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[ { "answer": "They're used interchangeably a lot. You'll get different answers from different resources, but the general consensus seems to be that woods are smaller than forests.\n\n > A wood is an area covered in trees, larger than a grove or a copse. A forest is also an area covered in trees, but it is larger than a wood\n\n > The U.S. National Vegetation Classification system differentiates them according to their densities: 25 to 60 percent of a a wood is covered by tree canopies, while 60 to 100 percent of a forest is canopied.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4396843", "title": "Wood drying", "section": "Section::::Types of wood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 386, "text": "Wood is divided, according to its botanical origin, into two kinds: softwoods, from coniferous trees, and hardwoods, from broad-leaved trees. Softwoods are lighter and generally simple in structure, whereas hardwoods are harder and more complex. However, in Australia, \"softwood\" generally describes rain forest trees, and \"hardwood\" describes Sclerophyll species (\"Eucalyptus\" \"spp\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56403150", "title": "Land-use in Wales", "section": "Section::::Woodland and forestry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 579, "text": "Woodland is defined by Chambers English dictionary as \"land covered with wood\" i.e. dominated by tree species. Forestry is defined as \"1. the science and art of planting, tending and managing forests; 2. Forest country\". This implies that forests have been planted by mankind for a variety of purposes, but mostly for exploitation for timber and pulp for the paper industry. The majority of Forests in Wales were planted by the British Forestry Commission, a UK government agency. Since 2016 the Forestry Commission in Wales has been taken over by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66986", "title": "Woodland", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 506, "text": "A woodland or wood (or in the U.S., the \"plurale tantum\" woods) is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a largely closed canopy that provides extensive and nearly continuous shade are referred to as forests. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48094464", "title": "Private timber reserve (Tasmania)", "section": "Section::::Legal definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 204, "text": "Timber means trunks and branches of trees, whether standing or not, and all wood. This definition includes the full range of wood products; all categories of saw logs, veneer logs, pulpwood and firewood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12985985", "title": "Forest product", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 758, "text": "A forest product is any material derived from forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber, paper, or forage for livestock. Wood, by far the dominant product of forests, is used for many purposes, such as wood fuel (e.g. in form of firewood or charcoal) or the finished structural materials used for the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, in the form of wood pulp, that is used in the production of paper. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest products (NTFP). Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest ecosystem when providing income sources for local community.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "464779", "title": "Building material", "section": "Section::::Naturally occurring substances.:Wood and timber.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 650, "text": "Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49165880", "title": "Wood industry", "section": "Section::::Distinction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 366, "text": "Processing and products differs especially with regard to the distinction between softwood and hardwood. While softwood primarily goes into the production of wood fuel and pulp and paper, hardwood is used mainly for furniture, floors, etc.. Both types can be of use for building and (residential) construction purposes (e.g. log houses, log cabins, timber framing).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many of the relevant primary sources wont contain the those specific details in an aggregated way. There are a few great examples of diaries and reports coming from the Warsaw Ghetto. The statistics you are looking for would likely come from secondary sources.\n\nOne great example is the Stroop Report. This is written by a commander (Stroop) and it documents the suppression of the uprising. I've included a link to the National Archive where you can get the the full report [here](_URL_1_). This document was used in the Nuremberg Trials.\n\nI would recommend you check out the [Yad Vashem site](_URL_2_). That is the Holocaust Museum in Israel. They have spent a lot of time collecting primary sources, photos, personal accounts etc, about the Holocaust of the Jews (Shoah). I've linked to the overview of the Warsaw Ghetto, but check out the digital collection at the top.\n\nA last little tip is diaries of the time. I don't know where you're located, or which libraries you have access to but here are a few WorldCat records for some notable ones: [The Warsaw diary of Adam Czerniakow](_URL_0_) and [Scroll of agony, the Warsaw diary of Chaim A. Kaplan](_URL_3_).\n\nHope this help.