diff --git "a/main/part_2/0036833508.json" "b/main/part_2/0036833508.json" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/main/part_2/0036833508.json" @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bcadeb28fd1d21e7be91aa75f811d4ab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5511eb84-d327-4300-9dae-c0566688ec5b/retrieve","id":"-1115647567"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7b1643f8-da6d-43ce-87ac-16ca8c9d87fd","content":"system., rangelands are \"land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass-like plants, forbs 1 or shrubs that are grazed or have the potential to be grazed, and which is used as a natural ecosystem for the production of grazing livestock and wildlife\" (Allen et al., 2011). As an ecological term, rangelands can include annual and perennial grasslands, shrub and dry woodlands, savannah, tundra, and desert., rangelands refer to the management unit of extensive livestock keepers. In this sense, rangelands can include a wider variety of ecosystems and other resource zones, such as forest, wetlands, and ecosystems that might be used only occasionally but may be critical for the survival of the whole system and the livelihoods it supports (Davies et al., 2015).The Rangelands Atlas, published in 2020, includes seven of fourteen 1 used in biology and in vegetation ecology, especially in relation to grasslands and understory. 2 . Rangelands are found mainly in arid and semi-arid regions, but are also found in less dry regions. They are dominated by herbaceous vegetation and include important woody biomass.Rangelands produce a wide variety of goods and services, including livestock forage, water, wildlife habitat, wood products, mineral resources, recreation space, and natural beauty. The people living in rangelands include pastoralists, agropastoralists, crop farmers and other groups who depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. Many rangeland societies are highly adapted to their environment and the cultures of the people living there are a part of our rich global heritage.Rangelands are home to one-third of the which are threatened. Rangelands store around one-third of all landbased carbon, with a large proportion below ground, including an unusually high proportion in the root-mass of rangeland plants. Onerangelands. Due to the scarcity of water in rangelands, water ecosystem et al., 2015). considered degraded, with some regions more heavily affected than others. Rangelands are affected by conversion of land to uses such as crop farming, and by land degradation through over-exploitation, for Rangelands are increasingly affected by anthropogenic climate change. Drivers of rangeland degradation include a growing human population, increased investment that drives over-exploitation, unsustainable management practices, gaps in policy that undermine traditional management practices, the widespread misunderstanding of rangeland ecology, and the adaptations that rangeland communities have made to local conditions. These adaptations include complex communal land management systems and herd mobility that have evolved over centuries.Rangeland management depends on applying knowledge of rangeland ecology such as using grazing management and other interventions to stimulate growth of desired plant species and to inhibit growth of undesirable species. A good understanding of rangeland ecology is therefore necessary to manage rangelands sustainably. For example, it is vital to understand the close relationship between grasses and grazers. Many grasses are highly adapted to the habits of grasses are out-competed by less well-adapted plants in the absence of grazing. Without grazing livestock, the existing ecological community will shift away from grasses toward increased woody vegetation.The two major risks to rangeland ecosystems are over-grazing and under-grazing.occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for Over-grazing reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of means permitting the growth, quality or species Both terms are poorly understood, and this confusion contributes to land degradation. The term over-grazing is usually taken to mean the intensity of animal grazing, most often associated with the number of animals or stocking density. In fact, it is the timing of grazing as much as the total stocking density that is most likely to determine the health of a rangeland area. The management response is critical. Reducing the number of animals can be detrimental if no consideration is given to the health.resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions\" (UN Earth Summit, 1992). Sustainable rangeland management (SRM), in simple terms, is the management of rangelands to meet current human needs while ensuring their long-term productivity. Human needs vary across rangelands, hence, different management objectives are needed. For example, rangelands may be managed mainly for livestock production, for wildlife protection, or to protect a watershed. Although management often focuses on one objective as and sustainable management means ensuring an appropriate balance of ecosystem services.SRM plays a vital role in stopping, slowing, or reversing rangeland SRM practices are often promoted to reverse land degradation and restore or rehabilitate degraded lands, are guided by the management objectives of the users, and recognizes that different users may have different views on sustainability, and therefore rangeland degradation can be subjective. Sustainable management has to consider the production of a wide range of services both now and in the future, and promoting one service at the expense of others.To maintain and improve rangelands productivity, it is important to understand how they respond to ongoing environmental changes and anthropogenic pressure. This knowledge can guide conservation and restoration efforts in dryland rangelands, as biotic factors can be actively managed at the local scale to increase ecosystem resilience to global changes (Safriel, 2009).Before addressing rangeland management practices, it is often degradation. In particular, it is frequently necessary to address the decline in effective rangelands governance. In many countries, this requires a change in perceptions of pastoral herding practices, increased understanding of rangeland ecology, and an overall improvement in dialogue and trust between governments, other development actors, and rangeland pastoral communities. Above all, an increased recognition of the essential relationship between rangeland health and grazing management is urgently needed, together with the legitimization of herd mobility as a management tool.The primary rangeland managers in most countries are livestock keepers, often called pastoralists. Many pastoralists have a deep knowledge of rangeland ecosystems and effective herd management practices. This indigenous knowledge is a valuable asset in rangeland restoration. Although pastoralists are usually blamed for rangeland degradation, they often face many constraints in applying their management knowledge.Restoring effective management practices therefore requires addressing these underlying causes and constraints. This includes strengthening the representation of pastoralists in policy and investment dialogues in many countries.Despite technical advances, the scale of rangeland rehabilitation intervention is still small and lacks a holistic approach. Most projects focus on a single SRM practice, ignoring the myriad possible interventions that would guarantee achieving the desired rehabilitation status. This toolkit brings together current state-of-the-art knowledge about SRM practices known to contribute to sustainable rangeland management. Successfully applying these methods, tools, and approaches requires they be used together with improved rangeland assessment and monitoring and better data on rangeland ecosystem services. It also requires attention to policy gaps and failures, including legislation on communal tenure rights. Sustainable rangeland management ultimately requires a major increase in investment, which requires a deeper understanding of investment opportunities and the values of ecosystem goods and services.Participatory approaches -such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) -are a collection of approaches used by development actors to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of rural people in the planning and management of development projects and programs. Participatory approaches are typically used to improve decision-making, foster ownership by local communities, and enhance accountability in development projects. Participatory approaches are a process of empowering communities, or groups within these communities, and are central to natural resource governance in development context.Participatory Rangeland Management and Planning (PRMP) provides a framework for adapting participatory approaches to the unique context of rangelands. PRMP takes into consideration the spatial scale on which rangelands are managed, the diversity of stakeholders involved, and seasonal patterns of movement and resource use. The large scale on which rangeland landscapes are managed is a major challenge for coordination and necessitates participation on a similarly large geographic scale. PRMP provides the most effective framework of engagement considering the socioeconomic and natural resource dynamics.-4567589:;)<=)-!2-)Many participatory approaches exist and PRMP adheres to principles that are common to most of these approaches, including:that recognizes contested claims and aspirations for a given rangeland landscape and ensures different socio-economic, ethnic and other groups are engaged in relevant dialogue• in which stakeholders express their needs, wants, and interests and reach a consensus on future rangeland use and management that respects the values of all usersin which all stakeholders are represented and engaged in the relevant dialogue, planning and implementationand integrating or reconciling local• that builds on the current state of rangeland resource to provide a foundation for managing in futurewith a focus on developing action plans that shape how agreed strategic interventions will be implementedusing participatory tools to monitor and evaluate actions and to adapt management according to emerging lessons./#(-/)$&)-\"!#$.$-\"#%!3)!\"&+('\"&,)Many participatory tools can be adapted for rangeland management of the participatory process to ensure the approach is aligned to the unique conditions of the rangelands. The following guidance is organized to other participatory planning frameworks. />:8)?@)-A4>6:4;B58)CD59E56F)A6E);>AG:B<9E:4) :6FAF:H:6>Rangelands are social-ecological systems, often with a great diversity of resource users and rights-holders. Sometimes these stakeholders are absent seasonally or for long periods. Rangelands often fall through institutional and policy gaps as there may be several institutions with overlapping responsibilities for rangelands. Important consideration for stakeholder analysis should therefore include:1. involved in rangeland use and management, including communities (e.g. herders, crop farmers and others), women and youth as well as men, migrant labourers, and marginalized groups within pastoral societies, as well as relevant public institutions 2. Preliminary dialogue with stakeholders to agree on the challenge to be addressed and the scale of rangeland landscape for action.questions to address include:PRMP requires particular attention to include the , including indigenous peoples, women and youth. Women have unique responsibilities over rangeland resources and unique knowledge on their sustainable use and management. However, women are largely marginalised in many rangeland societies. Extra effort and attention needs to be made to ensure fair and meaningful participation. It is common to separate groups of men and women while conducting participatory needed to engage women of other groups.partners to ensure that relevant groups have not been excluded and to identify differences of opinion between stakeholder groups over their perception of rights and responsibilities over natural resources. This is a sensitive process, requiring local knowledge and cultural sensitivity to draw out disagreements that are likely to require future negotiations./>:8)I@)/5>DA>5<6)A6E)7<6>:J>)A6A9K;5;In Step 2, the characteristics of the rangeland landscape can be clearly described to capture the spatial scale and the variety of resources and rights holders. Rangeland landscapes are often managed on a large scale and people and institutions introducing localized interventions must be aware of their impact on larger scales, for example on a communal tenure system or a river basin.The situation analysis should include baseline studies to review relevant information to establish state and trends of rangeland health, policies and institutions. Large-scale assessment of rangeland can be accomplished through remote sensing. Step 2 allows the scale of landscape management to be determined, and guides planning under Step 3. As part of the preparation activities, a baseline analysis is required to provide the context and the situation of the area where participatory mapping will be conducted. The baseline study describes the environmental and socio-economic conditions. This should combine information from both published and non-published literature. Information gathered should also cover the interconnectivity between the landscape at which planning is taking place in relation to the wider landscape. This will mainly depend on the target landscape for planning and the availability of money