Delete test

test/Academic_disciplines/Anthropocene_Working_Group.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
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-    "document": "The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is an interdisciplinary research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. It was established in 2009 as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent body of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). As of 2021, the research group features 37 members, with the physical geographer Simon Turner as Secretary and the geologist Colin Neil Waters as chair of the group. The late Nobel Prize-winning Paul Crutzen, who popularized the word 'Anthropocene' in 2000, had also been a member of the group until he died on January 28, 2021. The main goal of the AWG is providing scientific evidence robust enough for the Anthropocene to be formally ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) as an epoch within the Geologic time scale.\nPrior to the establishment of the Anthropocene Working Group in 2009, no research program dedicated to the formalization of the Anthropocene in the geologic time scale existed. The idea of naming the current epoch 'Anthropocene' rather than using its formal time unit, the Holocene, became popular after Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer published in May 2000 an article on the IGBP Global Change Newsletter called \"The 'Anthropocene'.\" Later in 2002, Crutzen published a commentary on Nature titled \"Geology of Mankind\" where he further stressed the idea \"to assign the term ‘Anthropocene’ to the present, in many ways human-dominated, geological epoch, supplementing the Holocene,\" with starting date in the late 18th century (at the onset of the Industrial Revolution). Soon after Paul Crutzen published his influential articles, a debate over the beginning of the Anthropocene took place between supporters of the Early Anthropocene Hypothesis, a thesis originally promoted in 2003 by the palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman dating the beginning of the Anthropocene as far back as the Neolithic Revolution, and supporters of more recent starting dates, from  European Colonization of the Americas, to the late 18th century, to the post-WWII Great Acceleration.The discussion over the beginning of the Anthropocene was crucial for the 'stratigraphic turn' that the Anthropocene debate took in the following years. In February 2008, Jan Zalasiewicz and other members of the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London published a paper that considered the possibility to \"amplify and extend the discussion of the effects referred to by Crutzen and then apply the same criteria used to set up new epochs to ask whether there really is justification or need for a new term, and if so, where and how its boundary might be placed.\" The article raised the possibility of studying the Anthropocene as a discrete geological unit—a possibility that later led to the establishment of the AWG.\nIn 2009, the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy established an Anthropocene Working Group to \"examine the status, hierarchical level and definition of the Anthropocene as a potential new formal division of the Geological Time Scale.\" Some authors have labelled this moment as 'stratigraphic turn' or 'geological turn', in that the establishment of the AWG acknowledged the Anthropocene as an object of geological interest in the scientific community. The AWG has been actively publishing ever since then.\nThe first in-person meeting of the AWG took place in October 2014 at Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin (HKW), with several other work meetings at HKW to follow in subsequent years. The AWG became a close collaborator of the HKW's and Max Planck Institute for the History of Science's decade long Anthropocene Project. Within the framework of that project, HKW was able to acquired in 2018 financial support for a systematic assessment of potential candidates for the Anthropocene's Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) by the AWG through means of a special appropriation from the German Bundestag.\nIn 2020, Colin Waters, previously secretary of the AWG, became the new chair, replacing the paleobiologist Jan Zalasiewicz who had previously been chair of the AWG from 2009 to 2020, while Simon Turner became the new secretary of the group.\nThe Anthropocene Working Group is one of four workings groups part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (the other three being the Pleistocene:Holocene boundary working group, Middle/Late Pleistocene boundary working group, and Early/Middle Pleistocene boundary working group). The AWG members (including Paul Crutzen, who was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1995 for his researcher on ozone depletion; John McNeill, a pioneering researcher in the field of environmental history; and Naomi Oreskes, author of the book Merchants of Doubt) have diverse disciplinary backgrounds, ranging from international law, archaeology, and history to philosophy, natural science, and geography. Since no direct funding supports the research program, communication among members happens mostly through email, whereas meetings are usually founded by hosting institutions.As for most of the epochs in the Phanerozoic (the current Eon, starting 539 million years ago), determining the beginning of the Anthropocene by locating and agreeing upon its lower boundary is a necessary step in its process of formal recognition as a geochronological/chronostratigraphic unit. A lower boundary is defined by locating a GSSP (informally known as 'golden spike') in the stratigraphic section of a stage, the chronostratigraphic taxonomic equivalent of an epoch. Alternatively, if a 'golden spike' cannot be located, a GSSA can be agreed upon, although this methodology is usually implemented for Precambrian boundaries. There is a specific set of rules that a GSSP must fulfill in order to be recognized as a valid primary geologic marker.\nA central object of research for the AWG is establishing when, where, and how to locate the lower boundary of the Anthropocene. This means assigning a starting date to the Anthropocene (and an end to the Holocene), locating primary as well as auxiliary markers defining Anthropocene geologic record, and determining the proper methodology to implement in the overall process of formalization (GSSP or GSSA, what proxies to use as markers, etc.). Although debates on the taxonomical level of the Anthropocene in the chronostratigraphic chart / geologic time scale (Stage/Age, Series/Epoch, or System/Period) have occurred, the AWG has been considering the Anthropocene to best fit the requirements to be taxonomically recognized as an epoch.\nIn January 2014, the Geological Society of London published A Stratigraphical Basis for the Anthropocene, a collection of scientific essays dedicated to assessing and analyzing the anthropogenic signatures defining the Anthropocene, and its requirements to be recognized as a distinct chronostratigraphic unit from the Holocene. The volume constitutes a landmark publication for the AWG, collecting a preliminary body of scientific evidence for the Anthropocene, and establishing research areas and trajectories retraced in the following years.\nIn February 2019, the AWG published The Anthropocene as a Geological Time Unit: A Guide to the Scientific Evidence and Current Debate. It represents an extensive summary of evidence collected supporting the case of formalization of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. The synthesis comprehends evidence ranging from stratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, mineralogy, biostratigraphy, chemostratigraphy, to climatology, Earth system science, and archaeology. The monograph also links the Anthropocene to the question concerning anthropogenic climate change, and the role of human technology and the technosphere in impacting the functioning of the Earth system. In the first chapter, the authors also provide a genealogy of the term 'Anthropocene,' and a statement of the role of the AWG as a scientific research program.\nIn May, 2019, the AWG completed a binding vote determining two major research questions:\n\"Should the Anthropocene be treated as a formal chrono-stratigraphic unit defined by a GSSP?\"\n\"Should the primary guide for the base of the Anthropocene be one of the stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century of the Common Era?\"\nBoth questions received a positive response, with 29 votes in favor, 4 votes against, and no abstention (33 votes received out of 34 potential voting members).\nOn July 11, 2023, the AWG proposed Crawford Lake, Canada as GSSP candidate site of the Anthropocene series in a joint press conference with the Max Planck Society.\nIn 2016 seven prominent members of the AWG : Erle Ellis, John McNeill, Eric Odada, Andrew Revkin, Will Steffen, Davor Vidas and Jan Zalasiewicz :  were interviewed in the feature documentary Anthropocene which showed on campuses and at film festivals worldwide and helped the term gain public attention. The documentary was the first feature-length film about the new epoch, and was described by Earth.com as one of the top ten documentaries to help raise environmental awareness. While the seven AWG members formed a broad consensus about the Anthropocene's history and the term's significance, they took contrasting views when invited by director Steve Bradshaw to consider the Anthropocene either as a tragedy : with extinctions and upheavals : or as a dark comedy.",
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test/Academic_disciplines/Applied_history.json

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-    "document": "Applied history is the effort to apply insights grounded in the study of the past to the challenges of the present, particularly in the area of policy-making. Applied history is closely associated with the field of public history, and the terms today are sometimes used interchangeably, though historically, public history has been a more encompassing term, engaging a broad range of audiences, subjects and methods, while applied history has been more narrowly focused on work associated with the development of domestic and foreign policy.\nThe term \"applied history\" was coined in 1909 by political scientist and historian Benjamin Shambaugh (1871-1940). A founding member of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association (today the Organization of American Historians), Shambaugh edited its proceedings from 1909 to 1914 and served as its president in 1909-1910. In 1912, Shambaugh, then superintendent of the State Historical Society of Iowa, launched the publication Applied History, a series that ran until 1930. Shambaugh defined applied history as \"the use of the scientific knowledge of history and experience in efforts to solve present problems of human betterment.\" Examples included legislative reference work and policy analysis, as well as the creation and stewardship of public archives, and the practice of state and local history.The Applied History series, and related efforts, lost funding during the Great Depression, and \"applied history\" as an enterprise receded until the 1970s, when it re-emerged in new contexts and forms. In 1974, Harvard University historian Ernest R. May published 'Lessons of the Past': The Use and Abuse Of History in American Foreign Policy, which argues that more substantive engagement with the discipline of history would improve policymaking. May together with Richard Neustadt taught courses in which students were invited to apply historical insight to contemporary social issues; in 1986 May and Neustadt published Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision-Makers. In 1975, historians Joel Tarr and Peter Stearns launched an Applied History program at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh. This Ph.D. program aimed to prepare students for jobs in a variety of public and private educational institutions. In the 1980s, the program changed its name from \"Applied History\" to \"History and Policy\".\nToday there are a number of academic programs in applied history. Shippensburg University hosts a Center for Applied History, and there is an Applied History Project at Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. In Flanders, KU Leuven and the State Archives of Belgium host project Corvus, which uses its research in applied history to develop, test and evaluate different types of historical consultancy. In November 2018, Dutch Historians Harm Kaal (Radboud University) and Jelle van Lottum (Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands) founded the Journal of Applied History, published by academic publisher Brill Publishers.",
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test/Academic_disciplines/Bolognese_bell_ringing.json

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-{
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-    "document": "Bolognese bell ringing is a tradition of ringing bells that developed in Bologna, present day Italy. A form of full circle ringing, it entails swinging bells to develop rhythmic patterns.\nDuring the 16th century there was a competitive spirit between Rome and Bologna. At that time the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna was still under construction, and was intended to be greater than St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Both cities were part of the Papal States, and both were considered capital cities of art and music.There was also competition between two teams of bell ringers; from Bologna's Basilica of San Petronio and from Rome's Santa Cecilia's Church. Eager to prove their skills, the Bolognese bell ringers devised a regular and accurate method of ringing: each bell would have to ring once per rotation. This method soon spread through the city and its many bell towers, and reached nearby cities such as Ferrara, Modena and Faenza.\nThis bellringing system was originally designed for an ensemble of four or five bells. Nowadays it is also sometimes used for a set of six bells.The bells are never counterbalanced. They are mounted on a wooden structure called the castle, and flanked by a wooden support called the goat. The bells are not very heavy, as the rotation has to be fast. Generally, every bell that weighs less than 800 kg (16 cwt) is rung by one person. The heaviest bell used with this system is in Bologna Cathedral, and is called la Nonna (\"the Granny\") and weighs 3.3 tonnes. Thirteen people are needed to ring a scappata or a calata with it.\nIn this method, the bell ringers have to be at the top of the bell tower, in contact with the bells. Mechanical devices are not allowed.\nBell ringers can ring in two different positions:\nwithin the castle (in front of the bells), pulling the ropes and controlling the clapper\nabove the castle, where they can help to raise the bell with their feet and then move it by pulling and pushing the goat. These ringers are called travaroli, because they stand on travi, girders.\nIn Bolognese bell ringing, sets of bells are rung in four different techniques: scampanio ('chime'), doppio a cappio ('double loop'), tirate basse ('low pulls'), and doppio a trave ('double beam').In scampanio, the bells are hung stationary with the mouth facing downwards. The clappers are attached to ropes that the bellringer can control using both hands and feet. This enables the ringing of complex melodies and harmonies. A fundamental melody is martellata di Chiesa, which consists of variations to invoke themes of the 18th century.\nIn doppio a cappio, a set of bells, beginning in the resting position with the mouth facing downwards, are swung using short ropes tied to the goat. The bellringers begin swinging the bells in, sometimes pushing or pulling the clapper to ring the bell when the rotation is not yet sufficient. Using increasingly wide swings, they gradually bring the bell into a \"standing position\" in which the bell is balancing at the top of its axis with the mouth facing upwards. At this point, the bellringers play a pezzo in piedi ('standing piece') : a rhythmic ringing pattern. At the end of the standing piece, the bells are then swung freely, gradually slowing until they return to the resting position.\nIn tirate basse, the bells are swung continuously with a low enough amplitude that the clapper does not ring the bell. The bellringers rhythmically increase the amplitude of individual rotations to obtain a pattern of notes from the swinging bells.\nIn doppio a trave, probably the oldest of the techniques, the bells are arranged with their mouths facing upwards and thrown into a full swing by the bellringers in a rhythmic pattern. They are caught following each full swing.\n",
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test/Academic_disciplines/Cylinder_Audio_Archive.json

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-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "The Cylinder Audio Archive is a free digital collection maintained by the University of California, Santa Barbara Library with streaming and downloadable versions of over 10,000 phonograph cylinders  manufactured between 1893 and the mid-1920s. The Archive began in November 2003 as the successor of the earlier Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Pilot Project.\nThe pilot project began in 2002 to test the feasibility of digitizing cylinder recordings on a large scale for preservation and public access and explore issues related to the preservation and digitization of cylinder records. In 2003, the Institute for Museum and Library Services funded the Archive with a grant for $205,000 and between 2003 and 2005 UCSB library staff cataloged and digitized over 6,000 of the cylinder recordings in the library's collection using an archéophone, a modern electrical cylinder player designed in France by Henri Chamoux. The website was released to the public on November 16, 2005. Since outside project funding has ended a further 4,000 cylinders have been added to the archive.The Archive consists of a broad range of cylinder records manufactured between 1893 and the mid-1920s. The majority were produced by Edison Records in Orange, New Jersey, but the Archive also contains cylinders produced by the Columbia Phonograph Co., Indestructible Records and other companies. The majority of the cylinders feature music and include band recordings, popular songs, vaudeville, opera arias, and music for solo instruments such as banjo, violin and accordion, but the Archive also contains speeches, comedic monologues and home recordings.The Archive currently holds only the cylinders in the collection of the UCSB Libraries. Other libraries, including the Library of Congress and Bowling Green State University, have contributed cylinders for preservation and digitization, as have private collectors. The Archive accepts donations of cylinders but at present does not add digital files of cylinders from other collections, the one exception being cylinders in the collection of John Levin.\n",
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test/Academic_disciplines/Drug_education.json

