33:399–447.  Chiou MS, Li HY. Adsorption behavior of reactive dye in aqueous solution on chemical cross-linked chitosan beads. Chemosphere 2003;50:1095–105.  Chiou MS, Li HY. Equilibrium and kinetic modeling of adsorption of reactive dye on cross-linked chitosan beads. J Hazard Mater 2002;B93:233–48.  Juang RS, Wu FC, Tseng RL. Use of chemically modiﬁed chitosan beads for adsorption and enzyme immobilization. Adv Environ Res 2002;6:171–7.  Shimizu Y, Taga A, Yamaoka H. Synthesis of novel crosslinked chitosans with a higher fatty diacid diglycidyl and their adsorption abilities toward acid dyes. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2003;21:439–49.  Zhang GQ, Zha LS, Zhou MH, Ma JH, Liang BR. Preparation and characterization of pH- and temperature-responsive semi-interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels based on linear sodium alginate and crosslinked poly(Nisopropylacrylamide). J Appl Polym Sci 2005;97:1931–40.  Zhai ML, Zhang YQ, Ren J, Yi M, Ha HF, Kennedy JF. Intelligent hydrogels based on radiation induced copolymerization of N-isopropylacrylamide and kappacarrageenan. Carbohyd Polym 2004;58:35–9.  Guo BL, Gao QY. Preparation and properties of a pH/temperature-responsive carboxymethyl chitosan/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) semi-IPN hydrogel for oral delivery of drugs. Carbohyd Res 2007;342:2416–22.  Zhang JT, Cheng SX, Zhuo RX.

It possesses other biological activities that affects macrophage function and helps in faster wound healing . It also has an capability to stimulate cell proliferation and histoarchitectural tissue organisation . The biological properties including bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties are particularly useful for wound treatment. Various studies have been reported on the beneficial effects of chitosan accelerated wound closure and healing [3-6]. Chitosan facilitated rapid wound re-epithelialization and the regeneration of nerves within the vascular dermis and early returns to normal skin color at chitosan-treated areas . Treatment with chitin and chitosan demonstrated a significant reduction in treatment time with minimal scar formation on various animals . Biochemistry and histology of chitosan in wound healing has been reviewed by Muzzarelli et al.  and Feofilova et al. . The silver sulfadiazine incorporated bilayer chitosan wound dressing showed excellent oxygen permeability, controlled water vapor transmission rate, and water-uptake capability along with excellent antibacterial activity . Antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties found chitosan particularly useful for biomedical applications such as wound dressings, surgical sutures, as aids in cataract surgery, periodontal disease treatment, etc. . Research has shown that chitin and chitosan are nontoxic and non-allergic so that the body will not reject these compounds. Both chitin and chitosan possess many properties that are beneficial for wound healing like biocompatibility, biodegradability , hemostatic activity , healing acceleration, non-toxicity, adsorption properties and anti infection properties [15-17]. An effective wound dressing not only protects the wound from its surroundings but also promotes the wound healing by providing an ideal microenvironment for healing, removing any excess wound exudates and allowing continuous tissue reconstruction . Chitosan has been widely studied as a wound dressing material [18,19]; however, a wound-dressing product based on chitosan is yet to be commercialized.
The use of temporary skin substitutes such as Biobrane, TransCyte, Integra and Terudermis have become more widely used in the treatment of mild to deep dermal burn injury. However, they are extremely expensive. Also, they contain collagen which is not recommended for third degree burns where dermis, epidermis and hypodermis are totally destroyed .

Since its establishment, Chibio Biotech is engaged in the manufacturing and trading of well-characterized Non-animal Chitosan ( Mushroom, Aspergillus Niger Chitosan), Theacrine ( Natural Kucha Tea Leaf Extract & Synthetic ), pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food raw materials and other natural ingredients.
Based on years of research & development and sales of food additives, raw materials of cosmetics, wine beverage, medicines and health care etc., combined with the application & scientific research results of natural product activity, Chibio Biotech is committed to the global health industry, promote natural ingredients with great commercial potentiality to the global application fields of medicine, pharmaceuticals, health care, etc., and realize industrialization and marketization.
We are happy to serve the global ingredients community!

It is observed that blended coagulants gave utmost efficiency as compared to the traditional alum coagulants. Here in this blending process, we reduce the alum dose up to 80%; thus, we reduce the drawbacks of the alum. Also, we can reduce the cost of the treatment using the natural coagulants instead of the traditional coagulant.
E. coli is the best coliform indicator of fecal contamination from human and animal wastes. E. colipresence is more representative of fecal pollution because it is present in higher numbers in fecal material and generally not elsewhere in the environment . Results showed the absence of E. coli increases with increasing time. A greater percentage of E. coli was eliminated in higher turbidities. The aggregation and, thus, removal of E. coli was directly proportional to the concentration of particles in the suspension. Chitosan and other natural coagulants showed antibacterial effects of 2 to 4 log reductions.
Antimicrobial effects of water-insoluble chitin and coagulants were attributed to both its flocculation and bactericidal activities. A bridging mechanism has been reported for bacterial coagulation by chitosan . Especially with reference to chitosan, molecules can stack on the microbial cell surface, thereby forming an impervious layer around the cell that blocks the channels, which are crucial for living cells . On the other hand, cell reduction in microorganisms, such as E. coli, occurred without noticeable cell aggregation by chitosan.
This indicates that flocculation was not the only mechanism by which microbial reduction occurred. It was found that when samples were stored during 24 h, regrowth of E. coli was not observed for all turbidities. It should be noted that the test water contained no nutrient to support regrowth of E. coli, and chitosan is not a nutrient source for it. Another experiment was designed to check the effect of alum alone. Regrowth of E. coli was not observed for unaided alum after 24 h. The number of E. coli after resuspension of sediment reached to the initial numbers after 24 h and showed that it cannot be inactivated by alum. Such findings have been previously reported by Bina.
Access to clean and safe drinking water is difficult in rural areas of India.

Medicine, health care products field
As the chitosan non-toxic, has anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, and immune function, can be used as artificial skin, self-absorption of surgical sutures, medical dressing Branch, bone, tissue engineering scaffolds, enhance liver function, improve digestive function, blood fat, lowering blood sugar, inhibiting tumor metastasis, and adsorption and complexation of heavy metals and can be excreted, and so on, was vigorously applied to health food and drug additives.
3. Environmental protection field
Chitosan and its derivatives is a good flocculant for wastewater treatment and metal recovery from metal-containing waste water; In textile field: As a mordant, health care fabric, sizing agents, printing and dyeing.
Chitosan Hydrochloride Usage:
1. Preparation dressing for hurt burn hemostatic effect is capitally.
2. Made heath products by capsule it is convenient to eat can dissolve and absorb adequately play the health care function of Chitosan.
3. Chitosan Hydrochloride is used for absorptionpromoter of hydrophhilic medicine and natural-nutrition cosmetics.
4. Chitosan Hydrochloride keeps the natune of Chitosan. It holds excellent perfomance in film forming and bacterial inhibition it's used in additive and preservation for fruits and vegetables.
5. Having strong cation used in sewage disposal the subsiding and retrieving of the protein in food factory and to paper-making can improve the utilization ratio of paper pulp and intensity of paper product.
|pH Value (1% solution)||4.0-6.0|
|Loss on Drying||<=15.0%|
|Heavy Metals (Total)||<=40.0ppm|
|Total Plate Count||<=1000cfu/g|
|Yeast & Mould||<=100cfu/g|
1. Rich experience: Our company is a professional production leading factory in China in pharmaceutical area of many years.
2. Top quality :High quality guaranteed,welcome order samples,MOQ just 10g. once any problem is found, the package would be reshipped for you .
3. Discreet package :The packing suits you best would be choosen to cross customs safely. Or if you have your own ideal way, it could be also taken into consideration .
4.

of kaolinite was added to 1L of tap water. The suspension was stirred slowly at 20 rpm for 1hr for uniform dispersion of kaolinite particle. The suspension was then stand for 24hr. this suspension was used as the stock solution for the preparation of turbid water samples of varying turbidities. Original PH=7 and Temperature 300C. The PH was controlled by adding either strong acid (H2SO4) or strong base (NaOH). Turbidity of raw water was 1 NTU.
Figure 3: Kaolinite structure
Preparation of chitosan solution
Chitosan (Deactylated chitin: poly-[1-4]-B-glucosamine). (C6H11NO4) n with minimum 85% deactyl prepared from crab shells was obtained from ACROS ORGANICS Company. It was in the form of a pale brown powder soluble in dilute acetic acid hydrochloric acids. With molecular weight 100.000-300.000. Chitosan powder (5 mg) was weighed into a glass beaker, mixed with10mL of 0.1 M HCl solution, and kept for about one hour to dissolve. It was then diluted to 500 ml distilled water solution stirred at 100 rpm with a magnetic stirrer until the solution was completely dissolved. It was observed that chitosan solution in acid undergo some changes in properties over period; the solutions were prepared freshly before each set of experiments 13, Stock solution was stored at room temperature (25oC).
In this study, the test water (six beakers) was filled with 500ml synthetic water. Then kaolinite and chitosan were added (Coagulant was added with rapid mixing for 2 minutes at 100 rpm, slow mixing for 30 minutes at 30 rpm. The mixer is turned off and flocs are allowed to settle for 30 minute 14. The samples were taken from the top 4 in of the suspension. Turbidity was measured on the settled water filtered through Whatman 40 (8um) filter paper of each beaker and then measured by Nephelometer, Turbidity becomes 5 NTU, and Hardness measurements were conducted by EDTA titrimetric Method.

A preferred source of mucopolysaccharide is a material such as chitosan. Chitosan is derived from a hydrolysis product of chitin which is the horny substance and a principal constituent of the shells of crabs, lobsters and beatles. Currently, chitosan is available as an ecological waste material at low cost. Chitosan is essentially insoluble in water at neutral or higher pH, but, can be dissolved at very low pH in the process of the invention.
Chitosan is a glucosamine polysaccharide having a degree of polymerization (DP) of about 500 to about 1500 of a repeating unit of the formula: ##STR1## where n+m=DP, m=O to DP/2 and n=DP to DP/2.
Chitosan is a low cost biochemical product which is a superior material for encapsulating magnetic particles. Chitosan is a chelating agent which forms chelates with a large number of anions and cations and has been found to be fully effective in removing toxic ions from water solutions. By encapsulating a magnetic material with chitosan, recovery of the chitosan encapsulated magnetic particles from effluent streams can be easily accomplished by the application of a magnetic field. The chitosan is also readily regenerated.
Examples of practice follow: About 0.1 mole of ferrous chloride (FeCl2) and 0.1 moles of ferric chloride (FeCl3) is dissolved in an aqueous solution (430 ml.) of chitosan (1 wt. %) acidified with hydrochloric acid to a pH of 2. To this solution is added 40 ml. of aqueous sodium hydroxide (0.5 mole NaOH) while stirring and passing in argon gas through a bubbler. The pH changes from 2 to about 7. The mixture is then boiled for two hours in the presence of argon. The black solid chitosan encapsulated magnetic material is filtered off, washed with distilled water, and dried.
This provides a simple and economical method of producing the large quantities of chitosan encapsulated magnetite (magnetite-chitosan powder) which would be required in large industrial, governmental or agricultural operations.
Tests were performed to demonstrate the efficiency of the chitosan in removing heavy metal ions and nitrate ions from aqueous solutions.