and time. Analysis of the baseline conditions could include biophysical conditions, socio-economic conditions, and the social and political context.Additional data such as topographic maps, climate data, and indicators of land productivity are outputs for this process. This will involve collecting and organizing existing remote sensing imagery on the selected landscape to produce an overview map on the status of rangeland health, using the maps generated to assess and understand the baseline condition of rangeland resources at a landscape level before participatory mapping, and, if resources are available, engage landscape maps during participatory mapping (FAO and IUCN, 2015)./>:8)L@)2A8856F)A6E)89A6656FNatural resource mapping is the cornerstone of participatory approaches and it is vital for effective rangelands management. However, the mapping process needs to be approached with an open mind, to learn from the way stakeholders mentally map their landscapes, and to ensure that pre-determined notions of scale and boundaries do not restrict local knowledge and understanding.Participatory tools have generally been developed for use at the village level, whereas a rangeland management unit may be many thousands of square kilometers, with rights shared by thousands of households. The stakeholders involved in participatory mapping must ensure clear accountability,and representation and differentiated rights and responsibilities must be accommodated across the entire landscape. This includes seasonal rights and responsibilities of some user communities as well as seasonally-differentiated gender roles. One solution is to involve well-informed and credible representatives of the key stakeholder groups, and ensure that they feedback on their involvement to the people they represent.Participatory mapping can be improved by deliberately involving local community experts. This selection should consider the diversity expertise, knowledge, responsibility, rights and gender, including women and youths. The representatives should be conversant with their rangeland production system(s) and should be able to contribute to the mapping by sharing their experiences about the state, use and management and trends of their rangeland resources. They bring along important knowledge on the social, environmental and rangeland use dynamics.Participatory mapping follows these steps:Overlaying handdrawn features on to a high-resolution map can help when digitizing information. Careful attention should be given to the complex spatial arrangements of rangeland governance.(e.g. 10 years hence): This vision can consensus on a desirable scenario for the rangelands from an ecological, productive and local governance perspective. The future vision should be guided by a combination of local knowledge and rangelands. This step can be combined with information gathered earlier through a rangeland health assessment. The visioning map provides the basis for identifying indicators to assess change in rangeland health and for identifying the type of rangeland governance desired by the range-users.Action planning should be made particularly sensitive to gender roles and responsibilities as well as seasonal resource rights. Action plans should the transformation pathway to move from the current status of the rangeland to the envisioned future, outlining the detail of responsibility, resources and how progress will be measured.1 Detailed guidance for strengthening governance can be found in the manual \"Improving Governance of Pastoral Lands\": http://www.fao.org/3/i5771e/i5771e.pdf:resource governance and land rights (particularly management rights). Participatory planning is an important preliminary step in understanding governance. The mapping exercise determines the rights and responsibilities of stakeholders over different rangeland resources. Steps for strengthening governance should be included as a sub-set of the Action Plan above, but a detailed discussion is needed to identify the acceptable measures for strengthening governance and rights. There should be clear description of what the best possible governance structure is expected to look like in the given context. Attention should be paid to the rights of women and other groups within society. Participants should consider the following questions 1 :• Who are the rights holders over different resources (e.g. access rights, use rights, management rights, right of alienation etc.)? • (e.g. customary, formal legal, constitutional)? • What measures -both formal and informal -can stakeholders take to strengthen their management rights over each resource?/>:8)M@)2<65><456F)A6E):NA9DA>5<6 of actions, measuring the impact of those actions on rangeland health and socioeconomics, and responding to a dynamic setting. Participatory changes in rangeland health, and evaluation of implementation of actions. Regular annual stakeholder meetings should be held to discuss progress in management and changes in resource conditions taking into consideration the short-term and long-term variability and projected future dynamics. Stakeholder meetings are ideally conducted by a community organization, and can be part of their annual planning cycle.Those organizations can develop their capacity to play a coordinating role in rangeland management, sometimes acting as a hybrid institution that includes both customary leaders and non-customary leaders.Monitoring and evaluating change in rangeland governance also requires evaluating changes in governance institutions, which is a sensitive task requiring careful analysis from community members. It can include monitoring policies, rules, and institutional arrangements and processes, as well as decisions made informally and implemented by the community. The effectiveness of the governance systems should be assessed in relation to resource use and management. One useful experienced by community members, through stakeholder stories and focus groups.What was planned (maps and plans developed during the first planning exercises)?What was achieved (review maps and plans originally developed by communities)?What was not achieved?Why was intended change not achieved?What will be done to address this?What are the revised targets (e.g. for the next 6 months or 12 months)?to the conservation of natural resources and has been used in the Arabian Peninsula for more than 1,500 years. The hima system has a set of guiding principles, is participatory in nature, and uses community knowledge and practices in setting up and managing protected areas. Implementing a hima system requires consideration of the land tenure system in place, the biodiversity on the site, and the socioeconomic and cultural context of the community. The hima system is a proven governance approach that allows land users to implement actions that preserve natural resources, conserve ecosystems, restore biodiversity, and support local communities. Pastoralists from other regions often practice analogues to hima.Access to a hima was forbidden by the individual or group that owned it.Later, its meaning evolved to signify a reserved pasture, a piece of land set aside seasonally to allow regeneration. The hima system is inclusive and designed to preserve and protect ecosystems for the sustainable use of resources by the people and for the people, while taking into account the social and cultural practices of the communities involved.The fall of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 1800s resulted in more control by smaller states that emerged in the region. During the twentieth century, political and socioeconomic changes in the Arab region led to the weakening of the hima system, exposing the environment to a multitude of anthropogenic transformations resulting in widespread degradation. Tribal land was nationalized and increased demand for export products led to the abuse of natural systems. Sustainable systems of land use and management declined and so did the diversity and health of habitats. Recent years have witnessed several campaigns to conserve nature and its resources, including a revival of the hima concept.The value of the hima approach lies in its ability to integrate food production with conservation goals. Protected areas often exclude local users and thereby miss out on important opportunities for tapping their local knowledge and the institutions that enable its use. The hima approach legitimizes Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas 1 as a way to achieve both sustainable land management and biodiversity conservation on land used primarily for food production. Healthy, productive rangelands offer a genuine win for agricultural production through livestock and biodiversity conservation. The hima model provides a key to unlock this potential by improving landscape connectivity and harnessing the role of domestic herbivores for ecosystem management.the hima approach, but in the context of rangeland restoration the main focus is on Category VI: Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources (Dudley et al. 2013).2:A;D4:;)A6E);>:8;)><):;>AC95;B)A)B5HA b e c o n s t i t u t e d b y a l e g i t i m a t e g o v e r n i n g a u t h o r i t y , be established to improve public welfare, not cause undue hardship to local people and not deprive them of resources they need for their subsistence, and realize more benefits for society than detriments.for restoring rangelands and reviving hima is to address social rather than technological constraints. Reviving hima is therefore a process rather than an action and while it is highly costeffective, it is also highly demanding of skills, particularly skills for negotiation, participation, and consensus building. Reviving hima requires extensive dialogue between communities, government, and other stakeholders to reach agreement over policies and shared governance of natural resources at local, national, and regional level.is typically carried out through participatory planning, beginning with a complete stakeholder analysis and rights, it is important that all stakeholder groups, and particularly women and marginalized groups, are involved in planning. Additional effort is often needed to build capacity of marginalized groups so they can participate on an equal footing with other community members. From the outset, the primary focus of the hima approach should be to empower local communities, identify and respond to their needs, and ensure their full ownership in the hima process and the actual hima site.It is highly recommended to embed the development of a hima in wider landscape restoration planning, given the communal nature of rangeland resources and the potential for off-site impacts (both costs will mean periods of rest and recovery when livestock will need to be moved to other areas. Maintaining connectivity between the hima site and the rest of the landscape, and between multiple himas within the same landscape will facilitate effective herd management. Participatory groups of resource users and rights-holders.Training on hima approaches, sustainable land management, community governance, and legal options for formalizing the hima.Preparatory meetings with local authorities to ensure political support for the process.Hima site identification within the landscape, including mapping and site visits.Development of a hima management plan, including livestock management arrangements, environmental and biodiversity management considerations, land rehabilitation options, and a monitoring plan.Agreements for legal documents, community practices or bylaws depending on the legal context and options to formalize the hima.Development of associated incentives such as livelihoods development options for hima communities.Detailed stakeholder analysis and participatory planning at landscape scale. Strengthen land stewardship and communal tenure.Create an enabling environment of policy and institutional support and address the cross-sectoral nature of hima.Strengthen community organizations for hima governance.Ensure that hima management is aware of and sensitive to the socio-ecological landscape within which it is situated.Build capacity and awareness in public institutions and communities, with a particular focus on the skills of participation, empowerment, and monitoring.Develop incentives and rewards for the multiple and diverse benefits of hima.Strengthen scientific and economic evidence and local knowledge to provide systematic monitoring for quality assurance. Water scarcity is among the main problems to be faced by several countries around the world as demand for domestic, agricultural, industrial, and environmental uses continues to increase (Khanal et al., 2020). Socioeconomic development, technological innovation, and environmental degradation, particularly climate change, are further intensifying the pressure of global water shortages (Wu et al., 2020).Climate change is one of the main factors affecting the availability of water resources (Haque et al., 2015). Climate change is predicted to cause a high climatic variability in semi-arid environments, leading to an increase in the frequency of droughts and heavy rainfall events (IPCC, 2012). When there is a high rainfall event on steep land and on soils water crisis is projected to worsen due to population explosion and the higher food demand (De Fries and Rosenzweig, 2010). The growing population and the increasing demand for agricultural products are putting pressure on limited grazing and rangeland resources, especially in arid environments.Many rangelands are found in arid and semi-arid lands where biomass production is constrained by moisture availability. Furthermore, when these lands are affected by land