\n\nSource: I'm an academic reference librarian and Jewish history specialist", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "57561029", "title": "Barbara Engelking", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 332, "text": "Engelking's book \"The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City\" (2009), written with Jacek Leociak, provides detailed maps of the ghetto so that readers can locate the streets and former community structures. Michael Marrus described it as \"a stunning work, one of the most important books on the history of the Nazi Holocaust\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57570090", "title": "Jacek Leociak", "section": "Section::::Research focus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 872, "text": "Together with Barbara Engelking, he published the book \"The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City\", which first appeared in Polish in 2001. It focuses on the Warsaw Ghetto and its almost four-year history. According to a review in \"\", the work is \"a unique and detailed monograph that gives the reader an insight into the daily life of Jewish inhabitants of the closed district\". At 800-pages, the book details \"the institutional structure of the ghetto, its relations with the Nazi government, important social institutions, and the economic and community life of the ghetto population,\" amounting almost to an encyclopedia. A review by the Jewish Book Council finds \"The Warsaw Ghetto\" to be an \"encyclopedic and impressive work\" that does not make for an easy reading, but provides a rich and comprehensive portrayal of the life and fate of the ghetto community.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59689668", "title": "Chasing the King of Hearts", "section": "Section::::Historical context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 333, "text": "Other historical sites are referenced during the book including Izolda’s brief stay at the Viennese Gestapo, The Hotel Metropole. It is here that she learns of the Warsaw Ghetto and is taken away to Auschwitz as a Jew, most likely taking place around early 1944, between the time of the Warsaw Uprising and the hotel’s destruction. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57813216", "title": "Warsaw Ghetto Museum", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 219, "text": "The Warsaw Ghetto Museum’s mission includes “the dissemination of knowledge about the history of the Warsaw ghetto being a crucial part of the history of The Holocaust as planned and executed by the German Third Reich”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57360829", "title": "Main Judaic Library", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 536, "text": "From November 1940 until March 1942, the building was within the Warsaw Ghetto borders. It hosted the headquarters of the Jewish Social Self-Help, a staging point for Jews forcibly resettled from Germany and a storage unit for furniture stolen in the ghetto. The edifice endured the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising, although it sustained damage. The Library’s collections were looted by the Germans. Some were restored after the war (according to other sources, the Library had lost all of its stock, i.e. 40,000 units).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147213", "title": "Shoah (film)", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 694, "text": "The Warsaw ghetto is described by Jan Karski, a member of the Polish Underground who worked for the Polish government-in-exile, and Franz Grassler, a Nazi administrator in Warsaw who liaised with Jewish leaders. A Christian, Karski sneaked into the Warsaw ghetto and travelled using false documents to England to try to convince the Allied governments to intervene more strongly on behalf of the Jews.. In The Karski Report (2010), Jan Karski also tells how he travelled before the end of the war to Washington and spoke personally with then-President F. D. Roosvelt about how to stop the genocide, without any success. The reason why that interview was not included in Shoah is still unknown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36760751", "title": "The Little Smuggler", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 250, "text": "BULLET::::- Diane Plotkin, \"Smuggling in the Ghettos: Survivor Accounts from the Warsaw, Łódź, and Kraków Ghettos\"; in: \"Life in the Ghettos during the Holocaust\", ed. E. J. Sterling, Syracuse (New York), Syracuse University Press, 2005, pp. 84ff. .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A) instinct. To protect it from further damage (if the damaging agent is ongoing) or to prevent bleeding and such.\n\nB) pain. Our brain knows that pressure sensation blocks pain sensation from experience. So we reflexively grab the injury site because it alleviates the pain.\n\nEdit: English and clarity", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So you have 2 different types of pressure sensors in your skin, superficial or closer to the surface and deep. Pressure sensors report back to the brain faster than pain sensors do so you can \"jam the signal\" ish by applying pressure. Say you put your hand on a hot burner, the spine has limited commands it can give to the body in case the brain can't give commands (see stroke victims) or to protect the body from further damage. This means that the pain signal follows tracks of nerve impulses to the spine where a quick response is sent back while a detailed report of the pain is sent to the sensory part of the brain for further analysis. The brain follows up the damage report by checking sensation, applying pressure or grabbing the area. Typically you also visually check it as well to see how the skin in the area is doing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25294051", "title": "Franz Rautek", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 749, "text": "Bring the victim into a sitting position, making sure that both legs are free. Approach him from behind, putting both your arms under his armpits. Both your hands then grab one of the lower arms of the victim with all fingers and the