Crini G, Badot PM (2008) Application of chitosan, a natural aminopolysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solutions by adsorption processes using batch studies: a review of recent literature. Prog Polym Sci 33:399–447
Budnyak TM, Tertykh VA, Yanovska ES (2013) Chitosan and its derivatives as sorbents for effective removal of metal ions: review. Surface 5(Suppl 20):118–134
Wan Ngah WS, Teong LC, Hanafiah Ma KM (2011) Adsorption of dyes and heavy metal ions by chitosan composites: a review. Carbohydr Polym 83:1446–1456
Budnyak TM, Tertykh VA, Yanovska ES, Kołodynska D, Bartyzel A (2015) Adsorption of V(V), Mo(VI) and Cr(VI) oxoanions by chitosan-silica composite synthesized by Mannich reaction. Adsorpt Sci Technol 6–8:645–657
Budnyak T, Yanovska E, Ischenko M, Tertykh V (2014) Adsorption of heavy metals by chitosan crosslinked with glutaraldehyde. Visnyk of KNU. Chemistry 1:35–38
Budnyak TM, Pylypchuk IV, Tertykh VA, Yanovska ES, Kolodynska D (2015) Synthesis and adsorption properties of chitosan-silica nanocomposite prepared by sol-gel method. Nanoscale Res Lett 87:1–10
Budnyak T, Tertykh V, Yanovska E (2014) Chitosan immobilized on silica surface for wastewater treatment. Mater Sci (Medžiagotyra) 20(2):177–182
Darder M, Aranda P, Ruiz-hitzky E Chitosan-Clay Bio-Nanocomposites. In: Avérous L, Pollet E, editors. Environmental silicate nano-biocomposites. Green Energy and Technology. Springer-Verlag, London, 2012. p.

Chitosan is also a superior material for encapsulating iron oxide particles formed directly from iron salts due to its polyelectrolytic character.
The chitosan functional magnetic microspheres were found to be very effective in the purification of contaminated water, because the amino and hydroxyl functional groups of chitosan form chelates with a large number of anions and cations. The recovery of the chitosan particles complexed with the salts is achieved simply by the application of a magnetic field to the contaminated water. This method can also be used to concentrate or remove heavy metal ions as well as nitrate ions.
Although only one preferred embodiment of the present invention has been disclosed, it is to be realized by those skilled in the art that various modifications can be made to the disclosed magnetic particles without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, chitosan is capable of encapsulating resin materials having magnetic material dispersed therein or may be used to encapsulate other magnetic materials. These examples are exemplary only and are not intended to limit the present invention which is defined by the following claims.

The resultant mixture is then treated with sodium hydroxide to remove the proteins and other contaminants or impurities therefrom, followed by water washing and drying; thus producing the desired chitin flakes.
On the other hand, chitosan is a deacetylated product of chitin and can be readily prepared from chitin in the form of white flakes by, for example, treating chitin with an alkali. Chitosan is commercially available from, for example, Kyowa Yushi Kogyo K.K. (Japan), under the tradename of "Flonac-N".
The derivatives of chitin and chitosan usable in the present invention include the following water-soluble compounds derived from chitin and chitosan.
(1) Water-soluble oligomers of chitin or chitosan obtained by depolymerizing chitin or chitosan to the low molecules (Note: provided that they have a polymerization degree of the glucosamine unit of greater than 1).
These oligomers may be prepared by conventional depolymerization methods, for example, nitrite decomposition, formic acid decomposition, chlorine decomposition (see Japanese Kokai No. 60-186504), and enzyme or microorganism decomposition.
(2) Water-soluble partially deacetylated chitins preferably having a degree of deacetylation of 40 to 60%.
These derivatives can be prepared by controlling the degree of deacetylation of chitin by the method disclosed in, for example, Japanese Kokai No. 53-47479.
(3) Salts of organic or inorganic acids of chitosan.
Typical examples of the organic acids are acetic acid, malic acid, citric acid, and ascorbic acid and typical examples of the inorganic acids are hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.
(4) Water-soluble derivatives obtained by introducing hydrophilic groups into chitin or chitosan.

Derived from the exoskeleton of crabs, called chitin, Chitosan Plus has the amazing ability to bind to fats and cholesterol, encapsulating them before they can be absorbed by the body.
Chitosan Plus 60 Caps
Order Processing at
Chitosan Plus is literally a designer fiber, especially developed to attract and hold food fat and cholesterol for safe elimination. Most fibers absorb fat and bile acids to a limited extent, but Chitosan is the "super fiber" that functions like a magnet, attracting negatively charged food fat, cholesterol and bile molecules.
With its ability to bind to fats in the body’s GI system, Chitosan Plus can act as an effective “fat blocker” or “fat
trapper” and prevent dietary fats from being absorbed by your
How Chitosan Plus Works
Chitosan attracts fat molecules, which are negatively charged. Chitosan is an amino polysaccharide, categorized as an alkalized form of chitin, a cellulose-like polymer derived from the exoskeleton of crabs and shrimp. It has the ability to bind fats in the stomach before they are absorbed through the digestive system. Depending upon the amount of Chitosan taken, it is possible to absorb over one-third of one's dietary fat. The resulting non-digestible mass is then excreted through the digestive tract, in the process improving elimination. Chitosan's effect on fat excretion is five to ten times greater than any other natural dietary fiber. Chitosan Plus is calorie-free and is therefore a very useful dietary supplement for those wishing to improve their health and yet maintain a low-calorie, high-fiber diet.
By absorbing fat, Chitosan also eliminates not only cholesterol but many of the building blocks for cholesterol. As a result, cholesterol production in the body is reduced. In addition to electrostatically binding fats, chitosan hydrophobicly links to other neutrally-charged fats, including cholesterol. In addition, it is believed that Chitosan's continuous partial removal of bile acids triggers the body to break down already absorbed cholesterol to produce replacement bile acids.

The antibacterial properties of chitosan have been investigated using an in vitro methodology in which the antibacterial activities of chitosan were measured against a wider range of bacteria. Results demonstrate that chitosan increased permeability on the inner and outer membranes and ultimately disrupted the bacterial cell membranes, releasing their contents. HemCon hemostatic dressings offer an antibacterial barrier against a wide range
of gram positive and gram negative organisms. © Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc.

Alginate coated chitosan nanoparticles was recently described  and it has the particular advantage of being constructed under very mild conditions (aqueous medium and mild agitation), which is a great benefit for the encapsulation of proteins, peptides and antigens. Moreover, Borges and co-workers  have demonstrated that these coated nanoparticles were able to be taken up by rat Peyer's patches which is one of the essential features to internalize, deliver and target the intact antigen to specialized immune cells from the gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) .
Herein, we proposed to evaluate in vitro characteristics of chitosan nanoparticles associated to protein, for which the antigen Rho1-GTPase of S. mansoni was chosen, to be used as a candidate oral vaccine against schistosomiasis. Once in vitro characterization showed favorable data, its in vivo role was evaluated through mouse immunization. Added to that, chitosan was evaluated not only for its performance as a delivery system but also for its contribution due to its adjuvant properties.
Additionally, since a mixed Th1/Th2 response seems to be optimal for a schistosomiasis vaccine, then bacterial CpG motifs (which induce the production of IL-12 by DCs and macrophages that express the appropriate TLR95) can be used as adjuvants to boost immunity and also with the aim of inducing a TH1-like immune response that can prevent the normal Th1 to Th2 transition. With this in mind we investigated the co-administration of synthetic unmethylated oligodeoxynucleotides containing immunostimulatory CpG motifs (CpG ODN), a TLR-9 ligand, with chitosan nanoparticles.
With this in mind, on this work we will report a new strategy of vaccination against schistosomiasis based on chitosan nanoparticles associated to SmRho antigen plus the adjuvant CpG, and coated with sodium alginate.
Materials and Methods
Chitosan (CH) (Chimarin DA 13%, apparent viscosity 8 mPa.s) was supplied by Medicarb, Sweden. CH was purified by filtration of an acidic chitosan solution and subsequent alkali precipitation (1 M NaOH). The purified polymer was characterized by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR).

at 202-225-5101,202-225-3190; House Majority Leader John Boehner at 202-225-6205, 202-225-0704; Speaker of the House J. Dennis Hastert at 202-225-2976,202-225-0697; and Congressman Nathan Deal a member of the Energy and Commerce Committee, at 202-225-5211, 202-225-8272.
Don’t let self-serving political skullduggery take your vitamins and supplements away from you! Visit www.NHA2006.com and take advantage of online tools that allow you to easily send faxes to Congress. Please do not delay—without swift and decisive action, we may all lose our health freedom forever!
*This editorial is a public service announcement sponsored by the Nutritional Health Alliance (NHA).
CHITOSAN: The Fiber that Binds Fat
June 25, 2005 07:55 PM
Chitosan is a natural product that inhibits fat absorption. It has the potential to revolutionize the process of losing weight and by so doing, reduce the incidence of some of the most devastating Western diseases we face today. Chitosan is indigestable and non-absorbable. Fats bound to chitosan become nonabsorbable thereby negating their caloric value. Chitosan-bound fat leaves the intestinal tract having never entered the bloodstream. Chitosan is remarkable in that it has the abilty to absorb an average of 4 to 5 times its weight in fat.60
The same features that allow chitosan to bind fats endow it with many other valuable properties that work to promote health and prevent disease. Chitosan is a remarkable substance whose time has come.
Chitin, the precursor to Chitosan, was first discovered in mushrooms by the French professor Henri Braconnot in 1811.61 In the 1820’s chitin was also isolated from insects.62 Chitin is an extremely long chain of N-acetyl-D-glucoseamine
glucoseamine units. Chitin is the most abundant natural fiber next to cellulose and is similar to cellulose in many respects. The most abundant source of chitin is in the shells of shellfish such as crab and shrimp.

In particular, the development of chitosan-based materials as useful adsorbent polymeric matrices is an expanding field in the area of adsorption science . Chitosan is a type of natural polyaminosaccharide, obtained by deacetylation of chitin , which is a polysaccharide consisting predominantly of unbranched chains of β-(1→4)-2-acetoamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose . Composites based on chitosan are economically feasible because they are easy to prepare and involve inexpensive chemical reagents . Recently, chitosan composites have been developed to adsorb heavy metals and dyes from wastewater [10, 12–15].
Chitosan composites have been proven to have better adsorption capacity and resistance to acidic environment . Various methods of preparation of hybrid materials based on inorganic materials and polysaccharides such as chitin [1–8] and chitosan for different applications have been studied [9, 11, 16–18]. Different kinds of substances have been used to form composite with chitosan such as silica, montmorillonite, polyurethane, activated clay, bentonite, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, kaolinite, oil palm ash, perlite, and magnetite [19–23]. Although such minerals possess high adsorption capabilities, the modification of their structure can successfully improve their capabilities. In work , chitosan/attapulgite composites are applied as an adsorbent for the removal of chromium and iron ions from aqueous solution of both single and binary systems. Attapulgite is a hydrated octahedral-layered magnesium aluminum silicate mineral with large surface area, excellent chemical stability, and strong adsorption. Equilibrium data were well described by the Freundlich isotherm models, indicating multilayer adsorption for Cr(III) and Fe(III) onto composites. Kinetic experiments showed that composites offered fast kinetics for adsorption of Cr(III) and Fe(III), and the diffusion-controlled process as the essential adsorption rate-controlling step was also proposed. Moreover, the initial adsorption rates of Cr(III) were faster than that of Fe(III) with the increase of temperature and initial concentrations. The thermodynamic analysis presented the endothermic, spontaneous, and entropy gained nature of the process .

The Chitosan, Alginate, and Cellulose biopolymers may have the potential to be used as low-cost raw materials since they represent widely available and environmentally friendly resources  that seem attractive for the use, not only in medicine and tissue engineering (TE) , among others. Biodegradable polymers produced from renewable resources represent plastics that may contribute to the enhancement of natural environment protection [4–7]. Porous matrices from biomaterials  are used in the generation of porous matrices which include collagen , gelatin  silk , alginate , and Chitosan . Alginate is a natural linear polysaccharide copolymer produced by brown algae, and bacteria. It is widely used because of its ability to form strong thermo-resistant gels, non-toxicity, biodegradability, high biocompatibility , and widely used in medical applications  such as tissue TE . Cellulose is mostly used in the paper, textile and medical industry . Chitosan has excellent chemical properties such as, adsorption ; due to the reactive number of the available hydroxyl groups, reactive amino groups, and a flexible polymer chain structure [17, 18]. However, used as an adsorbent brings some drawbacks such as low surface area or porosity, high cost, and poor chemical and mechanical properties [19, 20]. Physical or chemical modifications have been studied, such as: copolymerization, grafting, or cross-linking processes [2, 21–24].
The conjunction of different biopolymers is an extremely attractive, inexpensive and advantageous method to obtain new structural adsorbent materials .
Materials such as fly ash, silica gel, zeolites, lignin, seaweed, wool wastes, agricultural wastes, clay materials, and sugar cane bagasse, among others, have been extensively used for protein removal, due to their sorption sites .
Cellulose-based composite hydrogels blended with various biopolymers can create novel materials for special applications [26–32]. The widespread applications of porous materials is not limited as adsorbents for small active molecules. Various polysaccharide hydrogels have been employed for the entrapment of enzymes [33–40]. Furthermore, specific pore structures and tunable morphology allow the construction of affinity probes for various macromolecules .