degradation, the soil moisture content often declines, due to reduced capacity to hold moisture as well as to biomass production in rangeland ecosystems. This means that production is possible only when additional water is made available for cultivation. With water scarcity placing heavy pressure in many arid regions, alternative methods, such as soil and water conservation, are of paramount importance in recent decades. Water harvesting is one such technology and is based on the direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for direct consumption or can be recharged into the groundwater (Khanal et al., 2020). Numerous countries have supported the implementation of such practice to overcome the water demand harvesting can be carried out for multiple purposes, including to provide domestic water, water for livestock, and water to enable restoration. The most suitable water harvesting technology will depend on the purpose of harvesting as well as the biophysical properties of the location.In addition to water scarcity, arid environments face challenges sustaining or raising production levels without effective management interventions.Water harvesting in rangelands can help increase the production of forage shrubs and herbs, followed by a more general improvement in soil fertility and may be the most feasible option for raising productivity for these large areas. Distribution of water is an important consideration when managing the access and use of rangeland sites. Water harvesting that accounts for forage use within and between different growing seasons can support livestock that contribute to maintaining of water resources has been strongly associated with the degradation of rangelands because animals tend to overgraze around watering holes.of surface water. In arid areas, 70-80% of rainwater falling early in the the available nutrients in the form of organic matter. Thus, it is important to capture and preserve it through various manually constructed structures.In arid areas, most rain falls occur during a short period, and sometimes even then only sparsely. Thus, the water must be collected when available.As water scarcity increases with increasing population, conserving and harvesting water is critical in arid environments. Degraded soils are germinated seeds from emerging. #B:4:)A4:)>B4::)C5<8BK;57A9) 7;)56)A99)SA>:4)BA4N:;>56F) ;K;>:H;@• Play a vital role in supporting the rural population in water-scarce areas.• Facilitate vegetation production in areas that would otherwise lie fallow due to lack of water. • Improve water availability for livestock. The water harvesting structure cistern is the best option for storing rainwater for livestock watering. • Improve soil fertility as runoff water contains silt, manure, and organic matter. • Reduce soil erosion and siltation downstream.• Enhance soil moisture and also prolong the wetting and softening of crusted soil surfaces, allowing seeds to germinate and emerge.• Increase seedling survival for the most drought-sensitive species.• Capture atmospheric carbon dioxide through increasing biomass production. • Reduce the use of groundwater, which is a valuable water source and needs energy for its exploitation. • Contribute to the recharge of groundwater tables.A variety of surface structures have been used, but earthen dykes, berms, bunds, and dams are popular because of their simplicity, effectiveness, and relatively low cost of installation and maintenance.!\"##$%&'()\"*(+%'\")(,*)\"#-$>)5;)5H8<4>A6>)><)D6E:4;>A6E)>B:) 7BA4A7>:45;>57;)<=):A7B);>4D7>D4:T);D7B) A;)5>;@The catchment area that receives rainfall and channels runoff downstream. Catchments can vary in size.moves the water from the roof surface to the storage. Field conditions such as slope, soil properties, land use and land cover need to be assessed before choosing and constructing a structure..4D7>D4:;)A6E)>B:54)7BA4A7>:45;>57;)A4:)E:;745C:E)56) #AC9:)?UIdeal for gentle slopes and low hills with 300 mm mean annual rainfall. Based on a catchment area of 500 m 2 , supplying additional water to a series of downstream plots enclosed by small earth bunds (about 20 cm) and connected by spillways for discharging excess water. Meskat systems are often used for watering trees.Meskat micro catchment System (Ahmed, 2003).Diamond-shaped basins surrounded by small earth bunds with an infiltration pit in the lowest corner of each. Runoff is collected from within the basin and stored in the infiltration pit. Micro catchments are mainly used for growing trees or bushes.This technique is appropriate for small-scale tree planting in any area which has a moisture deficit.Besides harvesting water for the trees, it simultaneously conserves soil.Nigarim micro catchment System for trees (Critchley et al., 2013).Trapezoidal shaped earth bunds capturing runoff from external catchment and overflowing around wingtips. This technique is used to enclose larger areas (up to 1 ha) and to impound larger quantities of runoff which is harvested from an external or \"long slope\" catchment.Trapezoidal Bunds for crops (Critchley and Reij, 1989).Constructed with stones along the contours of slopes with a 2-5% gradient. Bund height should be 65 cm with a base width of 80-100 cm and a shallow trench on the upper side 15-30 cm deep to trap runoff and sediment.Photo: Critchely and Siegert, 1991.Made of soil or stone, diameter of 1-7 m and 50 cm high, tips are set on the contour line facing upslope. Slopes up to 20% in areas with rainfall as low as 100-150 mm per annum. Soils should be at least 1.5 m but preferably 2 m deep. Photo: Mounir Louhaichi Natural or (hand) dug open reservoir to store water collected from elsewhere (Lasage and Verburg, 2015). The permeability of the pond can be reduced by using lining (concrete or plastic).Sizes vary from 30 m 3 (individual household use)to 20,000 m 3 (community use).Photo: Mounir LouhaichiWater harvesting structureContour bunds are effective methods to conserve soil moisture in watershed for long duration. They slow down runoff and improve water infiltration in the soil. Contour bunds can be continuous or intermittent.A special tractor-pulled plow that automatically constructs water-harvesting catchments, ideally suited for large-scale reclamation work.There are two types of modified tractor plows: the 'train' and the 'dolphin'. Used in microbasins 4-5 m long, 0.4 m wide, and 0.4 m deep. Applicable on areas 100-600 mm and on slopes between 2-10%.Photo: Mounir LouhaichiThis practice is widespread in areas receiving an average annual rainfall greater than 250 mm in Tunisia. The hill reservoirs contain tens of thousands to 1 million m 3 of water collected from small catchment areas of a few hectares to a few km 2 . The hill reservoirs built have a definite impact on the rural population by providing them with readily available water for their use. These reservoirs have also contributed to improving the environment, recharging the water table and protecting downstream infrastructure against flooding and siltation.Photo: PAN-LCD, TunisiaA contour trench and pit are an excavated ditch/pit along a uniform level across the slope of land in the top portion of catchment to trap runoff water.Photo: Mounir LouhaichiCisterns: means of collecting rainwater for drinking water supply. This is a very old rainwater collection system in North Africa. It is designed with the objective of supplying the household with water for various domestic uses, including irrigation and watering of livestock in arid and semi-arid environments. The collection of rainwater by cisterns is done from an impluvium which must be clean, sanitary and impermeable. The rainwater storage tanks can be of various shapes and geometry, storing water collected from a surface plot, capacity 5 m 3 -100 m 3 (Lasage and Verburg, 2015).Photo: Mounir Louhaichi Consists of a dam, terrace, and catchment area.The dam is made of stones and can be up to 200 m in length in wide valleys. The height of the dam can vary between 0.5 and 5 m. Runoff water is collected up to a height of about 20 cm or more before it is discharged downstream via the spillway.Photos: Mounir Louhaichi Small ridges constructed downslope (1-25%), reinforced with vegetation or stones to stabilize and break long slopes into smaller, less steep slopes.Spread water by slowing the flow of floodwater and distributing it over land to be cultivated, thus allowing it to infiltrate. Ideal on even topography or 1% slopes receiving 100-350 mm annual rainfall.Water-spreading bunds FAO, 1991 The following factors should be considered during the planning phase:• Water harvesting is not recommended for areas where slopes are greater than 5% due to uneven distribution of runoff and large, uneconomic investments in terms of machinery. Depending on the slope of the catchment area and the reason for water harvesting, mechanical water harvesting techniques are effective in upper • fertility, while sandy soils should be avoided to reduce loss of water Water harvesting is used in greening projects to conserve rainwater, a precious commodity in arid regions. An effective water supply to the soil-vegetation complex will increase the likelihood that rangeland restoration projects will succeed. Determining which water harvesting techniques have the best performance and choosing which ones to promote and scale up requires consideration of biophysical, technical, and socioeconomic factors.By increasing water retention and soil moisture, water harvesting techniques will affect important processes such as evaporation, transpiration, air humidity, air and soil temperature, soil microbial activity, soil organic matter build up, and decomposition. Raising awareness, promotion, and training will facilitate the adoption, adaptation, and spread of water harvesting practices among landowners. However, effective community participatory initiatives are still needed to promote the adoption of these techniques. action of the hooves of grazing animals. In the past, this was facilitated by the behavior of grazing wildlife which, when chased by predators, would stampede and break up the soil surface. However, nowadays, with domestic livestock grazing calmly at a slow pace, the impact of the herd is negligible, especially when the soil surface is already capped or crusted. There are certain practices that can mimic predator-induced behavior such as the use of a mobile watering facility or additional feeding and/or mineral supplementation (for example, salt in a granular form).Crusted or capped soils are common in arid or semi-arid degraded rangelands, either occurring naturally or as a result of poor management.Without measures to improve soil conditions, rangeland rehabilitation efforts often result in unacceptably low seed germination and/or seedling performance. Success rates may be improved by human intervention, and chemical processes within the soil that enhance plant survival and growth.to enhance ecosystem processes. Soil respiration is improved, water can penetrate faster, the germination and emergence of seeds are is commonly used to ensure successful regeneration of vegetation either through natural rehabilitation or by direct seeding. compacted the soil is, how hard the crusted layer is, and whether rocks rippers, or other devices capable of disturbing the upper 5-10 cm of the crusty soil. Cultivators consist of a frame, tines with reversible shovels, and heavy-duty springs. The teeth work on the soil surface to loosen the soil without inversion.(==:7>5N:)5H89:H:6>A>5<6 • The drag chain harrow is a simple, quick and effective way to break crust while keeping the soil healthy and can help reduce the risk of erosion, while also helping with moisture retention• Cautionary note-there could be limitations according to soil depth or the risk of wind erosion. Land managers should assess the overall conditions of the site (slope, soil texture, soil depth) to make sure tools used are appropriate. Direct seeding reduces the time and labor required, increasing resource a method recommended in the lowlands and landscape depressions (Marab) that receive additional amounts of rainwater from runoff because the extra soil moisture improves seedling emergence and establishment. Furthermore, under intensifying climate change and increasing soil degradation rates, direct seeding without disturbing the soil (no-tillage) is becoming more appealing. Such practice helps the soil retain moisture and maintain more organisms that break down organic matter into vital nutrients, increasing the potential for nutrient recycling, leading to healthy soil.