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-{
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-    "document": "Drug education is the planned provision of information, guidelines, resources, and skills relevant to living in a world where psychoactive substances are widely available and commonly used for a variety of both medical and non-medical purposes, some of which may lead to harms such as overdose, injury, infectious disease (such as HIV or hepatitis C), or addiction. The two primary approaches to drug education are harm-reduction education and abstinence-based education.\nAbstinence-based drug education began with the anti-alcohol \"temperance education\" programmes of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the United States and Canada in the late 19th century. In many respects, the WCTU's progressive education agenda set the template for much of what has been done since in the name of drug education.Abstinence-based education programs aim to inform adolescents of illicit drug use in an effort to prevent illegal drug use while highlighting the dangers of problematic substance use and strongly emphasizing abstinence.\nMany studies have found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study discovered that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.\nThe Australian Government has implemented a range of drug education programs through the National Drug Education Strategy (NDES) by providing schools with effective drug education programs. The program aims to manage drug related issues and incidents within schools. The Australian Government Department of Health's Positive Choices portal, released in response to a National Ice Taskforce report, facilitates access to interactive evidence-based drug education resources and prevention programs for school communities. It builds on existing drug education resources developed by researchers at the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre such as the Climate Schools (now called OurFutures\n) programs that have been proven to reduce alcohol and drug related harms and increase student well-being.\nIn addition to government-funded programs, a number of not-for-profit organisations such as Life Education Australia provide drug education programs to adolescents. These preventative programs aim to deliver a progressive approach that will motivate and encourage young people to make positive decisions in life. Emphasis within these programs is also placed in focusing on deterring peer pressure as a means of empowering adolescents and promoting autonomy. This approach reaches 750,000 primary and secondary students in Australia each year.\nThe prevalence of abstinence-based programs declined throughout the early 21st-century following an uptick in substance use and the rise of the opioid epidemic. School-based drug education programs have declined alongside it. In a 2021 survey, only 60% of American 12-17 year-olds reported seeing drug and alcohol preventing messaging in school.\nD.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a program in the United States implemented in 5th grade school classrooms to educate students on the effects of drugs and temptations they may encounter, particularly in later education. The police officers who administer the program can also serve as community models for students. There is no scientific evidence that preventive drug education such as D.A.R.E. is effective, and some evidence that it may actually increase substance use rates in suburban teenagers.Harm reduction education emerged as an alternative to abstinence-based education in the late 20th-century and early 21st-century. Rather than encouraging complete abstinence and aiming to completely eradicate drug use in society, harm reduction education accepts that drug use is inevitable in modern society. It aims to reduce the harms associated with drug use by providing individuals with comprehensive information about the nature of substance use. Harm reduction education aims to improve health, social, and economic measurements rather than aiming primarily to reduce the rate of drug consumption.In the late 1990s and early 2000s, websites dedicated to harm reduction education such as the educational database Erowid and the harm reduction forum Bluelight emerged. Erowid hosts information about hundreds of psychoactive plants and substances, while Bluelight is an online forum on which users discuss harm reduction and drug use. Both sites collectively host about 100,000 experience reports.\nBy the early 2020s, many organizations such as the US government's SAMHSA had shifted from abstinence-based education to harm reduction-based education.\nA systematic review of abstinence-based school drug education published in 2003 found mixed results on its effectiveness.Many studies conducted in the early 2000s found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study concluded that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.\nA 2012 study published in the journal of Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy came to the conclusion that students aged 13 to 15 who completed a drug and alcohol prevention program were less likely to develop a drug or alcohol problem.\nDrug education can also occur through public campaigns rather than education programs. Examples include advertising campaigns focused on raising awareness such as the UK Government's FRANK campaign or the US \"media campaign\". In efforts to prevent substance abuse, drug education may counter-productively perpetuate myths and stereotypes about psychoactive substances and people who use them.Indirect drug education programs such as the UK government's Positive Futures Program may utilize activities such as sports and the arts to indirectly steer young people away from drug use. These programs aim to engage young people by relating to them and putting them in contact with positive role models (coaches/trained youth workers). After building a trusting relationship with a young person, these role models can gradually change attitudes towards drug use and steer the young person back into education, training and employment. This approach reaches young people who have dropped out of mainstream education. It also benefits local communities by reducing crime and anti-social behaviour.\nPast research into drug education has indicated that effective drug education must involve engaging, interactive learning strategies that stimulate higher-order thinking, promote learning and be transferable to real life circumstances.Studies on school-based programs indicated that professional training and support may be required to increase the effectiveness of teaching staff and the uniform implementation of drug curriculum.\nA study in 2017 on youth-targeted harm reduction education found that effective harm reduction programming must utilize relatable and meaningful approaches and be connected to youth's lived experience.\n",
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-        "Author",
-        "Partner",
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-        "MemberOf",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "FollowedBy",
-        "NotableWork"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
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-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_4"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Environmental_studies.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "Environmental studies (EVS or EVST) is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from the physical sciences, commerce/economics, the humanities, and social sciences to address complex contemporary environmental issues. It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the relationship between them. The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as ethics, geography, anthropology, public policy (environmental policy), education, political science (environmental politics), urban planning, law, economics, philosophy, sociology and social justice, planning, pollution control, and natural resource management. There are many Environmental Studies degree programs, including a Master's degree and a Bachelor's degree. Environmental Studies degree programs provide a wide range of skills and analytical tools needed to face the environmental issues of our world head on.  Students in Environmental Studies gain the intellectual and methodological tools to understand and address the crucial environmental issues of our time and the impact of individuals, society, and the planet. Environmental education's main goal is to instill in all members of society a pro-environmental thinking and attitude. This will help to create environmental ethics and raise people's awareness of the importance of environmental protection and biodiversity.\nThe New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University established a BS in environmental studies degree in the 1950s, awarding its first degree in 1956. Middlebury College established the major there in 1965.The Environmental Studies Association of Canada (ESAC) was established in 1993 \"to further research and teaching activities in areas related to environmental studies in Canada\". ESAC was officially integrated in 1994, and the first convention for ESAC was held at the Learned Societies Conference in Calgary the same year. ESAC's magazine, A\\J: Alternatives Journal was first published by Robert A. Paehlke on 4 July 1971.\nIn 2008, The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences (AESS) was founded as the first professional association in the interdisciplinary field of environmental studies in the United States. The AESS is also the publisher for the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (JESS), which aims to allow researchers in various disciplinarians related to environmental sciences to have base for researchers to use and publish new information related to environmental studies. In 2010, the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE) agreed to advise and support the association. In March 2011, The association's scholarly journal, the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (JESS), commenced publication.\nEnvironmental Studies in U.S. Universities\nIn the United States, many high school students are able to take environmental science as a college-level course. Over 500 colleges and universities in the United States offer environmental studies as a degree. The University of California, Berkeley has awarded the most degrees in environmental studies for U.S. universities, with 409 degrees awarded in 2019. The universities in the United States that have the highest percentage of degrees awarded is Antioch University-New England, where nearly 35% of degrees awarded in 2019 were in environmental studies.\nWorldwide, programs in environmental studies may be offered through colleges of liberal arts, life science, social science, or agriculture. Students of environmental studies use what they learn from the sciences, social sciences, and humanities to better understand environmental problems and potentially offer solutions to them. Students look at how we interact with the natural world and come up with ideas to prevent its destruction.In the 1960s, the word \"environment\" became one of the most commonly used in educational discourse in the United Kingdom. Educationists were becoming increasingly worried about the influence of the environment on children as well as the school's usage of the environment. The attempt to define the field of environmental studies has resulted in a discussion over its role in the curriculum. The use of the environment is one of the teaching approaches used in today's schools to carry on the legacy of educational philosophy known as 'Progressive education' or 'New education' in the first part of the twentieth century. The primary goal of environmental studies is to assist children in understanding the processes that influence their surroundings so that they do not stay a passive, and often befuddled, observer of the environment, but rather become knowledgeable active mediators of it. The study of the environment can be considered to offer unique chances for the development and exercise of the general cognitive skills that Piaget's work has made educators aware of. Environmental studies are increasingly being viewed as a long-term preparation for higher environmental studies such as Sociology, Archaeology, or Historical Geography.\n",
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-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_5"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Essay_on_a_Course_of_Liberal_Education_for_Civil_and_Active_Life.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life (1765) is an educational treatise by the 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley.\nDedicated to the governing board of Warrington Academy at which Priestley was a tutor, the treatise argues that the education of young people should anticipate their practical needs, something Priestley accused the current universities, Dissenting and Establishment alike, of failing to do. In Priestley's eyes, the contemporary focus on a traditional classical education prevented students from acquiring useful skills. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class businessmen. He proposed that students should study the English language and the modern languages instead of the classical languages, learn practical mathematics, read modern history rather than ancient history, and study the constitution and laws of England. He believed that these topics would prepare his students for the commercial middle-class life that most of them would live; he did not believe that the poor people should receive this same education, arguing \"it could be of no service to their country, and often a real detriment to themselves.\"The board was convinced and in 1766 Warrington Academy replaced its classical curriculum with Priestley's liberal arts model.Some scholars of education have argued that this work and Priestley's later Miscellaneous Observations relating to Education (1778) (often reprinted with the Essay on Education) made Priestley the \"most considerable English writer on educational philosophy\" between the 17th-century John Locke and the 19th-century Herbert Spencer.\n",
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-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
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-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_6"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Legal_archaeology.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "Legal archaeology is an area of legal scholarship \"involving detailed historical reconstruction and analysis of important cases.\"\nWhile most legal scholars confine their research to published opinions of court cases, legal archaeologists examine the historical and social context in which a court case was decided. These facts may show what social and cultural forces were at work in a particular case. Professors can use legal archaeology to \"sensitize students as to how inequality, specifically with regard to race, gender and class affects what occurs throughout the cases they study.\" A legal archaeologist may also research biographical material on the judges, attorneys, and parties to a court case. Such information may show whether a judge held particular biases in a case, or whether one party had superior legal representation that caused the party to prevail in a case.\n",
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-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_7"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Literary_nonsense.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "Literary nonsense (or nonsense literature) is a broad categorization of literature that balances elements that make sense with some that do not, with the effect of subverting language conventions or logical reasoning. Even though the most well-known form of literary nonsense is nonsense verse, the genre is present in many forms of literature.\nThe effect of nonsense is often caused by an excess of meaning, rather than a lack of it. Its humor is derived from its nonsensical nature, rather than wit or the \"joke\" of a punch line.\nLiterary nonsense, as recognized since the nineteenth century, comes from a combination of two broad artistic sources. The first and older source is the oral folk tradition, including games, songs, dramas, and rhymes, such as the nursery rhyme \"Hey Diddle Diddle\". The literary figure Mother Goose represents common incarnations of this style of writing.The second, newer source of literary nonsense is in the intellectual absurdities of court poets, scholars, and intellectuals of various kinds. These writers often created sophisticated nonsense forms of Latin parodies, religious travesties, and political satire, though these texts are distinguished from more pure satire and parody by their exaggerated nonsensical effects.\nToday's literary nonsense comes from a combination of both sources. Though not the first to write this hybrid kind of nonsense, Edward Lear developed and popularized it in his many limericks (starting with A Book of Nonsense, 1846) and other famous texts such as \"The Owl and the Pussycat\", \"The Dong with a Luminous Nose\", \"The Jumblies\" and \"The Story of the Four Little Children Who Went Around the World\". Lewis Carroll continued this trend, making literary nonsense a worldwide phenomenon with Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). Carroll's poem \"Jabberwocky\", which appears in the latter book, is often considered quintessential nonsense literature.\nIn literary nonsense, certain formal elements of language and logic that facilitate meaning are balanced by elements that negate meaning. These formal elements include semantics, syntax, phonetics, context, representation, and formal diction. The genre is most easily recognizable by the various techniques or devices it uses to create this balance of meaning and lack of meaning, such as faulty cause and effect, portmanteau, neologism, reversals and inversions, imprecision (including gibberish), simultaneity, picture/text incongruity, arbitrariness, infinite repetition, negativity or mirroring, and misappropriation. Nonsense tautology, reduplication, and absurd precision have also been used in the nonsense genre. For a text to be within the genre of literary nonsense, it must have an abundance of nonsense techniques woven into the fabric of the piece. If the text employs only occasional nonsense devices, then it may not be classified as literary nonsense, though there may be a nonsensical effect to certain portions of the work. Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy, for instance, employs the nonsense device of imprecision by including a blank page, but this is only one nonsense device in a novel that otherwise makes sense. In Flann O'Brien's The Third Policeman, on the other hand, many of the devices of nonsense are present throughout, and thus it could be considered a nonsense novel.Gibberish, light verse, fantasy, and jokes and riddles are sometimes mistaken for literary nonsense, and the confusion is greater because nonsense can sometimes inhabit these (and many other) forms and genres.Pure gibberish, as in the \"hey diddle diddle\" of nursery rhyme, is a device of nonsense, but it does not make a text, overall, literary nonsense. If there is not significant sense to balance out such devices, then the text dissolves into literal (as opposed to literary) nonsense.\nLight verse, which is generally speaking humorous verse meant to entertain, may share humor, inconsequentiality, and playfulness with nonsense, but it usually has a clear point or joke and does not have the requisite tension between meaning and lack of meaning.\nNonsense is distinct from fantasy, though there are sometimes resemblances between them. While nonsense may employ the strange creatures, other worldly situations, magic, and talking animals of fantasy, these supernatural phenomena are not nonsensical if they have a discernible logic supporting their existence. The distinction lies in the coherent and unified nature of fantasy. Everything follows logic within the rules of the fantasy world; the nonsense world, on the other hand, has no comprehensive system of logic, although it may imply the existence of an inscrutable one, just beyond our grasp. The nature of magic within an imaginary world is an example of this distinction. Fantasy worlds employ the presence of magic to logically explain the impossible. In nonsense literature, magic is rare but when it does occur, its nonsensical nature only adds to the mystery rather than logically explaining anything. An example of nonsensical magic occurs in Carl Sandburg's Rootabaga Stories, when Jason Squiff, in possession of a magical \"gold buckskin whincher\", has his hat, mittens, and shoes turn into popcorn because, according to the \"rules\" of the magic, \"You have a letter Q in your name and because you have the pleasure and happiness of having a Q in your name you must have a popcorn hat, popcorn mittens and popcorn shoes\".\nRiddles only appear to be nonsense until the answer is found. The most famous nonsense riddle is only so because it originally had no answer. In Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, the Mad Hatter asks Alice \"Why is a raven like a writing-desk?\" When Alice gives up, the Hatter replies that he does not know either, creating a nonsensical riddle. Some seemingly nonsense texts are actually riddles, such as the popular 1940s song Mairzy Doats, which at first appears to have little discernible meaning but has a discoverable message. Jokes are not nonsense because their humor comes from their making sense, from our \"getting\" it, while nonsense is funny because it does not make sense, we do not \"get\" it.\nWhile most contemporary nonsense has been written for children, the form has an extensive history in adult configurations before the nineteenth century. Figures such as John Hoskyns, Henry Peacham, John Sandford, and John Taylor lived in the early seventeenth century and were noted nonsense authors in their time. Nonsense was also an important element in the works of Flann O'Brien and Eugène Ionesco. Literary nonsense, as opposed to the folk forms of nonsense that have always existed in written history, was only first written for children in the early nineteenth century. It was popularized by Edward Lear and then later by Lewis Carroll. Today, literary nonsense enjoys a shared audience of adults and children.None of these writers is considered exclusively a \"nonsense writer\". Some of them wrote texts considered to be in the genre (such as Lear, Carroll, Gorey, Lennon, Sandburg), while others only use nonsense as an occasional device (such as Joyce, Juster). All of these writers wrote outside of the nonsense genre also.Bob Dylan wrote some lyrics that contain nonsense techniques, especially around the mid-1960s, in songs like \"Bob Dylan's 115th Dream\" and \"Tombstone Blues\".David Byrne, of the art rock/new wave group Talking Heads, employed nonsensical techniques in songwriting. Byrne often combined coherent yet unrelated phrases to make up nonsensical lyrics in songs such as: \"Burning Down the House\", \"Making Flippy Floppy\" and \"Girlfriend Is Better\". This tendency formed the basis of the title for the Talking Heads concert movie, Stop Making Sense. More recently, Byrne published Arboretum (2006), a volume of tree-like diagrams that are \"mental maps of imaginary territory\". He continues, explaining the aspect of nonsense: \"Irrational logic : [...]. The application of logical scientific rigor and form to basically irrational premises. To proceed, carefully and deliberately, from nonsense, with a straight face, often arriving at a new kind of sense.\"\nSyd Barrett, founder of Pink Floyd, was known for his often nonsensical songwriting influenced by Lear and Carroll that featured heavily on Pink Floyd's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn.\nThe cartoonist Glen Baxter's comic work is often nonsense, relying on the baffling interplay between word and image.\nThe Tomfoolery Show was an American cartoon comedy television series based on the nonsense works of Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, and others.\nZippy the Pinhead, by Bill Griffith, is an American strip that mixes philosophy, including what has been called \"Heideggerian disruptions\", and pop culture in its nonsensical processes.\nNick Kershaw unintentionally created a nonsensical riddle with his single \"The Riddle\". He originally wrote gibberish lyrics as a placeholder, but decided to keep them. After the release the public thought the lyrics contained a real riddle, and MCA marketing went along with it, creating widespread fruitless speculation.\n",
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-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_8"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Master_of_Environmental_Management.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "The M.E.M. (Master of Environmental Management) is a degree designed for students with primary interests in careers in environmental policy and analysis, stewardship, education, consulting, or management dealing with natural resource or environmental issues. The program requires course work in both the natural and social sciences, with a particular focus on the relationship among science, management, and policy. The ultimate purpose of the degree program is to prepare students to address ecological and social systems with scientific understanding and an ability to make sense of the complex underlying social and ecological context.\nThe value of an interdisciplinary environmental degree is best espoused by Aldo Leopold, who obtained a Master of Forestry degree.\n\"One of the requisites for an ecological comprehension of land is an understanding of ecology, and this is by no means co-extensive with 'education'; in fact, much higher education seems deliberately to avoid ecological concepts. An understanding of ecology does not necessarily originate in courses bearing ecological labels; it is quite as likely to be labeled geography, botany, agronomy, history, or economics. This is as it should be...\". \nThe \"Big Four\" Master of Environmental Management programs are:\nUniversity of California, Santa Barbara - Bren School of Environmental Science and Management\nDuke University - Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth and Ocean Sciences\nUniversity of Michigan - School of Natural Resources and Environment\nYale University - School of Forestry and Environmental Studies\nOther programs include:\nPortland State University - College of Liberal Arts & Sciences\nUniversity of San Francisco - Master of Science in Environmental Management\nUniversity of Maryland University College - Master of Science in Environmental Management\nWestern Colorado University - Master in Environmental Management\nUniversity of Connecticut - Master of Energy and Environmental Management : Online\nMany of these schools also offer joint degrees, where the MEM is paired with an MBA, MPP, JD, or M.Div.\n",
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-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_9"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Philosophy_of_design.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design.  The field, which is mostly a sub-discipline of aesthetics, is defined by an interest in a set of problems, or an interest in central or foundational concerns in design.  In addition to these central problems for design as a whole, many philosophers of design consider these problems as they apply to particular disciplines (e.g. philosophy of art).\nAlthough most practitioners are philosophers specialized in aesthetics (i.e., aestheticians), several prominent designers and artists have contributed to the field. For an introduction to the philosophy of design see the article by Per Galle at the Royal Danish Academy of Art.\n",
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-        "NotableWork"
-    ],
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-        "QUANTITY",
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-        "WORK_OF_ART",
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-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_10"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/The_Art_Assignment.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
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-    "document": "The Art Assignment is a PBS Digital Studios webseries focused on contemporary art that debuted in February 2014. The Art Assignment is hosted by Sarah Urist Green who was a curator of contemporary art for the Indianapolis Museum of Art from 2007 to 2013.\nGreen's goal for this web series is to demystify the art making process and educate people on contemporary art and how it can be “accessible and social, rather than distant or intimidating”. Green travels the United States to meet and talk with various artists about their art; the artists then give an \"assignment\" to the audience. The series teaches its audience about contemporary art while providing historical context for the art. The audience is asked to participate by completing the \"assignments\" and continuing the conversation about art in the comments and on social media. The artists included in the series explore art history through the lens of the present with framing by Green. These artists include: Jesse Sugarmann, Alex Soth, Sonja Clark, Hope Ginsburg, Maria Gaspar, Molly Springfield, Michelle Grabner, Kim Beck, Jon Rubin, Jonn Herschend & Will Rogan, Allison Smith, Tameka Norris, Lee Boroson, Nina Katchadourian, Kate Gilmore, and Deb Sokolow.\nGreen's husband John Green is executive producer of the series.\nThere are over 50 videos in the Assignment Episodes playlist, and each one features one or more artists, their styles, and a brief biography of how they developed their particular aesthetic.  Their assignments relate to either their style or a valuable topic to them.  Each video features a clip called \"Who's Done Stuff Like This Before\" to examine the art history behind the ideas the contemporary artists present.  The audience sees what the artists did as their assignment, from the methodology to the execution and final result.  The artists often reflect on their choices and the trial and error process in the project.  The final step in each assignment is to document the experience in any form, and upload it to any form of social media with the hashtag #TheArtAssignment, and it could be featured in the show.Episode 1: Meet in the Middle with Douglas Paulson and Christopher RobbinsThe first official Assignment in which Sarah Urist Green and John Green introduce artists Douglas Paulson and Christopher Robbins.  The two artists have collaborated in the past, and the video mentions their previous work and how they met personally.  The instructions are to pick a friend, and calculate the exact midpoint between the two participants.  After participants decide on a date and time to meet, they don't communicate until then, and document the experience using any medium of their choice.\nEpisode 2: Stakeout! with Deb Sokolow\nGreen talks with the Chicago-based artist Deb Sokolow about her style and how she developed it over time.  Her pieces are huge and layered with text, images, and diagrams to tangle and de-tangle stories.  This assignment plays with the relationship between the observer and the observed.  The instructions are to find an object, place it in a public spot so strangers can interact with it, and pick a location to observe. Similar to the first episode, people record their observations using any medium of their choice.\nThis video series features various artists and art movements and delves into the impact and value they have in history.  The narrator includes how the style of a movement or individual creators began and the following positive and negative reception.  This segment covers artists from both past and present stemming from various ethnicities and nationalities.  The videos cover a wide range of mediums, and the playlist includes minimalism, abstraction, and performance art and highlights creative minds such as Andy Warhol, Mark Rothko, Kanye West, Yoko Ono, and Ai Weiwei.Another playlist called Art Trip delves into the art history and culture in cities around the world. Currently the Art Assignment team has visited London, Tijuana, Los Angeles, Richmond, Washington D.C., the Twin Cities, and Chicago. The videos overview many national and local museums, current exhibits, and local artists.This playlist is a collection of miscellaneous topics and behind the scenes videos.  Some deconstruct a bit of the mystery within the art world such as \"What's a Curator?\"  and \"How to Learn About Contemporary Art\"  while others give tips for art assignments and showcase a variety of artists like \"Fierce Women of Art 1\".This segment has an \"art hotline\" with an actual phone so viewers can call in their questions about art. The number is 901-602-ARTY (2789). The questions range from personal advice to opinions on current issues in the art world and much more.There are 24 assignment response videos which can feature over a hundred creations per video.  The Phoenix New Times and Indianapolis Star both covered the show after the first episode aired on February 20, 2014.  Despite its birth on the internet, The Art Assignment made it into real life with a physical exhibit in August 2016 that NUVO reviewed.  It featured the work of three Indianapolis artists : Brian McCutcheon, Nathaniel Russel, and Lauren Zoll : who have previously given out assignments.",
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test/Academic_disciplines/The_Problems_of_Genocide.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
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-    "document": "The Problems of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression is a 2021 book by Australian historian A. Dirk Moses. The book explores what Moses sees as flaws in the concept of genocide, which he argues allows killings of civilians that do not resemble the Holocaust to be ignored. Moses proposes \"permanent security\" as an alternative to the concept of genocide. The book was described as important, but his emphasis on security is considered only one factor to be causing mass violence.\nA. Dirk Moses is an Australian historian, much of whose work has focused on genocide studies, including editing the Journal of Genocide Research. According to Moses, he decided to write the book in the mid-2000s to express his misgivings about the concept of genocide, in the form of \"A non-teleological intellectual history... that exposed genocide’s problematic function in obscuring the logic of 'permanent security' in what I call the 'language of transgression'.\" The book draws on Moses' earlier work on settler colonialism, liberal imperialism, comparative genocide studies, and the history of violence. Moses is not the first to propose alternatives to genocide; historian Christian Gerlach coined the term \"extremely violent societies\" to broaden attention from genocide as a state crime. The book was published about the same time as Moses initiated the catechism debate, arguing that German Holocaust remembrance has shut down criticism of colonialism and racism.Moses argues that genocide is not just a problem because of the human suffering inherent in the phenomenon, but also how the concept of genocide, because of its position as the \"crime of crimes\", \"blinds us to other types of humanly caused civilian death, like bombing cities and the 'collateral damage' of missile and drone strikes, blockades, and sanctions\".Moses introduces the concept of \"permanent security\", which is distinguished from other security imperatives by being anticipatory and characterized by a paranoid threat perception. Moses distinguishes two types of permanent security, illiberal and liberal.  Illiberal permanent security \"entails preventative killing of presumed future threats to a particular ethnos, nation, or religion, in a bounded 'territoriality'\". Liberal permanent security often develops in opposition to illiberal permanent security, and aims to secure the entire world in the name of humanity. Moses argues that permanent security underpins the three mass atrocity crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, because prejudice does not cause violence without the securitization of the other. He argues that permanent security should be criminalized.\nThe third section of the book covers Holocaust memory and comparative genocide studies. Moses argues that the concept of genocide depoliticized earlier ways of talking about mass violence (the language of transgression), and the ongoing view of genocide as a depoliticized crime normalizes types of violence that cannot be analogized to the Holocaust.\nSinja Graf praised the book as \"written from an unrelenting concern for the sanctity of human lives\" and \"a landmark study that redefines perspectives on mass atrocities across political science, history, and international law\". Syrian dissident Yassin al-Haj Saleh considers the book important and relevant for Syria and the Arab world, advocating translation into Arabic. However, he considers Moses' proposal to criminalize permanent security not feasible. Historian Taner Akcam calls the book \"the most comprehensive critiqueproduced thus far on the concept of genocide\" and a foundational work.\nHistorian Omer Bartov described the book as \"an erudite, complex, and in many parts quite fascinating read\", but says that Moses fails to propose a viable alternative to the concept of genocide. Some Holocaust historians accused Moses of promoting a conspiracy theory by which Raphael Lemkin, a major supporter for the inclusion of genocide in international law, was a Jewish exclusivist and only concerned regarding the Jews under Nazi rule. However, according to Dan Stone, Moses' reading, although debatable, \"is well within the norms of intellectual history\"; furthermore, it is not the focus of the book. \nSecurity studies researcher Beatrice de Graaf says that the book is \"crucially important in shattering consolidated legal, political scientific and historiographical positions on genocide, international law and security\". Nevertheless, she is critical of Moses' conception of permanent security, arguing that he overlooks earlier work in historical and critical security studies exploring the totalizing instinct of state security in general, and his argument would be stronger if he covered the origins of the preventative security paradigm in Europe around 1800. According to reviewer Ulrike von Hirschhausen, Moses ignores recent research on how indigenous people used the \"language of transgression\" to resist colonialism, and flattens the complicated reality of historical empires by presenting them as totalizing, when in fact these empires attempted to manage difference, not wipe it out. \nFurthermore, Moses' focus on security has recognized as a significant factor in incidents of genocidal violence, but is a monocausal explanation that cannot explain genocidal violence by itself. Von Hirschhausen states, \"In the age of nationalism however, both colonisers and the colonised turned ethnicity, not security, into the most effective means to mobilise intervention in favour of or against imperial rule.\" The obsession of Nazis and other antisemites with \"racial hygiene\" and the euthanasia killings cannot be explained through a securitization framework. Moses does not engage with the argument of Götz Aly that greed and acquisitiveness, both in terms of individual perpetrators enriching themselves and Germany's desire to dominate Europe and live on plunder, were among the primary motivators of Nazi criminality.\n",
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test/Academic_disciplines/The_Sexual_Contract.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
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-    "document": "The Sexual Contract is a 1988 non-fiction book by British feminist and political theorist Carole Pateman which was published through Polity Press. This book is a seminal work which discusses how contract theory continues to affirm the patriarchy through methods of contractual submission where there is ultimately a power imbalance from systemic sexism. The focus of The Sexual Contract is on rebutting the idea that a post-patriarchal or anti-patriarchal society presently exists as a result of the conception of a civil society. Instead, Pateman argues that civil society continues to aid feminine oppression and that the orthodoxy of contracts such as marriage cannot become equitable to both women and men. Pateman uses a feminist lens when rationalising the argument proposed in The Sexual Contract through the use of works by classic political and liberal philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and later interpreted by the Founding Fathers whom Pateman has before critiqued as being responsible for the development of modern rights and freedoms derived from archaic standards of contract that are deeply embedded within Western Spheres, particularly America, England and Australia, which are the focus areas for her work.\nCarole Pateman when writing The Sexual Contract used her previous background in political theory as support to substantiate a feminist commentary and critique on the nature of contracts as tools to control womanhood establishing how \"the original contract constitutes men's freedom and women's subjection\". Pateman writes within the confines of the Western Tradition which presents both how this tradition excludes women and how it fundamentally supported female oppression in western political and legal thought. Pateman elucidates how The Sexual Contract as a theory is rooted in how the period of enlightenment was essentially led by men for the liberation of men with the quote Liberté, égalité, fraternité excluding the liberation of women through language used within this period, effectively fashioning the beginnings of modern patriarchy. Pateman voices this in order to demonstrate her point that social contracts based upon these ideas of liberty are inherently skewed to favor the sex-right of men and the subordination of women to sustain social contract therefore becoming a sexual contract which inhibits the autonomy of women.The Sexual Contract is divided into eight chapters. Pateman utilizes 'feminist storytelling' structures to illustrate contract theory from its origins to its contemporary implications. Pateman displays how contracts affect womanhood in a multitude of ways such as economic and sexual capitalisation, that is exploited from women through marriage, prostitution and surrogacy. The Sexual Contract reveals the complications associated with contract theory and how \"Feminists therefore cannot 'reform' those parts of political theory, they must start anew and from scratch\".The articulation throughout the book is that contractarian theory cannot be amended in a progressive manner. Contracts always initiate a political right entailing an intrinsically dominant and subordinate party. Moreover, The Sexual Contract explores how the basis of Western society is built upon the contractual oppression of women in order to uphold a patriarchal regime, depicting how in the wake of social contract between enlightened men there exists \"another contract, the sexual contract, by which men gain possession of women.\"\nPateman pays close attention to the contract obligations associated with marriage: \"Women are incorporated into society via the marriage contract but they may enter such a contract not as equal individuals but as natural subordinate\". Marriage acts as a way to gain \"sexual access\" to a woman's body and the \"labour\" she provides as a wife.\" It is regarded as a major institution in society: \"the institution of marriage gives each husband the capacity, if he so wishes, to ill-treat his wife.\" The institution of marriage is established as \"legal prostitution\", an entity comparable to a labour contract, wherein the master (husband) enters into this contract with the servant (housewife) as a subordinate. According to Thomas Hobbes' state of nature, the \"conquering\" of a woman within the marriage contract leads to the wife's submission as a sexual servant, rendering her the property of the husband who is recognised as the proper member of civil and contractual society. Pateman's issue with marriage begins with how institutionally becoming a 'husband' gives patriarchal right over the 'wife'.The example of prostitution is utilised by Pateman to explain how the patriarchy manages to create sexual capital off the sexual labour of women. Using the 'story' of the sexual contract, it becomes apparent that \"prostitution is part of the exercise of the law of male sex-right\" ensuring continued access to women's bodies. 'The prostitution contract' is outlined by Pateman to be an example of an 'original' sexual contract, becoming a precursor to the metaphorical prostituting of the worker for capital, within civil patriarchal society. Pateman deduces that contractarians  defend prostitution as a form of labour explaining that prostitution contracts are similar to employment contracts. This, Pateman shows, is a rationale for enduring affirmation of male sex-right and the monetization of women's bodies, legitimising how prostitution affirms patriarchal status.Surrogacy as an example is used throughout The Sexual Contract to create a dialogue on how women's bodies have become legitimized capital in contemporary society. Pateman outlines how this is a result of the sexual contract imposed onto women similar to the contracts associated with prostitution. The surrogacy contract is another facet of the sexual contract providing a new form of access to women's bodies. The issue within the surrogacy contract is that its aspects are inherently class-based, that is, working-class women are attracted to the financial aspect of this contract, but are ultimately not equal to the party that benefits from the time and nature of the service they are providing. Pateman uses the words of John Locke as an example on the differences between a surrogacy contract and prostitution contract, where although men don't use direct sexual use of a woman's body for surrogacy, the 'mixing of the man's seed' with the 'woman's uterus' if performed 'faithfully' results in a child essentially owned by the male party. Patemans argues the intervention of women within civil society demonstrates how the surrogacy contract remains a part of a dependence on female sexuality and how it is not the discretion of the woman which is valued in the contract but instead her body which is used by society.The Sexual Contract concludes with Pateman stating how the original contract is a political fiction that belongs to modern patriarchy. There is no true origin to the original contract; instead, it exists as a progression to liberty but only the liberty of certain individuals. The crux of the issue as outlined by Pateman is that political and legal liberty need to be discussed and explored from a perspective different from a traditionalist one. Pateman seeks in her work to elaborate more thoroughly on the issues with civil society and how it cannot be established as equal because of its patriarchal origins. It instead must be dismissed and re-established to become equitable between the sexes. Women can never truly become individuals because their bodies cannot be forgotten by their male counterparts. A contract between men and women is influenced because of the ideal of embodied feminine beings which can never truly exist, as individuals like men can, with civil society.The Sexual Contract received the 2005 Benjamin E. Lippincott Award, sponsored by the American Political Science Association, 17 years after it was initially published. The book has been widely used as an example of work that transcends mainstream academic work being called a \"challenging and thought-provoking\" work, it has been cited in a number of journals on political theory and feminism and translated into Polish, French, Turkish, Portuguese, Spanish, Croatian and Slovak. The Sexual Contract has remained a relevant and valid addition to feminist theory and is still a work often referenced across many fields of discipline. Thirty years after its initial publication, an anniversary edition of The Sexual Contract was published to celebrate the impact it had on political and feminist theory with the addition of a new preface from the author.Pateman states how The Sexual Contract was written specifically with Anglo countries in mind, directly addressing the common-law traditions present within these spheres; however, it has become evident that Pateman's work speaks to a number of experiences from different cultures. An issue in criticisms directed at The Sexual Contract is a contextual problem from when Pateman was writing : the issue of essentialism, taking her nuanced arguments from specific portions of the work without concern for the uniting thread on how The Sexual Contract is most importantly a portrait on how \"sexual difference as political difference\" between the sexes, is based within the knowledge and works of classic theorists.The Sexual Contract has become an important work within the context of understanding the intersection between womanhood and political and legal theories with Pateman's work, becoming an entity which \"challenges assumptions made in political theory and it has become a classic second-wave feminist text\". Pateman's work manages to continue to establish how modern society continues to support the institutional contract which ultimately continues to oppress women. Even with the social change that has occurred over the past thirty years, the increase in migration and the radical changes in working-class industries such as mining and printing, The Sexual Contract with its subsequent theories endures the passage of time with relative ease. The Sexual Contract \"has been informed by her [Pateman's] understanding of feminism as a call to keep focused on the big picture, speaking truth to power.\" Its impact on understandings of law and gender has reached beyond its initial 1988 release. It continues to be consistent with issues within modern movements such as the #MeToo movement which highlights the struggle of supported celebrity women, but skips over women unable to voice their experiences of harassment in case of retaliation from social and economic spheres. This is where Pateman's text supports the idea on how \"the un-silencing of women in contemporary society is only partial.\"The criticisms of Pateman's argument have focused on her emphasis on the argument of the sexual contract, and the relationship this has with Hobbes' and Locke's views on contract theory, \"making Hobbes more theoretically consistent and Locke less overtly patriarchal\". Pateman also continually ignores the consensual entering of women into these contracts, or how \"female sexual desire\" fits into the dominating patriarchal society that Pateman outlines in her work. The Sexual Contract also lacks the nuances of how race and class intersect with social/sexual contract theory, particularly the lack of analysis on how this dynamic works between black individuals or how Pateman's exclusionary approach to sex, race and class threatens to defy the hegemonic narrative Pateman constructs.",
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test/Academic_disciplines/Xanadu_Houses.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
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-    "document": "The Xanadu Houses were a series of experimental homes built to showcase examples of computers and automation in the home in the United States. The architectural project began in 1979, and during the early 1980s three houses were built in different parts of the United States: one each in Kissimmee, Florida; Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin; and Gatlinburg, Tennessee. The houses included novel construction and design techniques, and became popular tourist attractions during the 1980s.\nThe Xanadu Houses were notable for their easy, fast, and cost-effective construction as self-supporting monolithic domes of polyurethane foam without using concrete. They were ergonomically designed, and contained some of the earliest home automation systems. The Kissimmee Xanadu, designed by Roy Mason, was the most popular, and at its peak was attracting 1000 visitors every day. The Wisconsin Dells and Gatlinburg houses were closed and demolished in the early 1990s; the Kissimmee Xanadu House was closed in 1996 and demolished in October 2005.\nBob Masters was an early pioneer of houses built of rigid insulation. Before conceiving the Xanadu House concept, Masters designed and created inflatable balloons to be used in the construction of houses. He was inspired by architect Stan Nord Connolly's Kesinger House in Denver, Colorado, one of the earliest homes built from insulation. Masters built his first balloon-constructed house exterior in 1969 in less than three days during a turbulent snowstorm, using the same methods later used to build the Xanadu houses.Masters was convinced that these dome-shaped homes built of foam could work for others, so he decided to create a series of show homes in the United States. Masters's business partner Tom Gussel chose the name \"Xanadu\" for the homes, a reference to Xanadu, the summer capital of Yuan, which is prominently featured in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem Kubla Khan. The first Xanadu House opened in Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin. It was designed by architect Stewart Gordon and constructed by Masters in 1979. It was 4,000 square feet (370 m2) in area, and featured a geodesic greenhouse. 100,000 people visited the new attraction in its first summer.\nThe most popular Xanadu house was the second house, designed by architect Roy Mason. Masters met Mason in 1980 at a futures conference in Toronto. Mason had worked on a similar project prior to his involvement in the creation of the Kissimmee Xanadu House — an \"experimental school\" on a hill in Virginia which was also a foam structure. Both Mason and Masters were influenced by other experimental houses and building concepts which emphasized ergonomics, usability, and energy efficiency. These included apartments designed by architect Kisho Kurokawa featuring detachable building modules and more significant designs including a floating habitat made of fiberglass designed by Jacques Beufs for living on water surfaces, concepts for living underwater by architect Jacques Rougerie and the Don Metz house built in the 1970s which took advantage of the earth as insulation. Fifty years before Xanadu House, another house from the 1933 Homes of Tomorrow Exhibition at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago introduced air conditioning, forced air heating, circuit breakers and electric eye doors.Mason believed Xanadu House would alter people's views of houses as little more than inanimate, passive shelters against the elements. \"No one's really looked at the house as a total organic system\", said Mason, who was also the architecture editor of The Futurist magazine. \"The house can have intelligence and each room can have intelligence.\" The estimated cost of construction for one home was $300,000. Roy Mason also planned a low cost version which would cost $80,000, to show that homes using computers do not have to be expensive. The low cost Xanadu was never built. Approximately 1,000 homes were built using this type of construction.\nThe Walt Disney Company opened Epcot Center in Florida on October 1, 1982 (originally envisioned as the Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow). Masters, fellow Aspen High School teacher, Erik V Wolter, and Mason decided to open a Xanadu House several miles away in Kissimmee. It eventually opened in 1983, after several years of research into the concepts Xanadu would use. It was over 6,000 square feet (560 m2) in size, considerably larger than the average house because it was built as a showcase. At its peak in the 1980s, under the management of Wolter, more than 1,000 people visited the new Kissimmee attraction every day. A third Xanadu House was built in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Shortly after the Xanadu Houses were built and opened as visitor attractions, tourism companies began to advertise them as the \"home of the future\" in brochures encouraging people to visit.\nBy the early 1990s, the Xanadu houses began to lose popularity because the technology they used was quickly becoming obsolete, and as a result the houses in Wisconsin and Tennessee were demolished, while the Xanadu House in Kissimmee continued to operate as a public visitor attraction until it was closed in 1996. It was consequently put up for sale in 1997 and was sold for office and storage use. By 2001, the Kissimmee house had suffered greatly from mold and mildew throughout the interior due to a lack of maintenance since being used as a visitor attraction, it was put up for sale again for an asking price of US$2 million. By October 2005, the last of the Xanadu houses had been demolished, following years of abandonment and use by the homeless.The Kissimmee house was featured in the 2007 movie Urban Explorers: Into the Darkness. It showed the house in disrepair with doors wide open, mold growing everywhere and a homeless man living inside. The \"explorers\" walked through the house filming the decay firsthand as the homeless man slept in a chair on the main floor. At the end of the segment, the man wakes up and threatens the \"explorers\" telling them to leave his home.\nConstruction of the Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida, began with the pouring of a concrete slab base and the erection of a tension ring 40 feet (12 m) in diameter to anchor the domed roof of what would become the \"Great Room\" of the house. A pre-shaped vinyl balloon was formed and attached to the ring, and then inflated by air pressure from large fans. Once the form was fully inflated, its surface was sprayed with quick-hardening polyurethane plastic foam. The foam, produced by the sudden mixture of two chemicals that expand on contact to 30 times their original volume, hardened almost instantly. Repeated spraying produced a five-to-six-inch-thick structurally sound shell within a few hours. Once the foam cured, the plastic balloon form was removed to be used again. Once the second dome was completed and the balloon form removed, the two rooms were joined by wire mesh which was also sprayed with foam to form a connecting gallery or hall. This process was repeated until the house was complete. Window, skylight, and door openings were cut and the frames foamed into place. Finally, the interior of the entire structure was sprayed with a 3⁄4 inch (1.9 cm) coating of fireproof material that also provided a smooth, easy-to-clean finish for walls and ceilings. The exterior was given a coat of white elastomeric paint as the final touch.A Xanadu House was ergonomically designed, with future occupants in mind. It used curved walls, painted concrete floors rather than carpets, a light color scheme featuring cool colors throughout, and an open-floor plan linking rooms together without the use of doors. It had at least two entrances, and large porthole-type windows. The interior of the house was cave-like, featuring cramped rooms and low ceilings, although it is not clear whether these accounts describe the same Xanadu House with a thirty-foot dome. The interiors used a cream color for the walls, and a pale green for the floor.The Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida used an automated system controlled by Commodore microcomputers. The house had fifteen rooms; of these the kitchen, party room, health spa, and bedrooms all used computers and other electronic equipment heavily in their design. The automation concepts which Xanadu House used are based on original ideas conceived in the 1950s and earlier. The Xanadu Houses aimed to bring the original concepts into a finished and working implementation. Inside the house, there was an electronic tour guide for the benefit of visitors, and the family room featured video screens that displayed computer-graphics art. These art displays were constantly changing, being displayed on video screens as opposed to static mediums.\n The home also featured fire and security systems, along with a master bath that included adjustable weather conditions and a solar-heated steam bath.\nAt the center of the house was the \"great room\", the largest in the house. It featured a large false tree supporting the roof, and also acted as part of the built-in heating system. The great room also included a fountain, small television set, and a video projector. Nearby was the dining room, featuring a glass table with a curved seat surrounding it; behind the seats was a large window covering the entire wall. The family room featured walls covered with television monitors and other electronic equipment. The entertainment center in the family room was described as an \"electronic hearth\" by the home's builders. It was planned as a gathering place for family members and relatives along the same lines as a traditional hearth with a fireplace.\nThe kitchen was automated by \"autochef\", an electronic dietitian which planned well-balanced meals. Meals could be cooked automatically at a set date and time. If new food was required, it could either be obtained via tele-shopping through the computer system or from Xanadu's own greenhouse. The kitchen's computer terminal could also be used for the household calendar, records, and home bookkeeping.\nThe Xanadu homes also suggested a way to do business at home with the office room and the use of computers for electronic mail, access to stock and commodities trading, and news services.\nComputers in the master bedroom allowed for other parts of the house to be controlled. This eliminated chores such as having to go downstairs to turn off the coffee pot after one had gone to bed. The children's bedroom featured the latest in teaching microcomputers and \"videotexture\" windows, whose realistic computer-generated landscapes could shift in a flash from scenes of real places anywhere in the world to imaginary scenes. The beds at the right of the room retreated into the wall to save space and cut down on clutter; the study niches were just the right size for curling up all alone with a pocket computer game or a book.\nIn the spa, people could relax in a whirlpool, sun sauna, and environmentally-controlled habitat, and exercise with the assistance of spa monitors. One of the advantages of using computers in the home includes security. In Xanadu House, a HAL-type voice spoke when someone entered to make the intruder think someone was home.\nAn initial concern was that electricity costs would be excessive, since several computers would be operating continuously. Mason figured that a central computer could control the energy consumption of all the other computers in the house.",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "AcademicDegree",
-        "AwardReceived",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "PresentedIn",
-        "PositionHeld",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "MaintainedBy",
-        "ExecutiveProducer",
-        "RatifiedBy",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "Acknowledged",
-        "ContributedToCreativeWork",
-        "HasList",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "TakesPlaceInFictionalUniverse",
-        "Occupation",
-        "ProducedSound",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Event",
-        "Weight",
-        "MayPrevent",
-        "Country",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "Origin",
-        "DesignedBy",
-        "Author",
-        "Partner",
-        "EducatedAt",
-        "MemberOf",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "FollowedBy",
-        "NotableWork"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_14"
-}