Recommended for the prevention of the following diseases
About the preparation
The preparation includes OCHG™ chitosan oligomers in liquid form, which are characterized by a unique ability to directly form polymer films from suspension, good miscibility with other biopolymers and a high value of the secondary swelling index. Under the influence of digestive enzymes, part of the chitosan oligomers is absorbed into the blood, the other part, not digested by enzymes, binds water and acts as an absorbent in the digestive tract. Vitamin C supports the immune system and helps cleanse the body and neutralize free radicals
Effects of chitosan oligomers on human health
Chitosan, from which polymeric compounds are obtained, is chemically an organic compound of the polysaccharide group; a derivative of chitin, formed by its partial deacetylation. Deacetylation of chitin involves the removal of acetyl groups from chitin, which harden and cement chitin. The highest biochemical activity of chitosan is obtained when it is processed through the patented OCHG™ process. The result is chitosan lactate or chitosan in the form of oligomers, or polymers, with short chains and a well-defined molecular weight. Structurally, chitosan is a cellulose (fiber) of animal origin, similar to human fibrin. It is completely natural and well tolerated by our body. Chitosan has a very beneficial effect on the entire body. Experts call it the sixth essential component of life after proteins, fats, sugars, minerals and vitamins. It effectively purifies and deacidifies the body, stimulates the human defense mechanisms, does not allow cancer cells to multiply, lowers cholesterol, helps reduce body weight. With the help of chitosan it is possible to overcome many diseases with which modern medicine cannot cope.
CHITOZIN FIT C contains liquid chitosan lactate in the form of oligomers. It is characterized by very high bioavailability and biochemical activity, which gives it the highest effectiveness among other known products containing chitosan.

(ii) Carboxymethyl chitin or chitosan ##STR3## wherein n: >1, preferably 3-100
R4 : --H or --COCH3
R5 : --H, CH2 COOH, --CH2 COONa, --CH2 COOK or CH2 COONH4
R6 : --H, CH2 COOH, --CH2 COONa, --CH2 COOK or CH2 COONH4
In the above definition, R5 and R6 are not --H at the same time and R4, R5, and R6 may be the same or different in each bonded D-glucosamine skeleton.
The carboxymethyl chitin or chitosan can be prepared by reacting alkali chitin or chitosan with monochloroacetic acid under an ambient temperature and ambient pressure.
(iii) Phosphorated chitin or chitosan ##STR4##
Furthermore, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are the same or different, respectively, in the each bonded D-glucosamine skeleton.
The phosphorated chitin or chitosan can be prepared by reacting diphosphorus pentaoxide to chitin or chitosan dissolved or suspended in methanesulfonic acid, while coolng. This method was disclosed in, for example, Norio Nishi, Preparatory Papers II, page 570, at the 48th Autumn Annual Convention Lecture, of the Japan Chemical Society.
(iv) Sulfated chitin or chitosan ##STR5##
R11, R12, R13, and R14 may be the same or different, respectively, in each bonded D-glucosamine skeleton.
The sulfated chitin or chitosan can be obtained by reacting an SO3 -pyridine complex salt to chitin or chitosan activated in pyridine [see: M. L. Wolfrom et al., The Sulfonation of Chitosan, J. Am. Soc., 81, 1764-1766 (1959)].

Suzuki Y, Okamoto Y, Morimoto M, Influence of physicochemical properties of chitin and chitosan on complement activation. 2000, Carbodydr. Polym. 42, 307-310.
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Results: In-depth characterization revealed a sulfoalkylation of chitosan mainly on its sterically favored O6-position. Moreover, comparably high average degrees of substitution with sulfoethyl groups (DSSE) of up to 1.05 were realized in reactions with NaBES. The harsh reaction conditions led to significant chain degradation and consequently, SECS exhibits masses of <50 kDa. Throughout the following microwave reaction, stable nanoparticles were obtained only from highly substituted products because they provide a sufficient charge density that prevented particles from aggregation. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images reveal that the silver core (diameter ~8 nm) is surrounded by a 1–2 nm thick SECS layer. These core-shell particles and the SECS itself exhibit an inhibiting activity, especially on cofactor Xa.
Conclusion: This interesting model system enabled the investigation of structure–property correlations in the course of nanoparticle formation and anticoagulant activity of SECS and may lead to completely new anticoagulants on the basis of chitosan-capped nanoparticles.
Keywords: chitosan ethylsulfonate, silver nanoparticles, antithrombotic activity, cofactor Xa
This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms.Download Article [PDF] View Full Text [HTML][Machine readable]

Minami, S.; Okamoto, Y.; Hamada, K.; Fukumoto, Y.; Shigemasa, Y. 1999, EXS 87, 265-277.
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[16.]

Six chemical water quality parameters were tested: PH, turbidity, Temperature, time, stirring, chemical dosage of chitosan. Water at PH 6 and PH 9 was compared with the standard test water control at neutral PH of 7.0. The PH was adjusted using 1M hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 1M sodium hydroxide (NaOH). For effects of turbidity level on chitosan coagulation, turbidity was set at 5 and 10,15,20,25 NTU compared to control water turbidity of 1 NTU and kaolinite was used as the turbidity source. Doses of chitosan were: 1,3,10 and 30 mg/L,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Optimal dosage of chitosan
We all agree about that The lowest turbidity in the suspension is the optimal dosage condition so at chitosan dose 1,3mg/L, kaolinite removals were high 96%, at chitosan dose above than 3mg/L, there was decrease (or) no removal of kaolinite turbidity by chitosan. Overall, kaolinite reductions were significantly lower as chitosan dose become higher.
Table 4. Relation between chitosan dose and turbidity reduction%
Figure 4. Relation between chitosan dose and turbidity reduction%
Effects of water PH on turbidity removal.
Effects of water PH on removal of kaolinite turbidity.
Kaolinite turbidity was (5, 5 NTU), temperature of the turbid water was (35o C), chitosan dosage (1g/L), stirring (300 rpm). As the PH was increased, chitosan was less effective as a coagulant on settled water turbidity 15. The PH selected for optimum selected water turbidity removal was 5, 6,7,8,9. In the PH range of 5 to 7, the residual turbidities of supernatant can be reduced to less than 1 NTU. But at PH 6 lowest turbidity achieved 0.65 NTU. These results also indicate that the residual turbidities are increased at PH 8, 9.
Table 5. Relation between Turbidity and PH value
Figure 5.

Chitin–calcium alginate composite fibers were prepared from a solution of high molecular weight chitin extracted from shrimp shells and alginic acid in the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate by dry-jet wet spinning into an aqueous bath saturated with CaCO3. The fibers exhibited a significant proportion of the individual properties of both calcium alginate and chitin. Ultimate stress values were close to values obtained for calcium alginate fibers, and the absorption capacities measured were consistent with those reported for current wound care dressings. Wound healing studies (rat model, histological evaluation) indicated that chitin–calcium alginate covered wound sites underwent normal wound healing with re-epithelialization and that coverage of the dermal fibrosis with hyperplastic epidermis was consistently complete after only 7 days of treatment. Using a single patch per wound per animal during the entire study, all rat wounds achieved 95–99% closure by day 10 with complete wound closure by day 14.
Even with the high costs of environmental exposure controls, as well as the chance of control failures, options for industries wanting to implement sustainability through frameworks such as green chemistry are not yet cost-effective. We foresee a “green” industrial revolution through the use of transformative technologies that provide cost-effective and sustainable products which could lead to new business opportunities. Through example, we promote the use of natural and abundant biopolymers such as chitin, combined with the solvating power of ionic liquids (ILs), as a transformative technology to develop industries that are overall better and more cost-effective than current practices. The use of shellfish waste as a source of chitin for a variety of applications, including high-value medical applications, represents a total byproduct utilization concept with realistic implications in crustacean processing industries.
Chemisorption of carbon dioxide by 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([C2mim][OAc]) provides a route to coagulate chitin and cellulose from [C2mim][OAc] solutions without the use of high-boiling antisolvents (e.g., water or ethanol). The use of CO2 chemisorption as an alternative coagulating process has the potential to provide an economical and energy-efficient method for recycling the ionic liquid.

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Low-molecular-weight sulfonated chitosan as template for anticoagulant nanoparticles
Authors Heise K, Hobisch M, Sacarescu L, Maver U, Hobisch J, Reichelt T, Sega M, Fischer S, Spirk S
Received 25 April 2018
Accepted for publication 12 June 2018
Published 30 August 2018 Volume 2018:13 Pages 4881—4894
Checked for plagiarism Yes
Review by Single anonymous peer review
Peer reviewer comments 3
Editor who approved publication: Prof. Dr. Thomas J. Webster
Katja Heise,1,2 Mathias Hobisch,3,4 Liviu Sacarescu,5 Uros Maver,6 Josefine Hobisch,3 Tobias Reichelt,7 Marija Sega,6 Steffen Fischer,1 Stefan Spirk3,4
Members of EPNOE and NAWI Graz
1Institute of Plant and Wood Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Tharandt, Germany; 2Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland; 3Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria; 4Institute for Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria; 5“Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iasi, Romania; 6Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia; 7Zentrum für Bucherhaltung GmbH, Leipzig, Germany
Purpose: In this work, low-molecular-weight sulfoethyl chitosan (SECS) was used as a model template for the generation of silver core-shell nanoparticles with high potential as anticoagulants for medical applications.
Materials and methods: SECS were synthesized by two reaction pathways, namely Michael addition and a nucleophilic substitution with sodium vinylsulfonate or sodium 2-bromoethanesulfonate (NaBES). Subsequently, these derivatives were used as reducing and capping agents for silver nanoparticles in a microwave-assisted reaction. The formed silver-chitosan core-shell particles were further surveyed in terms of their anticoagulant action by different coagulation assays focusing on the inhibition of either thrombin or cofactor Xa.

Bioactive chitosan scaffold co cultured with keratinocyte and fibroblast cells.
|Abstract:||Polymeric cell seeded sponge scaffolds play a prominent role in supporting the regeneration of skin for burn patients. The three-dimensional scaffolds provide physical support and acts as an excellent matrix regulating cell growth, adhesion and differentiation. Natural macromolecule polymeric scaffolds from chitosan have advantages over synthetic polymers in that they encourage cell attachment and maintain differentiation of cells. Chitosan is the most used natural, biodegradable polymer as tissue scaffolds. It is known in the wound management area for its haemostatic properties. It possesses other biological activities and affects macrophage functions that assist in faster wound healing. It provides a non-protein matrix for three-dimensional tissue growth. Chitosan seems to generate desirable migrant and stimulatory effects on the stromal cells of the surrounding cells. Patients suffering from extensive skin loss like burns are in danger of succumbing to either massive infection or excessive fluid loss. Chitosan scaffold with the optimum combination of fibroblast cells and keratinocyte cells is guided to produce the desired tissues, which ultimately helps in the complete regeneration of functional skin. The present study demonstrates the importance of chitosan as a tissue engineered scaffold for burn wounds.|
Cell culture (Research)
Biomedical materials (Research)
Sharma, Chandra P.
|Publication:||Name: Trends in Biomaterials and Artificial Organs Publisher: Society for Biomaterials and Artificial Organs Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal Subject: Health Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2012 Society for Biomaterials and Artificial Organs ISSN: 0971-1198|
|Issue:||Date: Jan, 2012 Source Volume: 26 Source Issue: 1|
|Topic:||Event Code: 310 Science & research|
|Product:||SIC Code: 2836 Biological products exc. diagnostic|
|Geographic:||Geographic Scope: India Geographic Code: 9INDI India|
Chitosan is a common biopolymer that is derived from chitin a key component of crustacean outer skeletons. It is the second most abundant natural polymer after cellulose and is known in the wound management area for its haemostatic properties. It has wide application in waste management, food processing, medicine and biotechnology.

doi: 10.1128/iai.69.10.6123-6130.2001
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- 25. Borges O, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Romeijn SG, Amidi M, Sousa AD, et al. (2006) Uptake studies in rat peyer's patches, cytotoxicity and release studies of alginate coated chitosan nanoparticles for mucosal vaccination. J Control Release 114: 348–358. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2006.06.011
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The Global Chitosan Market is expected to register a CAGR of 21.3% over the forecast period.
Globally, the researchers showing interest in the use of Chitosan in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields as a potential agent for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. In December 2019, China became the epicenter of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, which has since spread internationally. In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 to be a global health emergency. Countering the impacts of viral disease outbreaks such as COVID-19 required research and development activities by researchers across the globe. Thus, the COVID-19 outbreak is likely to show a positive impact on market growth because the application of chitosan polymers as viral inhibitors will generate key growth opportunities in near future.
Furthermore, biopolymers, such as chitosan have intrinsic antiviral properties. Nanostructured drug-delivery systems (NDDS) based carbohydrate-binding agents, such as the sulfated polymers, can also change the virus entry process, blocking the viral cationic surface receptors and avoiding its interaction with heparan sulfate proteoglycan on the host cell surface. However, there are no reports of NDDS as COVID-19 treatment so far. It can be a new approach for COVID-19 treatment in near future.
The other factors that are driving the market growth include growing product application in biomedical, cosmetics and food and beverage industries, rising water treatment activities worldwide and strong advancements in the healthcare/medical industry in developed countries.
Chitosan composed systems utilize the characteristics of chitosan to achieve great therapeutic effects. For instance, the adhesiveness of chitosan can be used for non-invasive mucosal vaccine vectors. Therefore, chitosan-composed systems have great potential in the therapy of infectious diseases.