$H84B:)5H8A7>)<=)E54:7>);::E56FThe limit on the success of direct seeding in drylands is due to drought, soil surface crusting and compaction, slow permeability, low available water capacity, and seed mortality due to heat and predation by birds or insects. Direct seeding is feasible on drylands if well-adapted species and recommended seeding methods are used. Outcomes can be improved through better site selection and ground preparation through drilling and pitting seeds to enhance germination and survival. Drills and pits can be created by hand or machine, and they contribute to protecting the seeds and improving moisture capture in arid areas.Furthermore, a rest period is needed to allow species to emerge and avoid plant being uprooted or compacted.Rangeland degradation resulting from unsustainable human activities and climate change is a serious threat to natural resources in arid and semi-arid areas. Changes in rangelands use, and management practices are urgently required to slow down and even reverse degradation.There are several solutions available to tackle rangeland degradation.One of the most rapid and cost-effective options is direct seeding, which than transplanting seedlings nurtured elsewhere.Due to the low cost of direct seeding, large-scale degraded rangeland whether to restore rangelands with native or exotic species, we must ,54:7>) ;::E56F) A6E) 5>;) H:45>;) A;) A) 4:;><4A>5<6)Direct seeding is currently receiving much attention as a method of rangeland improvement. Direct seeding is suitable for small or large areas where the terrain and cost of transplanting seedlings prevent natural regeneration or planting. It is an age-old practice that has regained favor due to the high costs associated with alternative methods of planting and transporting seedlings from nurseries for transplanting. Another direct seeding technique is depth and covering them with soil. In this method, sowing tools are used for placing the seeds into the soil. Several options are available, such as mechanical seed drillers and pitting machines. The latter is towed by an ordinary two-wheel-drive pickup making it popular and achievable with of inclined metal disks just before the rainy season. Seeds are placed in each pit either by hand or through a seed hopper mounted on top conditions for emergence and growth.is usually practiced. Dibbling entails making small holes in the ground for seeds using a pointed stick or a long piece of wood, then dropping seeds into the holes and covering them with soil, all by hand. Some pastoral communities in West Asia have developed the practice of using livestock to distribute seeds. Seeds are harvested by hand and placed in a pouch that is punctured with holes and strung around are widely distributed. This is an example of low cost local technology that partially replicates the role livestock play when they graze desired species and distribute seeds in their dung.For remote and inaccessible sites, is an option. It is often used to spread seeds to large land areas that need vegetative cover after severe degradation that has depleted the soil seed bank.(6BA6756F);::E956F):H:4F:67:)A6E) :;>AC95;BH:6>Seed pretreatment methods such as mechanical and chemical factors. Seed pretreatment also speeds up seedling emergence and enhances seed survival. Sowing at the right time and the proper depth is critical to the success of direct seeding..B<<;56F)>B:)C:;>);8:75:;)=<4)E54:7>);::E56F the biophysical and socio-economic condition of the target site and its community. In general, plants that grow naturally in the same habitat have the greatest chance of success. Exotic species such as fodder shrubs may also perform well under direct seeding once their ecological demands in the target site are met.Given the nature of rangeland landscapes, the most common method of direct seeding is -sprinkling the seeds by hand. It is the easiest and cheapest method, requiring less labor compared to seedling transplantation. In most cases, this intervention is usually against birds and other predators. \"ENA6>AF:;)<=)E54:7>);::E56F@• Rapid and cost-effective method for large-scale restoration of degraded rangeland• Seeds are easier and cheaper to transport and store than seedlings• Large areas can be covered with direct seeding because of its relatively low transport costs, while storage of seed is straightforward and cheaper than for seedlings• Requires less time and labor than transplanting• Plants develop deep, robust root systems that allow them to establish themselves quickly to withstand drought and wind, unlike transplanted seedlings• treatments, and rainy season• Able to access rough and distant terrains through aerial seeding• Promotes vegetative growth in less accessible areas, such as hillsides, rocky, and uneven terrain (Though more success can be achieved in lowlands)• Better root growth in preparation for harsh conditions such as drought or overgrazing• A higher level of seed germination in the years following the original sowing (depending on biophysical conditions).A new approach in direct seeding is planting pellets stuffed with combinations of fertilizer nutrients and pesticides to enhance the establishment of vegetation cover by aerial seeding in semi-arid regions.The seeds are coated with materials that will not disintegrate when in contact with moisture on the soil surface, and the pellets absorb enough moisture to cause germination through the coat.Another potential solution to land degradation is the use of biodegradable materials such as geotextiles that hold moisture, allowing seeds to germinate and establish roots even during low rainfall. This method can also control erosion and sediment.(==:7>5N:)4<<>):;>AC95;BH:6>)A6E);::E956F) HA56>:6A67:• Selection of suitable sites and appropriate pre-sowing treatments is vital for successful direct seeding• Always assess remnant vegetation, soil, risks, and opportunities along with the purpose of the revegetation• A mixture of seeds (including shrubs and herbaceous species) can be sown simultaneously to increase the chance of at least one species establishing even in case of prolonged drought • Sowing at the right time, generally at the beginning of the rainy season to ensure optimum soil moisture, increases success• Sowing at the right depth for species seed size is vital to root establishment• The sowing rate should be based on seed viability (not total seed) and adjusted density compared to the original and reference rangeland ecosystem. This ensures adequate seeding rates are met in case the seed germination rate was low• For successful root establishment, seed quality should be checked• Certain species require pretreatment to break seed dormancy (mechanical or chemical treatment)• If the seeds are too small, mixing them with sand makes a bulky mixture easier to handle• Respect plant association and try to balance species composition accordingly to avoid plant competition over limited resources• A high seeding rate increases overall seedling emergence and establishment• Avoid incorporating the seed too deeply, especially in heavy soils (clay) or where soil surface sealing is a problem as the plants are less likely to establish themselves. Direct seeding is a fast and cost-effective method to revive rangeland vegetation. It is also well suited for a large-scale degraded environment due to its reduced costs (no need for nursery and seedling transplantation). However, the micro-environment of the developing seedling is an important factor. Therefore, selecting groups of species with similar habitat requirements at the establishment phase will improve species establishment and increase restoration success. Timing of sowing and using methods to enhance seed germination should be considered, such as seed pretreatment techniques and seeding depth.for rehabilitation of degraded arid and semi-arid rangelands. Range Management and Agroforestry. 35(2): 182-187. To ensure successful rangeland rehabilitation, the choice of species native species. Extra caution should be always taken against the risk of invasive alien species. In arid and semi-arid areas, common fodder shrubs include Atriplex halimus (Mediterranean saltbush), A. leucoclada (orache), A. nummularia (old man saltbush), Bassia prostrata (desert bush), Salsola vermiculata (Mediterranean saltwort), and Haloxylon aphyllum (saxaul). Ceratonia siliqua L. (carob tree), a long-living evergreen tree native to the Mediterranean, is commonly used to provide shade for livestock during hot summers. Certain shrubs/trees contain anti-nutritional factors (secondary chemical compounds or toxins) which reduce the overall digestibility and palatability of their forage quality.Care must be taken to select highly adaptable species suited to the low rainfall and salt conditions of arid environments.The degradation of rangelands is induced by overgrazing, over-gathering Over-exploitation results in negative effects leading to soil erosion and the reduction of forage biomass for livestock. To alleviate the spread of rangeland degradation, planting shrubs provides a large amount of natural resource conservation.$H8<4>A67:)<=);B4DC;V>4::;Shrubs/trees reduce solar radiation and soil temperature, conserve moisture, and enrich the soil nutrient content. In providing ecosystem goods (especially forage for livestock and carbon sequestration), shrubs in arid zones boost poverty alleviation strategies and contribute to reducing food insecurity. The integration of shrubs through alley cropping utilizing a piece of land, thus improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers./8:75:;)A6E);5>:);:9:7>5<6Select shrubs/trees well-adapted to conditions of individual planting sites. The choice of species will depend on the annual rainfall amount, soil, topography, runoff, water harvesting potential of the site, and the likelihood of environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, and cold. Species selection is also guided by rangeland development objectives, control. .56F)S5>B)SA>:4) BA4N:;>56F)>:7B65WD:;When seedlings are planted on steep slopes, water harvesting such as semicircle structures or intermittent contours, shrub planting improves erosion control, forage quality and availability, and plant and animal micro-habitat conditions..BA99:6F:;)ED456F);B4DCV>4::)89A6>56FThe high cost related with the establishment and the maintenance of shrubs/trees presents the main challenge for smallholder farmers with low incomes. Another common issue faced by most shrub/tree planting programs is the availability of suitable species for the target ecosystem at the appropriate time. In most cases, supplementary irrigation is needed right after planting to secure strong roots and soil contact.Alternative feed resources to supplement livestock are most often in high demand in dry areas. This increases the risk of predation on transplanted shrubs as animals prefer the young succulent seedlings to the older and more mature plants.(;>AC95;BH:6>)A6E)HA6AF:H:6>Shrub/tree establishment and growth often suffer heavy plant losses due to intense lack of soil moisture.Several techniques are used to aid seed germination, such as seed overall productivity once established, rotational browsing/grazing of the rangeland will aid in reducing soil erosion, depletion of soil nutrients, prevalence of weeds/invasive species, and more uniform soil fertility levels. Before establishment, shrubs/trees should not be browsed as this reduces their growth and survival potential. such as soil erosion and also in creating microhabitats for vertebrate and invertebrate fauna. The establishment and management of shrubs/ trees requires that they receive a long enough period for them to recover lost biomass after a browsing and pruning event. Grazing pressures can have both positive and negative impacts on plant species. Grazing management requires these impacts to be balanced in order to optimize productivity over time. Grazing management is the process of grazing and browsing animals to accomplish a desired levels of livestock production coupled with maintaining quality wildlife habitat and ample recreational space. When managing grazing, both the plants and animals need to be considered.If the rangeland is grazed too intensively, particularly for sustained periods, both plant and animal production will be reduced. However, if the grazing pressure is too light forage use will be low, forage quality may decrease and animal production per unit area will be low.-4567589:;)<=)F4AY56F)HA6AF:H:6>The fundamental principle of grazing management is to control the frequency and severity of defoliation of individual plants. The principle point of time. Grazing management is a tool to optimize the capture and use of energy in grazing systems that enables maximum quality forage production, optimum harvest and the conversion by animals of that energy into a marketable product by animals. Timing of grazing and maintaining plant vigor, especially after-grazing events, are key factors to consider in controlling frequency, intensity and duration of grazing.production. Root respiration and nutrient acquisition are reduced.Root elongation ceases.The soluble carbohydrates within the roots rapidly decline.1 2 3 4 66 67PB:6)><)F4AY:ZGrazing optimization is often determined by the management objective of the production system. A land manager could be interested in maximizing sustainable yield from grazing and producing a valuable product for the market, promoting better ecosystem functioning by enhancing vegetation heterogeneity, or a range of objectives in between.Determining when to graze relies on knowledge of plant species physiology abundance and quality as forage, site characteristics including soil fertility, animal types and classes and their forage requirement and economic and management factors. Many range forage plants are highly nutritious and palatable during the early growing period then they steadily decline in quality and quantity over time. Understanding the forage growth cycle of the key forage species is essential to determine the optimal timing and duration of grazing.the productivity of the more nutritious and palatable plant species more nutritious and palatable plant species. Intensive grazing during the early growing season using livestock that are less selective to grazing has the potential to achieve this objective since plant growth relatively rapid and the forage resources are homogenously green. This also works well because the less desirous plants do not disperse their seeds and propagate.Higher biodiversity in supports a wider a wider variety of plant and animal species because they contain a structural complexity that provides heterogeneity in landscapes increases biodiversity, enhances ecosystem goods and services and provides long-term sustainability of ecosystems. This is particularly effective for the conservation of the functionality of large-scale ecological rangeland processes as in pastoral systems. In such a scenario, the grazing management would entail using different types and classes of livestock to graze on different environmental patches of the landscape to maintain heterogeneity.