test/Academic_disciplines/Yessiey_Award.json

@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Academic_disciplines",
-    "document": "The Yessiey Awards formerly known as Yessiey Magazine Awards is an annual accolade presented by Yessiey Magazine to honour writers, actors, humanitarian, art, entrepreneurs, and journalists. The award recognizes exemplary contributions.\nYessiey Awards is presented annually by Yessiey Magazine owned by Oluwaseun Olaegbe.  To be considered for a Yessiey Award, a media piece or person must go through an entry process. The award also involves a voting process where nominees are selected, and winners are determined through public voting.\nThe name Yessiey was coined from the slogan which states “YES! Stay Informed”. In 2022, the Award was renamed the Yessiey award and the Award is an annual awards ceremony celebrating achievements in the field of acting, writing, journalism, humanitarian, business and arts. The winners of each category were voted for by members of the public, and were announced at the awards ceremony.The Yessiey Awards also organizes the Yessiey Africa 100 Most Influential People award, which highlights individuals who have made impactful contributions to their fields and the wider community.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "AcademicDegree",
-        "AwardReceived",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "PresentedIn",
-        "PositionHeld",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "MaintainedBy",
-        "ExecutiveProducer",
-        "RatifiedBy",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "Acknowledged",
-        "ContributedToCreativeWork",
-        "HasList",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "TakesPlaceInFictionalUniverse",
-        "Occupation",
-        "ProducedSound",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Event",
-        "Weight",
-        "MayPrevent",
-        "Country",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "Origin",
-        "DesignedBy",
-        "Author",
-        "Partner",
-        "EducatedAt",
-        "MemberOf",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "FollowedBy",
-        "NotableWork"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Academic_disciplines_15"
-}

test/Business/Application_for_employment.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "An application for employment is a standard business document that is prepared with questions deemed relevant by employers. It is used to determine the best candidate to fill a specific role within the company. Most companies provide such forms to anyone upon request, at which point it becomes the responsibility of the applicant to complete the form and return it to the employer for consideration. The completed and returned document notifies the company of the applicant's availability and desire to be employed as well as their qualifications and background so that a determination can be made as to the candidate's suitability to the position.\nFrom the employer's perspective, the application serves a number of purposes. These vary depending on the nature of the job and the preferences of the person responsible for hiring, as \"each organization should have an application form that reflects its own environment\". At a minimum, an application usually requires the applicant to provide information sufficient to demonstrate that they are legally permitted to be employed. The typical application also requires the applicant to provide information regarding relevant skills, education, and experience (previous employment or volunteer work). The application itself is a minor test of the applicant's literacy, penmanship, and communication skills. A careless job applicant might disqualify themselves with a poorly filled-out application.The application may also require the applicant to disclose any criminal record and to provide information sufficient to enable the employer to conduct an appropriate background check. For a business that employs workers on a part-time basis, the application may inquire as to the applicant's availability at specific times and/or days and preferences in this regard. Employers may be prohibited from asking applicants about characteristics that are not relevant to the job, such as their political view or sexual orientation.\nFor white collar jobs, particularly those requiring communication skills, the employer will typically require applicants to accompany the form with a cover letter and a résumé. However, even employers who accept a cover letter and résumé will frequently also require the applicant to complete an application form, as the other documents may neglect to mention specific details of importance to the employer. In some instances, an application is effectively used to dissuade \"walk-in\" applicants, serving as a barrier between the applicant and a job interview with the person who has the authority to hire.\nFor many businesses, applications for employment can be filled out online, rather than submitted in person. However, it is still recommended that applicants bring a printed copy of their application to an interview.\nApplication forms are the second most common hiring instrument next to personal interviews. Companies will occasionally use two types of application forms, short and long. They help companies with initial screening and the longer form can be used for other purposes as well. The answers that applicants choose to submit are helpful to the company because they can potentially become an interview question for that applicant.\nThe employment application is not a standardized form, so every company may create its own as long as regulations set by the government are adhered to.At a minimum, applications usually ask the applicant for their name, phone number, and address. In addition, applications may also ask for previous employment information, educational background, emergency contacts, and references, as well as any special skills the applicant might have.The three categories of information that application fields are very useful for discovering are physical characteristics, experience, and environmental factors.\nIf the company has a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) to ask regarding a physical condition, they may ask questions about it. For example:The job requires a lot of physical labor. Do you have any physical problems that may interfere with this job?\nExperience requirements can be separated into two groups on an application: work experience and educational background. Educational background is important because it allows a potential employer to evaluate an applicants' performance in school as well as make determinations as to personality and intelligence. Work experience is important because it will inform a potential employer if the applicant meets their specific needs. Companies are usually interested when applicants were unemployed, when/why the applicant left their previous job and their highest position at their previous job.Companies may be interested in the applicant's social environment because it can inform them of their personality, interests, and qualities. For example, if they are extremely active within an organization, that may demonstrate their ability to communicate well with others. Being in management may demonstrate their leadership ability as well as their determination.Customs vary from country to country when it comes to the inclusion or non-inclusion of a photograph of the applicant. In many English-speaking countries, notably the United States, this is not customary, and books or websites giving recommendations about how to design an application typically advise against it unless explicitly requested by the employer. In other countries (for instance, Germany), the inclusion of a photograph of the applicant is still common, and many employers would consider an application incomplete without it.In France, the 2006 Equal Opportunities Act requires companies with more than 50 employees to request an anonymous application (CV anonyme).The job application is called Bewerbung in Germany and usually consists of three parts: the Anschreiben (cover letter), the Lebenslauf (curriculum vitae (CV)) and the Zeugnisse (references). The Anschreiben is used to convince the employer to submit an invitation for a job interview. It must be in paper size DIN A4, not exceed one page, have a handwritten signature, and be accompanied by a Lebenslauf and Zeugnisse. The Lebenslauf is documented in reverse chronological order and should give information on work experience, education and professional training as well as an applicant's skills. In Germany, the Lebenslauf usually includes a photograph called Bewerbungsfoto. Some employers, mainly governmental organisations, deliberately neglect the photograph to ensure a higher degree of objectivity in the course of assessment procedures. The Lebenslauf should be two pages long. In general, there are two options of submitting a job application in Germany: a job application folder (Bewerbungsmappe) or online (Onlinebewerbung). According to a study, the Onlinebewerbung was more favored in Germany than the Bewerbungsmappe by 2012.The CV is the most important part of the application and should not be longer than two to three pages. It is divided into three areas:In chronological order:\nPersonal details (Informazioni personal)\nSchool and education (Studi e Formazione)\nIn reverse chronological order:\nAdditional capabilities/skills (Altre conoscenze)\nExperience (Esperienze professional). As a graduate, this section is omitted. Brief information on the application motivations may be mentioned here.\nThe cover letter (La Lettera di accompagnamento al curriculum) is relatively short, polite and formal in Italian applications. Long versions and extensively explained motivations, as well as photos and copies of certificates, are presented only at the interview.\nIn Spain, the application consists of two parts: the cover letter (Carta de Candidatura) and the CV. No work or training certificates are attached. The cover letter should be short and contain the reason for applying. The CV should be structured in a tabular form. In Spain, multiple job interviews with the same company are common.Job applications are known to be used by hackers to get employees to open attachments or links or connect USB sticks with malware. As companies typically have more financial resources than private individuals, they are often a target of cyberextortion. Ransomware such as \"Petya\" and \"GoldenEye\" were discovered to exploit job applications. Cyberespionage and attacks on critical infrastructure-related companies may be other reasons for such attacks and other than ransomware attacks may leave employees in the dark about their computer or network infection.  The best method for mitigating such risks would be to have the HR department use a separate computer for job applications that is entirely disconnected from the internal network, on which no confidential or valuable information is stored and to which no portable devices such as USB sticks that may get connected to other computers of the company are connected.",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_0"
-}

test/Business/Blame_in_organizations.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "Blame in organizations may flow between management and staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame shifting may exist between rival factions. Maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance. The blame culture is a serious issue in certain sectors such as safety-critical domains.\nThe flow of blame in an organization may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and integrity. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame coming from the top generates \"fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and passive-aggressive sometimes actual aggressive responses from the bottom\", with those at the bottom feeling powerless and lacking emotional safety. Employees have expressed that organizational blame culture made them fear prosecution for errors, accidents and thus unemployment, which may make them more reluctant to report accidents, since trust is crucial to encourage accident reporting. This makes it less likely that weak indicators of safety threats get picked up, thus preventing the organization from taking adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradicts high reliability organizations best practices. Organisational chaos, such as confused roles and responsibilities, is strongly associated with blame culture and workplace bullying. Blame culture promotes a risk aversive approach, which prevent from adequately assessing risks.When an accident happens in an organization, its reaction tends to favor the individual blame logic, focusing on finding the employees who made the most prominent mistake, often those on the frontline, rather than an organization function logic, which consists in assessing the organization functioning to identify the factors which favored such an accident, despite the latter being more efficient to learn from errors and accidents. A systematic review with nurses found similar results, with a blame culture negatively affecting the nurse's willingness to report errors, increase turnover and stress. Another common strategy when several organizations work together is to blame accidents and failures on each other, or to the last echelon such as the implementing actors. Several authors suggest that this blame culture in organizations is in line and thus favored by the western legal system, where safety is a matter of individual responsibility. Economic pressure is another factor associated with blame culture. Some authors argue that no system is error-free, and thus focusing efforts in blaming individuals can only prevent actual understanding of the various processes that led to the fault.\nA study found that the perception of injustice is influenced by both the individuals assertions of their morality domain, and by their identification to the organization: the higher one identifies with the organization, the less likely one will see the organization's actions as unjust. Individuals were also increasingly suspicious when observing their peers being affected by injustices, which is a behavior in line with deontic ethics.\nAccording to Mary Douglas, blame is systematically used in the micro politics of institutions, with three latent functions: explaining disasters; justifying allegiances, and stabilizing existing institutional regimes. Within a politically stable regime, blame tends to be asserted on the weak or unlucky one, but in a less stable regime, blame shifting may involve a battle between rival factions. Douglas was interested in how blame stabilizes existing power structures within institutions or social groups. She devised a two-dimensional typology of institutions, the first attribute being named \"group\", which is the strength of boundaries and social cohesion, the second \"grid\", the degree and strength of the hierarchy.According to Douglas, blame will fall on different entities depending on the institutional type. For markets, blame is used in power struggles between potential leaders. In bureaucracies, blame tends to flow downwards and is attributed to a failure to follow rules. In a clan, blame is asserted on outsiders or involves allegations of treachery, to suppress dissidence and strengthen the group's ties. In the 4th type, isolation, the individuals are facing the competitive pressures of the marketplace alone, in other words there is a condition of fragmentation with a loss of social cohesion, potentially leading to feelings of powerlessness and fatalism, and this type was renamed by various other authors into \"donkey jobs\". It is suggested that the progressive changes in managerial practices in healthcare is leading to an increase in donkey jobs. The group and hierarchy strength may also explain why healthcare experts, who often devise clinical procedures on the field, may be refractory to new safety guidelines from external regulators, perceiving them as competing procedures changing cultures and imposing new lines of authority.\nThe requirement of accountability and transparency, assumed to be key for good governance, worsen the behaviors of blame avoidance, both at the individual and institutional levels, as is observed in various domains such as politics and healthcare. Indeed, institutions tend to be risk-averse and blame-averse, and where the management of societal risks (the threats to society) and institutional risks (threats to the organizations managing the societal risks) are not aligned, there may be organizational pressures to prioritize the management of institutional risks at the expense of societal risks. Furthermore, \"blame-avoidance behaviour at the expense of delivering core business is a well-documented organizational rationality\". The willingness of maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance. This may produce a \"risk colonization\", where institutional risks are transferred to societal risks, as a strategy of risk management. Some researchers argue that there is \"no risk-free lunch\" and \"no blame-free risk\", an analogy to the \"no free lunch\" adage.Blame culture is a serious issue in safety-critical domains, where human errors can have dire consequences, for instance in hospitals and in aviation. However, as several healthcare organizations were raising concerns, studies found that increasing regulatory transparency in health care had the unintended consequence of increasing defensive practice and blame shifting, for example by obfuscating errors reporting. Following rare but high-profile scandals, there are political incentives for a \"self-interested blame business\" promoting a presumption of \"guilty until proven innocent\" A literature review found that human resource management plays an important role in health care organizations: when such organizations rely predominantly on a hierarchical, compliance-based management system, blame culture is more likely to happen, whereas when employees involvement in decision making is more elicited, a just or learning culture is more likely.Blame culture has been suggested as a major source of medical errors. The World Health Organization, the United States' Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and United Kingdom's National Health Service recognize the issue of blame culture in healthcare organizations, and recommends to promote a no-blame culture, or just culture, in order to increase patients' safety, which is the prevention of errors and adverse effects to patients. Other authors suggest to also provide emotional support to help healthcare professionals deal with the emotions elicited by their patients. Yet others have pointed out the lack of nomination among healthcare staff as directors, so that those on the field are excluded from the decision processes, and thus lack intrinsic motivation to enhance patients safety processes.\nIn the United Kingdom, a 2018 survey of 7887 doctors found that 78% said the NHS resources are inadequate to ensure patients safety and quality of services, 95% are fearful of making a medical error and that the fear has increased in the past 5 years, 55% worry they may be unfairly blamed for errors due to systems failings and pressures, and 49% said they practice defensively. A sizeable proportion of these doctors recognized the issue of bullying, harassment or undermining, 29% declaring it was sometimes an issue and 10% saying it was often an issue. Dozens of UK doctors under fitness-to-practice investigations committed suicide.\nIn 2018, an investigation into the cases of 11 deaths in Gosport War Memorial Hospital led to the discovery of an institutionally-wide inappropriate administration of powerful painkillers without medical justification, leading to the death of hundreds of patients since the 1990s. This scandal is often described as an example of the consequences blame culture, with the NHS pressuring whistleblowers, which prompted officials to address more actively this issue to avoid seeing it repeated elsewhere.\nAviation pioneered the shift from individual blaming to systems failure investigation, and incentivized it with the Aviation Safety Reporting System, a platform to self-report safety incidents in exchange of immunity from prosecution. Since 15 November 2015, the European Occurrence Reporting Regulation (EU Reg. 376/2014) exhorts the aviation industry to implement a just culture systematically.Blame avoidance is an often observed behavior in politics, which is worsened when meeting the doctrine of transparency, assumed to be key for good governance.When politicians shift blames under polarized conditions, the public sector organizations are often the target.\nFor social workers, by emphasizing the professional as being autonomous and accountable, they are considered as individual workers with full agency, which occludes the structural constraints and influences of their organizations, thus promoting a blame culture on the individuals. This emphasis on individual's accountability is similarly observed in healthcare. In UK, blame culture prevented the adequate collaboration necessary between social workers and healthcare providers.",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_1"
-}

test/Business/Business_architecture.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "In the business sector, business architecture is a discipline that \"represents holistic, multidimensional business views of: capabilities, end-to-end value delivery, information, and organizational structure; and the relationships among these business views and strategies, products, policies, initiatives, and stakeholders.\"\nIn application, business architecture provides a bridge between an enterprise business model and enterprise strategy on one side, and the business functionality of the enterprise on the other side.  It often enables the Strategy to Execution methodology.\nPeople who develop and maintain business architecture are known as business architects.\nThe term \"business architecture\" is often used to mean an architectural description of an enterprise or a business unit, an architectural model, or the profession itself. The Business Architecture Working Group of the Object Management Group (OMG)  (2010) describes it as \"a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical demands.\" According to the OMG, a blueprint of this type describes \"the structure of the enterprise in terms of its governance structure, business processes, and business information.\" As such, the profession of business architecture primarily focuses on the motivational, operational, and analysis frameworks that link these aspects of the enterprise together.The key characteristic of the business architecture is that it represents real world aspects of a business, along with how they interact. It is developed by an interdisciplinary practice area focused on defining and analyzing concerns of what business does, how it does it, how it is organized, and how it realizes value. Recent research by O'Higgins (2023) demonstrates the importance of aligning business architecture practices with organizational strategy to improve efficiency and service delivery, particularly in digital transformation contexts.  It is used to design competitive structures and processes, leverage existing strengths, and identify potential investment opportunities that advance the business's objectives and drive innovation. Products of this business architecture efforts are used to develop plans, make business decisions and guide their implementations.\nIn practice, business architecture effort is conducted on its own or as part of an enterprise architecture. While an enterprise architecture practice in the past had focused primarily on the technological aspects of change, the practice is quickly evolving to use a rigorous business architecture approach to address the organizational and motivational aspects of change as well. The alignment between business architecture and enterprise architecture is a natural architectural alignment of two related disciplines. Business architecture represents a business in the absence of any IT architecture while enterprise architecture provides an overarching framework for business and IT architecture.\nThe history of business architecture has its origins in the 1980s. In the next decades business architecture has developed into a discipline of \"cross-organizational design of the business as a whole\" closely related to enterprise architecture. The concept of business architecture has been proposed as a blueprint of the enterprise, as business strategy, and also as the representation of business design.The concept of business architecture has evolved over the years. It was introduced in the 1980s as architectural domains and as activity of business design. In the 2000s the study and concept development of business architecture accelerated. By the end of the 2000s the first handbooks on business architecture were published, separate frameworks for business architecture were being developed, separate views and models for business architecture were further under construction, the business architect as a profession evolved, and an increasing number of businesses added business architecture to their agenda.\nBy 2015 business architecture has evolved into a common practice. The business architecture body of knowledge has been developed and is updated multiple times each year, and the interest from the academic world and from top management is growing.\nIn order to develop an integrated view of an enterprise, many different views of an organization are typically developed. Each \"view\" is typically a diagram that illustrates a way of understanding the enterprise by highlighting specific information about it. The key views of the enterprise that may be provided by business architecture address several aspects of the enterprise; they are summarized by the Object Management Group (2012) as follows:The Business Strategy view captures the tactical and strategic goals that drive an organization forward...\nThe Business Capabilities view describes the primary business functions of an enterprise and the pieces of the organization that perform those functions...\nThe Value Stream view defines the end-to-end set of activities that deliver value to external and internal stakeholders...\nThe Business Knowledge view establishes the shared semantics (e.g., customer, order, and supplier) within an organization and relationships between those semantics (e.g., customer name, order date, supplier name)...\nThe Organizational view captures the relationships among roles, capabilities and business units, the decomposition of those business units into subunits, and the internal or external management of those units.\n \nIn addition to the above views of the enterprise, the relationships that connect the aforementioned views form the foundation of the business architecture implementation. This foundation provides the framework that supports the achievement of key goals; planning and execution of various business scenarios; and delivery of bottom-line business value. Further research from O'Higgins (2024) emphasizes that tailoring business architecture to factors such as industry sector, geographic region, and organizational size significantly enhances its effectiveness in achieving strategic goals.\nIn the 2006 article \"Business Architecture: A new paradigm to relate business strategy to ICT,\" Versteeg & Bouwman explained the relation between business strategy and business architecture. They wrote:Business Architecture is directly based on business strategy. It is the foundation for subsequent architectures (strategy embedding), where it is detailed into various aspects and disciplines. The business strategy can consist of elements like strategy statements, organizational goals and objectives, generic and/or applied business models, etc. The strategic statements are analyzed and arranged hierarchically, through techniques like qualitative hierarchical cluster analysis. Based on this hierarchy the initial business architecture is further developed, using general organizational structuring methods and business administration theory, like theories on assets and resources and theories on structuring economic activity.\nVersteeg & Bouwman further stipulated, that \"the perspectives for subsequent design next to organization are more common: information architecture, technical architecture, process architecture. The various parts (functions, concepts and processes) of the business architecture act as a compulsory starting point for the different subsequent architectures. It pre-structures other architectures. Business architecture models shed light on the scantly elaborated relationships between business strategy and business design.\"\nThe primary purpose of the Business Architecture Guild is \"to promote best practices and expand the knowledge-base of the business architecture discipline.\" The Guild is a non-profit, international membership organization for practitioners and others interested in the developing the field of business architecture. With members on six continents, a strong Advisory Board and a growing number of business partners, the Guild positions itself as a focal point for the evolving practices and disciplines of business architecture.Founded in late 2010, the Guild opened up membership in the fall of 2011 based on the initial release of A Guide to the Business \nArchitecture Body of Knowledge(R) (BIZBOK(R) Guide). BIZBOK(R), currently at version 13, is a \"practical guide for business architecture practitioners and individuals who wish to use business architecture to address business challenges. This practical guide comes in the form of best practices, gleaned from numerous companies and business architecture leaders.\".\nThe Business Architecture Association started as a DePaul based organization where practitioners came together to share and explore new ideas around Business Architecture.  It later formalized itself into a formal organization that looked to build local chapters where practitioners could gather and share their ideas around Business Architecture.  In addition, to building a chapter based organization, the Business Architecture Association coalesced a group of strong practitioners to put together the first practitioner exam.  Eventually, the Business Architecture Association formalized the exam and it became the beta version of certified practitioner exam.  In 2014, the Business Architecture Guild and the Business Architecture Association, joined forces where the beta exam became cornerstone of the certification program of the Business Architecture Guild looking to solidify the practice of Business Architecture in the marketplace.The ASATE Group Business Capability Framework relies on business capabilities and the eight types of building blocks that make them up (processes, functions, organizational units, know-how assets, information assets, technology assets, brands and natural resource deposits) to model a business architecture. This framework was devised with five criteria in mind: (1) must be aligned with the ANSI/IEEE 1471-2000 standard definition of architecture; (2) must share an anchor point with business strategy, namely capabilities; (3) must rely on common business terms and definitions thereof; (4) must comprise all building block types necessary to model a complete business architecture; and (5) must not be burdened with unnecessary building blocks types.The Zachman Framework is a popular enterprise architecture framework used by business architects. The framework provides ontology of fundamental enterprise concepts that are defined  from the intersection of six interrogative categories: What, How, Where, Who, When, Why, and six perspectives: Executive, Business Management, Architect, Engineer, Technician, and Enterprise. Typically, business architects are interested in the concepts associated with the top two perspectives: Executive and Business Management.  The Executive perspective is concerned with the scope and context of the business. The Business Management perspective is concerned with business definition models.\nModeling standards of the Object Management Group (OMG), including the Unified Modeling Language (UML), Model Driven Architecture (MDA), Business Motivation Model (BMM), Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Rules (SBVR) and the Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN), and the Decision Model and Notation (DMN) enable powerful visual design, execution and maintenance of software and other processes, including IT Systems Modeling and Business Process Management.  Currently, OMG works on the Value Delivery Modeling Language (VDML), a standard modeling language for analysis and design of the operation of an enterprise with particular focus on the creation and exchange of valueThe Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) of The Open Group is a community-based standards effort for describing methods and tools used by architecture.  It is being developed and continuously improved by the Open Group, a consortium of interested individuals and companies involved in information technology.According to TOGAF, Business Architecture \"defines the business strategy, governance, organization, and key business processes\". TOGAF refers to Business Architecture as one of the four architecture domains, which represent the subsets of the overall enterprise architecture with the other three architecture domains being Application Architecture, Data Architecture, and Technology Architecture. The key element of TOGAF, Architecture Development Method, identifies development of Business Architecture as necessary prerequisite for developing other architecture domains and provides guidance in regard to development steps and common artifacts.\nIndustry reference models are frameworks or models that provide a best practice off-the-shelf set of structures, processes, activities, knowledge and skills. The Business Architecture Guild provides reference models for many industries, including government, financial services, insurance, transportation, and healthcare, as well as a common reference model. Other organizations are also beginning to develop complementary models for additional industries.Many additional business models exist that can be related to business architecture, but are derived from other approaches, such as operating models and lower-level process frameworks. Examples of these include:The Business Process Framework (eTOM), published by the TM Forum, describes the full scope of business processes required by a service provider in the telecommunications industry, and defines key elements and how they interact.\nProcess Classification Framework (PCF), published by APQC, creates a common language for organizations to communicate and define work processes comprehensively and without redundancies. Organizations are using it to support benchmarking, manage content, and perform other important performance management activities.\nThe Supply-Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) was a proprietary process reference model, published by Supply-Chain Council. Supply-Chain Council merged with APICS in 2014.\nOpenReference is an Open, editable reference for business terms, building towards a common language to describe business performance, processes, practices and terms. The reference is maintained by volunteers of the OpenReference Initiative.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_2"
-}

test/Business/Communities_of_innovation.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "Communities that support innovation have been referred to as communities of innovation (CoI), communities for innovation, innovation communities, open innovation communities, and communities of creation.\nLim and Ong (2019) defined a community of innovation (CoI) as a group of people with a sense of camaraderie, belonging and a collective identity who are jointly facilitating innovation.CoIs are groups made up of motivated individuals working together towards a common goal because they are convinced of their common cause.\nCoakes and Smith (2007) defined communities of innovation (CoIs) as a form of communities of practice dedicated to the support of innovation.\nSawhney and Prandelli (2000) proposed the model of communities of creation as a new governance mechanism for managing knowledge found in different companies for the purpose of innovation. In CoIs, intellectual property rights are considered to be owned by the entire community, although the community is governed by a central firm which acts as the sponsor and defines the ground rules for participation. This model lies between the closed hierarchical model and the open market-based model.\nQuoting Mintzberg (2009), Lim and Ong (2019) points out that managers need to re-discover the essence of communities in the organizations in order to appropriately manage people within the organizations, who are not simply an organizational resource to be exploited, but who are the very organization itself. In other words, employees who feel they are valued and fairly treated by their organizations will usually work generously and in times of need, sacrificially for the success of the organization of which they feel they are a part of. However, employees who perceive themselves as being exploited, or possibly next on the retrenchment list, will more often than not put in only minimal work for the organization.Stacey (1969) observed that the term ‘community’ has been used by some to connote social relations in a defined geographical area, and by others to stress the feeling of belonging to a group.Innovation is the development and implementation of a new idea (Van de Ven, 1986).\nCollaboration contributes to innovation (Pouwels and Koster, 2017).\nLim and Ong (2019) observed three macro-processes, the first macro-process pertaining to having a relax and conducive environment for interaction and innovation, a second macro-process centering on the need for recognition and organizational resources to sustain the innovation process and a third macro-process of narrowing down the choices and implementation of the innovation. Building on the literature on innovation, they termed the first and third macro-processes the divergence (knowledge sharing, search activities, exploratory, and idea generation) and convergence (elimination of alternatives and narrowing down towards a choice, implementation, exploitation, and commercialization of ideas) macro-processes of community innovation. They termed the second macro-process the gateway macro-process (evaluation of new knowledge creation, selection, prioritization, control, idea screening and advocacy) as they observed that it consists of the critical processes which the organization uses to choose ideas to endorse for further development. It is the gateway through which informal communities of innovation may enter to become formal communities of innovation within the organization.The macro-process of divergence management begins with individuals within the community of innovation building trust, sharing and discussing ideas, agreeing to develop ideas together and to seek recognition or funding from their organization. The macro-process of gateway management then evaluates the preliminary results for recognition or funding with the outcome as either funding approved or not approved for the development of the new products or services. Finally, if the funding is approved, the group dynamics of the community of innovation then becomes formalized within the organization, bringing about the development and implementation of new products or services within the macro-process of convergence management.\nLim and Ong (2019) observed that in contrast to communities of practice, communities of innovation may emerge by themselves or be cultivated; they usually exist for a narrower purpose of producing a new service or product over a shorter life span; they are made up of participants from either one or more functions; they require a higher level of trust between participants to be effective; there is a higher cost to their participants; and the potential benefit to the organization may be greater when they are successfully implemented. They also noted that a community of innovation (COI) may be specialized in one function like a community of practice (COP). An example is an innovation project which involves only staff from the engineering department. It is also possible for communities of innovation to be cross-functional (e.g. involving 2-3 functions). An example is an innovation project which involves staff from two functions, the business department and the environmental science department. In their research, they observed that cross-functional communities of innovation were able to consider problems from more perspectives and come up with more varied solutions. However, cross-functional communities of innovation usually require more time for discussions due to the difference in the members’ level of knowledge concerning different topics and their associated jargons.\nAccording to Etienne Wenger, a community of practice (CoP) is a group composed of people who are interested in the same topic and often interact with each other in order to increase their knowledge in this topic. CoPs are very similar to CoIs; however, the two differ in a number of critical ways. They can be easily confused between.\nA CoP is able to connect the attitudes and values of dissimilar organizations. For example, a researcher may have a similar skill-set as someone working at a corporation; however, they may have very different tacit knowledge and motivation. The formation of a CoP can bring these separate groups with different motivations to form a beneficial partnership.\nCoPs and CoIs share many traits and are closely related :  so much so that a CoI can be deemed to be a type of CoP. CoIs are, however, different in certain critical ways not routinely addressed by CoPs, ways that are vital in the process of innovation. CoIs are focused on innovation, and while skills and processes can be transplanted across organizations, innovation processes and methods cannot, without significant customization and adaptation.\nAnother element that separates a CoI is \"inspiration to action\", which refers to the relationships formed between kindred spirits :  relationships providing support and inspiration for taking on the uphill battle of creating significant change and embarking on new possibilities. In contrast, this process of innovation and bringing about significant change :  is not well integrated with corporate strategy.\nDrivers of organizational innovativeness include team processes and external knowledge (Rose et al., 2016) and networking (Lewis et al., 2018).Successful COIs increase innovations within an organization. They, therefore, have the potential to contribute to organizational ambidexterity, which refers to the organization's dual capabilities of managing the current business and being flexible and adaptable to meet future changes and demands.Examples of communities of innovation in history include the communities behind steam engines, iron and steel production, and textile machinery. The Pig Iron industry of Cleveland in the UK during 1850:1870 is a prime example of it.In recent decades, the software industry has exhibited the most significant presence of CoIs. 96% of software products developed in 2016 used open source software. Particularly, in software that runs the computing infrastructure of the internet, open source is ubiquitous. Prime examples of open source software created through communities of innovation include OpenOffice, Python, Blender, GIMP, GNOME, Apache, PostgreSQL and PHP, besides Linux.\nTraditionally, the company is the most efficient means of managing knowledge belonging to different people. The primary motivation is job security, career advancement and recognition. Lee and Cole (2003) argue for a community structure for knowledge creation that crosses firms boundaries. To substantiate their argument they put forth the case of how \"thousands of talented volunteers, dispersed across organizational and geographical boundaries, collaborate via the Internet to produce a knowledge-intensive, innovative product of high quality\": the Linux kernel (Lee and Cole 2003, p. 633). The Linux community has proved to be a very efficient mean of managing knowledge belonging to different people. The primary motivation is a value system, recognition, and potential career advancement or hop. Lee and Cole (2003) argue that research on knowledge management has to date focused on hierarchy and therefore has not adequately addressed the mobilization of distributed knowledge, the knowledge that is dispersed among many people. They note that, as illustrated by the Linux case, \"the advent of the Internet and Web-based technologies has enabled specialized communities to convene, interact, and share resources extensively via electronic interfaces,\" even across firms' boundaries (Lee and Cole 2003, p. 633). People are able to contribute effectively outside their working hours. Coordination of the work (including feedback) is possible even when people are working from different locations. The catchment area is therefore much larger and the critical mass of software engineers required to develop and maintain the Linux project was therefore achievable.According to Henry Chesbrough, over the twentieth century, the closed innovation paradigm was overtaken by the theory of open innovation, which emphasizes the significantly higher importance of external resources :  thanks to an increasing trend towards globalization, new market participants, and simultaneously shorter product life cycles with correspondingly increasing R&D costs.Innovation through CoIs has many benefits when compared to proprietary or closed-off product development. Particularly, individual innovators and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are expected to gain most from open innovation collaborations due to their inherently limited capabilities.\nWhen the most popular Open Source tools and applications :  developed through collaboration among their respective communities of innovation (such as software like Linux, Apache Web Server, PostgresSQL and PHP) were compared with similar proprietary software, Gartner found that open source bested or equaled the quality of their proprietary cousins and that many open source developers and advocates are gainfully employed and at very little risk of losing future work prospects. Open source products development has proven to be an efficient way of exhibiting skills.\nAccording to the Technology and Innovation Management Review, open innovation generally provides the following benefits: Broader base of ideas, Technological synergy, Improvement of the internal learning capacity through the transfer of external knowledge and learning routines and Use of intellectual property as strategic assets.\nHowever, open innovation is also associated with a slow or delayed development Pace.\nAlso, over time it has been proven :  especially in the case of communities of innovation in the software industry :  that due to the nature of patent and intellectual property law, the dream of open source software as advanced by its advocates :  has failed. It was believed that democratization of software would result in shared ownership of its intellectual property, but that hasn't happened. Software built using open source software :  is then patented and closed to external collaboration by wealthy companies, who profit much more from the results than the communities of innovation involved in developing the underlying technologies. This leads to greater wealth inequality, as opposed to social good.\nAccording to an article in Technology and Innovation Management Review, open innovation generally suffers from the following disadvantages: strong dependence on external knowledge; loss of key knowledge control; loss of flexibility, creativity, and strategic power.\nThere is evidence that, contrary to the popular belief, communities of innovation such as those in open source software, are not a recent development. There are many examples in history in which innovators have used collective invention as in the cases of textile machinery, steam engines, and the production of iron and steel. In these cases, the innovators' behavior was largely dependent on public policy that accommodated knowledge sharing to foster cumulative innovation. Sometimes, knowledge sharing coexisted with patenting.Despite the historical precedent, today knowledge sharing among innovators is generally regarded as a modern development. The cost for information exchange has drastically decreased due, in a large part, to breakthroughs within the information and communication fields. According to Henry Chesborough (2003), modern open innovation is often seen as, \"a sharp break from the paradigm of the early twentieth century when research labs were largely self sufficient :  only occasionally receiving outside visitors, and researchers would seldom venture out to visit universities or scientific expositions\". In history, the \"heroic inventor\" is shown greater consideration than the cooperation of innovators.\nStories of innovative heroes were believed to be more fascinating than other narratives, such as the stories of often nameless farmers, who created and shared new types of wheat on the Great Plains. This demonstrates the cultural shift that caused the \"heroic inventor\" to be nationally celebrated in Britain and all Western countries.\nKnowledge sharing often occurred in the past, though there is not enough evidence to prove whether or not it occurs more frequently today. However, it is known that tension has existed for some time between the depth and scope of open knowledge sharing and the patent system.\nAmong the foremost examples of collective innovation in the past is Cleveland's Pig Iron industry in the UK during 1850:1870. This industry experienced a \"free exchange of information about new techniques and plant designs among firms in an industry\". According to economic historian Robert Allen, the proliferation of knowledge sharing in the iron district had two plausible reasons. First, afterword traveled of a prosperous blast furnace design, the reputations of engineers grew to be more positive. This only increased profits and allowed engineers to improve their careers. Second, such disclosures could cause the value of the revealing party's assets to decrease. Improving the blast furnace designs, in turn, led to an increase in the values of iron ore deposits, because these Cleveland ore mines were often owned by the blast furnace firms. This possibly made revealing technical information freely a profitable activity from the individual firm's point of view. Similarities can be drawn to today's communities of innovation, where the primary motivation for participants is recognition and potential career advancement, and for participating firms is related profit.\nIt is yet to be understood how the rivalry between firms and innovators (that caused knowledge sharing to exist) came to be, while which conditions actually lead to aggressive rivalry and patenting. Bessen and Nuvolari (2011) mention that \"... as the technology matures, the nature of firms rivalry, their willingness to share knowledge and their use of patents correspondingly change. In particular, knowledge sharing is more likely to occur during the early phases of technology or where local innovation has little effect on worldwide prices.\"\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_3"
-}