Chitin is rapidly biodegraded (Zobell & Rittenberg, 1983). The annual worldwide chitin production has been estimated to be 1011 tons, and industrial use has been estimated to be 10,000 metric tons (Kurita, 2006). Chitin has excellent biocompatibility, nontoxicity, and wound-healing properties, so it has been widely applied in medical and health-care fields for applications such as release capsules for drugs, man-made kidney membranes, anticoagulants, and immunity accelerants (Cho, Cho, Chung, Yoo, & Ko, 1999; Matsuyama, Kitamura, & Naramura, 1999; Muzzarelli, 1977; Okamoto et al., 2002; Onishi, Nagai, & Machida, 1997; Tokura et al., 1990). However, chitin is not soluble in common solvents due to the existence of intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds in chitin and its highly crystalline structure. This strongly restricts many applications of chitin. The world market for chitin is currently estimated at 1000 to 2000 tons. Japan, with an estimated production of 1.5 million lb (6.8 × 105 kg) per year, is by far the largest user. Europe may use 500,000 lb, whereas the United States appears to use about 150,000 to 200,000 lb (70–90 103 kg), but this estimate may be too high. Prices quoted range from $3.50 to $4.50 per pound for chitin and are $6.50 to $100 per pound for chitosan.

The removal of nickel (II) from the aqueous solutions through adsorption on to biopolymer sorbents, such as calcium alginate, chitosan-coated calcium alginate, and chitosan-coated silica, was studied using equilibrium batch and column flow techniques. According to the study, the maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of calcium alginate, chitosan-coated calcium alginate, and chitosan-coated silica, as obtained from the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, was found to be 310.4, 222.2, and 254.3 mg/g, respectively .
Polymer/montmorillonite nanocomposites have improved properties such as excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, gas barrier, and flame retardation in comparison to conventional composites. The isomorphous substitutions of Al3+ for Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer and Mg2+ for Al3+ in the octahedral layer have resulted in a negatively charged surface on montmorillonite. With these structural characteristics, montmorillonite has excellent sorption properties and possesses available sorption sites within its interlayer space as well as large surface area and more narrow channels inside. Produced chitosan coated montmorillonite for the removal of Cr(VI) .
This work describes the synthesis of the composite material based on chitosan and natural minerals clinoptilolite and saponite, for their use as a biosorbents. Obtained composites were characterized by physicochemical methods, such as thermal analysis and textural properties. Adsorption properties of the obtained hybrid material were studied with respect to highly toxic heavy metals: cadmium(II), lead(II), copper(II), zinc(II), and iron(III), which are common contaminants of industrial wastewaters. Conditions connected with the optimum pH value of the medium, interaction time, and adsorption capacity were studied.

2 (4 and 5)) has shown a shift of the band 1530 cm-1 of –NH2 deformation vibrations in comparison with the spectrum of the initial chitosan. An intensive absorbance at 1090 and 1000 cm−1 represents the Si–O stretching vibrations. Absorbance band at 610 and 660 cm−1 represents to stretching vibrations of Si–O and shifted in comparison with the FTIR-spectra of initial minerals. Absorbance bands at 556 and 463 cm−1 and 518 and 466 cm−1 represent the deformation vibrations of Al–O–Si and Si–O–Si in chitosan-clinoptilolite and chitosan-saponite, respectively. It was observed that the characteristic bands at 1633 and 1645 cm−1 at the FTIR-spectra of chitosan-clinoptilolite and chitosan-saponite, respectively, describe azomethine bonds C=N, formed after glutaraldehyde treatment .
The influence of polymeric coating on thermal properties of mineral surfaces was studied by conducting DSC-MS analysis. Applying of these methods of investigations were also conducted in order to determine the mass ratio of chitosan coating on the mineral surfaces.
For the TG-curve of chitosan (Fig. 3a), two decomposition temperatures can be found. The initial weight loss of 11% from room temperature (30 °C) up to 190 °C corresponds to the release of adsorbed water . The second recorded decomposition region (190–1000 °C) completely applies to the weight loss of chitosan. Figure 3b, c presents the TG, DTG, and DSC curves of pure clinoptilolite and saponite.
Comparing the thermogravimetric curves of chitosan-clinoptilolite and chitosan-saponite composites (with the curves of the initial chitosan and pure minerals; Fig. 3d, e), one could observe that the maximum of each decomposition region of composites was observed at lower temperatures than for similar process of the pure minerals. For instance, coated clinoptilolite and saponite begin lost the water at T max 123 and 108 °C, when pure minerals – at 159 and 145 °C, respectively (Table 1).

Introduction During the past three decades, the pollution from dye wastewater has attracted much attention due to the growing use of a variety of dyes in the textile, leather, paper, rubber, plastic and food industries [1,2]. Among them, synthetic dyes derived from coal-tar-based hydrocarbons such as benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, toluene, and xylene are more stable and more difﬁcult to biodegrade due to their complex aromatic molecular structures . Even tiny amount of dyes in water may cause signiﬁcant color change, and many of these dyes are known to be toxic or carcinogenic. They not only affect aquatic life but also traverse through the entire food web, resulting in biomagniﬁcation . Numerous techniques including physical–chemical and biological decolorization methods have been developed to treat wastewater efﬂuents containing dyes . Of them, adsorption using adsorbents is considered as an effective and economic method for water decontamination. Many low-cost adsorbents have been proposed and investigated for their ability to remove dyes [6–8]. Recently, special attention has been paid to naturally polysaccharide-based adsorbents such as chitosan and its derivatives. Chitosan is a kind of abundant and naturally occurring hydrophilic cationic polysaccharide derived from chitin. It has been widely investigated as a biosorbent for the capture of dyes from aqueous solutions due to its easy availability, ready chemical modiﬁcations, environmental friendly behavior, low cost and ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 27 87426559. E-mail address: [email protected]
(S. Zhao). 1359-8368/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.01.015
outstanding adsorption capacities for a wide range of dyes . Generally, as an effective adsorbent for decoloring applications, chemical crosslinking of chitosan is required to improve the mechanical resistance and to reinforce the chemical stability of the chitosan in acidic media.

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Progress on chemistry and application of chitin and its derivatives, Monografia, t. XVI, Polskie Towarzystwo Chitynowe, s. 89.
Ravi Kumar N. V. 2000. A review of chitin and chitosan applications. Reactive & Functional Polymers, 46, s.1-27.
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H., Kikuchi M., Kurita A. 2003. Photocrosslinkable chitosan hydrogel containing fibroblast growth factor-2 stimulates wound healing in healing-impaired db/db mice. Biomaterials, 24, 3437-3444.
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- They strengthen the body’s immunity by increasing the activity of T lymphocytes,
- They inhibit infections with pathogenic microorganisms,
- They eliminate acidification of the organism, increase the pH by alkaline action,
- They have anti-cancer properties, inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells and the formation of metastases,
- They cleanse the body of heavy metals and other harmful substances (mercury, cadmium, pesticides, artificial colors,
- Has antihypertensive effect – lowers blood pressure, reduces capillary contractility,
- Lower cholesterol, lowers the absorption of fats and cholesterol in the intestines, cleans blood vessels from cholesterol plaques
- They improve the functioning of the liver and pancreas
- They help control blood sugar levels,
- They protect the mucous membranes of the digestive tract, effectively accelerate the healing of erosions and ulcers,
- They fight leaky gut syndrome – one of the leading causes of allergies and autoimmune diseases,
- Eliminate heartburn, acidity and gas,
- They improve the condition of the intestinal microbiota – they cleanse intestinal villi, improve intestinal peristalsis,
- Increases skin elasticity and joint mobility, strengthens connective and cartilage tissue
- with decreased immunity and immune disorders,
- in cancer prevention, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, intoxication,
- in the prevention of cardiovascular disease; atherosclerosis, infarcts, strokes,
- in hypertension,
- in abnormal liver and pancreas and diabetes,
- acidity and heartburn,
- in inflammation, erosions and ulcerations of the gastrointestinal tract,
- gastrointestinal yeasts,
- food poisoning
Majeti N.V. Ravi Kumar A reviev of chitin and chitosan applications. Reactive & Functional Polymers 46 2000) 1-27.
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Ignacak J., Wiśniewska-Wrona M.,Pałka I.,Zagajewski J., Niekraszewicz A. 2011. Rola oligomerów chitozanowych w regulacji proliferacji komórek nowotworowych wodobrzusza Ehrlicha in vitro.

The present research work entails synthesis and pharmacological screening of chemically modified N-aryl chitosan derivatives. Chitosan is an amino polysaccharide obtained from natural origin and it has attracted attention because of its unique physicochemical characteristics and biological activities. It has great pharmaceutical futuristic potential with unusual extent of possibilities for structural modifications to impart desired functions. This chemically modified chitosan can be used as potent hypocholesterolemic agent. Various aldehydes can be used for the chemical modification of chitosan, where aldehyde attached to the free amino group of chitosan polymer imparts different physicochemical properties, not exhibited before modification. An imine formation as an intermediate is then reduced to N-aryl derivative of chitosan. It was characterised by IR and NMR. The hypocholesterolemic mechanism of chitosan was investigated in male wistar rats. Animals were divided into 6 groups (n = 6): a normal untreated control group (UC), a high-fat control group (PC), one standard control (SC) and 3 modified chitosan groups (CSA1, CSA2 and CSA3). The doses of standard chitosan and modified chitosan were given at the beginning for 12 days. Later it was preceded by high fat induction. The results showed marked decrease in total serum cholesterol of rat’s in-vivo that refers to modified chitosan treatment.