[:K)7;)<=)F4AY56F)HA6AF:H:6>The main components of grazing management include supply of forage, forage demand, degree of grazing use, and timing. The supply of forage depends on abundance, vigor, condition of the desirable plant species, and climate conditions. Forage demand is a function of the number of animals, forage intake by animal, which is correlated with metabolic body weight and number of grazing days, number of grazing days. Degree of use and timing of grazing are controlled by the grazing system (graze and rest periods), including the periodicity including periodicity and seasonality. Manipulation of these components is easier grazing or transhumance systems, although seasonal herd movements in transhumance systems can provide similar grazing management water. Grazing utility of land goes hand-in-hand with water provision and distribution within grazing blocks landscapes, but water is a leading factor in the degradation of pastures if it allows animals to remain too long in any one area. Water is often a challenge to consider especially areas where access to surface water including stream, rivers or lakes is not readily available.(==:7>5N:)F4AY56F)HA6AF:H:6>Timing is the most critical factor for effective grazing management.as well as mitigate any risks associated with grazing during rest periods, which will put pressure on rangeland plants. Effective grazing managementshould consider the timing rather than the overall grazing pressure. If pastures are being actively managed, and grazing pressure is avoided during rest periods, then high grazing pressure can be supported for short periods during the appropriate phase in the growth cycle of the pasture. The following principles should be taken into consideration in grazing management planning:systematically grazed and rested according to seasonal demands and the characteristics of both the vegetation and the environment. On private lands this is commonly practiced through rotational grazing and dividing the land into paddocks. On communal lands, it requires a high degree of agreement and coordination to implement effectively.Grazing management on communal lands can be controlled controlled by limiting access to water.Most grasslands have coevolved with grazing animals (ungulates) and balance. Grazing management depends on careful timing, both in terms of how long and how often grazing occurs. Plants are overgrazed as a periods between defoliations.Effective management means allowing time for full plant recovery before re-grazing when grass growth and nutritional value are at their maximum. Plant growth follows a sigmoid curve, growing at a slower rate when young, then accelerating, before slowing again towards maturity.Nutrient value starts to decline with seeding, so the optimal grazing time -in terms of both biomass and nutritional value -is soon after maturity. Usually re-grazing should not be allowed until grass species have matured and reproduced.Most grasslands consist of a community of valuable plants that mature at different rates, and and some may include both herbaceous and woody species. Timing, therefore, depends on a detailed local knowledge of both plant growth cycles and the desired combination of plant species for livestock production. The balance of plant species is determined by the livestock species (and the combination of species) as well as the livestock production objectives. Effective grazing management is is effectively applied through the local the local knowledge of herders.Grazing management plans are designed around periods of grazing and recovery of pasture areas. Plans are informed by the resting periods required for different plants, including the most desirable grasses and legumes. Decisions about moving animals from one pasture area to the next are based on the amount of forage available, size of the area, and the estimated seasonal growth rates. A key objective is to avoid repeated, severe defoliation of plants and allow for planned recovery periods.Grazing management faces the challenge of seasonal forage availability, with seasons of abundance and seasons of scarcity. Many pastoralist societies move their herds over great distances between seasons to exploit pasture zones with different grazing characteristics. Managing grazing patterns withinthese different areas can be challenging, particularly when each grazing area has a different group of users.Grazing management plans therefore need to be adapted to the social arrangements around pasture use, and management planning is usually dependent on identifying zones where the users have the right and the ability to enforce grazing rules.Continuous grazing, the most common grazing system in the world, often results in overgrazing and an increase of less-desirable or invasive invasive plant species. When livestock graze without restriction, they without allowing time for their roots to recover and leaves to regrow, they will die. Plants not eaten by livestock -the less desirable species -will mature, reproduce and thrive. $H8<4>A67:)<=)4A6F:9A6E)56N:6><4K56FT) H<65><456F)A6E)A;;:;;H:6> is to collect, gather, analysis, and interpretate natural resources data to characterize the ecological site and provide potential information for planning or other purposes following certain procedures. Site inventory data describes site biophysical, hydrological, and ecological features in addition to vegetation and animal resources, habitat assessments for wildlife and other variables that are relevant to the required planning goals. This data allows for comparison with other study sites.is the gathering of the ecological information that describes changes in rangeland attributes status using systematic and repeatable methods, usually to evaluate the response to certain intervention at the rangelands site.Data and results developed from repeated rangeland inventories can be used to produce the basis to compare responses and to support the site monitoring in order to assess the state of rangeland health according to that provide rapid, accurate, cost-effective, and robust measures of rangeland health and ecological trend.provides range lands manger and stakeholders with a communication tool regarding the status of ecosystem properties and processes on a site and how well they are functioning helping to develop clear adaptive restoration management.describes the current state of the vegetation compared with that of the climax or original vegetation for the range site. Range condition is used to measure deterioration or improvement in the plant community.condition.Before taking measurements, detailed properties of a site and vegetation toolkit has a separate section describing in greater details the information needed for developing the action plan based on site potentiality. In short, an ecological site description would include the following:• Coordinates of the target site, area, plot locations and transect starting points (where required) using GPS should be recorded.• distinguished by the dominant species• Soil type (sandy, silty, loamy, clay loam, limestone and sand dunes), in general rangeland soils are extremely diverse and different soil types may occur within the study site• Geomorphology: refers to the nature of the terrain (plains, hills, mountains, wadis, etc.)• Slope: usually expressed in percent or degrees• Climate: is the average weather conditions for the region (humid, semi-arid, arid, desert, etc.)• Meteorological data (rainfall, temperature, wind…) including their historical average and current average• Tenure systems (private, communal, public, protected, etc.)• Current state: natural reserve (park), rested (age of resting, implemented strategies, who supported the project), rotational grazing, continuously grazed, etc.)Figure 1. Measuring vegetation characteristics is essential in rangeland monitoring 76• Grazing patterns: stable grazing systems, seasonal, transhumant grazing, etc.)• Number of the main types of livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, camels or a mixed herd)• Distribution of water points./>AG:B<9E:4):6FAF:H:6>@)A)G:K)56F4:E5:6>Note: For a full description of this sub-section including stakeholder and grassland ecosystem health.Stakeholder engagement is particularly recommended at the following stages in rangeland assessment:Participatory indicator selection is usually combined with selection of pre-determined indicators, particularly when rangeland assessment needs to be carried out for comparison between different landscape managements (e.g., as part of a national methodology and monitoring they can also show differences in perceptions and understanding, and analysing how indicators diverge can be informative (Figure 2).• Changes to total vegetation cover (species density, bare ground, stony surface and rocky outcrops)• Change in the balance of herbaceous and woody vegetation• Change in total vegetation diversity • Presence of palatable species and other economically important species• Presence of invasive plants and undesirable species• Change in diversity of wild animals, birds, insects and other native species• Changes in topsoil properties (loosening, crusting, erosion)• Loss of soil nutrients, including soil organic carbon• Changes in seed stocks in the soil.2:>B<456F)\\)A;;:;;H:6>)There are numerous methods for monitoring and assessing rangelands.and on assessing rangeland conditions by determining vegetation cover, density, biomass, forage production, and plant diversity in each plant community to evaluate its status.provide detailed information for assessing the health of rangelands.Cost, however, often limits monitoring locations to a few key areas or random plots that observe a small fraction of the land they are intended to represent. There are many indicators that use plot-based methods for including:is the relative area covered by single plants, a group of individuals of a single species, or all species of plant community. It is expressed as a percentage of the total area of the plant community. Vegetation cover is estimated by the point intercept method. A metal pin or stake is inserted vertically next to the measuring tape at 50 cm intervals (100 points). The intersection at each point is recorded (vegetation, litter, stone, crust, recording measurements from at least three transects laid out in either the spoke or parallel design. The layout of transects may vary depending on landscape-scale. Parallel transects must be evenly spaced. 8). However, the geographic extent of drone imagery products is often limited to a few 1 cm) due to image collection and processing constraints.Digital cameras monitoring vegetation cover has an important role by conventional vegetation monitoring. In fact, digital vegetation charting technique (DVCT) is one of the most reliable technique for the monitoring of vegetation under different physiographic conditions (Louhaichi et al., 2018). It is less subjective and easy to use while providing high frequency and resolution data. The analysis of the color of images taken by high-resolution allow the detection of vegetation cover using software such as VegMeasure ® to create meaningful classes through quantifying the red, green, and blue (RGB) color channels of each pixel (Louhaichi et al., 2019) (Figure 9). However, the low height pictures taken by the human makes this technique suitable to monitor the vegetation cover of annuals and small size shrubs but not the tall ones or trees. proportion of milk product, and providing valuable animal protein in many countries that suffer from malnutrition and food insecurity.Thirty percent of rangelands and grasslands are estimated to be degraded worldwide, although the estimates range widely, depending that more than two thirds of their rangelands are degraded. Rangeland and grassland degradation create social, environmental and economic threats. They contribute to food and water insecurity, poverty, and grassland health assessment is therefore crucial for identifying land degradation and monitoring efforts to restore those lands and to address the associated social, environmental and economic risks.Global assessments of rangeland degradation invariably use remote sensing data that gives an indication of biomass productivity, but provides little insight into the desirability of that biomass. The risk of misdiagnosis of rangeland degradation becomes more serious when these methodologies are used for assessment at the national and sub-national level. There are numerous examples of misdiagnosis of rangeland degradation or health that have led to harmful investments or missed opportunities. Historically, this is perhaps most notoriously and barren lands of no value that are waiting to be put to good use. .BA99:6F:;)><)4A6F:9A6E)B:A9>B)A;;:;;H:6>)Grasslands and savannahs are the most widespread biomes within rangelands. The composition, structure, productivity, and diversity of these ecosystems are governed by a combination of climate, geography, topography, geology, and soil. Many rangelands and grasslands ecological communities.The unique factors that create rangelands and grasslands also create challenges to objectively assessing their health. Foremost among these challenges is the non-equilibrium nature of drylands, which transition between stable states in response to different forces acting on multi annual and decadal time scales. For example, a savannah may rest in a grass-dominated state for many decades, then transition to a tree-dominated state, perhaps due to a drought-induced reduction in natural herbivory, only to transition back to grass-dominated decades it is challenging to agree on a baseline against which degradation or restoration processes can be evaluated.A second challenge to rangeland and grassland health assessment of all rangelands globally are used for livestock production, most of it low-pressure and extensive. The healthy state of these lands can therefore be a subjective judgement based on the desired objectives of the managers. For example, an African grassland may be particularly desirable to a cattle herder but less desirable to a camel herder. The same land could transition to shrub-dominated, meeting the production objectives of the camel herders but viewed as degraded by the cattle herder. Wildlife managers face a similar challenge since most rangelands are highly heterogeneous, providing many different habitats that support different assemblages of species, some of which depend on grasslands and others on shrublands or woodlands.Rangelands have been described as \"land on which the indigenous vegetation (climax or sub-climax) is predominantly grasses, grasslike plants, forbs or shrubs that are grazed or have the potential to be grazed, and which is used as a natural ecosystem for the production of grazing livestock and wildlife\" (Allen et al., 2011). Faber-Langendoen et al. (2012) place grasslands and rangelands into two natural formation classes: i) Shrubland and Grassland and ii) Desert & Semi-Desert.However, other actors view rangelands as a socio-economic system, according to ecological criteria. In this view, rangelands can include a combination of pasture lands, woodlands, wetlands, oases, riparian zones, and other resource areas and habitat types. The diversity of resources that are implied in a typical rangeland system, as well as monitoring rangeland health.