test/Business/Company.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether natural, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared goals.\nOver time, companies have evolved to have the following features: \"separate legal personality, limited liability, transferable shares, investor ownership, and a managerial hierarchy\". The company, as an entity, was created by the state which granted the privilege of incorporation.\nCompanies take various forms, such as:\nvoluntary associations, which may include nonprofit organizations\nbusiness entities, whose aim is to generate sales, revenue, and profit\nfinancial entities and banks\nprograms or educational institutions\nA company can be created as a legal person so that the company itself has limited liability as members perform or fail to discharge their duties according to the publicly declared incorporation published policy. When a company closes, it may need to be liquidated to avoid further legal obligations. Companies may associate and collectively register themselves as new companies; the resulting entities are often known as corporate groups.\nA company can be defined as an \"artificial person\", invisible, intangible, created by or under law, with a discrete legal capacity (or \"personality\"), perpetual succession, and a common seal. Except for some senior positions, companies remain unaffected by the death, insanity, or insolvency of an individual member.The English word, \"company\", has its origins in the Old French term compagnie (first recorded in 1150), meaning \"society, friendship, intimacy; body of soldiers\", which came from the Late Latin word companio (\"one who eats bread with you\"), first attested in the Salic law (c. AD 500) as a calque of the Germanic expression gahlaibo (literally, \"with bread\"), related to Old High German galeipo (\"companion\") and to Gothic gahlaiba (\"messmate\").By 1303, the word company referred to trade guilds. The usage of the term company to mean \"business association\" was first recorded in 1553,and the abbreviation \"co.\" dates from 1769.\nAccording to the Company Law of the People's Republic of China, companies include the limited liability company and joint-stock limited company which founded in the mainland China.In English law and in legal jurisdictions based upon it, a company is a body corporate or corporation company registered under the Companies Acts or under similar legislation. Common forms include:Private companies limited by guarantee\nCommunity interest company\nCharitable incorporated organisation\nPrivate companies limited by shares - the most common form of company\nPublic limited companies - companies, usually large, which are permitted to (but do not have to) offer their shares to the public, for example on a stock exchange\nIn the United Kingdom, a partnership is not legally a company, but may sometimes be referred to (informally) as a \"company\". It may be referred to as a \"firm\".\nIn the United States, a company is not necessarily a corporation. For example, a company may be a \"corporation, partnership, association, joint-stock company,  trust,  fund, or organized group of persons, whether incorporated or not, and (in an official capacity) any receiver, trustee in bankruptcy, or similar official, or liquidating agent, for any of the foregoing\".A company limited by guarantee (CLG):  Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company. This type of company is common in England. A company limited by guarantee may be with or without having share capital.A company limited by shares: The most common form of the company used for business ventures. Specifically, a limited company is a \"company in which the liability of each shareholder is limited to the amount individually invested\" with corporations being \"the most common example of a limited company\". This type of company is common in England and many English-speaking countries. A company limited by shares may be a publicly traded company or a privately held company.\nA company limited by guarantee with a share capital:  A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.\nA limited liability company: \"A company—statutorily authorized in certain states—that is characterized by limited liability, management by members or managers, and limitations on ownership transfer\", i.e., L.L.C. LLC structure has been called \"hybrid\" in that it \"combines the characteristics of a corporation and of a partnership or sole proprietorship\". Like a corporation, it has limited liability for members of the company, and like a partnership it has \"flow-through taxation to the members\" and must be \"dissolved upon the death or bankruptcy of a member\".\nAn unlimited company with or without a share capital: A hybrid entity, a company where the liability of members or shareholders for the debts (if any) of the company are not limited. In this case, the doctrine of a veil of incorporation does not apply.\nLess common types of companies are:\nCompanies formed by letters patent: Most corporations by letters patent are corporations sole and not companies as the term is commonly understood today.\nRoyal charter corporations: In middle-ages Europe, before the passing of modern companies legislation, these were the only types of companies. Now they are relatively rare, except for very old companies that still survive (particularly many British banks), or modern societies that fulfill a quasi-regulatory function (for example, the Bank of England is a corporation formed by a modern charter).\nStatutory companies: Relatively rare today, certain companies have been formed by a private statute passed in the relevant jurisdiction.\nWhen \"Ltd\" is placed after the company's name, it signifies a limited company, and \"PLC\" (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.\nIn the legal context, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the \"members\". In a company limited or unlimited by shares (formed or incorporated with a share capital), this will be the shareholders. In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors. Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include segregated portfolio companies and restricted purpose companies.\nHowever, there are many sub-categories of company types that can be formed in various jurisdictions in the world.\nCompanies are also sometimes distinguished for legal and regulatory purposes between public companies and private companies. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a stock exchange which imposes listing requirements/Listing Rules as to the issued shares, the trading of shares and future issue of shares to help bolster the reputation of the exchange or particular market of an exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders.\nA parent company is a company that owns enough voting stock in another firm to control management and operations by influencing or electing its board of directors; the second company being deemed a subsidiary of the parent company. The definition of a parent company differs by jurisdiction, with the definition normally being defined by way of laws dealing with companies in that jurisdiction.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_4"
-}

test/Business/Desktop_outsourcing.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "Desktop outsourcing is the process in which an organization contracts a third party to maintain and manage parts of its IT infrastructure. Contracts vary in depth and can range from Computer hard- and software maintenance to Desktop virtualisation, SaaS-implementations and Helpdesk operation.  It is estimated, that 32% of U.S. and Canadian IT organisations make use of desktop outsourcing in 2014. Recent market reports suggest the adoption of BYOD policies to allow the end-user a free choice of devices in their working environment may increase this market share.\nJustification for desktop outsourcing could include shifting focus and energy to areas of core competency, reducing staffing costs, and the routine maintenance, upgrades, and repairs associated with managing multitudes of PC systems and servers. (Applegate et al. 2007). Managers may also seek desktop outsourcing as a method of simplifying organisational structures to cut costs associated with them. For smaller companies it might also be more viable financially to outsource their desktop at a set price per machine, rather than creating an entire internal IT department. Recent market growth can also be attributed to the decreasing price of hardware, making replacement more favourable than repairs. Possible risks when desktop outsourcing are ensuring continued support for old and unique systems the company depends on, specifically if any of the systems in question were internally developed. This may cause the contractor to be unable to fulfill their contractual obligations, as in the case of the US Navy outsourcing their IT systems to EDS in 2003.A 2012 TechNavio market report forecasts that the desktop outsourcing market will grow by 4.65% yearly, between 2012 and 2016. Atos, CSC, HP and IBM are considered the leading desktop outsourcing vendors for that time frame. A Gartner report from 2013, however, considers the desktop outsourcing market to be in decline, with growth only occurring on the Latin American and Asia/Pacific markets.While consolidating School Districts in 2003, New York City brought in Dell to assess and consolidate their IT systems. At the time it was unclear how many devices actually existed in the network. Being largely successful, this netted Dell a $20 million yearly contract to keep on managing the School Districts systems.NASA's Kennedy Space Center had its IT services, approximately 22,000 devices, outsourced in 1998 for $30 million a year on a 3-year contract.\nThe US Treasury outsourced their 1643 desktop and 700 portable seats in 1999 for around $27 million yearly.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_5"
-}

test/Business/Global_Entrepreneurship_Week.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "Global Entrepreneurship Week (GEW) is an international initiative that introduces entrepreneurship to young people in six continents. GEW emerged in 2008 as a result of Enterprise Week UK and Entrepreneurship Week USA 2007. Since its creation, more than 10 million people from roughly 170 countries have participated in entrepreneurship-related events, activities and competitions during GEW.\nThis annual event occurs over the span of one week and includes the participation of millions of entrepreneurs, investors, policymakers, researchers, educators, entrepreneurship support organizations and interested individuals. Currently, 165 countries celebrate Global Entrepreneurship Week running national campaigns that generate approximately 35,000 events, activities and competitions.\nThe Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation is a non-profit foundation based in Kansas City, Missouri, established in the mid-1960s by the late entrepreneur and philanthropist Ewing Marion Kauffman. The Kauffman Foundation’s mission is to create “a society of economically independent individuals who are engaged citizens, contributing to the improvement of their communities.” Their two main areas of focus are: advancing entrepreneurship and improving the education of children and youth.Enterprise Week UK is Enterprise UK's campaign to connect youth, women, homeworkers, people from ethnic minorities to entrepreneurial opportunities. It was founded in 2004 by the British Chambers of Commerce, the Confederation of British Industry, the Institute of Directors and the Federation of Small Businesses.\nEach country that participates in Global Entrepreneurship Week designates a host organization to lead the campaign (in rare instances, two or more organizations share this responsibility). Host organizations are responsible for galvanizing the momentum of their national GEW campaign—building a network of partner organizations to run events and activities during GEW and supporters to help promote the national campaign. Below is a list of participating countries, along with some of their past respective host organization(s).A global partner is any organization that agrees to host one or more activities during Global Entrepreneurship Week. These organizations include:Business Council for International Understanding (BCIU)\nDepartment for Business, Innovation and Skills, UK\nDECA\nEndeavor\nJunior Achievement\nEntrepreneurs' Organization\nNational Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE)\nTechnoServe\nEuropean Confederation of Young Entrepreneurs (YES for Europe)\nYouth Entrepreneurship and Sustainability (YES, Inc.)\nThe Prince's Youth Business International\n4th annual Race to Entrepreneurship: This event is held by the St. Louis Regional Entrepreneurship Educators (STLREE). Teams must “think like an entrepreneur” as they follow a packet of clues and use public transportation to locate and photograph entrepreneurial landmarks in St. Louis.NFTE students at Shaw High School in East Cleveland, Ohio compete in the GoVenture Lemonade Stand business simulation after-school.  They record their scores after select \"open days\" and the top earners win a prize.\nUniversity of Virginia Cup Entrepreneurial Concept Competition: Students submit a 3 page \"business concept\" and compete in the first round against students within their school or department. In the second round, the winners from each school or department compete against one another until a winning team receives the UVA Cup. Heads of schools can participate in a bet, the one who loses gets his/her head shaved on The Lawn. Additional competitions at UVA include YouTube video submissions, designs for the UVA Cup Trophy, and ideas for “game-changing”.\nYouth Lunch'N Learn: This event is hosted by the Asset Building Center. Local entrepreneurs share success stories and business-starting fundamentals to an audience of students.\nYouthpreneur: KooDooZ holds this program for 5th through 10th graders challenges them to make a social impact through tried methodologies. The students’ progress will be documented and interactive online webinars will be posted on KooDooZ's YouTube channel.\nThe Global Cleantech Open Ideas Competition: A challenge created for green innovators. The goal of the competition is to produce clean technology ideas and collaborate with investors and CEO’s. The winning idea receives $100,000 in legal, marketing, and public relations support.551 Speednetwork the Globe: A networking event hosted by YES for Europe in which entrepreneurs meet and speak with others in timed intervals to brainstorm and share ideas.\nMentoring Madness: An event sponsored by NYSE Euronext. Students posed their entrepreneurial questions to a panel headed by Snoop Dogg. Winners were awarded $25,000 in startup funds.\nThe Global Innovation Tournament: An event targeted towards saving money. Teams were asked to create innovated ideas to make saving money fun. Ideas were judged on innovation and novelty of the idea, how fun it was, and whether the idea created a positive impact.\nThe GEW logo is multi-colored compass with rounded typeface of ‘Global Entrepreneurship Week’ coming from the top right section. The color spectrum, which includes 26 colors, represents GEW’s international span. The compass shape adheres to the notion of navigation and the direction of entrepreneurship in the future. Many of GEW’s partners fuse their own logo with the compass in order to demonstrate a joint collaboration towards a global initiative.",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_6"
-}

test/Business/News_values.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "News values are \"criteria that influence the selection and presentation of events as published news.\" These values help explain what makes something \"newsworthy.\"\nNews values are not universal and can vary between different cultures. Among the many lists of news values that have been drawn up by scholars and journalists, some attempt to describe news practices across cultures, while others have become remarkably specific to the press of particular (often Western) nations. In the Western tradition, decisions on the selection and prioritization of news are made by editors on the basis of their experience and intuition, although analysis by Galtung and Ruge showed that several factors are consistently applied across a range of news organizations. Their theory was tested on the news presented in four different Norwegian newspapers from the Congo and Cuban crisis of July 1960 and the Cyprus crisis of March:April 1964. Results were mainly consistent with their theory and hypotheses. Johan Galtung later said that the media have misconstrued his work and become far too negative, sensational, and adversarial.\nMethodologically and conceptually, news values can be approached from four different perspectives: material (focusing on the material reality of events), cognitive (focusing on people's beliefs and value systems), social (focusing on journalistic practice), and discursive (focusing on the discourse). A discursive perspective tries to systematically examine how news values such as Negativity, Proximity, Eliteness, and others, are constructed through words and images in published news stories. This approach is influenced by linguistics and social semiotics, and is called \"discursive news values analysis\" (DNVA). It focuses on the \"distortion\" step in Galtung and Ruge's chain of news communication, by analysing how events are discursively constructed as newsworthy.\nInitially labelled \"news factors,\" news values are widely credited to Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge. In their seminal 1965 study, Galtung and Ruge put forward a system of twelve factors describing events that together are used as defining \"newsworthiness.\" Focusing on newspapers and broadcast news, Galtung and Ruge devised a list describing what they believed were significant contributing factors as to how the news is constructed. They proposed a \"chain of news communication,\"  which involves processes of selection (the more an event satisfies the \"news factors,\" the more likely it is selected as news), distortion (accentuating the newsworthy factors of the event, once it has been selected), and replication (selection and distortion are repeated at all steps in the chain from event to reader). Furthermore, three basic hypotheses are presented by Galtung and Ruge: the additivity hypothesis that the more factors an event satisfies, the higher the probability that it becomes news; the complementary hypothesis that the factors will tend to exclude each other; and the exclusion hypothesis that events that satisfy none or very few factors will not become news.In 2001, the influential 1965 study was updated by Tony Harcup and Deirdre O'Neill, in a study of the British press. The findings of a content analysis of three major national newspapers in the UK were used to critically evaluate Galtung and Ruge's original criteria and to propose a contemporary set of news values. Forty years on, they found some notable differences, including the rise of celebrity news and that good news (as well as bad news) was a significant news value, as well as the newspaper's own agenda. They examined three tabloid newspapers.\nIn a rapidly evolving market, achieving relevance, giving audiences the news they want and find interesting, is an increasingly important goal for media outlets seeking to maintain market share. This has made news organizations more open to audience input and feedback, and forced them to adopt and apply news values that attract and keep audiences. Given these changes and the rapid rise of digital technology in recent years, Harcup and O’Neill updated their 2001 study in 2016, while other scholars have analysed news values in viral news shared via social media. The growth of interactive media and citizen journalism is fast altering the traditional distinction between news producer and passive audience and may in future lead to a redefinition of what \"news\" means and the role of the news industry.A variety of external and internal pressures influence journalistic decisions during the news-making process, which can sometimes lead to bias or unethical reporting. Many different factors have the potential to influence whether an event is first noticed by a news organisation, second whether a story will be written about that event, third, how that story is written, and fourth whether this story will end up being published as news and if so, where it is placed. Therefore, \"there is no end to lists of news criteria.\" There are multiple competing lists of news values (including Galtung & Ruge's news factors, and others put forward by Schlesinger, Bell, Bednarek & Caple), with considerable overlap but also disagreement as to what should be included.News values can relate to aspects of events and actors, or to aspects of news gathering and processing:\nValues in news actors and events:\nFrequency: Events that occur suddenly and fit well with the news organization's schedule are more likely to be reported than those that occur gradually or at inconvenient times of day or night. Long-term trends are not likely to receive much coverage.\nTimeliness: Events that have only just happened, are current, ongoing, or are about to happen are newsworthy.\nFamiliarity: To do with people or places close to the target audience. Others prefer the term Proximity for this news value, which includes geographical and cultural proximity (see \"meaningfulness\").\nNegativity: Bad news is more newsworthy than good news. Sometimes described as \"the basic news value.\" Conversely, it has also been suggested that Positivity is a news value in certain cases (such as sports news, science news, feel-good tabloid stories).\nConflict: Opposition of people or forces resulting in a dramatic effect. Events with conflict are often quite newsworthy. Sometimes included in Negativity rather than listed as a separate news value.\nUnexpectedness: Events that are out of the ordinary, unexpected, or rare are more newsworthy than routine, unsurprising events.\nUnambiguity: Events whose implications are clear make for better copy than those that are open to more than one interpretation, or where any understanding of the implications depends on first understanding the complex background in which the events take place.\nPersonalization: Events that can be portrayed as the actions of individuals will be more attractive than one in which there is no such \"human interest.\" Personalization is about whether an event can be contextualised in personal terms (affecting or involving specific, \"ordinary\" people, not the generalised masses).\nMeaningfulness: This relates to the sense of identification the audience has with the topic. \"Cultural proximity\" is a factor here—events concerned with people who speak the same language, look the same, and share the same preoccupations as the audience receive more coverage than those concerned with people who speak different languages, look different and have different preoccupations. A related term is Relevance, which is about the relevance of the event as regards the target readers/viewers own lives or how close it is to their experiences. Impact refers more generally to an event's impact, on the target audience, or on others. An event with significant consequences (high impact) is newsworthy.\nEliteness: Events concerned with global powers receive more attention than those concerned with less influential nations. Events concerned with the rich, powerful, famous and infamous get more coverage. Also includes the eliteness of sources : sometimes called Attribution.\nSuperlativeness: Events with a large scale or scope or with high intensity are newsworthy.\nConsonance: Events that fit with the media's expectations and preconceptions receive more coverage than those that defy them (and for which they are thus unprepared). Note this appears to conflict with unexpectedness above. However, consonance really refers to the media's readiness to report an item. Consonance has also been defined as relating to editors' stereotypes and their mental scripts for how events typically proceed.\nValues in the news process:\nContinuity: A story that is already in the news gathers a kind of inertia. This is partly because the media organizations are already in place to report the story, and partly because previous reportage may have made the story more accessible to the public (making it less ambiguous).\nComposition: Stories must compete with one another for space in the media. For instance, editors may seek to provide a balance of different types of coverage, so that if there is an excess of foreign news for instance, the least important foreign story may have to make way for an item concerned with the domestic news. In this way the prominence given to a story depends not only on its own news values but also on those of competing stories.\nCompetition: Commercial or professional competition between media may lead journalists to endorse the news value given to a story by a rival.\nCo-option:  A story that is only marginally newsworthy in its own right may be covered if it is related to a major running story.\nPrefabrication:  A story that is marginal in news terms but written and available may be selected ahead of a much more newsworthy story that must be researched and written from the ground up.\nPredictability:  An event is more likely to be covered if it has been pre-scheduled.\nStory impact: The impact of a published story (not the event), for example whether it is being shared widely (sometimes called Shareability), read, liked, commented-on. To be qualified as shareable, a story arguably has to be simple, emotional, unexpected and triggered. Engaging with such analytics is now an important part of newsroom practice.\nTime constraints:  Traditional news media such as radio, television and daily newspapers have strict deadlines and a short production cycle, which selects for items that can be researched and covered quickly.\nLogistics: Although eased by the availability of global communications even from remote regions, the ability to deploy and control production and reporting staff, and functionality of technical resources can determine whether a story is covered.\nData: Media need to back up all of their stories with data in order to remain relevant and reliable. Reporters prefer to look at raw data in order to be able to take an unbiased perspective. An alternative term is Facticity : the favouring of facts and figures in hard news.\nOne of the key differences in relation to these news values is whether they relate to events or stories. For example, composition and co-option both relate to the published news story. These are news values that concern how news stories fit with the other stories around them. The aim here is to ensure a balanced spread of stories with minimal duplication across a news program or edition. Such news values are qualitatively different from news values that relate to aspects of events, such as Eliteness (the elite status of news actors or sources) or Proximity (the closeness of the event's location to the target audience).\nConventional models concentrate on what the journalist perceives as news. But the news process is a two-way transaction, involving both news producer (the journalist) and the news receiver (the audience), although the boundary between the two is rapidly blurring with the growth of citizen journalism and interactive media. Little has been done to define equivalent factors that determine audience perception of news. This is largely because it would appear impossible to define a common factor, or factors, that generate interest in a mass audience. Basing his judgement on many years as a newspaper journalist Hetherington states that: \"...anything  which threatens people's peace, prosperity and well being is news and likely to make headlines.\"Whyte-Venables suggests audiences may interpret news as a risk signal. Psychologists and primatologists have shown that apes and humans constantly monitor the environment for information that may signal the possibility of physical danger or threat to the individual's social position. This receptiveness to risk signals is a powerful and virtually universal survival mechanism. A \"risk signal\" is characterized by two factors, an element of change (or uncertainty) and the relevance of that change to the security of the individual. The same two conditions are observed to be characteristic of news. The news value of a story, if defined in terms of the interest it carries for an audience, is determined by the degree of change it contains and the relevance that change has for the individual or group. Analysis shows that journalists and publicists manipulate both the element of change and relevance ('security concern') to maximize, or some cases play down, the strength of a story.\nSecurity concern is proportional to the relevance of the story for the individual, his or her family, social group and societal group, in declining order.  At some point there is a Boundary of Relevance, beyond which the change is no longer perceived to be relevant, or newsworthy.  This boundary may be manipulated by journalists, power elites and communicators seeking to encourage audiences to exclude, or embrace, certain groups: for instance, to distance a home audience from the enemy in time of war, or conversely, to highlight the plight of a distant culture so as to encourage support for aid programs.\nIn 2018, Hal Pashler and Gail Heriot published a study showing that perceptions of newsworthiness tend to be contaminated by a political usefulness bias. In other words, individuals tend to view stories that give them \"ammunition\" for their political views as more newsworthy. They give credence to their own views.\nAn evolutionary psychology explanation for why negative news have a higher news value than positive news starts with the empirical observation that the human perceptive system and lower level brain functions have difficulty distinguishing between media stimuli and real stimuli. These lower level brain mechanisms which function on a subconscious level make basic evaluations of perceptive stimuli, focus attention on important stimuli, and start basic emotional reactions. Research has also found that the brain differentiates between negative and positive stimuli and reacts quicker and more automatically to negative stimuli which are also better remembered. This likely has evolutionary explanations with it often being important to quickly focus attention on, evaluate, and quickly respond to threats. While the reaction to a strong negative stimulus is to avoid, a moderately negative stimulus instead causes curiosity and further examination. Negative media news is argued to fall into the latter category which explains their popularity. Lifelike audiovisual media are argued to have particularly strong effects compared to reading.Women have on average stronger avoidance reactions to moderately negative stimuli. Men and women also differ on average in how they enjoy, evaluate, remember, comprehend, and identify with the people in news depending on if the news are negatively or positively framed. The stronger avoidance reaction to moderately negative stimuli has been explained as it being the role of men in evolutionary history to investigate and potentially respond aggressively to threats while women and children withdrew. It has been claimed that negative news are framed according to male preferences by the often male journalists who cover such news and that a more positive framing may attract a larger female audience. However, other scholars have urged caution as regards evolutionary psychology's claims about gender differences.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_7"
-}

test/Business/Road_warrior_(computing).json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "In business travel, a road warrior is a remote worker that uses mobile devices such as tablet computers, laptops, smartphones, and Internet access while traveling to conduct business. The term has often been used with regard to salespeople who travel often and who seldom are in the office. Today it is used for anyone who works outside the office and travels for business. Unlike digital nomads, road warriors do not necessarily choose to travel; it is part of their work duties.\nThe term is believed to originate in the Mel Gibson movie Mad Max 2:The Road Warrior (1981).In the pre-mobile technology era, road warriors were people whose jobs required a lot of travel, either by car or plane. The majority of this group were salespeople and professionals that needed to be with clients such as accountants, consultants, etc. They typically would need to come back to their company's office for administrative duties. The office held limited resources (phones, fax machine, computers, etc.) that were best used by centralizing them.\nAs both computer and telecommunication technologies became more portable and less expensive, the need for Road Warriors to come back to offices for use of limited and costly resources began to wane.\nThe term Road Warrior has been credited to the 1981 movie Mad Max 2 sub-titled \"Road Warrior\" starring Mel Gibson. Its harsh road life in a post-apocalyptic world was used to symbolize the hardship of modern business travel.The 2009 movie \"Up in the Air\" starred George Clooney as a person who fully lives the Road Warrior life to the extreme.\nRoad Warriors use mobile devices and laptop computers that connect to companies' information systems. Specialized applications from Software as a Service (SaaS) providers are often used in order to conduct their work duties.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_8"
-}