The bandages are ideal for wounds that are prone to acute bleeding after mechanical and surgical debridement, and quickly stop a wide range of bleeding, from oozing to severe arterial bleeds.
How Do Chitosan-Based Hemostatic Dressings Work?
In regard to chitosan-based hemostatic wound dressings, chitosan is a naturally occurring biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide derived from chitin, the structural element in the exoskeleton of crustaceans. Chitosan-based bandages control hemostasis and stop bleeding within minutes. The bandages’ antibacterial barrier properties may also help prevent infection at the incision site.
Chitosan, in a freeze-dried form, provides primary hemostasis by sealing the wound and stopping the bleeding. Specific chitosan dressings can create an adhesive structure with a positive charge that attracts red blood cells and platelets, which have a negative charge. As the red blood cells and platelets are drawn towards the chitosan through this ionic interaction, a strong seal forms at the dermal wound site. The platelets and red blood cells continue to be drawn towards the chitosan and form the frontline hemostatic support structure. The platelets and red blood cells will continue to aggregate until hemostasis and clotting occur.
Chitosan-based dressings have rapidly gained acceptance in military and traumatic wound settings where massive hemorrhage often leads to the depletion of clotting factors. Chitosan’s mechanism of action functions independently of either the intrinsic or extrinsic clotting cascades, and forms an immediate seal on wounds. This allows time for the patient’s native coagulation pathway to take effect. Furthermore, the use of chitosan has been implemented in order to address bleeding specifically while minimizing collateral tissue injury inherent with electrocautery.
One generally uses hemostatic bandages in the first 24 hours after removing the necrotic tissue and there is substantial bleeding at the wound site. After getting the initial heavy bleeding under control, one may apply moist dressings to promote wound healing. Wet-to-dry wound dressings can prevent infection but recent studies have shown that this method may actually enable bacterial proliferation. Chitosan-based hemostatic bandages offer physicians an added advantage because they also have an antibacterial barrier.

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Chitosan, a complex carbohydrate derivative of shellfish exoskeleton, is shown to enhance lingual hemostasis in rabbits treated with a known antagonist of platelet function, epoprostenol (prostacyclin or PGI2). Bleeding times were measured for bilateral (15 mm × 2 mm) tongue incisions in 10 New Zealand white rabbits. Using a randomized, blinded experimental design, one incision in each animal was treated with chitosan and the other was treated with control vehicle without chitosan. Extraoral bleeding and coagulation times were measured for each animal before, during, and after infusion of epoprostenol. Continuous infusion of epoprostenol increased mean systemic bleeding time 95%. In this platelet dysfunction animal model, lingual incisions receiving the experimental substance showed a 56% improvement in bleeding time in comparison with lingual incisions receiving control solution (P = .003).
ASJC Scopus subject areas
- Oral Surgery

It is made from Chitosan, a 100% natural food fibre derived from the exoskeletons (shells) of deep sea Alaska King Crabs and Spiny Crabs in Japan.
Chitosan has been used for over 30 years by water purification plants as a process for detoxifying water.
Chitosan has a strongly positive polarity (electric charge), meaning that it acts like a powerful magnet to attract and bind to negatively charged hazardous substances. The resulting “bound” substance particles will be removed during washing and will not be absorbed by our bodies even if consumed.
For All Types of Food, some examples are:-
- Rice – Removes polishing chemicals (e.g. talc), heavy metal residues, chemical fertilizers & pesticides.
- Poultry & Meat – Eliminates chemical residues (e.g. antibiotics). Inhibits bacterial growth for longer lasting freshness.
- Seafood (e.g. fish, prawns, crabs, etc) – Removes artificial preservatives & heavy metal residues (e.g. copper, mercury, lead, etc.). Eliminates & inhibits bacterial growth for longer lasting freshness. Reduces unpleasant fishy taste & smell.
- Fruit & Vegetables – Removes chemical pesticides & fertilisers, heavy metal residues etc. Prevents moisture loss for longer lasting freshness.
- Dry Food, etc. (e.g. mushrooms, dates, beans, peas, dried shrimp, anchovies) – Removes artificial preservatives, heavy metal residues & other chemical additives.
Directions for Use:
- Rinse food with water to remove any soil and solid impurities.
- Add 1 dash of Ecomax Chitosan Food Purifier to 1 litre of water and mix evenly.
- Soak food for at least 10 minutes. No rinsing required.
Ingredients: Water-soluble Chitosan, apple acid

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The in vitro and in vivo fungicidal activity of chitosan was studied against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the causal agent of anthracnose in papaya fruits. Chitosan at 1.5% and 2.0% concentrations showed a fungistatic effect with 90–100% inhibition (significant at P ≤ 0.05) of the fungal mycelial growth. Changes in the conidial morphology were also observed with the higher chitosan concentrations after 7- h incubation. In vivo studies showed that 1.5% and 2.0% chitosan coatings on papaya not only controlled the fruit decay but also delayed the onset of disease symptoms by 3–4 weeks during 5 weeks storage at 12 ± 1 °C and slowed down the subsequent disease development. However, when leaving the fruits to ripen at ambient temperature (28 ± 2 °C), 2.0% chitosan was less effective than 1.5% in controlling the disease development. Chitosan coatings also delayed the ripening process by maintaining the firmness levels, soluble solids concentration and titratable acidity values during and after storage.

Relation between Turbidity and PH value
Effect of contact tine on turbidity removal.
Kaolinite turbidity was (5, 5 NTU), chitosan dosage (1g/L), stirring (300 rpm), PH= (6). Temperature (25oC). Time was the only factor that decreases turbidity gradually.
Table 6. Relation between turbidity Removal and contact time (min)
Figure 6. Relation between turbidity removal and contact time (min)
Effect of Temperature on turbidity removal.
Kaolinite turbidity was (5, 5 NTU), different temperature of the turbid water from (25 to 43o C) chitosan dosage (1g/L), stirring (300 rpm), PH= (6), time of the turbid water was (30 min). the influence of temperature on the rate of turbidity was rising at increasing temperature.
Table 7. Relation between turbidity removal (%) and Temperature (oC)
Figure 7. Relation between turbidity removal (%) and Temperature (oC)
Overall, the results of this study provide evidence that Chitosan had significant effects on the efficiency of kaolinite turbidity reduction from test water; chitosan dose had significant effects on kaolinite turbidity reduction from test water. Only lower doses were needed for effective removal of kaolinite turbidity from water, with chitosan doses for 96.9% turbidity removal is 1gm/L. Higher chitosan dose was less effective and provided poor kaolinite turbidity removal than did lower doses which overdosing of chitosan can result in destabilization of a dispersion. The optimal conditions were determined on the basis of turbidity removal. In addition, the principal factors affecting coagulation were determined throughout the study, including optimal coagulant dosage, Time, PH and Temperature. The optimum PH found for coagulation to remove settled water turbidity was 6.0, sedimentation and paper filtration lowered treated water turbidity 96.9% for chitosan.
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2.

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They remained underutilized for soft tissue engineering; however, recently, they got significant attraction as a possible scaffolding material for the cartilage and tendon tissue repair [92, 93]. Particularly, chitosan got tremendous significance to be used as a scaffolding material in the field of soft tissue engineering especially tendon regeneration, exhibiting hydrophilic nature, superior mechanical strength, better cell attachment, and proliferation properties as compared with hydrophobic polyesters PGA and PLA . Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide, deacetylated product of chitin, composed of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and β-1–4-D-glucosamine randomly distributed units. Own enhanced cell attachment, proliferation, differentiation, highly porous structure, and ECM production make chitosan a suitable candidate for a scaffolding material in the tendon injury. In particular, chitosan was found to exhibit superior biofunctionality because of the presence of N-acetylglucosamine moiety, an analogue of glycosaminoglycan, which provides enhanced adhesion capacity to growth factors and other proteins . Porous chitosan scaffolds were designed with microchannels to engineer patellar tendon tissue, exhibiting optimal results in terms of histological and biomechanical scores . Combination of chitosan with other polysaccharides has also been explored: the combination of chitosan with hyaluronan (HA), an essential component of ECM, enhanced mechanical capability, and cell migration, adhesion, and differentiation . The hyaluronan-chitosan scaffold also improved the production of collagen type I in the rotator cuff regenerated tendon [35, 93, 95].
Another polysaccharide, alginate, can be used in combination with chitosan as a scaffolding material because it contains D-glucuronic acid that is considered an analogue of glycosaminoglycans having similar biological activities. Chitosan-alginate hybrid scaffold showed significantly enhanced cell adhesion to tenocytes and production of ECM, predominantly made up of collagen type I . Similarly, combination of nanohydroxyapatite (n-HA) particles with fibrin, chitin, gelatin, PCL, PLGA, PLA, and polyamide-based composite scaffolds has been explored for tendon repair [97, 98].

[22–25], and which has been put forward as a sustainable alternative in crop protection ) in combination with amino acids have been tested against F. culmorum, both in vitro and in vivo, with a view to assessing if an enhanced behavior resulting from synergies between these natural products can be attained.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Reagents and Fungal Isolates
High molecular weight chitosan (CAS No. 9012-76-4; 310,000–375,000 Da) was purchased from Hangzhou Simit Chemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Hangzhou, China). Citric acid (CAS 77-92-9; 99.5%) and Tween® 20 (CAS 9005-64-5) were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich Química S.A. (Madrid, Spain). Neutrase® 0.8 L enzyme was supplied by Novozymes (Bagsvaerd, Denmark). Potato dextrose agar (PDA) and potato dextrose broth (PDB) were purchased from Becton, Dickinson and Company (Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). Cysteine (Cys, CAS No. 52-90-4), glycine (Gly, CAS No. 56-40-6), proline (Pro, CAS No. 147-75-3) and tyrosine (Tyr, CAS No. 60-8-4), all with 99% purity, were purchased from Panreac S.L.U (Barcelona, Spain).
The Fusarium culmorum strain used in the present study (CECT 20493) was obtained from the Spanish Type Culture Collection (CECT; Valencia, Spain). The chemotype was 3-ADON .
2.2. Preparation of Chitosan Oligomers and Bioactive Solutions
Chitosan oligomers (COS) were prepared following the procedure described by Buzón-Durán et al. . The amino acid-only bioactive solutions were prepared by dissolving the amino acids in distilled water, without further purification, at an initial concentration of 3000 µg·mL−1.

-Chitin deacetylase from Absidia orchidis
-Thermal decomposition of chitosan chlorides
Sasaki C., Kristiansen A., Fukamizo T., Vårum
-Fractionation of chitosan by biospesificadsorption to immobilized lysozyme
-Conversion of chitosan structure with calcium
Oral presentation B5Tømmeraas K., Vårum K.M., Christensen B.E.,Smidsrød O.
-Preparation and characterisation of self-branched chitosans
Eijsink, V:Structure and Function of Chitinolytic Enzymes
Protection and Solubilization of Chitin for Modifications of Chemical Structure
Purpose: To overview the current industrial applications of chitosan, and to predict the future for
chitosan with respect to commercialization.
Panelists:Dr. Michael Dornish Introduction and moderator(FMC Biopolymer, Oslo, Norway)
Prof. Bruno Moerschbacher Chitosan in agriculture(Dept. of Plant Biochemistry, Münster, Germany) Is there a future for chitosan?
Dr. Rolf Wachter Chitosan in cosmetic applications.
(Cognes Skin Care, Germany) How to approach the cosmetics market and customer relations
Dr. Paul Sandford Chitosan in technical, food and health(Paul A. Sandford & Affiliates, USA) applications
Prof. Per Artursson Chitosan in pharmaceutical applications: Drug(University of Uppsala, Sweden) enhancement, vaccine, gene delivery
Prof. Olav Smidsrød Concluding remarks(NOBIPOL, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway Paths towards a successful chitosan industry
E is a calculator term meaning x 10 x 1. Express the following in Scientific Notation (SN) with correct Significant Digits (SD). (a) 3 000 000 000 000-m ( 3.00E+12-m ) (b) 0.000 000 000 124-N ( 1.24E-10-N ) (c) 4 003 000 000-s ( 4.00E9-s ) (d) 0.000 000 106 0-J ( 1.06E-7-J ) 2. Convert each of the following measurements to meters.

Why is Chitosan So Popular?
Why is Chitosan So Popular?
Chitosan is a food ingredient that has become very popular in recent years because of its favourable chitosan price.favourable chitosan price price The reason that this product is such a popular one is that it is so easy to manufacture and comes with so many advantages for the skin that it would make the same item available in the market at a much higher price.
There are two major reasons why this ingredient is so popular.favourable chitosan price price favourable chitosan price price The first is that it is available on such a large scale that you can usually get a great deal of it for a low price. Chitosan is a water-soluble polymer that contains keratin as one of its main ingredients.
This means that it will not be easily depleted, meaning that it can continue to be available for you for a long time without you having to worry about it being gone. There is also no need to worry about having to go out and buy a large amount because you can buy very small amounts from the manufacturers who are producing it and therefore have a low level of waste.
One of the things that can be of concern is that because of the way the polymer is formed you could find yourself with a side effect called monomers. This means that you could be left with more molecules of the same basic molecule than when you started off. As you continue to use it you could find yourself developing a form of acne around your lips and this can also cause you to suffer from other skin problems as well as possible cancer and other health problems.
One of the other side effects is that there is always the risk of contamination of the product and how this would affect your health is a matter of opinion. However, there is no scientific evidence that the manufacture of Chitosan is at any kind of risk from contamination.
Chitosan is also known as one of the most hygroscopic compounds available today and therefore one of the reasons that it has been so successful is that it can easily absorb moisture from the air. This is a huge benefit as it allows it to work on any part of the body from head to toe. favourable chitosan price price
Although it is an incredibly versatile ingredient, there are other factors that it has that are of interest to consumers.