(9:H:6>;)<=):==:7>5N:)4A6F:9A6E)B:A9>B) A;;:;;H:6>The following elements have proven to be required for effective assessment of rangeland health. These elements do not necessarily take place in the order listed. the responsibility of a public institution and the scale may be determined by institutional boundaries, while the indicators may be determined by the relative infrequency of monitoring. Restoration action is sometimes their management system -often extending beyond administrative boundaries -while they may use a wide range of indicators to track short term changes in rangeland condition. While restoration action may require support to build the capacities of pastoral communities to assess rangeland health, restoration planning may require different actions to institutionalise assessment and monitoring, and to ensure indicator sets and methodologies are affordable, scalable and replicable.A common problem with rangeland health assessment has been encountered at the preliminary stage of agreeing the goal of the assessment. Different actors require different information to support decision making and there is a tendency to address multiple assessment goals simultaneously, leading to collection of more information than may be required or manageable. This can overwhelm the assessors with information that is beyond their capacity to analyse and interpret.Heavy methodologies that incorporate large numbers of indicators may sometimes be useful for projects that are designed to deliver many results, but they are at risk of remaining within a project and not being institutionalised for long term use. In the PRAGA methodology (referenced at the end of this document) IUCN recommends focusing on the minimum number of indicators to strike a balance between costeffectiveness (and capacity-effectiveness) and adequacy: indicators that are robust but feasible.$E:6>5=K)>B:)9A6E;7A8:)=<4)A;;:;;H:6>)A6E)>B:) 4:9:NA6>);>AG:B<9E:4;)56)>BA>)9A6E;7A8:In many cases, the landscape for assessment has been determined before the assessment has been conceived. Nevertheless, it is important Some groups may have a vested interested in disenfranchising other stakeholders and the stakeholder analysis should be through and independent. Although pastoralists are often marginalised within their country, other ethnic groups may be marginalised within a pastoral territory. Stakeholder analysis should examine gender roles and responsibilities in different rangeland communities and should ensure that the rangeland assessment is gender responsive.Stakeholder analysis should examine public institutions and private business interests within the landscape. Rangelands frequently fall between multiple public sectors and decision making has implications for ministries of livestock, forests, wildlife, water and others. Meanwhile the assessment should be informed of the expectations of different business interests, including private landowners, mining concessions, conservation organisations and others.+A>B:4)4:9:NA6>)CA7GF45<6Background information, from secondary data sources and local informants, can be compiled to characterise the target landscape and to gather available environmental and socio-economic data. Background information is useful for identifying potential challenges of access to the access -such as the lack of roads or seasonal accessibility -can be addressed through careful planning, while barriers created by insecurity need to be taken seriously. Rangeland assessments can be undermined by access constraints, since access will determine how areas in a landscape are used and therefore what condition they are in. Depending on the purpose of assessment, and the rangeland management system, economic data may also be gathered, including data on income and assets, and livestock production and health data. However, relating this to rangeland health assessments in most communal settings has proven to be challenging and not particularly informative.-A4>5758A><4K)56E57A><4)E:N:9<8H:6>There are a number of stages of rangeland assessment where participation with stakeholder is required, although participation may not be required at all stages and may impose an unnecessary burden on rangeland users. Participation is particularly recommended at the following stages in rangeland health assessment:1. Identifying and mapping the target landscape and determining management objectives and uses of different landscape patches according to the agreed management objectives 3. Interpretation and validation of the assessment results.some key community representatives, both to provide local knowledge and to ensure security, participation of a meaningful number of community members in data collection is usually not feasible and can be an unwanted burden. Participatory approaches to indicator selection are not discussed in detail here, but can be reviewed in the PRAGA manual.Participatory indicator selection is usually combined with selection of predetermined indicators, particularly when rangeland assessment needs to be carried out for comparison between landscapes (e.g. as part of a national methodology and monitoring system). While local indicators in perceptions and understanding, and analysing how indicators diverge can be informative. A thorough understanding of local ownership and rights, including seasonal rights, should inform site selection. Bias at this stage of selection can be construed as recognising the rights of one claimant cases, Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) may need to be sought before engaging in participatory assessment.• Coordinates of the target site (using GPS), plot locations, transect• Vegetation communities distinguished by the dominant species • Soil type (rangeland soils can be extremely diverse)• Geomorphology (plains, hills, mountains, rivers, water pans, wadis etc.)Slope and tendency (e.g. north or south facing)• Climate data and climate change projections• Tenure systems (private, communal, public, protected, etc.) and current primary and secondary uses of different resource areas• Grazing patterns (e.g. stable grazing systems, seasonal, transhumant grazing, etc.)• Number of the main types of livestock (sheep, goats, camels or a mixed herd)• Distribution of water points Socio-economic data may be required to help interpret the rangeland health assessment and to interpret drivers, pressures, state, impact and responses to land degradation. In some cases, rangeland health assessment will be aligned with other national assessment and reporting mechanisms. For example, some countries have applied the 5 UNCCD Impact Indicators as the minimum-standard for cross-comparability between sites. These indicators have the added value of strengthening reporting on UNCCD commitments while being an established indicator set, and therefore a low cost option for ongoing impact monitoring. ,A>A)7<99:7>5<6)A6E)84:95H56A4K)A6A9K;5;Data collection often begins during a participatory workshop, where rangeland stakeholders are asked to map their landscape in its current state, and map their vision of the landscape after a period of improvement. Rangeland maps should be developed at the appropriate element above. These maps can be drawn overlaid on a printed digital map, allowing features, plots, transects etc. to be digitised for future analysis.Remote sensing data is often introduced after this mapping exercise, to cross-examine trends observed using satellite data and trends observed through local knowledge and experience. Remotely sensed maps are some stakeholders. Site sampling is often best performed during these mapping workshops, For example, local communities may differentiate different aridity zones, different seasonal grazing areas, or altitude zones. Sampling sites can be pre-selected in each of these zones to ensure adequate coverage.The data collection team is often assembled to include representatives from key stakeholder groups and institutions, including community members. The numbers are typically limited by access to vehicles and other practical considerations. It is usually desirable to include a balance Data is usually collected on data sheets, and increasingly makes use of mobile phone apps that allow geolocation and photographs in each sample site. This accelerates the data management and analysis as well as the consistency of responses between different groups that may be sampling different sites and locations.$6>:484:>A>5<6)A6E)NA95EA>5<6)<=)4:;D9>;)Most IUCN rangeland assessment use the DPSIR framework for analysis: drivers, pressures, state, impact and response. Underlying drivers of rangeland degradation -such as population growth and economic development -need to be understood to guide long term rangeland development planning. More attention is needed to reach agreement on the pressures that driver rangeland degradation, such as inappropriate crop and livestock production, of poor location of water resources, which can be contentious. The assessment can be used to develop consensus as far as possible, or to identify areas of disagreement that can be addressed through follow-on activities.Results of rangeland assessment should also be interpreted through the prism of climate change, projecting likely trends and responses to climate change scenarios. This includes projected changes in water availability and severity of weather events. Climate analysis can also draw on secondary background information collected earlier in the assessment, including data and key informant perceptions of observable climate changes Validation of the results of rangeland assessment is the third of the recommended stages where a participatory approach is recommended.implications for rangeland management, and recommended responses.Ideally this validation exercise is a step between assessment and action, enabling stakeholders to take ownership of the response measures.The validation exercise is also a critical opportunity to examine practical solutions for addressing rangeland degradation and develop support for collective action where necessary, for example through the development of community rangeland management plans. Before deciding on the type of SRM practice(s) a thorough diagnostic is conducted for each selected site:• Site name, county, state, country .95HA>57)A6E)H:>:<4<94<9Arid rangelands in Tunisia are known for their variety, with ecosystems such as steppes, mountains, hills, wadis and various types of soil. In their current state, arid rangelands may not meet pastoralist needs for managing livestock production, wildlife, or ecosystem health and the effects of grazing pressure vary depending on different systems (Figure an important role in arid rangeland rehabilitation in sandy soils and depressions. Native plants can be reintroduced through direct seeding, transplanting seedlings, or both (Figure 10). This management technique is recommended during the rainy season to guarantee seed emergence and plant growth.When the ground is sloped, crusted and stony, all the variables that cause stormwater runoff can be mitigated with proven practices for conserving water and improving landscape management. Some of these practices double as effective landscape features. For example, microcatchment water harvesting and dams are the common forms of water harvesting and erosion control for sloping land and give a pleasing order and symmetry to the landscape (Figure 11). On milder slopes, semicircular bunds and Vallerani water harvesting These also form visually pleasing lines in the landscape and double as suitable beds for plants.A micro-catchment water harvesting system is simply a ditch constructed berm prevents it from continuing downhill. The water will then percolate into the ground, and any sediment that it may contain will be deposited in the base of the berm. Sometimes, seeding or transplanting forage shrubs in micro-catchment berms is recommended as a method of improving degraded rangelands. Historically, the Artemisia rangelands in Karnabchul were the primary grazing lands providing reliable feed resources for the sheep, goats, and cattle of the local population for centuries. The most critical factor affecting Artemisia rangelands is the high and mismanaged sheep number of small ruminants has increased during the past 20-25 years. Due to the extensive development of livestock husbandry and human pressure, these valuable ecosystems are facing an increasing and detrimental anthropogenic stress. As a consequence, more 50% of through overgrazing and fuel wood harvesting. The vegetatoin is being replaced with weedy, poisonous plants such as Peganum harmala and unpalatable Iris songarica.Ecological monitoring and assessment of the current condition and historic degradation trends of Artemisia ecosystems is a major concern in Karnabchul to prevent further degradation and to undertake conservation and restoration measures. Thus, a site characterization of Karnabchul rangeland is the key to understanding the causes of degradation and developing appropriate conservation and restoration measures. In rangeland areas, the decline of underground water and increase in salinity is common *Incidence of water borne diseases and pollutants Sources: Health sector and water authorities.Not available 7).At present, rangeland degradation covers large spatial and temporal scales. According to estimates, 50-70% of rangeland areas are affected by different levels of degradation. However, the exact spatial and temporal extent and the trend of this degradation is largely unknown due to the absence of a comprehensive framework for the assessment of rangeland conditions.