test/Business/Vanpool.json

@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Business",
-    "document": "Vanpools or vanpooling is an element of the transit system that allow groups of people to share the ride similar to a carpool, but on a larger scale with concurrent savings in fuel and vehicle operating costs and thus usually a lower cost to the rider.  Vanpools have a lower operating and capital cost than most transit vehicles in the United States, but due to their relatively low capacity, vanpools often require subsidies comparable to conventional bus service.\nVehicles may be provided by individuals, individuals in cooperation with various public and private support programs, through a program operated by or on behalf of an element of government, or a program operated by or on behalf of an employer.\nThe key concept is that people share the ride from home or one or more common meeting locations and travel together to a common destination or work center.\nA number of programs exist (within the United States) to help lower the cost of that shared ride to the end user.  Among these are traditional funding available to public agencies, public-private partnerships, and the Best Work Places for Commuters (Commuter Choice Programs). A tax benefit is available under 26 U.S.C. §132(f) Qualified Transportation Fringe Benefit allowances. These public transportation programs seek to reduce the number of cars on the road (with all the attendant environmental benefits).\nAdditional benefits include:\nSpeed: The van can use the HOV (High Occupancy Vehicle) lanes because normally more than 2-3 people ride.\nFixed schedule (makes transit more predictable).\nSaving the cost of gasoline (in some cases, it is part of the program).\nRiders often can have significant reductions in the cost of personal automobile insurance (insurance for the rideshare component is usually provided as part of the vanpool program).\nIncentives from local/federal transportation authorities offset cost.\nIn many cases, an employer may elect to subsidize the cost of the vanpool and the vehicles' maintenance.  In some cases, the vehicles are provided and maintained by the municipality; in others, they are provided in partnership with or by a third-party provider. For example, UCLA operates an extensive network of vans in which faculty, staff, and students are eligible for discounted rates, although anyone commuting to the Westwood area is allowed to participate, with drivers receiving the highest discounts. The vans are centrally maintained, fueled, and cleaned.\nThe King County Metro Vanpool Program is a successful demand responsive transport program in the Puget Sound area, specifically in King County, Washington. Other successful programs are operated by Pace in Illinois and Utah Transit Authority in Utah.\nVanpooling was begun in the early nineteen seventies by a company called People’s Vans by founder Victor Paglia in 1972 to address the need for people to acquire affordable travel cross country. Reference May 14 article in the Travel section of the New York Times\nThe oldest multi-employer vanpool program in the country is in Treasure Valley, Idaho. For over 30 years Ada County Highway District’s Commuteride Vanpools have been crisscrossing the Valley helping commuters go to and from work, with their numerous vanpool routes traveling throughout the Treasure Valley. The Vanpools also service the Military at Gowen Field and Mountain Home Air Force Base (MHAFB) with multiple routes to and from Ada and Canyon County. ACHD Commuteride serves the cities, Boise, Meridian, Kuna, Garden City, Eagle and Star as well as Ada County.\nPrivate firms operate vanpools for individuals, as well as in cooperation with employers or under contract. \nAnother notable example is Swvl, a NASDAQ publicly held company, that is providing Vanpooling services in 18 countries.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "OperatingSystem",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Location",
-        "Uses",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Promoted",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Business_9"
-}

test/Communication/Automatic_curb_sender.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "The  automatic curb sender was a kind of telegraph key, invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin for sending messages on a submarine communications cable, as the well-known Wheatstone transmitter sends them on a land line.\nIn both instruments, the signals are sent by means of a perforated ribbon of paper but the cable sender was the more complicated, because the cable signals are formed by both positive and negative currents, and not merely by a single current, whether positive or negative.  Moreover, to curb the prolongation of the signals due to electromagnetic induction, each signal was made by two opposite currents in succession: a positive followed by a negative, or a negative followed by a positive. The aftercurrent had the effect of \"curbing\" its precursor.\nFor some time, it was the only instrument delicate enough to receive the signals transmitted through a long cable.\nThis self-acting cable key was brought out in 1876, and tried on the lines of the Eastern Telegraph Company.\n",
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-        "NominatedFor",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
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-        "Uses",
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-    "id": "Communication_0"
-}

test/Communication/Biocommunication_(science).json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "In the study of the biological sciences,  biocommunication is any specific type of communication within (intraspecific) or between (interspecific) species of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and microorganisms. Communication means sign-mediated interactions following three levels of rules (syntactic, pragmatic and semantic). Signs in most cases are chemical molecules (semiochemicals), but also tactile, or as in animals also visual and auditive. Biocommunication of animals may include vocalizations (as between competing bird species), or pheromone production (as between various species of insects), chemical signals between plants and animals (as in tannin production used by vascular plants to warn away insects), and chemically mediated communication between plants and within plants.\nBiocommunication of fungi demonstrates that mycelia communication integrates interspecific sign-mediated interactions between fungal organisms, soil bacteria and plant root cells without which plant nutrition could not be organized. Biocommunication of Ciliates identifies the various levels and motifs of communication in these unicellular eukaryotes. Biocommunication of Archaea represents key levels of sign-mediated interactions in the evolutionarily oldest akaryotes. Biocommunication of phages demonstrates that the most abundant living agents on this planet coordinate and organize by sign-mediated interactions. Biocommunication is the essential tool to coordinate behavior of various cell types of immune systems.\nBiocommunication theory may be considered to be a branch of biosemiotics. Whereas biosemiotics studies the production and interpretation of signs and codes, biocommunication theory investigates concrete interactions mediated by signs. Accordingly, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of biocommunication processes are distinguished. Biocommunication specific to animals (animal communication) is considered a branch of zoosemiotics. The semiotic study of molecular genetics, can be considered a study of biocommunication at its most basic level.Interpreting stimuli from the environment is an essential part of life for any organism. Abiotic things that an organism must interpret include climate (weather, temperature, rainfall), geology (rocks, soil type), and geography (location of vegetation communities, exposure to elements, location of food and water sources relative to shelter sites).Birds, for example, migrate using cues such as the approaching weather or seasonal day length cues. Birds also migrate from areas of low or decreasing resources to areas of high or increasing resources, most commonly food or nesting locations. Birds that nest in the Northern Hemisphere tend to migrate north in the spring due to the increase in insect population, budding plants and the abundance of nesting locations. During the winter birds will migrate south to not only escape the cold, but find a sustainable food source.\nSome plants will bloom and attempt to reproduce when they sense days getting shorter. If they cannot fertilize before the seasons change and they die then they do not pass on their genes. Their ability to recognize a change in abiotic factors allow them to ensure reproduction.\nTrans-organismic communication is when organisms of different species interact. In biology the relationships formed between different species is known as symbiosis. These relationships come in two main forms - mutualistic and parasitic. Mutualistic relationships are when both species benefit from their interactions. For example, pilot fish gather around sharks, rays, and sea turtles to eat various parasites from the surface of the larger organism. The fish obtain food from following the sharks, and the sharks receive a cleaning in return.Parasitic relationships are where one organism benefits off of the other organism at a cost. For example, in order for mistletoe to grow it must leach water and nutrients from a tree or shrub.  \nCommunication between species is not limited to securing sustenance. Many flowers rely on bees to spread their pollen and facilitate floral reproduction. To allow this, many flowers evolved bright, attractive petals and sweet nectar to attract bees. In a 2010 study, researchers at the University of Buenos Aires examined a possible relationship between fluorescence and attraction. The study concluded that reflected light was much more important in pollinator attraction than fluorescence. \nCommunicating with other species allows organisms to form relationships that are advantageous in survival, and all of these relationships are all based on some form of trans-organismic communication.\nInter-organismic communication is communication between organisms of the same species (conspecifics). Inter-organismic communication includes human speech, which is key to maintaining social structures.Dolphins communicate with one another in a number of ways by creating sounds, making physical contact with one another and through the use of body language. Dolphins communicate vocally through clicking sounds and pitches of whistling specific to only one individual. The whistling helps communicate the individual's location to other dolphins. For example, if a mother loses sight of her offspring, or when two familiar individuals cannot find each other, their individual pitches help navigate back into a group.  Body language can be used to indicate numerous things such as a nearby predator, to indicate to others that food has been found, and to demonstrate their level of attractiveness in order to find a mating partner, and even more.\nHowever, mammals such as dolphins and humans are not alone communicating within their own species. Peacocks can fan their feathers in order to communicate a territorial warning. Bees can tell other bees when they have found nectar by performing a dance when they return to the hive. Deer may flick their tails to warn others in their trail that danger is approaching.\nIntra-organismic communication is not solely the passage of information within an organism, but also concrete interaction between and within cells of an organism, mediated by signs. This could be on a cellular and molecular level. An organism's ability to interpret its own biotic information is extremely important. If the organism is injured, falls ill, or must respond to danger, it needs to be able to process that physiological information and adjust its behavior.For example, when the human body starts to overheat, specialized glands release sweat, which absorbs the heat and then evaporates.\nThis communication is imperative to survival in many species including plant life. Plants lack a central nervous system so they rely on a decentralized system of chemical messengers. This allows them to grow in response to factors such as wind, light and plant architecture. Using these chemical messengers, they can react to the environment and assess the best growth pattern.  Essentially, plants grow to optimize their metabolic efficiency.\nHumans also rely on chemical messengers for survival. Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone that is secreted during times of great stress. It binds to receptors on the surface of cells and activates a pathway that alters the structure of glucose. This causes a rapid increase in blood sugar. Adrenaline also activates the central nervous system increasing heart rate and breathing rate. This prepares the muscles for the body's natural fight-or-flight response.  \nOrganisms rely on many different means of intra-organismic communication. Whether it is through neural connections, chemical messengers, or hormones, these all evolved to respond to threats, maintain homeostasis and ensure self preservation.\nGiven the complexity and range of biological organisms and the further complexity within the neural organization of any particular animal organism, a variety of biocommunication languages exists.A hierarchy of biocommunication languages in animals has been proposed by Subhash Kak: these languages, in order of increasing generality, are associative, re-organizational, and quantum. The three types of formal languages of the Chomsky hierarchy map into the associative language class, although context-free languages as proposed by Chomsky do not exist in real life interactions.\n",
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-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Uses",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "AppliesToPeople",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy",
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-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
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-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_1"
-}

test/Communication/China_Internet_Network_Information_Center.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "The China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC; 中国互联网络信息中心) is a public institution affiliated with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Founded on 3 June 1997 and based in Zhongguancun, Beijing, the center manages the country code top-level domain name of the People's Republic of China, namely the .cn domain name.\nCNNIC is responsible for operating and administering China’s domain name registry. CNNIC manages both the \".cn\" country code top level domain and the Chinese domain name system (internationalized domain names that contain Chinese characters). As of April 2017, the total number of Chinese domain names was about 21 million.As of January 2017, CNNIC only opened the CN domain to registered businesses, required supporting documentations for domain registration such as business license or personal ID, and suspended overseas registrars even for domestic registrants. CNNIC denied that it mandated existing personal domain names to be transferred to businesses. Trend Micro suggested this move was still not enough to stop modern security threats from the .cn domain.\nCNNIC allocates Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and AS Numbers to domestic ISPs and users. CNNIC is a National Internet Registry (NIR) acknowledged by the Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC). In late 2004 CNNIC launched an “IP Allocation Alliance” which simplified the procedures for obtaining IP addresses.CNNIC is responsible for the creation and maintenance of the state top-level network catalog database. This database provides information on Internet users, web addresses, domain names, and AS numbers.CNNIC conducts technical research and undertakes state technical projects based on its administrative and practical network technology experience.CNNIC has conducted, and continues to conduct, surveys of Internet information resources. CNNIC maintains statistics on topics such as Internet bandwidth in China, Domain Name registrations, and Internet Development in China.As the national Network Information Center (NIC), CNNIC maintains cooperative relationships with other International Internet Communities, and works closely with NICs of other countries.CNNIC serves as the Secretariat of the Internet Society of China’s Internet Policy and Resource Committee. The Policy and Resource committee is in charge of tasks such as providing policy and legislation oriented suggestions to promote the growth of China’s internet, facilitating the development and application of Internet resources and relevant technologies, and actively participating in the research work of domestic Internet development and administration policies.In July 2008, a broad alliance of Chinese online commerce stakeholders, including CNNIC, all major Chinese commercial banks and web hosting companies, founded the Anti-Phishing Alliance of China (APAC) in order to tackle phishing activities that abuse .cn sub-domain names. CNNIC also functions as the secretariat of APAC.In 2015, Google discovered that CNNIC had issued an intermediate CA certificate to an Egypt-based firm that used CNNIC's keys to impersonate Google domains. Google responded by removing CNNIC's root certificate from the certificate store in Google Chrome and all of Google's products.Mozilla responded to the incident, stating that \"The Mozilla CA team believes that CNNIC’s actions amount to egregious behaviour, and the violations of policy are greater in severity than those in previous incidents. CNNIC’s decision to violate their own Certification Practice Statement is especially serious, and raises concerns that go beyond the immediate scope of the misissued intermediate certificate.  After public discussion... we are planning to change Firefox’s certificate validation code such that it refuses to trust any certificate issued by a CNNIC root with a notBefore date on or after 1 April 2015.\"\n",
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-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
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-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_2"
-}

test/Communication/Environmental_communication.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "Environmental communication is \"the dissemination of information and the implementation of communication practices that are related to the environment. In the beginning, environmental communication was a narrow area of communication; however, nowadays, it is a broad field that includes research and practices regarding how different actors (e.g., institutions, states, people) interact with regard to topics related to the environment and how cultural products influence society toward environmental issues\".\nEnvironmental communication also includes human interactions with the environment. This includes a wide range of possible interactions, from interpersonal communication and virtual communities to participatory decision-making and environmental media coverage. From the perspective of practice, Alexander Flor defines environmental communication as the application of communication approaches, principles, strategies, and techniques to environmental management and protection.\nEnvironmental Communication, breaking off from traditional rhetorical theory, emerged in the United States around the 1980s. Researchers began studying environmental communication as a stand-alone theory because of the way environmental activists used images and wording to persuade their public's. Since then, environmental communication theory has reached multiple milestones including the creation of the journal of environmental communication in 2007.As an academic field, environmental communication emerged from interdisciplinary work involving communication, environmental studies, environmental science, risk analysis and management, sociology, and political ecology.In his 2004 textbook, Alexander Flor considers environmental communication to be a significant element in the environmental sciences, which he believes to be transdisciplinary. He begins his textbook on environmental communication with a declarative statement: \"Environmentalism as we know it today began with environmental communication. The environmental movement was ignited by a spark from a writer’s pen, or more specifically and accurately, Rachel Carson’s typewriter.\" According to Flor, environmental communication has six essentials: knowledge of ecological laws; sensitivity to the cultural dimension; ability to network effectively; efficiency in using media for social agenda setting; appreciation and practice of environmental ethics; and conflict resolution, mediation and arbitration. In an earlier book published in 1993, Flor and colleague Ely Gomez explore the development of an environmental communication curriculum from the perspectives of practitioners from the government, the private sector, and the academe.\nThe role of Environmental Communication in education and academia is centered around goals through pedagogy. These are aimed at trying to increase ecological wakefulness,  support a variety of practice-based ways of learning and building a relationship of being environmental change advocates.\nIn general, Environmental skepticism is an increasing challenge for environmental rhetoric.\nThe technological breakthroughs empowered by the appearance of the Internet are also contributing to environmental problems. Air pollution, acid rain, global warming, and the reduction of natural sources are also an outcome of online technologies. Netcraft argued that in the world, there are 7,290,968 web-facing computers, 214,036,874 unique domain names, and  1,838,596,056 websites leading to significant power consumption.  Therefore, notions such as “Green Websites” have emerged for helping to tackle this issue. “Green Websites” is “associated with the climate-friendly policies and aims to improve the natural habitat of Earth. Renewable sources, the use of black color, and the highlight of the environmental news are some of the easiest and cheapest ways to contribute positively to climate issues”. The aforementioned term is under the umbrella of “Green Computing,” which is aiming to limit the carbon footprints, energy consumption and benefit the computing performance. Information and Communications technology aka ICT, has an obsessive amount of environment impacts through different types of disposal of devices and equipment that have been portrayed to give off harmful gasses and Bluetooth waves into the atmosphere that increase the carbon emissions. This has also shown that the technology has been used to  minimize energy use, society always wants new technology no matter if it affects the environment good or not, but ICT has been cutting back and putting out better technology for our environment while still being able to communicate through society.\nEnvironmental communication is also a type of symbolic action that serves two functions: Environmental human communication is pragmatic because it helps individuals and organizations to accomplish goals and do things through communication. Examples include educating, alerting, persuading, and collaborating. Environmental human communication is constitutive because it helps shape human understanding of environmental issues, themselves, and nature. Examples include values, attitudes, and ideologies regarding nature and environmental issues.In the book Pragmatic Environmentalism: Towards a Rhetoric of Eco-Justice, environmental philosopher Shane Ralston criticizes Cox's pragmatic function of environmental communication for being too shallow and instrumental, recommending instead a deeper account borrowed from Pragmatism: \"[A]n even better way to move beyond a conception of pragmatic rhetoric as shallow instrumentalism and deepen the meaning of pragmatic[...] is to look instead to philosophical pragmatism’s other rich resources, for instance, to its fallibilism, experimentalism, and meliorism.\"\nEnvironmental nature communication occurs when plants actually communicate within ecosystems: \"A plant injured on one leaf by a nibbling insect can alert its other leaves to begin anticipatory defense responses.\" Furthermore, \"plant biologists have discovered that when a leaf gets eaten, it warns other leaves by using some of the same signals as animals\". The biologists are \"starting to unravel a long-standing mystery about how different parts of a plant communicate with one another.\"\nAll beings are connected by the Systems Theory, which submits that one of the three critical functions of living systems is the exchange of information with its environment and with other living systems (the other two being the exchange of materials and the exchange of energy). Flor extends this argument, saying: \"All living systems, from the simplest to the most complex, are equipped to perform these critical functions. They are called critical because they are necessary for the survival of the living system. Communication is nothing more than the exchange of information. Hence, at its broadest sense, environmental communication is necessary for the survival of every living system, be it an organism, an ecosystem, or (even) a social system.\"\nEnvironmental Communication plays an integral role in sustainability science. By taking knowledge and putting it into action.  Since Environmental Communication is focused on everyday practices of speaking and collaborating, it has a deep understanding in the public discussion of environmental policy. Something that sustainability science has a shortcoming of.  Sustainability science requires cooperation between stakeholders and thus requires constructive communication between those stakeholders to create sustainable change.\nRobert Cox is a leader in the discipline of environmental communication and its role in the public sphere. Cox covers the importance of Environmental Communication and the role it plays in policy-making processes, advocacy campaigns, journalism, and environmental movements.  Something that Cox overlooks in the importance of Environmental communication in the Public Sphere is the role visual and aural communication, electronic and digital media, and perhaps most glaringly, popular culture. Along with the aforementioned limitations the media plays a major role in the conversation around the environment because of the framing effect and the impact that it has on the overall perception of the environment and the discussion surrounding it. Framing is something that has been important to many movements in the past but it is more than just creating slogans and the like. George Lakoff argues in favor of a social movement approach similar to the feminist movement or the civil rights movement.The field of Environmental Communication also faces challenges of being silenced and invalidated by governments. Environmental communication like many disciplines had challenges with people with opposing views points that make it difficult to spread a certain message. Environmental Communication like many highly polarized topics is prone to confirmation bias which makes it difficult to have compromises in the world of policy making for the environmental crisis. Along with confirmation bias, Echo chambers do much the same thing and are discussed by Christel van Eck who says with respect to environmental communication that echo chambers can reinforce preexisting climate change perceptions. which serve to make it more difficult to engage in real conversations about the topic. Another reason that it can be difficult to communicate about these things is that many people try to use directional motivated reasoning in which they try to find evidence to push a specific narrative on the topic. The effect that this has had on communicating this idea is examined by Robin Bayes and others who say that it can be very detrimental and divisive. One of the things that makes environmental narratives so dangerous is that it changes so often that it is very difficult to keep the information the same as it travels. This according to Miyase Christensen makes it so that the spreading of these narratives can be dangerous.\nEnvironmental Communication faces a variety of challenges in the political environment due to increased polarization. People often feel threatened by arguments that do not align with their beliefs (boomerang effect). These can lead to psychological reactance, counter-arguing, and anxiety. This can cause difficulty in making progress in political change regarding environmental issues. When it comes to the increased polarization of movements regarding the environment some people point to the impact of identity campaigns because of the argument that fear is counterproductive. Robert Brulle argues this point and calls for a shift away from these identity campaigns and moving towards challenge campaigns.\nAnother limitation of the conversation regarding the environment is the fact that there are multiple agendas being set by different groups in China and the fact that they are different from one another. Along with this the idea that these two different groups are in some sort of a discussion is presented by Xiaohui Wang et. al.\nA culture centered approach has been suggested by some like Debashish Munshi. These people argue for enacting change based on the knowledge of older cultures however it has to exist in a way that does not abuse the relationship between the older cultures and our current one which according to Munshi makes it very difficult to enact.\nTo understand the ways in which environmental communication has an effect on individuals, researchers believe that one's view on the environment shapes their views in a variety of ways. The overall study of environmental communication consists of the idea that nature \"speaks.\" In this field, theories exist in an effort to understand the basis of environmental communication.Researchers view environmental communication as symbolic and material. They argue that the material world helps shape communication as communication helps shape the world. The word environment, a primary symbol in western culture, is used to shape cultural understandings of the material world. This understanding gives researchers the ability to study how cultures react to the environment around them.Humans react and form opinions based on the environment around them. Nature plays a role in human relations.  This theory strives to make a connection between human and nature relations. This belief is at the core of environmental communication because it seeks to understand how nature affects human behavior and identity. Researchers point out that there can be a connection made with this theory and phenomenology.It is difficult to avoid the \"call to action\" when talking about environmental communication because it is directly linked with issues such as climate change, endangered animals, and pollution. Scholars find it difficult to publish objective studies in this field. However, others argue that it is their ethical duty to inform the public on environmental change while providing solutions to these issues. This idea that it can be damaging to a scientist's reputation to offer up opinions or solutions to the problem of Climate Change has been furthered by research done by Doug Cloud who had findings affirming this idea.As the following section suggests, there are many divisions of studies and practices in the field of environmental communication, one of which being social marketing and advocacy campaigns. Though this is a broad topic, a key aspect of successful environmental campaigns is the language used in campaign material. Researchers have found that when individuals are concerned & interested about environmental actions, they take well to messages with assertive language; However, individuals who are less concerned & interested about environmental stances, are more receptive to less assertive messages. Although communications on environmental issues often aim to push into action consumers who already perceive the issue being promoted as important, it is important for such message producers to analyze their target audience and tailor messages accordingly.\nWhile there are some findings that there is a problem with scientists advocating for certain positions in a study conducted by John Kotcher and others it was found that there was no real difference between the credibility of scientists regardless of their advocacy unless they directly tried to argue in favor a specific solution to the problem.",
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-    "id": "Communication_3"
-}

test/Communication/Facial_Action_Coding_System.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face,  based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. Ekman, Friesen, and Joseph C. Hager published a significant update to FACS in 2002. Movements of individual facial muscles are encoded by the FACS from slight different instant changes in facial appearance. It has proven useful to psychologists and to animators.\nIn 2009, a study was conducted to study spontaneous facial expressions in sighted and blind judo athletes. They discovered that many facial expressions are innate and not visually learned.Using the FACS human coders can manually code nearly any anatomically possible facial expression, deconstructing it into the specific \"action units\" (AU) and their temporal segments that produced the expression. As AUs are independent of any interpretation, they can be used for any higher order decision making process including recognition of basic emotions,  or pre-programmed commands for an ambient intelligent environment. The FACS manual is over 500 pages in length and provides the AUs, as well as Ekman's interpretation of their meanings.The FACS defines AUs,  as contractions or relaxations of one or more muscles. It also defines a number of \"action descriptors\", which differ from AUs in that the authors of the FACS have not specified the muscular basis for the action and have not distinguished specific behaviors as precisely as they have for the AUs.\nFor example, the FACS can be used to distinguish two types of smiles as follows:\nthe insincere and voluntary Pan-Am smile: contraction of zygomatic major alone\nthe sincere and involuntary Duchenne smile: contraction of zygomatic major and inferior part of orbicularis oculi.\nThe FACS is designed to be self-instructional. People can learn the technique from a number of sources including manuals and workshops, and obtain certification through testing.\nAlthough the labeling of expressions currently requires trained experts, researchers have had some success in using computers to automatically identify the FACS codes. One obstacle to automatic FACS code recognition is a shortage of manually coded ground truth data.\nThe use of the FACS has been proposed for use in the analysis of depression, and the measurement of pain in patients unable to express themselves verbally.The original FACS has been modified to analyze facial movements in several non-human primates, namely chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, gibbons and siamangs, and orangutans. More recently, it was developed also for domestic species, including dogs, horses and cats. Similarly to the human FACS, the animal FACS has manuals available online for each species with the respective certification tests.Thus, the FACS can be used to compare facial repertoires across species due to its anatomical basis. A study conducted by Vick and others (2006) suggests that the FACS can be modified by taking differences in underlying morphology into account. Such considerations enable a comparison of the homologous facial movements present in humans and chimpanzees, to show that the facial expressions of both species result from extremely notable appearance changes. The development of FACS tools for different species allows the objective and anatomical study of facial expressions in communicative and emotional contexts. Furthermore, a cross-species analysis of facial expressions can help to answer interesting questions, such as which emotions are uniquely human.\nThe  Emotional Facial Action Coding System (EMFACS) and the  Facial Action Coding System Affect Interpretation Dictionary (FACSAID) consider only emotion-related facial actions. Examples of these are:\nFACS coding is also used extensively in computer animation, in particular for computer facial animation, with facial expressions being expressed as vector graphics of AUs. FACS vectors are used as weights for  blend shapes corresponding to each AU, with the resulting face mesh then being used to render the finished face. Deep learning techniques can be used to determine the FACS vectors from face images obtained during motion capture acting, facial motion capture or other performances.For clarification, the FACS is an index of facial expressions, but does not actually provide any bio-mechanical information about the degree of muscle activation. Though muscle activation is not part of the FACS, the main muscles involved in the facial expression have been added here.Action units (AUs) are the fundamental actions of individual muscles or groups of muscles.\nAction descriptors (ADs) are unitary movements that may involve the actions of several muscle groups (e.g., a forward‐thrusting movement of the jaw). The muscular basis for these actions has not been specified and specific behaviors have not been distinguished as precisely as for the AUs.\nFor the most accurate annotation, the FACS suggests agreement from at least two independent certified FACS encoders.\nIntensities of the FACS are annotated by appending letters A:E (for minimal-maximal intensity) to the action unit number (e.g. AU 1A is the weakest trace of AU 1 and AU 1E is the maximum intensity possible for the individual person).",
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-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_4"
-}

test/Communication/Global_information_system.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP,  The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems.\nThere are a variety of definitions and understandings of a global information system (GIS, GLIS), such asA global information system (GIS) is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context.\nA global information system (GIS) is any information system which attempts to deliver the totality of measurable data worldwide within a defined context.\nCommon to this class of information systems is that the context is a global setting, either for its use or development process. This means that it highly relates to distributed systems / distributed computing where the distribution is global. The term also incorporates aspects of global software development and there outsourcing (when the outsourcing locations are globally distributed) and offshoring aspects. A specific aspect of global information systems is the case (domain) of global software development. A main research aspect in this field concerns the coordination of and collaboration between virtual teams. Further important aspects are the internationalization and language localization of system components.\nCritical tasks in designing global information systems are Process and system design: How are the processes between distributed actors organized, how are the systems distributed / integrated.\nTechnical architecture: What is the technical infrastructure enabling actors to collaborate?\nSupport mechanisms: How are actors in the process of communication, collaboration, and cooperation supported?\nA variety of examples can be given. Basically every multi-lingual website can be seen as a global information system. However, mostly the term GLIS is used to refer to a specific system developed or used in a global context.\n",
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-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
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-        "Creator",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Uses",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "AppliesToPeople",
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-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
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-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
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-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
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-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_5"
-}