Nov. 6, 2013 — In order to overcome resistance to antifungal variety of pathogenic fungi and yeast, researchers from the University of Alicante have developed a novel and efficient antifungal composition with pharmacological applications in agriculture and food industry, among others.
The composition, developed and patented by the UA Research Group in Plant Pathology, is based on the combined use of chitosan, or chitosan oligosaccharides (COS), antifungal agents and additives that synergistically affect the growth of a variety of pathogenic fungi.
"Chitosan is a non-toxic biopolymer, biocompatible and naturally degradable, with antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties obtained from chitin, the main constituent of hard body parts of invertebrates, such as the shells of shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and other marine crustaceans, and is part of the fungal cell wall," as explained by lecturer Luis Vicente López Llorca, Director of the UA Research Group in Plant Pathology and head of the research work.
"Because many fungal pathogens develop resistance to prolonged treatment with antifungal drugs, it is desirable to find alternatives for their control in medical, agricultural and those applications in which the fungi cause damage. In clinics, pathogenic fungi resistant to antifungal drugs are a major cause of mortality in patients. Chitosan and the antifungal additives, some based on the identification of molecular targets of chitosan, contribute to produce a novel alternative to control fungal diseases and in particular antifungal resistant strains" López Llorca said.
The various experiments carried out by the research group are proof of the significant synergistic effect of the combination of chitosan (or COS) and other antifungals and ARL1 gene inhibitor, in inhibiting the growth of mold and yeast . "Chitosan is nontoxic to mammals, making it suitable for use as an antifungal in various applications," Luís Vicente López adds.
"The chitosan or COS and a joint inhibition of some of its gene targets block the cell cycle and transcription in yeast, leading to oxidative stress, cell death and growth inhibition" López Llorca indicates. In this regard, the combination may have potential in the treatment of tumors.

Chitins, Chitosans (pH) (β × 103)__________________________________________________________________________Blank -- 6-8 1.21 Powdered chitosan (500 mesh under) 5.5-7.5 14.92 Chlorine decomposed low M.W. chitosan 6-7 11.03 Nitrite decomposed low M.W. chitosan 6-7 14.44 Ethyleneglycol chitin 5.5-6.5 6.75 Phosphated chitin 6.3-7.3 9.76 Deacetylated (40-60%) chitin 6-7.2 11.0Natural -- 6-7 7saliva__________________________________________________________________________
As is clear from the results shown in Table 1 and FIG. 1, the artificial saliva compositions according to the present invention containing chitins and chitosans have an excellent buffering capacity within a pH range of 5.5 or more. Contrary to this, the blank composition not containing chitins and/or chitosans has a only poor buffering capacity at a pH of 5.5 or more.
A 50 g amount of the powdered chitosan listed in Table 1 was ground to a fine powder and 6 g of potassium chloride, 4.22 g of sodium chloride, 0.122 g of magnesium chloride, 0.551 g of calcium chloride, and 1.71 g potassium phosphate (dibasic) were added thereto. The mixture was thoroughly mixed to prepare an oral saliva composition in the form of a powder.
An artificial saliva composition in the form of granules was prepared from the components used in Example 2, except that 50 g of the chlorine decomposed low-molecular weight chitosan listed in Table 1 was used instead of 50 g of the powdered chitosans.
The mixture was granulated by adding an appropriate amount of water, followed by drying.
An artificial saliva composition in the form of tablets was prepared from the components used in Example 2, except that 50 g of the nitrite decomposed low-molecular weight chitosan listed in Table 1 was used instead of 50 g of the powdered chitosan. To the mixture, 1 g of crystalline cellulose (i.e., Avisel®) was further added.

Description of such kind of system should have some important properties: (i) obtained spontaneously under exceptionally mild conditions without involving high temperatures and organic solvents, (ii) has a valuable drug loading capacity and provides a continuous and sustainable release of the encapsulated drug for several days, and (iii) has a pH-sensitive behavior. The properties basically concern optimizing general conditions of chitosan nanoparticle production and the feasibility of drug entrapment and release with regard to cancer treatment applications. In terms of appropriate localized drug delivery by means of tumor treatment, chitosan and 5-FU encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles were produced, due to the certain properties mentioned above.
3.1. Chitosan Nanoparticle Production Conditions
Chitosan’s ability of quick gelling on contact with polyanions relies on the formation of inter- and intramolecular crosslinkages mediated by polyanions . The preparation of chitosan nanoparticles is based on an ionic gelation interaction between positively charged chitosan and negatively charged tripolyphosphate (TPP) at room temperature immediately [25, 26]. TPP is a multivalent anion that possesses negative charges; chitosan in acidic solution has amino groups that can undergo protonation. During the preparation process, TPP electrostatically attracted to the groups in chitosan to produce ionically crosslinked chitosan nanoparticles [8, 27]. Size and size distribution of the chitosan nanoparticles depend largely on concentration of chitosan and TPP solutions. For the success of chitosan with nanosized scale, the concentration of chitosan and TPP should be controlled at a suitable range .
The mean size and size distribution of each batch of chitosan nanoparticle suspension were analyzed using the Zetasizer analysis. Table 1 represents effects of chitosan and TPP concentrations on particle size and ability to produce nanoparticle by visual observations. Previously it had been shown that the appearance of the solution changed when a certain amount of TPP ions was added to the chitosan solution, from a clear to opalescent solution that indicated a change of the physical states of the chitosan to form nanoparticles, then microparticles, and eventually aggregates . In this study, samples were visually analyzed and identified as clear solution, opalescent suspension, and aggregates (Table 1).

Healthy Chitosan HCl Food Additives Chitosan Hydrochloride (31005)
|FOB Price:||US $0.01-100 / KG|
|Min. Order:||25 KG|
|Min. Order||FOB Price|
|25 KG||US $0.01-100/ KG|
|Payment Terms:||T/T, Western Union, Money Gram, Bitcoin|
- Model NO.: 31005
- Customized: Customized
- Suitable for: Adult
- Purity: >96%
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Appearance: Pale Yellow Powder
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Deacetylation: 95%
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Grade: Food Grade
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Applications: Food & Medicine & Environment
- Trademark: YC
- Specification: 95%
- HS Code: 30013006
- Powder: Yes
- Certification: GMP, HSE, ISO 9001, USP
- State: Solid
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Assay: 95%
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Packing: 25kgs/Drum
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Standard: Enterprise Standard
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Catagory: Food Additives
- Chitosan Hydrochloride Synonym: Chitosan HCl
- Transport Package: 25kg/Drum
- Origin: China
Chitosan Hydrochloride Product Name: Chitosan Hydrochloride
Chitosan Hydrochloride Synonym: Chitosan Hydrochloride; Chitosan HCl; ;
Chitosan Hydrochloride Content: 95%
Chitosan Hydrochloride Packing: 25KG/Drum
Chitosan Hydrochloride Appearance: Pale yellow powder
Chitosan Hydrochloride Catagory: Food additives
Chitosan Hydrochloride Applications:
1. Food Field
Used as food additives, thickeners, preservatives fruits and vegetables, fruit juice clarifying agent, forming agent, adsorbent, and health food.
2.

Protein adsorption through Chitosan–Alginate membranes for potential applications
- Dennise A. Murguía-Flores†1,
- Jaime Bonilla-Ríos†1,
- Martha R. Canales-Fiscal†1 and
- Antonio Sánchez-Fernández1Email author
© Murguía-Flores et al. 2016
Received: 16 October 2015
Accepted: 31 March 2016
Published: 30 April 2016
Chitosan and Alginate were used as biopolymers to prepare membranes for protein adsorption. The network requires a cross-linker able to form bridges between polymeric chains. Viscopearl-mini® (VM) was used as a support to synthesize them. Six different types of membranes were prepared using the main compounds of the matrix: VM, Chitosan of low and medium molecular weight, and Alginate.
Experiments were carried out to analyze the interactions within the matrix and improvements were found against porous cellulose beads. SEM characterization showed dispersion in the compounds. According to TGA, thermal behaviour remains similar for all compounds. Mechanical tests demonstrate the modulus of the composites increases for all samples, with major impact on materials containing VM. The adsorption capacity results showed that with the removal of globular protein, as the adsorbed amount increased, the adsorption percentage of Myoglobin from Horse Heart (MHH) decreased. Molecular electrostatic potential studies of Chitosan–Alginate have been performed by density functional theory (DFT) and ONIOM calculations (Our own N-layered integrated molecular orbital and molecular mechanics) which model large molecules by defining two or three layers within the structure that are treated at different levels of accuracy, at B3LYP/6-31G(d) and PM6/6-31G(d) level of theory, using PCM (polarizable continuum model) solvation model.
KeywordsCellulose beads Chitosan Sodium alginate Adsorption Filtration Membrane
Polymeric materials constitute a fast-growing area within the global economy, confirmed by the continuous and dynamic production of plastics . Because of the limited source of mineral raw materials and environmental protection, new sources of raw materials can be retaken to produce polymers .

Chitosan, a deacetylated derivate of chitin, is certainly a higher molecular pounds cationic linear polysaccharide made up of d-glucosamine and, to a smaller level, for 15 min at 4 C. The pellet was re-extracted using 25 mL of acetone (70% for 15 min at 4 C. The ensuing supernatants had been mixed, filtered and useful for the next assays subsequently. The full total phenol content material within the strawberry fruits was motivated utilizing the Folin-Ciocalteu technique , as well as the results are portrayed as milligrams of gallic acidity equivalents (GAE) per 100 grams refreshing pounds (FW) using gallic acidity as a typical. The full total monomeric anthocyanins had been estimated utilizing the pH-differential technique , as well as the results are portrayed as cyanidin-3-glucoside comparable (CGE) per 100 grams NVP-BSK805 refreshing pounds. The absorbance was assessed at 520 and 700 nm. The full total flavonoid content material was motivated using the light weight aluminum chloride colorimetric technique  with catechin as a typical. The full total flavonoid content material was portrayed as milligrams of catechin comparable (CE) per 100 grams refreshing weight (FW). The full total antioxidant activity of strawberry fruits extracts was assessed using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil (DPPH) based on the approach to Brand-Williams,  with some adjustments. The assay was performed in your final level of 1.5 mL in triplicate per test. The percentage reduction in the DPPH focus was computed from the original worth after incubation for 15 min. A dose-response curve was produced, using Trolox as a typical, as well as the antioxidant activity was portrayed as mol Trolox equivalents (TE) per gram refreshing pounds (FW). 2.5. Ascorbic Acidity Content material The ascorbic acidity articles was motivated regarding the technique of Singh and Malik , with some adjustments. The strawberry fruits (2.5 g) had been homogenized using 10 mL of 16% (for 10 min, collected and filtered.