#B:)&::E)=<4)-A4>5758A><4K)!A6F:9A6E) 2A6AF:H:6>The most severe rangeland degradation in Uzbekistan occurs around settlements and villages and is largely due to mismanagement. This happens because of the weakness or absence of participatory governance systems (planning and management) in rangeland areas.A production-oriented management philosophy has dominated rangeland management across Uzbekistan for the last century Going forward, rangeland research should focus on applying rangeland health indicators, conceptual ecological models and threshold theories, which have been developed and widely applied in other rangelanddominated countries. Current methods are easy to adapt can be used to organize existing knowledge into a conceptual framework (Briske et al., 2005). They are an effective tool for improving our understanding of the current state and dynamics of rangeland ecosystems.Applying these methods also allows for developing realistic strategies for better management of resources and can be effectively applied and scaled out in Uzbekistan.!A6F:9A6E)7<6E5>5<6)A;;:;;H:6> Based on these indicators and their quantitative changes along the of degradation. In addition, reversible and irreversible transitions of vegetation states were established. Most important, this framework allowed planners to differentiate healthy and degraded rangelands measures needed for an adaptive grazing plan. Assessing the available rotational schemes are integral steps in the developing of adaptive rangeland management and its successful implementation.(7<9<4A>5<6 native functions and services of rangeland ecosystems. Based on the level of alteration in species composition and their richness, the duration of grazing exclusion will be different.Using the indicative properties of vegetation and quantitative criteria for condition assessment, various levels of rangeland degradation can be differentiated and a series of treatments implemented to promote desirable native species. Vegetation treatments can include mechanical control of noxious species and direct seeding of perennial semi-shrubs such as Artemisia spp. without tillage. In severely degraded rangelands with strong turf layers of Poa bulbosa and Carex pachystylis, limited tillage is recommended to break up the compacted turf layer for Artemisia to promote the growth of vegetation after direct seeding. When seeding, Native species must be used when seeding. Alien species are not recommended.Treatments can be repeated based on the rate of restoration. The restoration area must be protected as until it has returned to its native condition. As soon as evaluations suggest the restored area is healthy, adaptive grazing plans can be developed and implemented Figure 9).The Jordan Badia constitutes 80% of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Al-Tabini et al., 2012). The steppe rangelands of the Jordanian Badia are continuously being degraded, many indigenous plant species have disappeared, and their productivity has been halved over the last two decades. Productivity has fallen to a disturbingly low level-less than rangelands.With the rapid deterioration of rangelands and increasing climate change impacts, pressure grew on the government to resolve these problems.At the beginning of 2000, the government responded to this crisis with urgency. Their strategy comprised important measures such as rangeland management and restoration, for example, shrubs planting, strategy has been well received as it offers technical solutions. However, it remains challenging for pastoral communities to own the process. This change in behavior needs time to be fully embraced.Based on recent as well as historical data, it is clear that the rangeland condition of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is declining. Rangelands must be healthy, productive and diverse to meet the needs of rural communities and society today as well as those of future generations.will better support the social and economic needs of the population.Climate condition, soil type, land use type, livestock, population density, distribution, and change, along with the demographics of the project area, are useful attributes for rangeland rehabilitation projects. These attributes also provide an understanding of how rangeland rehabilitation could affect the livelihoods of people living in the project area. They are called the Ecological Site Characteristics, include:Site characterization reports also include information about what the site is best suited for, such as 1) wildlife and livestock uses, 2) hydrologic functions, 3) other products the site may produce. Using this information, land managers can evaluate the suitability of their land for various purposes, set realistic goals and better predict the outcomes of management practices. Baseline data collection should cover some or all topics listed below as appropriate.Some or even much of the required data may needed may already be available in government ministries and departments, UN agencies dissertations. A great deal of time and money can be spent duplicating the work of others, time and money better spent on implementation and action on the ground. !A6F:9A6E)4:;><4A>5<6The primary goal of restoration projects in the Badia rangelands is livestock production. However, the multiple-use of rangelands also includes soil and water conservation, especially in watersheds. For a plan. For example, in many areas of water shortage, water harvesting is necessary for strengthening efforts to ensure the success of any restoration program. Potential solutions to restore and rehabilitate degraded rangelands in Badia vary across locations, soil surface, degree of slope, and the degree of rangeland degradation.PB:6)4A6F:9A6E)845N5>K)E<:;)6<>):J7::E) >B:)E:F4AEA>5<6)>B4:;B<9E This degradation leads to slight degeneration of vegetation and soil surface erosion. These changes represent a light disturbance that allows vegetation to recover when intervening to rehabilitate. When the vegetation cover is higher than 20%, natural restoration of vegetation they can undergo natural recovery without human intervention. Grazing exclusion can be used to implement seasonally deferred grazing practices. During favorable climatic periods protection from grazing on rangeland health (Louhaichi et al., 2021). Instead of abandoning rangelands due to their advanced degradation status, there are certain actions which could reverse trend or at least slow it including:Exclude grazing and leave rangelands as they are.Soil surface scarification and direct seeding can play an important role in the rehabilitation of relatively flat rangeland.Prohibit all human activities that can hamper vegetation development so that the local species could colonize the rangeland.Native plants can be reintroduced through direct seeding, transplanting seedlings, or both.1 2 3 4.<6;5E:4A>5<6;The degradation hazard of some species may be insensitive to a decrease reduce litter accumulation on soil surfaces, disruption of nutrient cycles, formation of soil crusts, disruption of nutrient cycles that retard or impede germination on microsites, and altered species composition (Archer, 1989). Given these circumstances, the availability of microsites should be developed to serve as useful factors of changes in the vegetation cover.disturbance of the soil surface to permit deeper water penetration and provide microsites for seedling establishment.of the soil surface to enhance seeding success is frequently advocated as a mechanism to create a favorable microsite and retain soil moisture for germination and seedlings survival./>::8^;9<8:E)4A6F:9A6E;Increased grazing pressure, often on steep slopes, results in rangeland degradation until abandoned once they became denuded which exacerbates the grazing pressure on other existing rangelands. To ensure that the productive potential of rangeland and sustainability of livestock production is maintained in the long term, implementing adaptive rangeland management should be required.In arid environments, rainfall is one of the most limiting factors associated with the failure and the success of rangeland management projects. Rainwater harvesting practices are usually combined with shrub plantation and direct seeding and protection from grazing for successful rangeland rehabilitation. Therefore, rainwater harvesting techniques are considered a part of the solution to improving arid rangeland productivity. Rainwater harvesting systems can be constructed in several ways that are easy, versatile, and adaptable to a wide range of conditions. They can be used anywhere in rural areas, and local people can be easily trained to install them. This lowers costs and promotes community engagement, ownership, and sustainability. the needs of the vegetation recovering by planting and seeding. The amount of water collected from such watersheds depends on the size of the area, the constructed catchment, the intensity of the precipitation, and soil permeability.For small areas, using semi-circular bunds and V-shaped micro catchments are an appropriate practice for rehabilitation of degraded rangeland.The sizes of semi-circular bunds vary from small structures (2 m) to very large structures (30 m). Bunds are constructed by digging out soil from within the area to be enclosed and supporting it up to form the bund. They are easy to construct and reduce soil erosion and catch water to insure good storage for the shrubs. The bunds should be established along a contour line in a matched arrangement so that water, will be caught and collected by those two main tips. Semi-circular bunds are suitable on gentle slopes areas. One or two shallow holes are dug in the lowest part to help concentrate micro catchments are well suited for hand construction, they cannot easily be mechanized. These micro catchments are mainly used for growing trees or shrubs in arid and semi-arid areas.For large areas, contour bunds are best suited for rainwater harvesting. They are suitable on the sloping ground of low rainfall areas where runoff can be impounded by constructing bunds along the contour of equal elevation. Contour bunds may be continuous contour furrows or intermittent contours.Contour furrows are small soil banks that run along a contour. A furrow should be established next to each bank on the upper side of the slope. The distance between the ridges varies depending on the rainfall and the slope. The aim of contour furrows is to concentrate moisture into the ridge and furrow area where the plants are placed by trapping runoff water from the catchment area. This also reduces the erosion risk. To maximize the runoff between the two ridges, the catchment area should be left uncultivated and clear of vegetation.To prevent the destruction of the contour bunds, intermittent contours are useful for erosion control. Contour scale rehabilitation. The optimal distance between two contours depends upon the slope of the area, where steeper grounds require less distance.148 149 !A6F:9A6E)FAG:B<9E:4;_)56N<9N:H:6>Rangeland management governance mechanisms, which include stakeholders, tackle rangeland-related issues and implicate other sectors that interact with rangelands. At the local level and to deal with governance processes, a rangeland council or association can be established where all stakeholders can consult on rangelands management issues.The involvement of all stakeholders in rangeland assessment is one of the best practices in their management. This requires starting by identifying, mapping and evaluating the role of each stakeholder, its responsibility as well as the degree of implications on rangelands management activities. The analysis of social aspects and factors affecting rangeland management can be carried out by relying on social surveys, interviews, and rural appraisal methods. The involvement and cooperation between stakeholders should be both horizontal intra and inter communities and local authorities but also vertical between the local communities and the central institutions. The establishment of rangeland associations or councils at the local level is very useful for management consultation. These associations will play key roles in the implementation of support programs related to rangeland management originating from the central government. Once rangeland is rehabilitated through combined practices such as management is an effective tool for sustainable management of these harsh ecosystems. Grazing management is a tool to balance the capture of energy by the plants, the harvest of that energy by animals, and the conversion of that energy into a marketable product. Timing of grazing and growth rate of plants after-grazing events are key factors in controlling frequency, intensity and duration of grazing. These factors improve livestock production.These rehabilitation practices make it viable for pastoralists to increase livestock production by increasing their herd sizes. They also increase the economic and environmental conditions, such as improving the food security status in drought years and reducing grazing pressure on the natural rangelands from the increased vegetation cover.