test/Communication/History_of_the_concept_of_creativity.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "The ways in which societies have perceived the concept of creativity have changed throughout history, as has the term itself.  The ancient Greek concept of art (in Greek, \"techne\"—the root of \"technique\" and \"technology\"), with the exception of poetry, involved not freedom of action but subjection to rules.  In Rome, the Greek concept was partly shaken, and visual artists were viewed as sharing, with poets, imagination and inspiration.\nUnder medieval Christianity, the Latin \"creatio\" came to designate God's act of \"creatio ex nihilo\" (\"creation from nothing\"); thus \"creatio\" ceased to apply to human activities.  The Middle Ages, however, went even further than antiquity, when they revoked poetry's exceptional status:  it, too, was an art and therefore craft and not creativity.\nRenaissance men sought to voice their sense of their freedom and creativity.  The first to apply the word \"creativity\", however, was the 17th-century Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski—but he applied it only to poetry.  For over a century and a half, the idea of human creativity met with resistance, because the term \"creation\" was reserved for creation \"from nothing\".\nNineteenth century religious skepticism allowed for a change in definition: now not only was art recognized as creativity, but it alone was.  And at the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences and in nature, this was taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts that were proper to art.\nThe ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to \"to create\" or \"creator.\"  The expression \"poiein\" (\"to make\") was applied specifically to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or \"maker\") who made it rather than to art in general in its modern understanding.  For example, Plato asks in The Republic, \"Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?\" and answers, \"Certainly not, he merely imitates.\"  To the ancient Greeks, the concept of a creator and of creativity implied freedom of action, whereas the Greeks' concept of art involved subjection to laws and rules.  Art (in Greek, \"techne\") was \"the making of things, according to rules.\"  It contained no creativity, and it would have been—in the Greeks' view—a bad state of affairs if it had.This understanding of art had a distinct premise:  Nature is perfect and is subject to laws, therefore man ought to discover its laws and submit to them, and not seek freedom, which will deflect him from that optimum which he can attain.  The artist was a discoverer, not an inventor.\nThe sole exception to this Greek view—a great exception—was poetry.  The poet made new things—brought to life a new world—while the artist merely imitated.  And the poet, unlike the artist, was not bound by laws.  There were no terms corresponding to \"creativity\" or \"creator,\" but in reality the poet was understood to be one who creates.  And only he was so understood.  In music, there was no freedom:  melodies were prescribed, particularly for ceremonies and entertainments, and were known tellingly as \"nomoi\" (\"laws\").  In the visual arts, freedom was limited by the proportions that Polyclitus had established for the human frame, and which he called \"the canon\" (meaning, \"measure\").  Plato argued in Timaeus that, to execute a good work, one must contemplate an eternal model.  Later the Roman, Cicero, would write that art embraces those things \"of which we have knowledge\" (\"quae sciuntur\").\nPoets saw things differently.  Book I of the Odyssey asks, \"Why forbid the singer to please us with singing as he himself will?\"  Aristotle had doubts as to whether poetry was imitation of reality, and as to whether it required adherence to truth:  it was, rather, the realm of that \"which is neither true nor false.\"\nIn the Roman era, these Greek concepts were partly challenged.  Horace wrote that not only poets but painters as well were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished to (\"quod libet audendi\").  In the declining period of antiquity, Philostratus wrote that \"one can discover a similarity between poetry and art and find that they have imagination in common.\"  Callistratos averred that \"Not only is the art of the poets and prosaists inspired, but likewise the hands of sculptors are gifted with the blessing of divine inspiration.\"  This was something new:  classical Greeks had not applied the concepts of imagination and inspiration to the visual arts but had restricted them to poetry.  Latin was richer than Greek:  it had a term for \"creating\" (\"creatio\") and for \"creator,\" and had two expressions—\"facere\" and \"creare\"—where Greek had but one, \"poiein.\"  Still, the two Latin terms meant much the same thing.A fundamental change, however, came in the Christian period:  \"creatio\" came to designate God's act of \"creation from nothing\" (\"creatio ex nihilo\").  \"Creatio\" thus took on a different meaning than \"facere\" (\"to make\"), and ceased to apply to human functions.  As the 6th-century Roman official and literary figure Cassiodorus wrote, \"things made and created differ, for we can make, who cannot create.\"\nAlongside this new, religious interpretation of the expression, there persisted the ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity. This is seen in two early and influential Christian writers, Pseudo-Dionysius and St. Augustine. Later medieval men such as Hraban the Moor, and Robert Grosseteste in the 13th century, thought much the same way.  The Middle Ages here went even further than antiquity; they made no exception of poetry:  it too had its rules, was an art, and was therefore craft and not creativity.\nThe Renaissance saw a change in perspective. The philosopher Marsilio Ficino wrote that the artist \"thinks up\" (\"excogitatio\") his works; the theoretician of architecture and painting, Leon Battista Alberti, that he \"preordains\" (\"preordinazione\"); Raphael, that he shapes a painting according to his idea; Leonardo da Vinci, that he employs \"shapes that do not exist in nature\"; Michelangelo, that the artist realizes his vision rather than imitating nature; Giorgio Vasari, that \"nature is conquered by art\"; the Venetian art theoretician, Paolo Pino, that painting is \"inventing what is not\"; Paolo Veronese, that painters avail themselves of the same liberties as do poets and madmen; Federico Zuccari (1542:1609), that the artist shapes \"a new world, new paradises\"; Cesare Cesariano (1483:1541), that architects are \"demi-gods.\"  Among musicians, the Flemish composer and musicologist Johannes Tinctoris (1446:1511) demanded novelty in what a composer did, and defined a composer as \"one who produces new songs.\"Still more emphatic were those who wrote about poetry:  G.P. Capriano held (1555) that the poet's invention springs \"from nothing.\"  Francesco Patrizi (1586) saw poetry as \"fiction,\" \"shaping,\" \"transformation.\"\nPossibly the first to recognisably use the word \"creation\" in terms of human creativity was the 17th-century Polish poet and theoretician of poetry, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595:1640), known as \"the last Latin poet.\"  In his treatise, De perfecta poesi, he not only wrote that a poet \"invents,\" \"after a fashion builds,\" but also that the poet \"creates anew\" (\"de novo creat\").  Sarbiewski even added:  \"in the manner of God\" (\"instar Dei\").Sarbiewski, however, regarded creativity as the exclusive privilege of poetry; creativity was not open to visual artists.  \"Other arts merely imitate and copy but do not create, because they assume the existence of the material from which they create or of the subject.\"  As late as the end of the 17th century, André Félibien (1619:75) would write that the painter is \"so to speak [a] creator.\"  The Spanish Jesuit Baltasar Gracián (1601:58) wrote similarly as Sarbiewski:  \"Art is the completion of nature, as it were a second Creator...\"\nBy the 18th century, the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory.  It was linked with the concept of imagination, which was on all lips. Joseph Addison wrote that the imagination \"has something in it like creation.\"  Voltaire declared (1740) that \"the true poet is creative.\"  With both these authors, however, this was rather only a comparison of poet with creator.Other writers took a different view.  Denis Diderot felt that imagination is merely \"the memory of forms and contents,\" and \"creates nothing\" but only combines, magnifies or diminishes.  It was precisely in 18th-century France, indeed, that the idea of man's creativity met with resistance.  Charles Batteux wrote that \"The human mind cannot create, strictly speaking; all its products bear the stigmata of their model; even monsters invented by an imagination unhampered by laws can only be composed of parts taken from nature.\"  Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues (1715:47), and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715:80) spoke to a similar effect.\nTheir resistance to the idea of human creativity had a triple source.  The expression, \"creation,\" was then reserved for creation ex nihilo (Latin: from nothing), which was inaccessible to man.  Second, creation is a mysterious act, and Enlightenment psychology did not admit of mysteries.  Third, artists of the age were attached to their rules, and creativity seemed irreconcilable with rules.  The latter objection was the weakest, as it was already beginning to be realized (e.g., by Houdar de la Motte, 1715) that rules ultimately are a human invention.\nIn the 19th century, art took its compensation for the resistance of preceding centuries against recognizing it as creativity.  Now not only was art regarded as creativity, but it alone was. The art critic John Ruskin has often been referred to in the context of the transition to self-expression in the history of art education, though some scholars believe this to be a misreading.\nAt the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences (e.g., Jan Łukasiewicz, 1878:1956) and in nature (e.g., Henri Bergson), this was generally taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts proper to art.\nThe start of the scientific study of creativity is sometimes taken as J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, which helped popularize the subject.\n",
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-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
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-        "UsedBy",
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-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
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-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_6"
-}

test/Communication/Regulatory_focus_theory.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "Regulatory focus theory (RFT) is a theory of goal pursuit  formulated by Columbia University psychology professor and researcher E. Tory Higgins regarding people's motivations and perceptions in judgment and decision making processes. RFT examines the relationship between the motivation of a person and the way in which they go about achieving their goal. RFT posits two separate and independent self-regulatory orientations: prevention and promotion (Higgins, 1997).\nThis psychological theory, like many others, is applied in communication, specifically in the subfields of nonverbal communication and persuasion. Chronic regulatory focus is measured using the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (Higgins et al., 2001) or the Regulatory Strength measure. Momentary regulatory focus can be primed or induced.\nTo understand RFT, it is important to understand another of E. Tory Higgins' theories: regulatory fit theory. When a person believes that there is \"fit\", they will involve themselves more in what they are doing and \"feel right\" about it.   Regulatory fit should not directly affect the hedonic occurrence of a thing or occasion, but should influence a person's assurance in their reaction to the object or event.Regulatory fit theory suggests that a match between orientation to a goal and the means used to approach that goal produces a state of regulatory fit that both creates a feeling of rightness about the goal pursuit and increases task engagement (Higgins, 2001, 2005). Regulatory fit intensifies responses, such as the value of a chosen object, persuasion, and job satisfaction.\nRegulatory fit does not increase the assessment of a decision; instead when someone feels \"right\" about their decision, the experience of \"correctness and importance\" is transferred to the ensuing assessment of the chosen object, increasing its superficial worth. Research suggests that the \"feeling right\" experience can then sway retrospective or prospective evaluations. Regulatory fit can be manipulated incidentally (outside the context of interest) or integrally (within the context of interest).\nRFT refers to when a person pursues a goal in a way that maintains the person's own personal values and beliefs, also known as regulatory orientation. This theory operates on the basic principle that people embrace pleasure but avoid pain, and they then maintain their regulatory fit based on this standard.The regulatory focus is basically the way in which someone approaches pleasure but avoids pain. An individual's regulatory focus concentrates on desired end-states, and the approach motivation used to go from the current state to the desired end-state. This theory differentiates between a promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains. This focus is more concerned with higher level gains such as advancement and accomplishment.\nAnother focus is the prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses. This focus emphasizes security and safety by following the guidelines and the rules.\nThese two regulatory focuses regulate the influences that a person would be exposed to in the decision-making process, and determine the different ways they achieve their goal, as discussed by RFT. An individual's regulatory orientation is not necessarily fixed. While individuals have chronic tendencies towards either promotion or prevention, these preferences may not hold for all situations. Furthermore, a specific regulatory focus can be induced.\nThe value taken from interaction and goal attainment can be either positive or negative. The decision has positive value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that fits their regulatory orientation and it will have negative value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that does not fit their regulatory orientation. Regulatory fit allows value to be created by intensifying the commitment, based on one of the regulatory focus orientations. Making choices and fulfilling objectives are considered as activities, and with any activity, people can be more or less involved. When this involvement is strong, it can intensify the feelings and values about this activity, and the approach to the activity determines whether they are or are not satisfied with the outcome and method of achieving the outcome.\nThis theory has noteworthy implications for increasing the value of life. For example, in interpersonal conflict, if each person experiences \"fit\", each one will be satisfied with and committed to the outcome. In the broad sense, for people to appreciate their own lives, they need to be satisfied and \"feel right\" about what they are doing, and the way they are doing it.  If it is not satisfying, it is known as \"non-fit\", and they will not reach their desired goal.\nRegulatory focus theory, according to Higgins, views motivation in a way that allows an understanding of the foundational ways we approach a task or a goal. Different factors can motivate people during goal pursuit, and we self-regulate our methods and processes during our goal pursuit. RFT proposes that motivational strength is enhanced when the manner in which people work toward a goal sustains their regulatory orientation. Achieving a goal in a way that is consistent to a person's regulatory orientation leads to an individual sense of importance to the event. The impact of motivation is considered calculated and this creates a greater sense of commitment to the goal. The more strongly an individual is engaged (i.e., involved, occupied, fully engrossed) in an activity, the more intense the motivational force experienced. Engagement is of great importance to attain and motivate in order to reach a goal. Engagement serves as intensifier of the directional component of the value experience. An individual who is strongly engaged in a goal pursuits will experience a positive target more positively and a negative target more negatively.Individuals can pursue different goals with diverse regulatory orientations and in unlike ways. There are two different kinds of regulatory orientations that people use to obtain their goals: promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation. These terms are derived from E. Tory Higgins's Theory of Regulatory Focus. In which, he adds to the notion that people regulate their goal-oriented behavior in two very distinct ways, coined promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation\nE. Tory Higgins uses this example: there is Student A and Student B, and they both have the shared goal to make an A in a class they are both taking in college. Student A uses a promotion-focus orientation which slants them towards achieving their goal and towards advancement, growth and life accomplishment. This would cause Student A to view the goal as an ideal that satisfies their need for accomplishment. Student B uses a prevention-focus orientation where the goal is something that should be realized because it fulfills their need for security, protection and prevention of negative outcomes. Student A uses an eager approach where they read extra materials to obtain their goal of an A. Student B uses a vigilant approach where they become more detail oriented and pay careful attention to completing all of the course requirements.\nBoth forms of regulatory orientation can work to fulfill goals, but the choice of orientation is based on individual preferences and style. When a person pursues their goal in the focus that fits their regulatory orientation, they are more likely to pursue their goal more eagerly and aggressively than if they were using the other focus. In this case each student has different styles. They both feel more comfortable in persuading their goal. The outcome in this experiment would have been different if the students were given an undesirable choice.\nWhen people make decisions, they often envision the possible \"pleasure or pain\" of the possible outcomes that the focus orientation will produce.  A person imagining making a pleasing choice is more likely to engage in promotion-focus orientation because envisioning the possible outcome of success maintains eagerness about the outcome but does not place importance on vigilance. A person imagining the possible pain by making an undesirable choice maintains more vigilance but less eagerness.\nA person with promotion-focus orientation is more likely to remember the occasions where the goal is pursued by using eagerness approaches and less likely to remember occasions where the goal is pursued by vigilance approaches. A person with prevention-focus orientation is more likely to remember events where the goal is pursued by means of vigilance than if it was pursued using eagerness approaches.\nWhen relating regulatory focus theory to persuasion, it is important to remember that RFT is a goal-attainment theory, and that RFT can spawn feelings of rightness/wrongness which in turn may produce formulations for judgments.The feelings of rightness give an individual more commitment to the information coming in and therefore can avoid endangering their regulatory fit which in turn changes their regulatory focus and accepting a probable motive to change. If a person experiences feelings of wrongness they will suffer negative emotions and deem the experience \nand information as a threat to their regulatory fit and therefore a threat to their regulatory focus and their goal.\nStudies have been done where fit and focus have been applied to show their applicability to consumer purchasing, health advisories, and social policy issues.  To be persuaded is to change your prior feelings, actions, and/or beliefs on a matter to where you agree with the persuader.\nThe \"fit\" involved in RFT plays a large role in such issues and stories because it can be a device to help an individual receive and review the experience during a particular message delivery. Positive reinforcement and feelings of rightness while decoding the message creates a stronger engagement and relationship with processing the message, and negative reinforcement and feelings of wrongness lessens the engagement and attachment. \nResearchers found that targeting the two different regulatory focus orientations, and their coinciding types of fit, works as an effective process to aid in persuasive charm or pull when they introduced a manner of persuasion where the framing of the message was everything and the content was irrelevant to uphold or interrupt a person's regulatory fit and follow the pattern of logic used in regulatory orientation. \nLee and Aaker (2004) conducted an experiment that involved whether or not to give their information in a prevention-focus- or promotion-focus-concerning way. The study involved an advertisement for a grape juice drink, which they split into two to create prevention-focus concerns (disease-preventing) and then promotion-focus concerns (energy enhancement).  In doing so, they demonstrated that rather than trying to know each individual recipient's qualities, one needs only to start by nailing the focus (prevention/promotion) and then framing the message so that it creates that \"rightness\".\nSome may confuse RFT with regulatory fit, regulatory relevance, message matching, and source attractiveness in such an example. The extent of similarities between closely related theories of RFT, such as ones stated above, make it hard to clarify when this theory is applicable or apparent in respect to the persuasion process.\nRFT can be a useful outline for a better understanding of the effects of nonverbal cues in persuasion and impression formation. Regulatory Fit Theory suggests that the effect of a cue cannot be understood without remembering what the cue means given a recipient's focus orientation. Nonverbal cues can be used by the message source to vary delivery style, more specifically to convey eagerness or vigilance, of a given message in a way that will produce regulatory fit in message recipients of different focus orientations.\nAdvancement implies eager movement forward, so eagerness is conveyed by gestures that involve animated, broad opening movements such as hand movements projecting outward, forward leaning body positions, fast body movement, and fast speech rate. Caution implies vigilant carefulness, so vigilance should be conveyed by gestures that show precision like slightly backward-leaning body positions, slower body movement, and slower speech rate.\nAn eager nonverbal delivery style will result in greater message effectiveness for promotion-focus recipients than for prevention-focus recipients, while the opposite is true for a vigilant nonverbal style.\nThere are various aspects, which may contribute to whether or not a message's persuasive element is successful. One aspect is the effect of nonverbal cues and their association with persuasive appeals based on the message recipient's motivational regulatory orientation. This determines the recipient's impression of the source during impression formation.\nResearch has found that nonverbal cues are an essential element of most persuasive appeals. RFT creates the background that allows a prediction for when and for whom a nonverbal cue can have an effect on persuasion. When nonverbal cues and signals are used appropriately, they increase the effectiveness of persuasion.\nRFT has also been applied within moral psychology to the topic of moral judgment, contrasting the notions of \"oughts\" and \"ideals.\"",
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-    "id": "Communication_7"
-}

test/Communication/Safety_sign.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "A safety sign is a sign designed to warn of hazards, indicate mandatory actions or required use of personal protective equipment, prohibit actions or objects, identify the location of firefighting or safety equipment, or marking of exit routes.\nIn addition to being encountered in industrial facilities; safety signs are also found in public places and communities, at electrical pylons and electrical substations, cliffs, beaches, bodies of water, on motorized equipment, such as lawn mowers, and areas closed for construction or demolition.\nOne of the earliest attempts to standardize safety signage in the United States was the 1914 Universal Safety Standards. The signs were fairly simple in nature, consisting of an illuminated board with \"DANGER\" in white letters on a red field. An arrow was added to draw attention to the danger if it was less obvious. Signs indicating exits, first aid kits consisted of a green board, with white letters. The goal with signs was to inform briefly.\nThe next major standards to follow were ASA Z35.1 in 1941, revised in 1959, 1968, and 1972.\nThe Occupational Safety and Health Administration devised their requirements from ASA Z35.1-1968 in the development of their rules, OSHA §1910.145 for the usage of safety signage in workplaces.\nIn the 1980s, American National Standards Institute formed a committee to update the Z53 and Z35 standards. In 1991, ANSI Z535 was introduced, which was intended to modernize signage through increased use of symbols, the introduction of a new header, 'Warning' and requiring that wording not just state the hazard, but also the possible harm the hazard could inflict and how to avoid the hazard. Until 2013, OSHA regulations technically required usage of signage prescribed in OSHA §1910.145, based on the standard ASA Z35.1-1968. Regulation changes and clarification of the law now allow usage of signs complying with either OSHA §1910.145 or ANSI Z535 designs.Prior to widespread globalization and adoption of standards from the ISO, most countries developed their own standards for safety signage. Text only signs were common prior to introduction of European Council Directive 77/576/EEC on 25 July 1977, which required member states to have policies in place to ensure that \"safety signs at all places of work conform to the principles laid down in Annex I\", which required color coding and symbols.In 1992, the European Council Directive 92/58/EEC replaced EEC 77/576/EEC. The new directive included improved information on how to utilize safety signage effectively. Beyond safety signs, EEC Directive 92/58/EEC standardize markings for fire equipment, acoustic signals, verbal and hand signals for vehicle movements.\nIn 2013, the European Union adopted ISO 7010 to replace the symbols provided previously, adopting them as European Norm (EN) ISO 7010, standardizing symbols among the EU countries. Prior to this, while symbols were provided, symbols were permitted to vary in appearance \"provided that they convey the same meaning and that no difference or adaptation obscures the meaning\".\nAustralian safety signage started in 1952 as CZ4-1952: Safety signs for the occupational environment. It revised and redesignated as AS1319-1972 in 1972, with further revisions taking place in 1979, 1983 and 1994. In August 2018, AS1319-1994 was reconfirmed as still being valid and not in need of major revisions.Japanese safety signage is notable for its clear visual differences from international norms, such as use of square 'no symbols', vertical formatting of sign text. Safety sign standards are regulated by Japanese Industrial Standards through standards JIS Z9101 (Workplace and public area safety signs) JIS Z 9103 (Safety sign colors) and JIS Z 9104 (Safety signs - General specifications). While design trends have been moving towards international norms of ISO standards, differences are still present such as the use of symbols unique to the JIS standards, using colors differently from ISO standards.In addition to typical safety sign standards, Japan introduced JIS Z 9098 in 2016 specifically addressing emergency management needs: informing people of areas susceptible to natural disasters, evacuation routes and safe shelters from disasters. The standard's more unique aspect is the usage of maps and diagrams to provide more detailed information about the area's hazards, shelters and evacuation routes.\nChinese safety signage is regulated by Standardization Administration of China using GB standards 2893-2008 and 2894-2008, which all safety signs are legally required to comply with. Designs are similar to ISO 3864 and uses older ISO 7010 symbols, while adding several additional symbols covering a wider range of prohibitions and hazards.Modern signage design typically consists of a symbol, warning text, and in the United States, Canada, Australia a header consisting of a signal word.North American and some Australian safety signage utilize distinctive headers to draw attention to the risk of harm from a hazard. Headers have guidelines for usage, where conditions must be met to dictate which header must be used for a sign.The 2007 revisions to ANSI Z353.4 allowed for the 'safety alert symbol' found on 'Danger', Warning' and 'Caution' headers to be replaced with the ISO 7010 \"W001 - General warning\" symbol to enable compliance with ISO 3864-1 for signs used in international situations or equipment being exported abroad. \nAdditional headers designs exist, Z53.1-1968 prescribed a magenta and yellow 'Radiation' header for radiation hazards. Other headers have been created by sign manufacturers for various situations not covered Z53.1 standard, such as \"Security Notice\", \"Biohazard\", \"Restricted Area\".\nAs a means of overcoming language and literacy barriers, symbols depicting the hazards, required action or equipment, prohibited actions or items and safety equipment were introduced to safety signage during the 1990s. Globalization and increased international trade helped push this development, as a means of reducing costs associated with needing signage multiple languages. Increasingly, countries are adopting symbols used by ISO 7010 and UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, that harmonizes symbols internationally to reduce confusion, and bring themselves into compliance with international standards.For temporary situations such as wet floors, portable signs are used. They are designed to be self supporting and relatively easy to move once the task is complete. The 1914 Universal Safety Standards provided for a portable 'Danger' sign suitable for both hard floors and soft dirt. Portable signs can take a variety of forms, from a traffic cone with stick on letters, plastic a-frame signs, to safety signs mounted on poles with bases that enable movement.Wet floor signs are also intended to avoid legal liability from injury due failing to warn of an unsafe condition. They are usually yellow. The warning is sometimes enhanced with new technology to provide audible warnings.  Robotic cleaning equipment can use wet floor signs with sonar gadgetry to know when its job is finished.\nSince the late 1980s, more emphasis has been put on testing signage for clarity and to eliminate possible misunderstandings. Researchers have examined the impacts of using different signal words, inclusion of borders and color contrast with text and symbols against sign backgrounds.  In 1999, a group of designers were tasked with creating standardized warning labels for personal watercraft. The group devised several versions of the same warning label using different symbols, wording and emphasis of key phrases through use of underlining, bold fonts and capitalizing. The label designs were reviewed by the United States Coast Guard, United States Power Squadron, industry representatives and subjected to ease of comprehension and readability tests. Results of these reviews and tests lead to further revisions of words and redesigning of some symbols. The resulting labels are still applied to personal watercraft nearly 20 years after their initial design.Placement of signs also affects the effectiveness of signs. A 1993 study tested compliance with a warning against loading the top drawer of a filing cabinet first. The warning was least effective when it was only placed on the shipping box, but most effective when placed as part of a removable cardboard sleeve that physically obstructed the top drawer, interfering with adding files to the drawer.\nSign effectiveness can be reduced from a number of factors, including information overload, where the sheer amount of information is presented in a manner that a reader is unable process it adequately, such as being confronted by a sign consisting of dozens of words with no paragraph breaks, or excessive amounts of unnecessary information. This can be prevented through simplifying warnings down to their key points, with supplementary manuals or training covering the more nuanced and minor information. Overwarning is a related problem, where warnings are overlooked by people due to the sheer number of warnings, such as placing many safety signs together, redundant or obvious warnings. Effectiveness can be reduced through conditions such as poor maintenance, placing a sign too high or low, or in a way that requires excessive effort to read.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Uses",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "AppliesToPeople",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "MemberOf"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_8"
-}

test/Communication/Video_feedback.json

@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Communication",
-    "document": "Video feedback is the process that starts and continues when a video camera is pointed at its own playback video monitor. The loop delay from camera to display back to camera is at least one video frame time, due to the input and output scanning processes; it can be more if there is more processing in the loop.\nFirst discovered shortly after Charlie Ginsburg invented the first video recorder for Ampex in 1956, video feedback was considered a nuisance and unwanted noise. Technicians and studio camera operators were chastised for allowing a video camera to see its own monitor as the overload of self-amplified video signal caused significant problems with the 1950s video pickup, often ruining the pickup. It could also cause screen burn-in on television screens and monitors of the time as well, by generating static brightly illuminated display patterns.In the 1960s early examples of video feedback art became introduced into the psychedelic art scene in New York City. Nam June Paik is often cited as the first video artist; he had clips of video feedback on display in New York City at the Greenwich Cafe in the mid 1960s. \nEarly video feedback works were produced by media artist experimenters on the East and West Coasts of North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Video feedback artists Steina and Woody Vasulka, with Richard Lowenberg and others, formed The Kitchen, which was located in the kitchen of a broken-down hotel in lower Manhattan; while Skip Sweeney and others founded Video Free America in San Francisco, to nurture their video art and feedback experiments.\nDavid Sohn mentions video feedback in his 1970 book Film, the Creative Eye. This book was part of the base curriculum for Richard Lederer of St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire, when he made video feedback part of an English curriculum in his 1970s course Creative Eye in Film. Several students in this class participated regularly in the making and recording of video feedback. Sony had released the VuMax series of recording video cameras and manually \"hand-looped\" video tape decks by this time which did two things: it increased the resolution of the video image, which improved picture quality, and it made video tape recording technology available to the general public for the first time and allowed for such video experimentation by anyone.\nDuring the 1980s and into the 1990s video technology became enhanced and evolved into high quality, high definition video recording. Michael C. Andersen generated the first known mathematical formula of the video feedback process,  and he has also generated a Mendeleev's square to show the gradual progressive formulaic change of the video image as certain parameters are adjusted.\nIn the 1990s the rave scene and a social return to art of a more psychedelic nature brought back displays of video feedback on large disco dance floor video screens around the world. There are filters for Adobe Photoshop and non-linear video editors that often have video feedback as the filter description, or as a setting on a filter. These filter types either mimic or directly utilize video feedback for its result effect and can be recognized by its vortex, phantasmagoric manipulation of the original recorded image.\nMany artists have used optical feedback. A famous example is Queen's music video for \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" (1975). The effect (in this simple case) can be compared to looking at oneself between two mirrors.This technique—under the name \"howl-around\"—was employed for the opening titles sequence for the British science fiction series Doctor Who, which employed this technique from 1963 to 1973.Initially this was in black and white, and redone in 1967 to showcase the show's new 625-line broadcast resolution and feature the Doctor's face (Patrick Troughton at that time). It was redone again, in colour this time, in 1970. The next title sequence for the show, which debuted in 1973, abandoned this technique in favour of slit-scan photography.\nAn example of optical feedback in science is the optical cavity found in almost every laser, which typically consists of two mirrors between which light is amplified. In the late 1990s it was found that so-called unstable-cavity lasers produce light beams whose cross-section present a fractal pattern.Optical feedback in science is often closely related to video feedback, so an understanding of video feedback can be useful for other applications of optical feedback. Video feedback has been used to explain the essence of fractal structure of unstable-cavity laser beams. \nVideo feedback is also useful as an experimental-mathematics tool.  Examples of its use include the making of Fractal patterns using multiple monitors, and multiple images produced using mirrors.\nOptical feedback is also found in the image intensifier tube and its variants. Here the feedback is usually an undesirable phenomenon, where the light generated by the phosphor screen \"feeds back\" to the photocathode, causing the tube to oscillate, and ruining the image. This is typically suppressed by an aluminum reflective screen deposited on the back of the phosphor screen, or by incorporating a microchannel plate detector.\nOptical feedback has been used experimentally in these tubes to amplify an image, in the manner of the cavity laser, but this technique has had limited use.\nOptical feedback has also been experimented with as an electron source, since a photocathode-phosphor cell will 'latch' when triggered, providing a steady stream of electrons. See US Patent 4,531,122 for a typical application.\nDouglas Hofstadter discusses video feedback in his book I Am a Strange Loop about the human mind and consciousness. He devotes a chapter to describing his experiments with video feedback.At some point during the session, I accidentally stuck my hand momentarily in front of the camera's lens. Of course the screen went all dark, but when I removed my hand, the previous pattern did not just pop right back onto the screen, as expected. Instead I saw a different pattern on the screen, but this pattern, unlike anything I'd seen before, was not stationary.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "Creator",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "Uses",
-        "TypeOfElectrification",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "AppliesToPeople",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "MemberOf"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Communication_9"
-}