Biomaterials 32:9271–9281View ArticleGoogle Scholar
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- Alnaief M, Alzaitoun MA, García-González CA, Smirnova I (2011) Preparation of biodegradable nanoporous microspherical aerogel based on alginate. Carbohydr Polym 84:1011–1018View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Geng X, Kwon O-H, Jang J (2005) Electrospinning of Chitosan dissolved in concentrated acetic acid solution. Biomaterials 27:5427–5432View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kaklamani G, Cheneler D, Grover LM, Adams MJ, Bowen J (2014) Mechanical properties of alginate hydrogels manufactured using external gelation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 36:135–142View ArticleGoogle Scholar
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- F. Liu and L. Huang, “Development of non-viral vectors for systemic gene delivery,” Journal of Controlled Release, vol. 78, no. 1–3, pp. 259–266, 2002.
- H. Katas, Z. Hussain, and T. C. Ling, “Chitosan nanoparticles as a percutaneous drug delivery system for hydrocortisone,” Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2012, Article ID 372725, 11 pages, 2012.
- A. G. Luque-Alcaraz, J. Lizardi, F. M. Goycoolea et al., “Characterization and antiproliferative activity of nobiletin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles,” Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2012, Article ID 265161, 7 pages, 2012.
- M. N. Kumar, R. A. Muzzarelli, C. Muzzarelli, H. Sashiwa, and A. J. Domb, “Chitosan chemistry and pharmaceutical perspectives,” Chemical Reviews, vol. 104, no. 12, pp. 6017–6084, 2004.
- K. M. Vårum, M. M. Myhr, R. J. N. Hjerde, and O. Smidsrød, “In vitro degradation rates of partially N-acetylated chitosans in human serum,” Carbohydrate Research, vol. 299, no. 1-2, pp. 99–101, 1997.
- S. B. Rao and C. P. Sharma, “Use of chitosan as a biomaterial: studies on its safety and hemostatic potential,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, vol. 34, pp. 21–28, 1997.
- M. J. Alonso and A. Sánchez, “The potential of chitosam in ocular drug delivery,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 1451–1463, 2003.
- K. Y. Lee, “Chitosan and its derivatives for gene delivery,” Macromolecular Research, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 195–201, 2007.

Key Topics Covered:
Chapter One Chitosan Industry Overview
Chapter Two Chitosan International and China Market Analysis
Chapter Three Chitosan Development Environmental Analysis
Chapter Four Chitosan Development Policy and Plan
Chapter Five Chitosan Manufacturing Process and Cost Structure
Chapter Six 2009-2014 Chitosan Productions Supply Sales Demand Market Status and Forecast
Chapter Seven Chitosan Key Manufacturers Analysis
Chapter Eight Up and Down Stream Industry Analysis
Chapter Nine Chitosan Marketing Channels Analysis
Chapter Ten Chitosan Industry Development Trend
Chapter Eleven Chitosan Industry Development Proposals
Chapter Twelve Chitosan New Project Investment Feasibility Analysis
Chapter Thirteen Global and China Chitosan Industry Research Conclusions
- AK BIOTECH
- Advanced Biopolymers AS
- Guang Hao
- HAIDE BEI
- Heppe Medical Chitosan
- Hangzhou Fuli
- Koyo Chemical
- Kunpoong Bio
- Qingdao Yunzhou
- Qingdao Lizhong
- United Chitotechnologies
- Weifang Sea source Biological
- Xianju Tengwang Chitosan Factory
- Zhejiang Candorly
For more information visit http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/27f257/global_and
CONTACT: Research and Markets Laura Wood, Senior Manager email@example.com For E.S.T Office Hours Call 1-917-300-0470 For U.S./CAN Toll Free Call 1-800-526-8630 For GMT Office Hours Call +353-1-416-8900 U.S. Fax: 646-607-1907 Fax (outside U.S.): +353-1-481-1716 Sector: Process and Materials
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Lobster shell shows great healing, bio-stimulant properties
SCIENTISTS from the University of Havana have used lobster waste to generate chitin and chitosan, two key compounds in biomedicine and agriculture.
They used these compounds to produce surgical materials with great healing and antiseptic properties as well as to enhance growth speed and germination in seeds. Research results have been published in international research journals such as Macromol, Food Hydrocolloids, Journal of Applied Polymer Science or Polymer Bulletin.
Chitin is a polymer very common in nature as part of animals' and plants' physical structures. Only cellulose is more abundant than chitin, which makes this compound a highly important renewable resource that can easily be found in arthropods, insects, arachnids, molluscs, fungus and algae.
The fishing industry in Cuba generates great amounts of lobster waste, "a pollutant rich in proteins and chitin", states Prof. Carlos Andr�s Peniche Covas, head of the Biopolymers Research Group, from the Biomaterials Centre of the University of Havana. This group is doing research into chitin and chitosan extraction from such waste, in collaboration with the Spanish Centre for Scientific Research (CSIC), the Complutense University in Madrid (Spain) and the Mexican Research Centre for Food and Development.
Peniche points out that "this work allows for the first accurate and comprehensive results of a university study on chitin and chitosan.
The study starts at the extraction of these compounds from polluting waste of the Cuban fishing industry and it goes on to cover these products' characterisation through traditional techniques and some more innovative ones, the study of their properties, the development of new by-products and the testing of their practical applications in areas useful for this Caribbean country, such as agriculture and biomedicine."
These researchers' work has led to the development of a procedure to obtain surgical materials with great healing and antiseptic properties. "This procedure involves using chitosan to cover surgical threads and lint, into which antibiotics are injected.
By doing this, we obtain medical materials with both antimicrobial and healing properties and, as they are covered in a natural polymer, with a higher degree of biocompatibility." Research shows that such properties remained unmodified after sterilisation.
Two new types of surgical thread were produced in collaboration with the Cuban Superior Institute of Military Medicine "Dr.

Sokyrnitskiy clinoptilolite of Ukrainian Zakarpattya has the general formula (Ca,Na,K2)Al2Si7O18·6H2O, chemical content (in mass %): SiO2—76.07; Al2O3—12.4; K2O—2.80; CaO—2.09; Na2O—2.05; Fe2O3—0.90; FeO—0.76; TiO2—0.19; P2O5—0.12; MgO—0.07; MnO—0.07; SO3—0.08. Saponite of Ukrainian Podillya has the general formula (Ca0.5,Na)0.33(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2·4H2O. Chitosan is originally from shrimps, Sigma-Aldrich, No. 417963, molecular weight from 190,000 to 370,000 Da, degree of deacetylation — not less than 75%, and solubility 10 mg/ml. All chemicals are purchased from Sigma-Aldrich were of reagent grade.
Composites chitosan-saponite and chitosan-clinoptilolite were obtained by impregnation 20 g of minerals (saponite and clinoptilolite) by 285 ml of chitosan solution with a concentration of 7 mg/ml in acetic acid (pH 2.6). The mixture was put in flat-bottom flask and mixed by the magnetic stirrer MM-5 for 2 h. The obtained substance was dried at 50 °C. The obtained composites were placed in 12.5 ml of 0.25% solution of glutaraldehyde in water and heated at 50 °C for 2 h. Such quantity of glutaraldehyde is proper for crosslinking of 5% of accessible amino groups of polymer. The crosslinked chitosan on the surface of the minerals were washed with distilled water and dried at 50 °C. Thus, based on the theoretical mass ratio, the obtained organic and mineral components of the composite was chitosan:silica = 1:10 .

- Wastewater treatment: The chitosan-gel combination is a more effective and less expensive process for removing heavy metals from wastewater in many industrial processes, including metal plating and finishing, mining, and power generation (nuclear and fossil fuels).
- Groundwater decontamination: The biosorbent can be used in environmental clean-up efforts for removing heavy metals and certain gasoline additives from contaminated groundwater.

Co polymerization of chitosan selectively grafted by polyethylene glycol was studied in this paper. The graft copolymers can be expected to be used as DNA delivery vectors because of the improving hydrophilicity of chitosan and reserving the amino groups on chitosan chains. Chitosan was selectively grafted by monomethoxy polyethylene glycol(mPEG-OH), which contains a hydroxyl group combining with hexamethylene diisocyanate(HDI) to form a novel macro monomer namely monomethoxy polyethylene glycol isocyanate (mPEG-NCO) containing a isocyanate group with higher chemical activity in ethyl glyoxalate solution absolutely without water. The selective grafted co polymerization of Chitosan with mPEG-NCO was conducted under heterogeneous conditions as suspension in dimethylformamide. The hydrophilic copolymers of chitosan were prepared by condensation reaction of isocyanate group on mPEG-NCO with hydroxy groups on chitosan chains because amino groups on chitosan chains were protected by complexion formation with copper ions. The effect of reaction condition on the grafting extents was discussed. Swelling properties of mPEG-g-CS were researched. The graft copolymer mPEG-g-CS was characterized by the infrared spectra. The result showed that the copper ions were very effective to protect amino groups from condensation reaction. The swelling level in water increases with adding of grafting ratio. The maximum swelling degree was up to above 132% when the grafting ratio was about 270%. The graft copolymer can be soluble partially in pure water.

The efficacy of chitosan is unresolved
The properties of chitosan to support weight loss have been repeatedly studied both on humans and on animals.Their results varied … One of them was carried out, inter alia, in Katowice under the supervision of prof.Barbara Zahorska-Markiewicz (regarding Chitinin).In clinical conditions, it was found that patients using chitosan lost an average weight of 16 kg in half a year.At the same time, the control group of patients using only diet lost 10 kg.
In turn, another study found that the addition of chitosan to the diet has a positive effect on the bacterial flora of the digestive tract.Studies on rodents have shown that chitosan with a high degree of deacetylation inhibits the development of Clostridium perfringens (bacteria most often responsible for food poisoning), whereas the survival of probiotic bacteria, including Lactobacillus spp. And Bifidobacterium spp., Reached 90%.
In 2008, however, a team of scientists from the Cochrane Collaboration conducted a meta-analysis of all available clinical trials (lasting at least 4 weeks) on the effectiveness of chitosan in the fight against obesity.It turned out that the decrease in body weight, cholesterol (and consequently also blood pressure) was observed only in clinical trials with low reliability – and in their case the effect was small.In turn, in studies that were carried out with greater care, there was no significant effect of taking dietary supplements with chitosan on body weight.So far, the mechanism of combining chitosan with fat molecules has not been clinically proven, which is the essence of its action supporting slimming.
Supplementation of chitosan is indicated for people who consume a significant amount of fatty products.
As a result, the American agency FDA (Food and Drug Administration) forbade domestic producers of dietary supplements with chitosan to put on their packaging statements and slogans suggesting its pro-health effects.There are no such restrictions in Poland.
Chitosan supplementation is recommended for people who consume large quantities of fatty foods (fatty meats, pies, etc.).As fat is also a component of many confectionery products, chitosan can be helpful for people who eat sweets that usually contain large amounts of saturated fat.

Since the lipid headgroups are negatively charged, molecules with lower DA might have a greater opportunity to diffuse close to the membrane breaches, and thus adsorb and seal the membrane through electrostatic interactions. This mechanism is consistent with previous studies in which chitosan polymers incorporated with artificial membrane films and vesicles where physical attractions and interactions were a result of membrane adsorption [25, 26]. Our data however, did not reveal a hint of an improvement in function of chitosan based on the DA.
The issue of molecular weight
Here, equivalent sealing effects using different MW chitosan treatments was suggested in both TMR and LDH tests, and in both transection and compression ex vivo injury models. Based on the fact that different MW chitosan in our study shared a similar DA, one possible reason for the consistency of data found in different MW chitosan treatments might be the predominant role of DA over chitosan MW in initiating membrane repair. A similar result is also observed in the zeta-potential evaluation of the influence of different MWs of chitosan on membrane adsorption .
The superiority of nano-fabrications in particular over aqueous suspensions of injected polymers, cannot be under appreciated. High molecular weights of PEG are too viscous for facile IV use. Lowering the MW in an effort to produce a clinically easy injection may produce some level of toxicity due to the circulation of polymers which do not degrade and must be removed at the level of the kidney and liver (as discussed and cited above). Chitosan, as a naturally occurring polysaccharide, is not toxic. Detection of it in bodily fluids after systemic administration is unlikely.
Moreover, PEG coated silica nanoparticles required the PEG surface coat fabrication over the silica nanoparticle which is inert. To be further useful as a targeted repair agent and a delivery vehicle requires a third step - the bonding of surface PEG to the drug or cytokine of choice. In chitosan nanofabrications, the chitosan itself is the “sealant” while capturing or surface bonding of a drug/cytokine to be released requires only another single step in the process. Chitosan nanospheres - by themselves - show significant sealing properties producing improved physiological recovery after SCI.