#B:) HA6AF:H:6>) <=) >B:) 5H84:;T) A=>:4) >B:) 4:;>) A6E) 4:BAC595>A>5<6T) ;BB:) E5N:4;5>K) <=) >B:) :6N54<6H:6>A9) 7<6E5>5<6;) <=) >B:) 4A6F:) ;5>:;) A6E) 95H5>) ><) >B:) H565HDH) >B:) 7BA6F:) 56) >B:) D;DA9) HA6AF:H:6>) H:>B5<6;) A4:) 5H8<4>A6>@The sites will be subject to rest technique (including those to be rehabilitated) for two years to increase the chances of rehabilitating their stock in seeds and / or strains of the most important pastoral plants and those seriously affected by mismanagement In the third year, the rested areas will be open to grazing only once during the vegetative dormant season to enhance the cumulative forage units (FUs) and take advantage of the animal impact (burying short duration during the vegetative growth season (preferably at the during the dormant period of the main pastoral species but of longer duration (until almost total use of the annual grass cover). The duration of this second grazing period and the stocking density will depend on the fodder supply (carrying capacity), the availability of water for watering the herd and the size of the herds entitled to access the perimeter in question, but roughly, the animals can stay if the breeders wish, subject to the following conditions: Not to take more than 60% of the consumable biomass offered by perennials (all of the biomass offered by annuals can be consumed at the latest) All animals using the site must leave it the same day and before At the end of the dormant period, grazing will be excluded until the following spring and the cycle will begin once again. 2A6AF:H:6>)<=)F4AY56F)A65HA9;Among the problems that face rangeland manager is the non-uniform distribution of grazing animals on the surface area of rangelands resulting in some patches exploited more than others do. Therefore, a higher uniformity in the distribution animal on rangelands is preferred.The nature of the dominant vegetation cover will dictate the use of sheep if it is herbaceous. In case of shrubs, bushes, and spiny vegetation, goats and camels are more favorable. The management plan to improve adjust the species composition. In case of grazing by different animal species, it should be noted that even if camels and small ruminants have different preferences rangeland types, it is essential to avoid grazing by small ruminants before camels. Both types of animals must graze the range at the same time. Camels refuse, in fact, to graze after the small ruminants. Furthermore, grazing annual plants in spring, essential for camels, should be favored in case of mixed grazing. In contrast, small ruminants are not embarrassed to graze in the areas frequented by a determining factor.Several accompanying measures may guarantee the uniform distribution of grazing animals on rangelands. A good distribution of watering points and shelters (shady areas) and services center (for concentrates and storage of food, veterinary treatments, …) may help in adapting and implementing a rotational grazing system. An assemblage of plants occurring together at any point in time, while denoting no particular successional status. A unit of vegetation.The interaction between organisms as a result of the removal or reduction of a common, required resource from the environment. Resources may include water, nutrients, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, food and shelter. throughout a year or for that part of the year during which grazing is feasible. The term is not necessarily synonymous with yearlong grazing, since seasonal grazing may be involved. A preferred term is continuous stocking.A plowed or listed strip, commonly 8 to 18 inches deep and wide, made parallel to the horizontal contour for the purpose of water retention and reduction of soil erosion.Syn. prescribed burning.(1) The plant or plant parts, living or dead, on the surface of the ground. Vegetative cover or herbage cover is composed of living plants and litter cover of dead parts of plants. Syn. foliar cover (2) The area of ground covered by plants of one or more species. cf. basal area.For a given plant community, those species that decrease in practice.objective. A strategy aimed at providing time for plant reproduction, establishment of new plants, restoration of plant vigor, a return to environmental conditions appropriate for grazing, or the accumulation of forage for later use. cf. deferred grazing, rotational deferred.Species which contribute positively to the management objectives.Planting seed directly into the soil with a drill in rows, cf. broadcast seeding.Organisms together with their abiotic environment, forming A transition area of vegetation between two communities, having characteristics of both kinds of neighboring vegetation as well as characteristics of its own. Varies in width depending on site and climatic factors. cf. edge effect.A genetically differentiated subpopulation (race) that is ecotypes are observed only when different ecotypes are tested in a common environment, 2. ecotypes are generally subdivided into races, e.g., edaphic, climatic (termed cline), geographic (termed variety).Refers to the soil.Grazing management that utilizes relatively large land areas per animal and a relatively low level of labor, resources, or capital. cf. intensive grazing management.The animal life of a region. A listing of animal species of a region.(1) The plant species of an area. (2) A simple list of plant species or a taxonomic manual.(n.) Browse and herbage which is available and may provide food for grazing animals or be harvested for feeding . (v.) To search for or consume forage. cf. (v.) browse, graze.The weight of forage that is produced within a designated period of time on a given area. The weight may be expressed production. emergency use.An index to the grazing use that may be made for forage species that will maintain economically important forage species or to achieve other management objectives.Any broad-leafed herbaceous plant other than those in the Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Juncaceae families. cf. legume.Land on which the vegetation is dominated by grasses, grass like plants, and/or forbs (cf. dominant). Lands not presently grassland that were originally or could become grassland through naturalThe maximum stocking rate that will achieve based on total nutrient resources available, including harvested without deterioration of the ecosystem. A description of the grazing capacity should include stocking rate, grazing method, targeted animal performance and nongrazed nutrient resources.Dispersion of livestock grazing within a management unit or area.The percentage of material, other than bare ground, covering the land surface. It may include live and standing dead vegetation, litter, cobble, gravel, stones and bedrock. Ground cover plus bare ground would total 100 percent.A furrow, channel or miniature valley, usually with steep sides or snow melt. cf. arroyo and coulee.The collective area which one plant association occupies or will come to occupy as succession advances. The habitat type is environment. The concept was developed by Rexford Daubenmire. Habitat type is similar in concept to ecological site. The difference A perennial plant with a woody base whose annually produced stems die each year.A physiological condition of seed in which some viable seeds do not immediately absorb water or oxygen and germination is delayed when a favorable environment is provided. Non-synonymous with seed dormancy.A hardened soil layer in the lower A or in the B horizon caused by cementation of soil particles with organic matter or with materials such as silica, sesquioxides, or calcium carbonate. The hardness does not change appreciably with changes in moisture content, and pieces of the hard layer do not crumble in water. cf. caliche.A comparative term which indicates that the stocking rate of a pasture is relatively greater than that of other pastures. Often erroneously used to mean overuse. cf. light and moderate grazing.1. Non-woody plant growth. 2. A term often used to describe Holistic Management is a practical, goal-oriented approach to the management of the ecosystem including the human, use of a management model which incorporates a holistic view of land, people and other resources. Holistic Management is now the correct name for the approach formerly called Holistic Resource Management. https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-areacategories For a given plant community, those species that increase in practice.(1) Species that indicate the presence of certain environmental conditions, seral stages, or previous treatment. (2) One or more plant species selected to indicate a certain level of grazing use. cf. key species.A body of knowledge built up. by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with. Nature. Indigenous: Born, growing, or produced naturally (native) in an area, region, or country. Cf. endemic.The rate of movement of water from the soil surface into soil.Grazing management that attempts to increase production or utilization per unit area or production per animal through a relative increase in stocking rates, forage utilization, labor, resources, or capital. Intensive grazing management is not synonymous any one or more of a number of grazing methods that use relatively more labor or capital resources. Cf. extensive grazing management.The weight of a substance after it has been dried in which, if continued, will result in range deterioration. cf. overgrazing.(1) A grazing area that is a subdivision of a grazing management unit, and is enclosed and separated from other areas by a fence or barrier. (2) A relatively small enclosure used as an exercise and saddling area for horses, generally adjacent to stalls or stable. cf. grazing.The relish with which a particular species or plant part is consumed by an animal.Horizon or layer in soils that is strongly compacted, indurated, or very high in clay content. cf. caliche, claypan, hardpan.Grazing use of current growth usually expressed as a percent of the current growth (by weight) which has been removed. cf. degree of use.An assemblage of plants occurring together at any point in time, thus denoting no particular successional status. A unit of vegetation.Species that are preferred by animals and are burning.The rate of conversion of solar to chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.A state of ecological stability or condition existing in the absence of direct disturbance by modern man.Any part of an organism, produced sexually or asexually that is capable of giving rise to a new individual.The act of continuously obtaining proper use.Placing a number of animals on a given area that will result in proper use at the end of the planned grazing period. Continued proper stocking will lead to proper grazing.An index to the grazing use that may be made of that will maintain the economically important forage species, or achieve other management objectives such as maintenance of watersheds, recreation values, etc.(a) a generic term relating to present status of a unit of range in be stated. (b) the present state of vegetation of a range site in relation to the climax (natural potential) plant community for that site. It is an expression of the relative degree to which the kinds, proportions, and amounts of plants in a plant community resemble that of the climax plant community for the site. This term is being phased out. Preferred terms are successional status and range similarity index.The process that leads to an irreversible reduction in capability of an ecological site to produce vegetation.Any activity or program on or relating to rangelands which is designed to improve production of forage, change vegetation composition, control patterns of use, provide water, stabilize soil and water conditions, or provide habitat for livestock and wildlife.A distinct discipline founded on ecological principles and dealing with the use of rangelands and range resources for a variety of purposes. These purposes include use as watersheds, wildlife habitat, grazing by livestock, recreation, and aesthetics, as well as other associated uses.Spots containing unusually large quantities of salts in the soil where animals consume the soil to obtain salt.(1) Synonymous with seasonal grazing, (2) Seasonal preference of certain plant species by animals.Mechanical or acid treatment of seed-coats to improve water absorption and enhance germination."} \ No newline at end of file