test/Culture/Artificial_plants.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Artificial plants are imitations of natural plants used for commercial or residential decoration. They are sometimes made for scientific purposes (the collection of glass flowers at Harvard University, for example, illustrates the flora of the United States). Artificial plants vary widely from mass-produced varieties that are distinguishable from real plants by casual observation to highly detailed botanical or artistic specimens.\nMaterials used in their manufacture have included painted linen and shavings of stained horn in ancient Egypt, gold and silver in ancient Rome, rice-paper in China, silkworm cocoons in Italy, colored feathers in South America, and wax and tinted shells. Modern techniques involve carved or formed soap, nylon netting stretched over wire frames, ground clay, and mass-produced injection plastic mouldings. Polyester has been the main material for manufacturing artificial flowers since the 1970s. Most artificial flowers in the market nowadays are made of polyester fabric and plastic.\nThe industry is now highly specialized with several different manufacturing processes. Hundreds of artificial flower factories in the Pearl River delta area of Guangdong province in China have been built since the early 1980s. Thousands of 40-foot containers of polyester flowers and plants are exported to many countries every year.Five main processes may be distinguished:The first step consists of putting the polyester fabric in gelatine in order to stiffen it.\nThe second consists of cutting up the various polyester fabrics and materials employed into shapes suitable for forming the leaves, petals, etc.; this may be done with scissors, but is more often done with stamps that can cut through a dozen or more thicknesses at one blow.\nNext, the veins of the leaves are impressed by means of silk screen printing with a dye, and the petals are given their natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various shapes.\nThe next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the flower, which is built up from the center outwards.\nThe fifth is to mount the flower on a stalk of brass or iron wire wrapped with suitably colored material, and to add the leaves to complete the spray.\nWhile the material most often used to make artificial flowers is polyester fabric, both paper and cloth flowers are also made with origami.\nThe art of nylon flower making is an easy to learn craft which uses simple tools and inexpensive material to achieve stunning results. Nylon flower making enjoyed a brief popularity in the United States in the 1970s and soon became very popular in Japan. In recent years, the craft's popularity has spread Asia, Europe and Australia. With the advent of new colors and materials, the art has expanded to infinite new possibilities of nylon flower making.The basic materials needed to make nylon flowers include: wire, stem wire, nylon stocking, nylon threading, floral tape and stamen. Some flowers require cotton balls or sheets (or batting), white glue, acrylic paint and paint brushes.\nSilk flowers are crafted from a protein fibre spun by the silk worm, producing lifelike flowers. Flowers described as being made of silk with a \"real touch technique\" are not made of silk, but rather are made of polyester, polymers and plastics. Moreover, textile items made of polyester but marketed as \"silk\" violate the US federal law : specifically the 1959 Textile Fiber Products Identification Act.There are two methods:Carved: A bar with layered coloured soap is mounted in a lathe, and circular grooves are chiseled into it. The finished flower is symmetric and regular, but the flowers are not identical and can be called handmade.\nMoulded: An oil-less soap milled to a powder is mixed with water, and the paste is used as a modelling material. Leaf and petal textures are stamped or rolled onto the soap. This is an expensive, labour-intensive process.\nClay flowers are made by hand from special air-dry polymer clay or cold porcelain, steel wire, paint, glue, tape and sometimes paper and foam as a filler.With the help of cutters, where each flower has its own cutter set, the parts are cut from the still soft clay and then formed with specially designed tools. After drying, these parts are, when needed, painted with precision and then very precisely assembled into a whole flower. When made by a skilful artisan, clay flowers can be very realistic. From Thailand, where this art is very popular, it has spread to Europe, Russia and the US.\nGlass is melted and blown by hand into flower shapes. Working with glass at high temperatures to form a flower is very difficult, which is why glass flowers are much more expensive than typical artificial flowers.Injection moulding is used for mass manufacture of plastic flowers. Plastic is injected into a preformed metal die.The journal Ethnobotany Research and Applications published a tongue-in-cheek paper that claims to be the culmination of a six-year project in the exhaustive taxonomy of artificial plants, and lumped the group into a single family called the Simulacraceae (\"the family of simulated plants\").Floral wreaths made by the ancient Egyptians were formed from thin plates of horn stained in different colors. They also sometimes consisted of leaves of copper, gilt or were silvered over. The ancient Romans excelled in the art of imitating flowers in wax and in this branch of the art attained a degree of perfection which has not been approached in modern times. Crassus, renowned for his wealth, gave to the victors in the games he celebrated at Rome crowns of artificial leaves made of gold and silver.In more recent times, Italians were the first to acquire celebrity for the skill and taste they displayed in this manufacture. Later English, American, and especially French manufactures were celebrated. The Chinese and Japanese show great dexterity in this work. These early artificial flowers were made  out of many-coloured ribbons which were twisted together and attached to small pieces of wire. But these first attempts were decidedly crude.\nIn the first half of the 19th century, the Swedish artist Emma Fürstenhoff became internationally renowned in Europe for her artificial flower arrangements of wax in a technique regarded as a novelty in contemporary Europe. Wax flower sculptures were popular in the 1840s and 1850s in Britain, with noted sculptors including the London-based Emma Peachey and the Mintorn family.\nIn the 1910s, Beat-Sofi Granqvist studied the manufacture of artificial flowers in Germany. After returning to Finland, she founded Finland's first artificial flower factory, next to her apartment at Pieni Roobertinkatu 4-6.\nIn the course of time feathers were substituted for ribbons, a more delicate material, but one to which it was not so easy to give the requisite shades of color. The plumage of the birds of South America was adapted for artificial flowers on account of the brilliancy and permanence of the tints, and the natives of that continent long practised with success the making of feather flowers. The London Zoo contains a collection of artificial flowers made out of the feathers of hummingbirds.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "IndigenousTo",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "Represents",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_0"
-}

test/Culture/Born_Sexy_Yesterday.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "\"Born Sexy Yesterday\" is a trope that describes a character, typically a woman, who is physically attractive yet portrayed as childlike or naive, often with a level of intelligence or maturity that contradicts her appearance or behavior. These characters typically lack real-world experience, creating a dynamic where their sexual appeal contrasts with their innocence and unfamiliarity with social norms. This trope is prevalent in science fiction and gained critical attention after a 2017 video essay by YouTuber Jonathan McIntosh, known as Pop Culture Detective.\nThe Born Sexy Yesterday trope has persisted for decades but has recently gained critical attention, particularly following a 2017 video by YouTuber Jonathan McIntosh, known as Pop Culture Detective. Coined from the 1950 film Born Yesterday, where two men educate a naive showgirl, the term describes a common narrative device in science fiction, among other genres. Female characters are typically stunning yet childlike, embodying a paradox of adult sexuality paired with social naivety, and are often even artificially created. They often awaken in new and confusing worlds, relying on male counterparts for guidance. A prime example is Leeloo from The Fifth Element, who behaves and speaks like a baby, crafted to be \"perfect,\" naive, and whimsical while being sexualized without her awareness. Other examples include characters from Tron: Legacy, Splash, and Enchanted, who cater to a male fantasy of innocence and sexual purity, positioning their male guides as \"the most extraordinary man\" in their lives. These characters may take forms such as robots, mermaids, or otherworldly beings, consistently displaying childlike innocence despite their mature appearances. While these characters often serve as heroines, their portrayal perpetuates harmful stereotypes about female innocence and male dominance. McIntosh's video highlights the prevalence of the trope in various films, exposing its underlying sexism and paedophilic implications.The Born Sexy Yesterday trope features female characters who blend childlike innocence with adult physicality, often serving as love interests for male protagonists. A central element of this trope is the female character's ignorance, which allows the male protagonist to adopt a teacher-like role, guiding her in social norms and romantic interactions. He instructs her on socially acceptable behavior and guides her in romance and sex, despite lacking any qualifications beyond being the first person she becomes close to, leading her to idolize and fall in love with him. This dynamic, frequently described as \"mansplaining,\" stems from deep-seated male insecurities about sex and relationships. As McIntosh notes:\"The crux of the trope is a fixation on male superiority. A fixation with holding power over an innocent girl. To make this dynamic socially acceptable, science fiction often places a girl's mind in a sexualized adult woman's body. It’s a fantasy based on fear—fear of women who are men's equals in sexual experience and romantic history, and fear of losing the intellectual upper hand to women.\"The trope can take various forms, including pixies, mermaids, and dream girls, ultimately portraying a child trapped in an adult's body. Despite their innocence, these characters often excel in areas like combat or intellect, appealing to heterosexual male audiences. These women are naïve and unaware of the implications of nudity, sex, romance, or sexual interactions, and the male gaze in these films exploits this innocence. McIntosh highlights that the male lead is often a disenfranchised, “straight, red-blooded” man who struggles to connect with women of equal standing. Meanwhile, the female character, characterized by her naivety, falls for him simply because he exhibits basic human behavior, which she lacks. The women are depicted as untouched by other men’s attention, which allows the male characters to avoid comparison and the necessity for self-improvement. To legitimize this dynamic, the love interest is often represented as a grown woman.While the trope thrives in the science fiction, it is not confined to it, and although McIntosh examines this trope within the genre, he recognizes its roots in older, racist narratives where white male adventurers \"discover\" indigenous women. In science fiction, colonialism is replaced by traditional masculine ideologies, with the heterosexual male hero guiding the young woman and educating her about the world, including sex and romance. His infatuation is masked as a teaching role, justifying his actions.\nMcIntosh likens the Born Sexy Yesterday trope to the Manic Pixie Dream Girl archetype, noting that both involve disenfranchised men meeting naive women. However, he emphasizes that the Born Sexy Yesterday trope intensifies the dynamic by positioning women as submissive rather than equal partners.\nMcIntosh argues that the Born Sexy Yesterday trope reveals deep male insecurities regarding sex and relationships, reflecting a desire to control female identities and a fear of female agency. This trope embodies an obsession with power over innocent women, normalizing real-world sexism within the sci-fi and fantasy genres.\nThe Born Sexy Yesterday trope is prevalent in numerous female characters across various media, including Star Trek, Sheena, Planet of the Apes, Passengers, and Fifty Shades of Grey. While some narratives attempt to subvert its inherent sexism, the trope's presence remains evident prior to any potential subversion. Even in Patty Jenkins’ Wonder Woman, which was celebrated as a feminist film, Diana remains sexually inexperienced and unaware of her appeal, relying on Steve for guidance.Historically, the Born Sexy Yesterday trope is not new. The trope's roots can be traced to classic films such as Forbidden Planet and The Time Machine. It appears in Japanese anime, indigenous narratives, and classic Hollywood sci-fi films like The New World. In Forbidden Planet, for instance, the character Alta is deceived into kissing John under the guise of it being essential for her health, echoing manipulative grooming tactics. Other examples include Quorra from Tron Legacy, described as “profoundly naive [yet] unimaginably wise.”\nLeeloo from The Fifth Element is described as \"probably the most quintessential example\" of the Born Sexy Yesterday trope by Jonathan McIntosh. As the human vessel of a Supreme Being sent to combat the \"Great Evil,\" her body is celebrated by male characters, with one scientist expressing a desire to photograph her naked form after she is created. Leeloo, unaware of her own sex appeal, inadvertently undresses in public. She doesn’t speak English, instead communicating in childish gibberish and emotional outbursts. Korben responds to her naïveté—such as her inability to use a camera or dry herself—with condescension. While she is a powerful character capable of great destruction, her ignorance of the world often undermines her agency.\nMihaela Mihailova, an Assistant Professor in the School of Cinema at San Francisco State University, observes that Alita, the cyborg in Alita: Battle Angel, embodies the Born Sexy Yesterday trope in both her design and behavior. After being revived by Dr. Dyson Ido from a scrapyard, Alita's wide-eyed, innocent look emphasizes her naïveté as she navigates her new life with the guidance of her father figure and love interest.\nTelevision shows like Game of Thrones (with Daenerys and Viserys) and Stranger Things (featuring Mike and Eleven) exemplify the trope. The stereotype of the socially awkward \"nerd\" is also prevalent in The Big Bang Theory, where characters like Penny and the female guest stars exhibit Born Sexy Yesterday traits while Leonard and Howard embody the dominant creator role.\nThe Born Sexy Yesterday trope can also manifest in reverse, although male representations within the trope's framework are scarce, given its connections to insecurities surrounding masculinity. Typically, these male characters are depicted as naïve and socially awkward, making them less attractive as sexual interests. Unlike their female counterparts, they are not objectified; their ineptitude is framed humorously rather than pitiably. In films like Big and Blast from the Past, male characters display similar traits but often become the punchlines. This discrepancy may arise from the general lack of appeal for women regarding inexperienced adolescent boys. While films such as Edward Scissorhands and The Shape of Water feature male characters with naïveté, they lack the sexualized portrayal characteristic of female Born Sexy Yesterday figures. For instance, in Edward Scissorhands, Edward engages in genuine love without deception, with relationships developing in spite of his inexperience.Hot Frosty, a film about a snowman coming to life, is an example of a movie in which the Born Sexy Yesterday trope is applied to a male character without losing its highly sexualized aspects.\nAccording to writer Elvia Wilk, the Born Sexy Yesterday trope can be contrasted with Lynn Hershman Leeson's works, which explore themes of identity and agency in innovative ways. Her characters often embody a more complex understanding of femininity, as seen in Teknolust, where the protagonist, Ruby, not only seduces men but also teaches them, signifying sexual liberation rather than dependence.",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "IndigenousTo",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "Represents",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_1"
-}

test/Culture/Civilization_state.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "A civilization state, or civilizational state, is a country that aims to represent not just a historical territory, ethnolinguistic group, or body of governance, but a unique civilization in its own right. It is distinguished from the concept of a nation state by describing a country's dominant sociopolitical modes as constituting a category larger than a single nation. When classifying states as civilization states, emphasis is often placed on a country's historical continuity and cultural unity across a large geographic region.\nThe term was first coined in the 1990s as a way to describe China and later India, but has also been used to describe countries such as Egypt, Russia, Turkey, Iran and the United States.\nThe term has been popularized by Bruno Maçães in a series of essays since 2018.\nThe term \"civilization-state\" was first used by American political scientist Lucian Pye in 1990 to categorize China as having a distinct sociopolitical character, as opposed to viewing it as a nation state in the European model. The use of this new term implies that China was and still is an \"empire state\" with a unique political tradition and governmental structure, and its proponents asserted that the nation state model fails to properly describe the evolution of the Chinese state. Proponents of the label describe China as having a unique historical and cultural unity, derived from a continuous process of cultural syncretism. The term was further popularized by its use in When China Rules the World by British political scientist Martin Jacques.According to Li Xing and Timothy M. Shaw, the central feature of analyzing China as a civilization state is the view that the Chinese state derives its legitimacy from the continuation of a sociopolitical order which posits that the state maintains natural authority over its subjects, and that it is the \"guardian\" of both its citizens and their society, a view of the state that is completely distinct from the Westphalian nation-state model. Other scholars make the case that the key features of a civilization-state are the maintenance of an ethos of cultural unity despite displaying significant cultural diversity, across centuries of history and a large geographic space. Some specifically draw attention to the longevity of the Chinese writing system, or describe China's existence as being uniquely and inexorably tied to the past.\nGuang Xia pushes back on the idea of the uniqueness of a Chinese civilization-state. Xia argues that civilization-state discourse in China studies is an important and positive development, as it allows for characteristics of the modern Chinese state to be properly analyzed in the context of their history. However, Xia concludes that ultimately, all civilizations must reinvent themselves in the context of their history, and that it is a mistake to view China as a static entity or to portray it as being more tied to its past than the rest of the world.\nIndia is another example of a civilization state, with political commentators arguing that a shared Indian identity predates British colonization and Islamic invasions. India as a Hindu majority state, is perhaps the only nation that still follows a Bronze Age religion, i.e. Hinduism. It is suggested by some scholars, taking support of archaeological evidences together with analogy of later cult divinities and religious practices, that roots of Hinduism could be diagnosed in the Bronze Age civilization.By creating a civilizational continuation between ancient Egypt and contemporary Egypt with its Muslim characteristics, Egypt is another example of a civilization state that centers its continuous historical and cultural identity and tradition that contrast the West's global cultural dominance.Vladimir Putin's administration has at times embraced the rhetoric of portraying Russia as a distinct Eurasian civilization-state.British journalist Gideon Rachman argued in a 2019 article that the concept of a civilization state is at odds with modern conceptions of universal human rights and common democratic standards, and is inherently exclusive to minority groups who do not share the feature(s) that define a particular civilization state (for example, they may have a different religion).",
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-        "CARDINAL",
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-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_2"
-}

test/Culture/Clothing_physiology.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Clothing physiology is a branch of science that studies the interaction between clothing and the human body, with a particular focus on how clothing affects the physiological and psychological responses of individuals to different environmental conditions.  The goal of clothing physiology research is to develop a better understanding of how clothing can be designed to optimize comfort, performance, and protection for individuals in various settings, including outdoor recreation, occupational environments, and medical contexts.\nHuman clothing motives are frequently oversimplified in cultural and sociological theories, with the assumption that they are solely motivated by modesty, adornment, protection, or sex. However, clothing is primarily motivated by the environment, with its form being influenced by human characteristics and traits, as well as physical and social factors such as sex relations, costume, caste, class, and religion. Ultimately, clothing must be comfortable in various environmental conditions to support physiological behavior. The concept of clothing has been aptly characterized as a quasi-physiological system that interacts with the human body.Clothing can be considered as a quasi-physiological system that interacts with the body in different ways, just like the distinct physiological systems of the human body, such as digestive system and nervous system, which can be analyzed systematically.The acceptance and perceived comfort of a garment cannot be attributed solely to its thermal properties. Rather, the sensation of comfort when wearing a garment is associated with various factors, including the fit of the garment, its moisture buffering properties, and the mechanical characteristics of the fibers and fabrics used in its construction.The field of clothing physiology concerns the complex interplay between the human body, environmental conditions, and clothing. Through the use of scientific methods, it is possible to accurately measure and quantify the effects of clothing on wearer comfort and overall well-being.\nLouis Newburgh is widely recognized among thermal physiologists primarily due to his role as the editor of \"Physiology of Heat Regulation and the Science of Clothing\". \nFrom a physiological perspective, the purpose of clothing is to shield the body from extreme temperatures, whether they be hot or cold. The role of clothing in affecting the wearer's comfort can be described as the connection between the body and the surroundings. When engaged in outdoor activities, the individual's comfort level is influenced by various environmental factors, such as air temperature, humidity, solar radiation, atmospheric and ground thermal radiation. The wearer's posture, metabolic rate, sweating rate, and bodily processes such as moisture absorption, sweat evaporation, and heat loss through conduction and convection via blood, are among additional factors that also play a role in determining the individual's comfort level.\nThe contact between clothing and skin facilitates the regulation of body temperature through the control of blood flow and sweat evaporation in localized areas. However, the design of functional fabrics that efficiently regulate skin temperature must take into account crucial factors such as age, gender, and activity level.The skin plays a vital role in safeguarding the body's homeostasis by performing a variety of crucial protective functions. Clothing and other textiles interact dynamically with the skin's functions, and the mechanical properties of the fabric, such as its surface roughness, can lead to non-specific skin reactions, such as wool intolerance or keratosis follicularis.\nIt's common to express metabolic activity in terms of heat production. A resting adult typically generates 100 W of heat, with a significant amount dissipating through the skin. Heat production per unit area of skin, referred to as 1 met, is around 58 W/m2 for a resting individual, based on the average male European's skin surface area of approximately 1.8 m2. The average female European's skin surface area is 1.6 m2 for comparison.Skin temperatures that correspond to comfort during stationary activities range from 91.4°F to 93.2°F (33°C to 34°C), and these temperatures decrease as the level of physical activity increases. Skin temperature that exceeds 45°C or falls below 18°C induces a sensation of pain. Internal temperatures increase with activity. The brain's temperature regulatory center is around 36.8°C when at rest and rises to about 37.4°C when walking and 37.9°C when jogging. A temperature below 28°C can cause fatal cardiac arrhythmia, while a temperature above 43°C can result in permanent brain damage. Thus, it's crucial to regulate body temperature carefully for both comfort and health.\nClothing insulation can be denoted using the unit of measurement called clo. In the absence of clothing, a thin layer of static air known as the boundary layer forms in close proximity to the skin, acting as an insulating layer that restricts heat exchange between the skin and the surrounding environment. This layer typically offers approximately 0.8 clo units of insulation in a motionless state. It's difficult to apply this generalization to very thin fabric layers or underwear, as they occupy an existing static air layer of no more than 0.5 cm thickness. Consequently, these thin layers offer minimal contribution to the clothing's intrinsic insulation.\nThe standard measure for clothing insulation is 1.57 clo·cm-1 in thickness, which is equivalent to 4 clo·inch-1.\nThe advancements in fibers, textiles, electronics, functional finishing, and clothing physiology are anticipated to improve human life in numerous areas such as medicine, military, firefighting, extreme sports, and other apparel applications. The study of clothing physiology has been prompted by the need to design effective clothing systems for various specialized environments such as space, polar regions, underwater operations, and industrial settings.Comfort is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various perceptions, including physiological, social, and psychological needs. After sustenance, clothing is one of the most vital objects that can satisfy comfort requirements. This is because clothing offers a range of benefits, including aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort.The clothing physiology comfort of an athlete is significantly influenced by the compression effect exerted by their garments. The degree of compression load exerted by the clothing has a direct correlation with the intensity of sweating and the resulting elevation in skin temperature. Specifically, a greater compression load on the body results in a higher degree of sweating and increased skin temperature.Thermophysiological models have become a prevalent tool for forecasting human physiological reactions in varying environmental and clothing conditions.Clothing physiology can be assessed through the utilization of various advanced instruments, including: Sherlock is a thermal manikin test device developed by the Hohenstein Institutes to evaluate clothing physiology, and it is equipped with perspiration simulation capabilities.\nIn the SpaceTex experiment, novel fabrics were evaluated for their ability to enhance heat transfer and manage sweat during physical activity, based on their antibacterial properties. Quick-drying T-shirts made from such fabrics would be advantageous to athletes, firefighters, miners, and military personnel. This marks the first experiment in clothing physiology conducted in microgravity, with sportswear manufacturers aiming to improve their products accordingly. In fact, a modified polyester has already been developed for use by the Swiss military.The integumentary system is a significant immune organ, possessing both specific and non-specific activities related to immunity. Antimicrobial fabrics could potentially disrupt the skin's non-specific defense mechanisms such as antimicrobial peptides or the resident microflora.The social psychology of dress entails comprehending the interconnections that exist between attire and human conduct.",
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-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
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-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
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-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_3"
-}

test/Culture/Consensus_reality.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Consensus reality refers to the generally agreed-upon version of reality within a community or society, shaped by shared experiences and understandings. This understanding arises from the inherent differences in individual perspectives or subjectivities relating to knowledge or ontology, leading to uncertainties about what is real. While various viewpoints exist, people strive to establish a consensus, serving as a pragmatic guide for social norms. The term carries both positive and negative connotations, as it is viewed critically by anti-realist theorists but recognized for its practical benefits in fostering shared beliefs. Consensus reality differs from consensual reality, with the former representing mutual agreement about what is true. Artists and thinkers have challenged consensus reality, aiming to disrupt established norms and question the authenticity of the world's reality.\nChildren have sometimes been described or viewed as \"inexperience[d] with consensus reality,\" though are described as such with the expectation that their perspective will progressively form closer to the consensus reality of their society as they age.\nIn considering the nature of reality, two broad approaches exist: the realist approach, in which there is a single, objective, overall reality believed to exist irrespective of the perceptions of any given individual, and the idealistic approach, in which it is considered that an individual can verify nothing except their own experience of the world, and can never directly know the truth of the world independent of that.Berger and Luckmann argue that \"reality is socially constructed and that the sociology of knowledge must analyze the process in which this occurs\". Rather than being a purely philosophical topic, the question of reality includes, for them, the sociological study of consensus reality.\nConsider this example: consensus reality for people who follow a particular theocentric religion is different from consensus reality for those who follow another theocentric religion, or from those that eschew theocentric religions in favor of science alone, for explaining life and the universe.\nIn societies where theocentric religions are dominant, the religious understanding of existence would be the consensus reality. In a predominantly secular society, where the consensus reality is grounded in science alone, the religious worldview would be the non-consensus (or alternative) reality.\nIn this way, different individuals and communities have fundamentally different world views, with fundamentally different comprehensions of the world around them, and of the constructs within which they live. Thus, a society that is, for example, completely secular and one which believes every eventuality to be subject to metaphysical influence will have very different consensus realities, and many of their beliefs on broad issues such as science, slavery, and human sacrifice may differ in direct consequence of the differences in the perceived nature of the world they live in.\nCharles Tart in his book \"The Awakening\" proposed an alternative term - \"conditioned reality \" (conditioned or conditional reality), pointing out the inaccuracy of the term \"consensus reality\", since no one asks an individual for consent whether he wants to live in a \"generally accepted reality\", because he is accustomed to it through “ conditioning ” - the development of conditioned reflexes in the process of education and socialization.\nSome idealists (subjective idealists) hold the view that there isn't one particular way things are, but rather that each person's  personal reality is unique. Such idealists have the world view which says that we each create our own reality, and while most people may be in general agreement (consensus) about what reality is like, they might live in a different (or nonconsensus) reality.Materialists may not accept the idea of there being different possible realities for different people, rather than different beliefs about one reality. So for them only the first usage of the term reality would make sense. To them, someone believing otherwise, where the facts have been properly established, might be considered delusional.The connotation of the term \"consensus reality\" is usually disparaging: it is usually employed by idealist, surrealist and other anti-realist theorists opposing or hostile to this \"reality,\" with the implication that this consensus reality is, to a greater or lesser extent, created by those who experience it. (The phrase \"consensus reality\" may be used more loosely to refer to any generally accepted set of beliefs.) However, there are those who use the term approvingly for the practical benefits of all agreeing on a common set of assumptions or experiences.Consensus reality is related to, but distinct from, consensual reality. The difference between these terms is that whereas consensus reality describes a state of mutual agreement about what is true (consensus is a noun), consensual reality describes a type of agreement about what is true (consensual is an adjective). In other words, reality may also be non-consensual, as when one person's preferred version of reality conflicts with another person's preferred version of reality. Consensual reality is relevant to understanding a variety of social phenomena, such as deception.Artists, writers, and theorists have attempted to oppose or undermine consensus reality while others have declared that they are \"ignoring\" it. For example, Salvador Dalí intended by his paranoiac-critical method to \"systematize confusion thanks to a paranoia and active process of thought and so assist in discrediting completely the world of reality\".",
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-        "OwnerOf",
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-        "Follows",
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-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
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-        "ReviewedBy",
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-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
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-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
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-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
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-        "MONEY",
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-        "ORG",
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-        "PERSON",
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-    "id": "Culture_4"
-}

test/Culture/John_Hopkins_(political_activist).json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "John Victor Lindsay \"Hoppy\" Hopkins (15 August 1937 : 30 January 2015) was a British photographer, journalist, researcher and political activist, and \"one of the best-known underground figures of 'Swinging London' \" in the late 1960s.\nHopkins was born on 15 August 1937 in Slough, Buckinghamshire, England.After attending Felsted School in Essex, Hopkins went on to graduate in 1958 with a degree in physics and mathematics from Emmanuel College, Cambridge, which he had entered on a scholarship in 1955, and he began to work as a laboratory technician at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell, Oxfordshire. When he took a trip to Moscow to attend a Communist youth festival, his security clearance was revoked. Hopkins then re-located to London at the beginning of 1960, and began to work as a photographer for newspapers and music magazines including Jazz News, The Guardian, Melody Maker and Peace News. He photographed many of the leading musicians of the period, including The Beatles and the Rolling Stones. Hopkins also recorded the seedier side of London, with photographs of tattoo parlours, cafés, prostitutes and fetishists.\nBy the mid-1960s, he was at the centre of London's emerging underground scene and recorded many peace marches, poetry readings and \"happenings\", as well as photographing leading counter-cultural figures, including Allen Ginsberg and Malcolm X. Hopkins compiled and stencil-duplicated the names, contact details and interests of all of London's \"movers and shakers\". He then gave all of them a copy. This action is credited with greatly boosting the 1960s London-based underground movement.\nIn 1966, with Rhaune Laslett and others, he helped set up the London Free School in Notting Hill. This in turn led to the establishment of the Notting Hill carnival, first organised by Laslett with the guidance of local activists including Michael X. As an extension of the Free School news-sheet The Gate, in 1966 Hopkins and Barry Miles co-founded the influential magazine International Times (IT). Hopkins also set up the UFO Club with Joe Boyd, with Pink Floyd as the resident band.\nArrested for cannabis possession, Hopkins elected for trial by jury. In court on 1 June 1967, he claimed that cannabis was harmless and that the law should be changed. The judge, describing Hopkins as \"a pest to society\", sentenced him to nine months in prison for keeping premises for the smoking of cannabis and possession of cannabis, although Hopkins served only six months. He was jailed at HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs. A \"Free Hoppy\" movement sprang up and, as one particular consequence, Stephen Abrams began co-ordinating a campaign for the liberalisation of the law on cannabis. This led to the publication in The Times on 24 July of a full-page advertisement that described the existing law as \"immoral in principle and unworkable in practice\", signed by Francis Crick, George Melly, Jonathan Miller and the Beatles. Paul McCartney, initially clandestinely, arranged the funding for this advertisement as a tribute to Hoppy, at the instigation of Barry Miles.\nHopkins remained a member of IT′s editorial board and a major contributor, and founded BIT as an information and agitprop arm. Hopkins favoured the more anarchistic elements in the \"underground\" centred on Ladbroke Grove, such as former UFO doorman Mick Farren, who by 1967 was also working at the IT newspaper.\nIn the 1970s, Hopkins was involved in researching the social uses of video for UNESCO, the Arts Council of Great Britain, the Home Office and others, and edited the Journal of the Centre for Advanced TV Studies. Later, he worked as a technical journalist in the video trade press, and co-authored distance learning video training courses. Subsequently, he took and exhibited macro photography of flowers and other plants, and co-authored papers on plant biochemistry at the University of Westminster. He also exhibited his photographs of events and personalities in the 1960s. \nHopkins died at the age of 77 on 30 January 2015.\n",
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-    "id": "Culture_5"
-}