It is hoped that the result of this preliminary investigation will suggest the possible mechanism of antigen delivery by either entrapment in and/or adsorption unto the antigen (AMA1) in or onto the chitosan nanoparticles and subsequently decorating the nanoparticle-bearing antigen with other immune boosters such as uric acid (UA) and interleukin- 12 (IL-12) for a longer-lasting immunity against the disease13-15.
MATERIAL & METHODS
Chitosan, low molecular weight (degree of acetylation >95%, molecular weight 400 kDa), Poly (sodium 4- styrenesulfonate) (PSS, Mw. 4.3 kDa), Rhodamine 123, aluminium hydroxide gel, acetic acid (purity 99%), formaldehyde, sodium borohydride, sodium hydroxide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone, sodium iodide, methyl iodide (Sigma, USA), Sodium carbonate Sigma ultra and phosphate buffer solution (sodium phosphate dibasic Sigma ultra, 99%) were used as procured without further purification.
Derivatization of water soluble chitosan
Synthesis of N-methylchitosan
The method of Belalia et al12, was adopted. Briefly, chitosan (4 g) was dissolved in 1% (v/v) aqueous acetic acid (400 ml). The solution was then filtered to eliminate the impurities and formaldehyde was added (3-fold excess to amine of chitosan). The solution was stirred at ambient temperature for 30 min. NaBH4 (0.33 g) was then added, and the solution was stirred at ambient temperature for 60 min. The pH was adjusted to 10 using 1 M NaOH. After filtration, the system was washed to reach pH 7. Finally, the excess of reagent was eliminated by extraction with a Soxhlet, using ethanol/diethyl ether (80:20 v/v).

Access to safe drinking water is important as a health and development issue at national, regional, and local levels. About one billion people do not have healthy drinking water. More than six million people (about two million children) die because of diarrhea which is caused by polluted water. Developing countries pay a high cost to import chemicals including polyaluminium chloride and alum. This is the reason why these countries need low-cost methods requiring low maintenance and skill. The use of synthetic coagulants is not regarded as suitable due to health and economic considerations. The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of alum as coagulant in conjunction with bean, sago, and chitin as coagulants on the removal of color, turbidity, hardness, and Escherichia coli from water. A conventional jar test apparatus was employed for the tests. The study was taken up in three stages, initially with synthetic waters, followed by testing of the efficiency of coagulants individually on surface waters and, lastly, testing of blended coagulants. The experiment was conducted at three different pH conditions of 6, 7, and 8. The dosages chosen were 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mg/l. The results showed that turbidity decrease provided also a primary E. coli reduction. Hardness removal efficiency was observed to be 93% at pH 7 with 1-mg/l concentration by alum, whereas chitin was stable at all the pH ranges showing the highest removal at 1 and 1.5mg/l with pH 7. In conclusion, using natural coagulants results in considerable savings in chemicals and sludge handling cost may be achieved.
Alum; Chitin; Sago; Bean; Coagulation; Turbidity
The explosive growth of the world’s human population and subsequent water and energy demands have led to an expansion of standing surface water . Nowadays, the concern about contamination of aquatic environments has increased, especially when water is used for human consumption. About one billion people do not have healthy drinking water. More than six million people (about two million children) die because of diarrhea which is caused by polluted water[2,3].
In most of the cases, surface water turbidity is caused by the clay particles, and the color is due to the decayed natural organic matter.

The tight entanglement structure in the silica-chitosan composite significantly retards chitosan's leaching under acidic environment. Therefore, in the gastric environment, this composite more effectively controls the drug release rate more effectively than bare chitosan.
In particular, this study compares the effect of the novel chitosan/silica nanocomposite compared with chitosan sponges on the mucosal adsorption of a model drug, amoxicillin, in vitro.
The chitosan-silical nanocomposite samples as shown in the following table are prepared:
TABLE-US-00003 Chitosan Silica Chitosan Sample (g) (g) (% wt) A 0 0.55 0 B 0.02 0.82 2.4 C 0.05 0.82 5.7 D 0.10 0.55 15.4 E 0.20 0.55 26.7 F 0.20 0.27 42.6
The dried nanocomposites (100 mg) were further treated with 50 mg of amoxicillin solubilized in PBS for 24 hrs, followed by freeze-drying. Drug content was measured by HPLC. A reverse-phase C18 column was used as stationary phase and trifluoroacetic acid 0.01M/methanol (80/20 v/v) at the flow rate of 1 ml/min as mobile phase. Mobile phase was monitored at the wavelength of 270 nm. Quantification of amoxicillin was conducted by using a calibration curve obtained using amoxicillin solutions at known concentrations.
In Vitro Evaluation of the Mucoadhesive Properties of Chitosan-Silica Nanocomposite
Lyophilized chitosan-silica nanocomposites (samples with different compositions A-F) and chitosan were compressed into 5.0 mm diameter flat-faced discs. The compaction pressure was kept constant during the preparation of all discs. Tablets were attached with a pressure of 500 Pa to freshly excised intestinal rat mucosa, which has been fixed to a stainless steel cylinder (diameter 4.4 cm, height 5.1 cm, apparatus 4-cylinder, USP XXVI) using a cyanoacrylate adhesive.

Considering that schistosome infection occurs predominantly in areas of rural poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and tropical regions of the Americas  a candidate vaccine that could be administered by oral route could offer an economical and effective solution to mass immunization. The main advantages presented by oral vaccine delivery are the target accessibility and enhanced patient compliance owing to the non-invasive delivery method. On the other hand, for effective oral immunization, antigens and plasmids must be protected from the acidic and proteolytic environment of the gastrointestinal tract and efficiently taken up by cells of the gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). With this in mind, several studies have been done and showed that the association of antigens with nanoparticles increases the internalization by M cells and prevents the degradation in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract . Another important aspect is that these carrier systems can act as immunostimulants or adjuvants, enhancing the immunogenicity of weak antigens . Biodegradable and mucoadhesive polymeric delivery systems seem to be the most promising candidates for mucosal vaccines. Several polymers of synthetic and natural origin, such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), chitosan, alginate, gelatin, etc., have been exploited for efficient release of mucosal vaccines and significant results have been already obtained .
Chitosan is the deacetylated form of chitin and has many properties suitable for vaccine delivery. It is a mucoadhesive polymer, biodegradable and biocompatible. In particular, its ability to stimulate cells from the immune system has been shown in several studies , , , . Nevetheless, the ability of chitosan in inducing a Th1, Th2 or mixed responses is still controversial as also the type of immune response induced by different administration routes , . Additionally, chitosan is a cationic polymer, easily form complexes or nanoparticles in aqueous medium with the possibility to adsorb proteins, antigens and DNA   that may protect them from degradation . The oral administration of antigen adsorbed nanoparticles is demanding as processes like rapid antigen desorption from the particles or the attack of the antigens by enzymes or acidic substances from the GI fluids may occur. These obstacles may be overcome by coating those antigen loading particles with an acid resistant polymer, like sodium alginate .

In particular, chitosan blended with PVA has been reported to have good mechanical and chemical properties and, as a topic of great interest, has been extensively studied in the biomedical field.38–40 The enhanced property has been attributed to the interactions between chitosan and PVA in the blend through hydrophobic side-chain aggregation and intermolecular and intra-molecular hydrogen bonds41,42 as shown in Figure 1.
Electrospun PVA and PVA/chitosan scaffolds were observed by SEM in 3000 magnification. Figures 2 and 3 show the SEM micrographs of the electrospun PVA and PVA/chitosan scaffolds, respectively. As can be seen in Figure 3, in PVA/chitosan blend (weight ratio 90/10), the average fiber diameter was found to be 221 nm with a range of 94–410 nm; while in PVA alone, the average fiber diameter was 744 nm with a range of 395–1105 nm (Figure 2). Similar observations have been made by Lin et al43 and Ignatova et al44 who investigated a series of PVA/chitosan blend nanofibrous membranes at different weight ratios and found a decrease in the average diameter of the nanofibers with increasing the chitosan content.
It should be noted that in electrospinning, the fiber diameter is dependent on the viscosity and charge of the solution. Typically, when the viscosity is increased, the diameter is increased proportionally. Chitosan affects not only the viscosity but also the charge density at the surface of the ejected jet through its cationic polyelectrolytic property. It increases the charge density at the surface of the jet which in turn increases the elongation force and decreases the diameter of the fiber.45
When the grayscale image was converted to binary form by ImageJ software, various layers of nanofibers could be seen by applying different thresholds. Figure 4 shows the configuration of histograms of PVA and PVA/chitosan nanofibrous scaffolds. As previously described by Ghasemi-Mobarakeh et al,34 the results are not dependent upon the magnification or histogram of images. Various layers in most image magnifications and histograms allow calculation of porosity.
Analysis was performed on various layers of nanofibers by application of thresholds (see Figure 5).

The main decomposition of the composite materials occurred at T max 280 and 277 °C when pure clinoptilolite and saponite did not show decomposition at this temperatures, in contrast with the native chitosan, which is characterized by loss of more than 50% at T max 295 °C. Thus, the coated minerals are able to lose water faster than pure minerals and the temperature of the decomposition of polymer in composition of hybrid materials decreased by 15 °C (5 %) for chitosan-clinoptilolite composite and by 18 °C (6 %) for chitosan-saponite composite.
Comparing the results of thermogravimetric analysis for the initial and obtained composites, it was confirmed that all involved polymers to the reaction were successfully introduced to the hybrid materials. Thus, each composite contains 10 % polymer and 90 % of the mineral part (91 mg/g of chitosan).
Figure 4 presents the nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms measured at 77 K for the initial minerals and coated minerals by chitosan. The shape of the isotherm corresponds to the Langmuir isotherm, type II of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) classification. This type of isotherm commonly observed in nonporous or macroporous materials of which the steep increase of adsorbed quantity at low relative pressure indicates the presence of unrestricted monolayer and multilayer adsorption. It is seen from the isotherms that the monolayer coverage completed at the relative pressure ranges up to 0.45. The shape of the isotherms confirms prevalent presence of cylindrical pores. According to the results of surface area analysis, the pure clinoptilolite and saponite has the BET surface area 22 and 41 m2/g, respectively, which was decreased with modification of its surfaces by polymer up to 5 and 10 m2/g for partially crosslinked chitosan-clinoptilolite and partially crosslinked chitosan-saponite. The presence of mesopores and macropores is confirmed by the diagram of pore size distribution for the initial and modified minerals (Fig. 5), which was obtained by the adsorption branch of the isotherm using the BJH method. The SEM images showed uniform coating of the surface of the minerals by chitosan (Figs.

-Chitosan “smart” hydrogels: pH and thermal
-In vitro/in vivo evaluations of chitosan delivery
systems incorporated with nystatin for thetreatment of oral mucositis
Matejka Z., Parschová H., Jelínek L., Ruszová P.
-Selective uptake of (Mo, V, W, As)-oxoanions bycrosslinked chitosan; beads vs. fibers
EVENING TOUR BY BOAT TO THE MUNKHOLMEN ISLAND (OPTIONAL)
Thursday, June 27
Chitosans for Gene Delivery
Technical Applications of chitosans
Fukamizo T., Defaye J., McIntyre D., Vogel
Chandrkrachang S., Anal A.K., Wanichpongpan
-Permeability of drug and plasma bound drug
glucopyranosyl fluoride oligosaccharides; a
Takahashi S., Takahashi, K., Ogasawara H.,
Danielsen S., Vårum K.M., Stokke B.T.
-Influence of chitosan molecular parameters on
glucosamine 2-epimerases (renin bindingproteins)
-Alternative splicing of Bombyx mori
-New cosmetic delivery system based on chitosan
Acosta N., Aranaz I., Galed G., Peniche H.,
-Aphroproteins – new proteins with chitinase
activity and their application in agricultural
-Controlled release of tramadol hydrochloride
CONFERENCE BANQUET AT RESTAURANT PALMEHAVEN, BRITANNIA HOTEL
Friday, June 28
Enzymatic Coupling of Natural Products to Chitosan to Create Functional Derivatives
Regulatory Aspects and Standardization of Chitin and Chitosan
Hirano S., Matsushita T., Taniguchi M., Yasuba
-The isolation and identification of 3,6-di-O-
methyl-D-glucosamine in the acid hydrolysate
of permethylated chitin resistant to hydrolysesby chitinase and lysozyme
Kristiansen A., Holme H., Isaksen M., Leth-
Jaworska M.M., Shao Y., Konieczna E.

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