test/Culture/Pet_culture.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Pet culture refers to the culture revolving around the interaction of humans and pets.\nModern day society has integrated animals into their everyday lives. Today, American families have said that their non-working, indoor animals are close enough to call them family. Many owners post photos and videos of their pets on social media to entertain other animal lovers. The relationship between sharing and watching has shown an increase in interest for pet owning. This increase in pet owning has impacted cat and dog populations within the animal community. Within mid-1960’s century America, their population has grown an impeccable amount compared to the human population. An average of 63% of American households have one pet, while 45% have multiple. Increase in pets have impacted the increasing number of veterinarians.Before the 1900’s, ownership of a pet was restricted to certain social classes who had the income to care for it. With modern day technology and medicine, the average lifespan of pets has changed. Indoor cats, on average, will live up to 13:14 years. While indoor dogs, on average, will live up to 6:10 years. Pet-keeping can be cost heavy. Throughout the average life of a pet in the United States, the owner may spend on average between $8,000 to $13,000. Pets may be kept for either nothing more than companionship or to also serve as working animals.\nPets have also gained more popularity in places of employment. Office pets are animals that live in or visit the workplace. Usually office pets belong to the company but may also be the personal pet of the CEO or owner, office manager, or another employee. In addition to office pets, there are also Pet-friendly work environments, where employees can bring their pets from home to work with them.The practice of having office pets and/or pet-friendly work environments has been known to occur in big businesses, medium-sized businesses, and small businesses. Reasons as to why a business would have an office pet include boosting employee morale, reducing stress and improving health, drawing in and recruiting new employees, improving communication and collaboration between coworkers, attracting customers and clients, and improving public relations between the business and the community. Additionally, business leaders have cited multiple advantages to having pet-friendly work environments such as improving company culture, boosting productivity, reducing employee turnover, boosting employer brand, improving employee satisfaction, boosting the mental and physical health of workers and giving employees more flexibility.\nIn the United States, the estimate of households that have dogs as pet is about 69 million. Nowadays, owners that have dogs have considered them their best friend and a part of their family. Owners that have suffered from mental illness, loneliness, and distress have lightly eased with the help of their dogs. Human and dog relationships have now been more emotional than practical. In the past, humans owned dogs for work purpose. Small dogs were used to scare off pest, while larger dogs were used for protection and identify danger. Other important jobs that people have used dogs to perform include, among other things, hunting for game, search and rescue for missing persons, herding of livestock and serving as therapy dogs for people.In the United States, there is an estimate of 45.3 million households that own a cat. In the past, humans owned cats for work purposes. The most common job for cats is killing or scaring off vermin such as pigeons and rodents. Additionally, cats (particularly puppy cats) have also been used as protection animals for their owners. Another job cats have been known to perform for humans is serving as therapy cats for people. Between cats and dogs, cats have been known to be the opposite of how dogs act. Cats are seen to be more independent and tend to themselves. Many believe that cats are only with humans for their own benefits, such as eating. Nowadays, this idea has changed as cats are known to change their performance based on how their owners act towards them. The type of cat, character, and its history impacts their behavior.In the United States, there is an estimate of 5.3 million households that have rodents as pets. Additionally, rats have also been used for work purpose as well such as bomb detection, laying computer link cables or serving as therapy animals for people. In the past, rodents were considered vermin that spread disease and were a threat to crops, as a result the practice of keeping small mammals as pets, is a relatively recent development, arising only after large-scale industrialization.In the United States, there is an estimate of 6.0 million households that own birds. As with other domestic animals, birds have been used to perform roles and tasks such as delivering messages, pigeon racing or falconry. Usually, ownership of birds requires an enclosure (such as a birdcages) or a tether (such as a jess) to keep the birds from getting loose.In the United States, an estimate of 11.8 million households who own a pet, own a fish. Humans that rent homes that cannot own dogs and/or cats look towards the option of owning a fish. This could also be true to those who have a serious health issue or extreme asthma. Owning a fish has little evidence of allergies, and overall extremely little danger compared to owning dogs or cats. There are bacterial risks, such as infection, when it comes to fish water, but can be prevented with proper cleaning care. Those that do own a fish with an aquarium believe it has beneficial properties, such as relaxation and a distraction from everyday life.Pet owning in America may cause trouble to the public. Owners may have to face the consequences of pets that misbehave. It may result in pressure and distress to their owners and nearby neighbors. Each year in the United States alone, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) found that an average of 4.5 million people are attacked by a dog. Within those attacks, around 900,000 of them are serious and need immediate attention. Many pets are also known to carry diseases. Dogs, one of the most common pets in America, are known to transmit rabies to humans primarily through biting. Cats are carriers of Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that enters the brain and may cause toxoplasmosis. Pets are also known to cause people allergies. They could also trigger an asthma attack, for those who are allergic.",
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-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
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-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
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-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_6"
-}

test/Culture/Repurposing.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Repurposing is the process by which an object with one use value is transformed or redeployed as an object with an alternative use value.\nRepurposing is as old as human civilization, with many contemporary scholars investigating how different societies re-appropriate the artifacts of older cultures in new and creative ways. More recently, repurposing has been celebrated by 21st century hobbyists and arts-and-crafts organizations such as Instructables and other Maker culture communities as a means of creatively responding to the ecological and economic crises of the 21st century.  Recent scholarship has attempted to relate these activities to American left- and right-libertarianism.Repurposing is the use of a tool being re-channeled into being another tool, usually for a purpose unintended by the original tool-maker. Typically, repurposing is done using items usually considered to be junk, garbage, or obsolete. A good example of this would be the Earthship style of house, that uses tires as insulating walls and bottles as glass walls. Reuse is not limited to repeated uses for the same purpose.  Examples of repurposing include using tires as boat fenders and steel drums or plastic drums as feeding troughs and/or composting bins. Incinerator and power plant exhaust stack fly-ash is used extensively as an additive to concrete, providing increased strength. This type of reuse can sometimes make use of items which are no longer usable for their original purposes, for example using worn-out clothes as rags.\nAppropriation (art) is the repurposing of pre-existing objects or images with little or no transformation applied to them. The use of appropriation has played a significant role in the history of the arts (audiovisual, literary, musical and performing arts). In the audiovisual arts, to appropriate means to properly adopt, borrow, recycle or sample aspects (or the entire form) of human-made audiovisual culture. Notable in this respect are the Readymades of Marcel Duchamp and sampling in Hip Hop music.Steelpan drums are created from oil drums\nFull-size vans from the Big Three which have been used for airport shuttle service have been repurposed as church vans mainly because of some depreciation to facilitate affordable cost for thrifty church groups.A USB dead drop can be mounted on a brick wall since this gives an opportunity to repurpose older USB flash drives with obsolete capacities to continue service for file transfer (especially anonymous ones) that don't demand more than one gigabyte.Everdrive and other flash video game cartridges have offered opportunities to download ROM images of video game cartridges onto SD cards while offering opportunities to repurpose real vintage video game consoles for retro gameplay.\nOld Android smartphones, which tend to have little computing resources yet which are unused and probably contain a triaxial accelerometer of decent specifications, can be used as an amateur seismograph node for a distributed seismography project, e.g., Quake-Catcher Network.\nDiscarded or new consumer COTS surplus parabolic reflectors intended for use for C band satellite TV reception can be repurposed for a wide gamut of applications for which a consumer-grade reflector of low gain is adequate, incl. amateur microwave SETI (mainly Project Argus), Wi-Fi links, and microwave amateur radio radio beacons.\nRight-hand-drive Jeep brand vehicles, such as the Jeep Wrangler, which are initially slated for import to right-hand-drive countries, have had some specially designed versions repurposed for US and Canada postal service mail carrying, in which this tactic of repurposing can consolidate the overhead of retooling for specialty manufacturing of the vehicle.Reusable packaging can be reused for a wide variety of other purposes.Recycling can also involve repurposing of materials, such as products using recycled paper.\nDrug repositioning (also known as \"drug repurposing\" or \"therapeutic switching\") is the application of known drugs and compounds to treat new diseases. Examples include Pfizer's Viagra for erectile dysfunction and Celgene's thalidomide for cancer.Real estate, including land and buildings, is routinely adaptive reused for other purposes, both short-term and long-term, due to its high fixed cost. An example is conversion of old industrial mills.Scrap metal has countless applications for repurposing.Furniture has countless applications for repurposing.\nKitchen utensils have many unique repurposing opportunities.\nBeverage bottles: Water bottles may be repurposed for solar water disinfection. Wat Pa Maha Chedi Kaew is a Buddhist temple in Thailand made from one million discarded beer bottles.\nRemoved house parts, like doors, also have countless potential repurposing applications.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "IndigenousTo",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "Represents",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_7"
-}

test/Culture/The_Triple_Package.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America is a book published in 2014 by two professors at Yale Law School, Amy Chua and her husband, Jed Rubenfeld. Amy Chua is also the author of the 2011 international bestseller, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother.\nAccording to the preface, the authors find that \"certain groups do much better in America than others—as measured by various socioeconomic indicators such as income, occupational status, job prestige, test scores, and so on— [which] is difficult to talk about. In large part this is because the topic feels racially charged.\" Nevertheless, the book attempts to debunk racial stereotypes by focusing on three \"cultural traits\" that attribute to success in the United States.\nFollowing Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother in 2011, Chua wrote this book with her husband Jed Rubenfeld after observing a more prevalent trend of students from specific ethnic groups achieving better academic results than other ethnic groups. For example, a striking demographic pattern that more Mormon students in Yale are emerging than a couple years ago. According to an interview conducted by Harry Kreisler from the Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley, the authors explained such phenomenon prompted them to \"look further into how those groups perform outside of school, and come to a conclusion that for some reasons, those groups have a tendency to experience most upward social mobility than others.\"Before its publication, The Triple Package drew attention for its highly controversial assertion that though with tough economy, shrinking opportunity, and rising economic inequality, certain communities are outperforming the national average, experiencing upward mobility and educational attainment at dramatically high rates, and that this success has to do with certain inherent characteristics belonging to these cultural groups. This led critics to note the book was \"sure to garner just as much (if not more) controversy as her first book did.\"\nThe central argument of the book is that various ethnic groups that are \"starkly outperforming\"  the rest in America possess three distinct traits. These virtues are the presence of a superiority complex, the simultaneous existence of a sense of insecurity, and a marked capacity for impulse control.By definition, superiority is \"a deeply internalized belief in your group's specialness, exceptionality, or superiority.\" The authors claim that this element is derived from various sources. First, from a religious perspective, Mormons are introduced to their people's magnificent history and civilization. Second, from a social viewpoint, Nigerian immigrants belonging to the prestige entrepreneurial Igbo people. Third, a mixture of both: for example, Jews as \"chosen people\", and \"a moral people, a people of law and intellect, a people of survivors.\"The authors define insecurity as a species of discontent : an anxious uncertainty about your worth or place in society, a feeling or worry that you or what you've done or what you have is in some fundamental way not good enough.\" Immigrants for example are prone to insecurity because of social and financial anxiety, resulting in the sense of being discriminated against; a perception of danger; feelings of inadequacy and angst of losing their established social standing and possession.The authors refer to impulse control as \"the ability to resist temptation, especially the temptation to give up in the face of hardship or quit instead of persevering at a difficult task.\" For instance, Mormon culture celebrates strict self-discipline with their temperance, two-year mission, and abstinence from sexual relations before marriage. Chua compares that with the Marshmallow Experiment, where a child can either enjoy a piece of marshmallow instantly or wait and have twice as much of the treat later. She concludes that delayed gratification is one of the most important elements in the Triple Package.The authors add that a superiority complex and insecurity are not mutually exclusive. The coexistence of both qualities \"lies at the heart of every Triple Package culture\", producing a need to be recognized and an \"I'll show them\" mentality because the superiority a person has is not acknowledged by the society. Namely, immigrants suffer status collapse though moving up the economic ladder. Thus, this circumstance results in anxiety but also \"a drive and jaw-dropping accomplishment.\"\nThe book categorizes the cultural groups regarding their religion, national origin, and ethnic group.  By cultural groups, they refer that as members of the group that tend to be united or pass on a certain sense of outlooks and cultural values to their next generations.During an interview with Harry Kreisler, the authors explained how they collected the data by going through months of Census data, all available economic data, and from personal experience; and at last narrowed down to the eight cultural groups listed as the successful groups in the United States: Chinese, Jewish, Indian, Iranian, Lebanese, Nigerians, Cuban exiles and Mormons.\nAs both authors belong to one of the above groups and coming from an immigrant family, namely Chua being Chinese and Rubenfeld being Jewish, Chua further claims that \"Chinese Americans are three generations behind the Jews\" as both Jewish Americans and Chinese Americans share many similar behaviors like being instructed to learn how to play a musical instrument when they were little and encouraged to become a doctor, teacher or a lawyer.\nThe book has received polarized reviews from critics and public. Since Chua has been seen as a provocative figure who sparked a tense debate about parenting with Battle Hymn, this book certainly attracted much attention with its racially charged arguments. Alicia W. Stewart, writing for CNN, claims that \"it's no surprise that her latest book about success and cultural groups was given a bit of side-eye, even before it published.\"Some critics admired the book for \"meticulously document[ing]\" how some groups are more high-achieving. but others described it as an exercise in \"pop sociology\". The Independent (UK) gave a mixed review, concluding that \"the book is not racist; it is well written and seductive. But its premise is flawed, arguments pernicious and methods disingenuous. And there is a whiff of aromatic complacency on every page.\"\nIn general, positive reviews praised the book for tackling a controversial and complicated socioeconomic and cultural question and for creating a unified theory of success in America, while negative reviews criticized it for ignoring intergenerational wealth transmission as well as selection effects due to the subset of people from different regions who are able to emigrate.\nPublishers Weekly reviewed the book, concluding: \"This comprehensive, lucid sociological study balances its findings with a probing look at the downsides of the triple package—the burden of carrying a family's expectations, and deep insecurities that come at a psychological price.\"The Guardian commended the book for \"draw[ing] on eye-opening studies of the influence of stereotypes and expectations on various ethnic and cultural groups ... The authors' willingness to pursue an intellectual inquiry that others wouldn't is bracing.\"\nThe Kirkus Reviews review of the book concluded: \"On a highly touchy subject, the authors tread carefully, backing their assertions with copious notes. Though coolly and cogently argued, this book is bound to be the spark for many potentially heated discussions.\"\nAllison Pearson reviewed the book favorably for The Telegraph, calling it \"Powerful, passionate and very entertaining.\"\nLogan Beirne, published an article titled \"What George Washington teaches us about success\" in Fox News Opinion, that this book is \"filled with surprising statistics and sociological research […] Triple Package contends that success is driven not by inborn biology, but is instead propelled by qualities that can be cultivated by all Americans. The book serves as an opportunity to discuss what has helped drive America's triumphs in the past : and how we might harness this knowledge for our future.\"\nJ. D. Vance, writing in the National Review Online, described the book as \"sometimes funny, sometimes academic, and always interesting study of the cultural traits that make some groups outperform others in America. . . . [The Triple Package] asks a very important question: why are some of us doing so much better (or worse) than others? . . . I'm not sure that Chua and Rubenfeld have all the right answers. But I do know that by focusing on people—and the cultures that support and affect them—they're asking the right questions. That's more than I can say for most of the social policy experts occupying the airwaves today.\"\nLucy Kellaway, writing for Financial Times, called it \"the best universal theory of success I've seen.\"\nJennifer Lee, a sociologist and a professor at the University of California, Irvine, whose work has been quoted in The Triple Package, criticized the book in the online publication Zócalo Public Square. In her article, she asserts that Chua and Rubenfeld overlooked institutional and structural factors and asks \"But what happens if you measure success not just by where people end up—the cars in their garages, the degrees on their walls—but by taking into account where they started?\"  Lee concludes that after controlling parental accomplishment and education levels, people of Mexican origin are more successful in the U.S. than people of Chinese origin.Colin Woodard wrote a critical review of the book for the Washington Post, saying that the thesis of the book was constructed on \"methodological quicksand\" that was revealed by the case of the people of Appalachia. Also, he shares the same concern most critics have with this book, questioning \"might the successes of the exiles have more to do with their relative class, education and social advantages than the Triple Package?\", concluding that while people are told an A-minus is a bad grade in Battle Hymn, \"one wonders what Chua and Rubenfeld will make of an F.\"\nMaureen Callahan wrote an article titled \"Tiger Mom: Some cultural groups are superior\" for New York Post, generated heated debate in the public with its incendiary topic, calling the book \"a series of shock-arguments wrapped in self-help tropes, and it's meant to do what racist arguments do: scare people.\" She claims that Chua repeated the same argument from her previous book, Battle Hymn, the rise and ultimate supremacy of China : and this time, \"so well timed to deep economic anxiety, to the collective fear that the American middle class is about to disappear, for good.\"\nAlicia Stewart who wrote for CNN sums up several controversial issues in the book: namely, the definition of success is not universal; the traits of success are not a pattern; Triple package cultures highlight relatively less successful cultural groups; over-generalizing and honing in on groups promote a 'new racism'; the notion of the American dream is undermined.\nKhanh Ho was highly critical of the book in an article for the Huffington Post, concluding: \nI do have this question: If you arrive in the United States as part of the 1 percent that drained off all the resources from a latter-day colony is it any surprise that you were able to leverage your fortune into a career at a top-notch university? If you inherited your status, wealth, privilege, connections and all it got you was a well-paying job does it at all reflect your innate superiority? Or is your so-called success simply the logical conclusion to the fact that you simply started off better?\nJohn Crace wrote a satirical review-cum-summary of the book for The Guardian,  citing one of the Triple Package Traits : Impulse control is to \"resist this book.\"\nThe book was also negatively reviewed in Boston Globe, saying that \"if the book [did not] structured to focus on an underdeveloped notion that feels intentionally provocative, it would have been a lot better.\"\nJaya Sundaresh, writing for The Aerogram, claims that the authors by singling out eight cultural groups that they claim are \"exceptional\", \"leading us to wonder what is so wrong with other groups in America,\" suggesting that \"this kind of analysis smacks of cultural essentialism.\"\nWriting in Slate Magazine, Daria Roithmayr asserted that the book's argument \"doesn't hold water\" for several reasons, including avoidance of \"the pesky issue of race\", not adequately acknowledging \"first-wave advantage\", and noting that the authors \"are forced now to slice and dice the argument\" in order to explain away exceptions.\nBefore the book's publication, New York Post published an article titled \"Tiger Mom: Some cultural groups are superior\" which sparked controversy, including people using social media to voice their concerns. For example, David Leonard, a historian, tweeted \"Dear Amy Chua & Jed Rubenfeld, the 1920s called and want their (racial) theories back.\" Matt O'Brien tweeted \"The Return of the Troll\"; and Ellen Wu tweeted \"cringe worthy and racist.\"Israeli newspaper Haaretz published an article based on an interview of the authors about the book. An audio interview of the authors was published by Slate Magazine. Amy Chua was also interviewed in The Irish Times, where she emphasized that the book is \"about the rise and fall of cultural groups.\" The article notes that in spite of the success of Asian-American students, they have the lowest reported self-esteem. Chua stresses that the thesis of the book is \"intended to be a nuanced idea, not some superficial celebration. It can be very painful to be driven.\"",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "IndigenousTo",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "Represents",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_8"
-}

test/Culture/Xeer.json

@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Culture",
-    "document": "Xeer (pronounced [ħeːr]) is the traditional legal system used by Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti, Somali Region of Ethiopia, and the North Eastern Province in Kenya. It is one of the three systems from which formal Somali law draws its inspiration, the others being civil law and Islamic law. It is believed to pre-date Islam. However, Islam influenced it, with Xeer incorporating many Islamic legal principles. Under this system, the elders, known as the xeer begti, serve as mediator judges and help settle court cases, taking precedent and custom into account. Xeer is polycentric in that different groups within Somali society have different interpretations of xeer.\nSomali society is traditionally structured around a patriarchal clan based system, subdivided into sub-clans, then lineages, and finally mag groupings. These groups are bound together either by family ties or contract. Xeer justice usually revolves around the latter groups, as these are the smallest. In these groups, each member is responsible aiding in the payment for the crimes of another and must accordingly bear some fraction of any decided punishment if the accused cannot afford to do so themselves. Within this system, only the victim or immediate family of a victim can bring criminal proceedings to xeer mediation. If the victim is a man, his father, brothers, or uncles can bring complaints. If the victim is a woman, complaints can be brought forward by the men in her family or the men in her husband's family.In xeer, crimes are transgressions against property rights. Justice is directed in the form of material compensation to the victim. If the accused is found guilty, some material restitution must be paid. If restitution cannot be given, mag retribution is due, measured in terms of livestock (usually healthy female camels), to be paid to the victim or the victim's family. There is no concept of imprisonment under xeer. In some cases, elders may advise that neither side seeks restitution or retribution. The verdict is enforced by the victim's family or else by all able-bodied clansmen within the area wherein the verdict is to be executed.\nXeer judges are made up of the heads of extended families. These family heads are chosen for their knowledge of the law and wisdom, but otherwise, there is no formal training, and each judge is allowed to formulate their own doctrines and legal principles. Multiple judges are chosen to preside over each case by the involved parties, with this delegation being called an \"ergo\". The number of judges involved in a case is usually around ten, though it can be as few as two.\nIn each case, the goal is to reach consensus between the parties. Arbitration traditionally takes place under a large tree, and the mediators ask each party to submit to the judge's ruling. In modern times, meeting halls are often used instead of sitting under a tree. Each party has the right to appoint a representative to speak on its behalf while a recorder loudly repeats any important points that are made. If a fact is disputed, its veracity must be obtained by the testimony of three witnesses. If this cannot be done, an oath must be sworn. Should proceedings become heated, the presiding judge may order a recess, wherein both parties discuss issues relating to the case in small informal groups. Once the mediation has been decided, an appeal may be requested, although all parties must agree.\nDifferent groups within Somali society undertake oral agreements with each other to define xeer law. Despite this informal nature, there is a series of generally accepted principles, agreements, and ideas that constitute xeer, referred to collectively as \"xissi adkaaday\". These are:the payment of mag by the collective group (clan, sub-clan, lineage, or mag group) from which an offender originates as compensation for the crimes of murder, bodily assault, theft, rape, and defamation of character, given to the victim or victim's family;\nthe protection of vulnerable or respected members of society such as older adults, women, children, poets, guests and religious people\nobligations to the family such as the payment of a dowry to a bride\nthe rights of a widower to marry the dead wife's sister and the inheritance of a widow by the dead man's brother\nthe punishments for elopement\nand the division and use of natural resources like water and land.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "IndigenousTo",
-        "InfluencedBy",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "NotableWork",
-        "FieldOfWork",
-        "Uses",
-        "SetInPeriod",
-        "ReviewedBy",
-        "Represents",
-        "UsedBy",
-        "SupportsProgrammingLanguage",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "Occupation",
-        "DateOfDeath",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "Causes",
-        "GeneralAffiliation",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasCause",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author",
-        "FoundedBy",
-        "StudiedBy",
-        "DateOfBirth",
-        "PublishedIn",
-        "PrimeFactor",
-        "contains the administrative territorial entity",
-        "DiplomaticRelation",
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "Employer",
-        "HasWrittenFor"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Culture_9"
-}

test/Economy/Bare_minimum_Monday.json

@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Economy",
-    "document": "Bare minimum Monday (BMM), also known as minimum effort Monday or minimal Mondays refers to an initiative by employees to do the minimal amount of work necessary on Mondays, which mark the start of the work week. This may also involve starting the work day later and prioritizing self-care activities. In doing so, employees alleviate the stress and anxiety associated with the beginning of the work week by making Mondays more manageable and less overwhelming.\nThe term was coined in 2022 by Marisa Jo Mayes on TikTok under the username \"itsmarisajo\" in response to occupational burnout from the Sunday scaries, hustle culture, and worker exploitation.\nBare minimum Monday has been criticized as an antiwork effort and that employee disengagement could lead to termination of employment. Bare minimum Monday is not compatible with company cultures that promote presenteeism.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "PresentInWork",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "Uses",
-        "PhysicallyInteractsWith",
-        "InterestedIn",
-        "InspiredBy",
-        "PracticedBy",
-        "AppliesToPart",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
-        "CARDINAL",
-        "DATE",
-        "EVENT",
-        "FAC",
-        "GPE",
-        "LANGUAGE",
-        "LAW",
-        "LOC",
-        "MONEY",
-        "NORP",
-        "ORDINAL",
-        "ORG",
-        "PERCENT",
-        "PERSON",
-        "PRODUCT",
-        "QUANTITY",
-        "TIME",
-        "WORK_OF_ART",
-        "MISC"
-    ],
-    "id": "Economy_0"
-}

test/Economy/Central_bank_independence.json

@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Economy",
-    "document": "Central bank independence refers to the degree of autonomy and freedom a central bank has in conducting its monetary policy and managing the financial system. It is a key aspect of modern central banking, and has its roots in the recognition that monetary policy decisions should be based on the best interests of the economy as a whole, rather than being influenced by short-term political considerations.\nThe concept of central bank independence emerged in the 1920s and was broadly approved by the conclusions of the Brussels International Financial Conference (1920). Since the 1980s, there has been a substantial increase in central bank independence worldwide.\nThe purpose of central bank independence is to enhance the effectiveness of monetary policy and ensure the stability of the financial system. Independent central banks are better able to carry out their mandates, which include maintaining price stability, ensuring the stability of the financial system, and implementing monetary policy. By being free from political influence, central banks can focus on long-term goals, such as controlling inflation and ensuring stability, rather than responding to short-term political pressures.\nCentral bank independence can be classified in various ways. One common classification is based on the extent of the central bank's autonomy, which can be either formal or actual. Formal independence refers to the legal provisions that guarantee the central bank's autonomy, such as its mandate, its organizational structure, and the procedures for appointing its leaders. Actual independence refers to the practical independence that the central bank enjoys in practice, taking into account factors such as its political and institutional environment, its relationship with the government, and the level of transparency and accountability in its operations.\nAnother common classification of central bank independence is based on the extent to which the central bank is free from government control. This can be either formal or actual, and ranges from complete independence to significant government control, with several intermediate levels in between. The People's Bank of China is an example of a central bank subject to Chinese Communist Party control.\n",
-    "RE_label_set": [
-        "SharesBorderWith",
-        "HasPart",
-        "OwnerOf",
-        "NominatedFor",
-        "Follows",
-        "HasWorksInTheCollection",
-        "SaidToBeTheSameAs",
-        "DifferentFrom",
-        "PresentInWork",
-        "Creator",
-        "CitesWork",
-        "SignificantEvent",
-        "Uses",
-        "PhysicallyInteractsWith",
-        "InterestedIn",
-        "InspiredBy",
-        "PracticedBy",
-        "AppliesToPart",
-        "HasQuality",
-        "LocatedIn",
-        "PartOf",
-        "Founded",
-        "HasEffect",
-        "Author"
-    ],
-    "NER-label_set": [
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test/Economy/Consumer_economy.json

@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-{
-    "domain": "Economy",
-    "document": "A consumer economy describes an economy driven by consumer spending as a high percent of its gross domestic product (GDP), as opposed to other major components of GDP (gross private domestic investment, government spending, and imports netted against exports).\nIn the U.S., it is usually said by economists, including in Henry Hazlitt's \"Economics in One Lesson\" that 70% of spending is consumer-based, but this number is disputed by economists like Businessweek columnist Michael Mandel.\nThe absolute income hypothesis argues that income and demand generate consumption, and that the rise in GDP gives life to a rise in consumption. It was popularized by Keynes.Milton Friedman argues for a permanent income hypothesis, that consumption spending is a function of how rich you are.\nAbsolute income was theorized by Keynes. Its model is Ct=λYt. He believed that consumption at a certain time could be determined by marginal propensity to consume multiplied by income at that particular time.Permanent income was theorized by Friedman. Instead of marginal propensity to consume, it theorizes \"consumption smoothing\", where people spread out changes in income using borrowing (e.g., credit cards).Charles Hugh Smith, writing for Business Insider, argues that while the use of credit has positive features in low amounts, but that the consumer economy and its expansion of credit produces consumer ennui because there is a marginal return to consumption, and that hyperinflation experts recommended investment in tangible goods.Smith raises the issues of storage and maintenance of goods as limitations and problems of the consumer economy, as demand will eventually have to stagnate and credit will one day be denied.\nMany capitalist countries have an economy that is driven by the economic activities of its constituents. England and America have particularly influential economies.The consumer revolution in England is generally understood to have been in the eighteenth century, although the concept of consumerism was perceived to have appeared in the late 1500s and 1600s. Prior to this, the Middle Ages were understood to have been a time of perpetual material poverty, in which the concept of the commodity or the concept of the consumer did not exist.   Maryanne Kowaleski argues against this view, arguing that medieval charity, instructional guidebooks, and population growth (paralleled by that of currency), created a consumer economy in the pre-Great Famine era   Research by people like Britnell and Campbell suggest commercialization first appeared in the medieval period, and researchers like Christopher Woolgar have studied consumption practices in elite households.In their economy, they had many exotic items (because of the imperial conquests of the British Empire) and it created an environment for a desire-based mode of shopping that was pleasurable, not mundane.\nRomantic literary critic Andrea K. Henderson argued that this influenced Romantic-era poetry because the poets were often part of an urban society. desiring things that could not be easily attained and were unavailable. This influenced their interpretation of things like the past, and the non-urban natural world, because they had to construct narratives to understand things that were inaccessible to them.\nIn an essay for the book \"An Emotional History of the United States\", Susan J. Matt describes \"aspirational envy\" within the middle class toward the \"bourgeois\", during a period with a pool of goods that was growing rather than remaining finite.The US consumer economy in the 1920s included many leisure items and products that improved housework. They introduced advertising to sell goods and department stores were created. They introduced lines of credit and installment plans to consumers who could or would not buy things immediately.\nConsumer spending in the US rose from about 62% of GDP in 1960, where it stayed until about 1981, and has since risen to 71% in 2013.In the first economic quarter of 2010, a report from the Bureau of Economic Analysis in the U.S. Department of Commerce stated that real gross domestic product rose by about 3.2 percent, and that this represents a difference from the fourth quarter of 2009. In that fourth quarter real GDP increased by 5.4 percent. It states that \"[t]he increase in real GDP in the first quarter primarily reflected positive contributions from\npersonal consumption expenditures (PCE), private inventory investment, exports, and nonresidential fixed investment that were partly offset by decreases in state and local government spending and in residential fixed investment.\"\nAccording to Kevin O'Marah of Forbes magazine, Africa's consumer economies remained \"buoyant\" despite the worldwide collapse in the commodity industry, despite the fact that commodity extraction industries have long dominated the region.Some analysts, including an anonymous columnist at The Economist stated in 2014 and early 2015 that China was likely to become a consumer economy. They regarded it as the second biggest consumer.After 10 years of development in China, the growth rate of consumption level of rural residents has gradually surpassed that of urban residents. On the other hand, the consumption structure between the two is also slowly assimilating.\nIn the end of 2021, McKinsey & Company, a global management consultancy, estimated China to be the largest consumer economy today as measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. It projected that over the next decade, China might add more consumption than any other country and was expected to generate more than one-quarter of all global consumption growth.  In 2022, under the influence of the COVID pandemic and the global economic slowdown, Chinese consumers in 2022 grew more cautious in spending and strengthened their intent to put their money in the bank. That said, McKinsey still observed resilience in China's economy, with a rise of 5.3% in the nominal disposable income per capita and a minimal consumer price inflation of 2.0%.\nThe GDP in the country grew 6.3% in 2015. Their inflation rate was about 1.4%, and the service sector had grown, becoming a large part of GDP. The economy did not generate a large amount of savings, despite the fact that the 6% growth during the economic recovery of the 3rd and 4th quarter was largely driven by consumer spending.",
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