thumbs being placed on top of that lower arm and parallel to each other (so called monkey grip, ). This avoids injury to the ribs of the victim by the thumb of the rescuer. The victims arm should now be horizontal and pressed across his chest. Gently lifting the upper body of the victim by the grabbed arm and supporting him with your thigh, you can now drag him backwards. The victim contacts the ground with buttocks and legs, which are not \"soft parts\". If a second rescuer is available, he can carry the legs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11005224", "title": "Penetrating trauma", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 659, "text": "Penetrating trauma is an injury that occurs when an object pierces the skin and enters a tissue of the body, creating an open wound. In blunt, or non-penetrating trauma, there may be an impact, but the skin is not necessarily broken. The penetrating object may remain in the tissues, come back out the way it entered, or pass through the tissues and exit from another area. An injury in which an object enters the body or a structure and passes all the way through is called a perforating injury, while \"penetrating trauma\" implies that the object does not pass through. Perforating trauma is associated with an entrance wound and an often larger exit wound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "515534", "title": "Injury", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 246, "text": "Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force. This may be caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13877484", "title": "Conflict archaeology", "section": "Section::::A Case Study: The Bare Bones; body parts and conflict behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 610, "text": "Essentially our bodies act as physical manifestations of past conflicts. The physical effects that violence inflicts upon our bodies are allowed for the characterization of the surrounding conflict which was participated in. Our bodies tell us the human interaction enacted and the course of the conflict, whether one side was dominated in regards to another, based on physical evidence. As Callow states, \"Permanent wounds such as scars or missing body parts convey messages about the success or failure of casing wounds to one another...and the military success of the individual who carries out such acts.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41121722", "title": "Spinal interneuron", "section": "Section::::Function.:Excitatory interneurons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1415, "text": "An important reflex initiated by cutaneous receptors and pain receptors is the flexor reflex. This reflex mechanism allows for quick withdrawal of the body parts, in this case a limb, from the harmful stimulus. The signal travels to the spinal cord and a response is initiated even before it travels up to the brain centers for a conscious decision to be made. The reflex circuit involves the activation of the Group III afferents of pain receptors due to a stimulus affecting the foot. These afferents enter the spinal cord and travel up to the lumbar region, where they synapse an excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neuron that causes contraction of the thigh flexor muscle. Also, Group III afferent travels up to L2 vertebra, where they branch onto another excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neurons, which then excite the hip flexor muscle. This synchronized communication allows for the removal of the whole leg from the painful stimulus. This is an example of the spinal cord circuitry coordinating movement at several joints simultaneously. In addition, during flexor reflex, when the knee joints and hip joints are flexed, the antagonist extensor muscles must be inhibited. This inhibitory effect is achieved when Group III afferents synapse inhibitory interneurons that in turn synapse the alpha motor neurons innervating the antagonists muscle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44788205", "title": "Basic airway management", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Abdominal thrusts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 272, "text": "A person may also perform abdominal thrusts on himself by using a fixed object such as a railing or the back of a chair to apply pressure where a rescuer's hands would normally do so. As with other forms of the procedure, it is possible that internal injuries may result.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10972528", "title": "Incident (Scientology)", "section": "Section::::\"A History of Man\" Incidents.:Bodies in pawn.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 386, "text": "They can apparently cause major problems for people undergoing medical operations, as \"pain, an anaesthetic or a serious accident cause him to change to the other area with a shocking impact on the other body. The other body quite commonly dies or is deranged by the sudden impact\". This gives the patient a repressed feeling of having died and leaves him \"very, very badly disturbed\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "All across the South during the years following the civil war, a series of \"Black codes\" were passed into law. Their purpose was to effectively re-enslave the freed slaves by justifying their forced labor by labeling them vagrants, essentially making unemployment illegal and thereby allowing a state to force a former slave to work by arresting them and then using them as convict labor.\n\nSometimes, the black codes were simply pre-civil war slave laws with the word \"slave\" replaced with \"negro.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was less a few dark corners, and more a concerted effort by large swathes of society, who attempted to keep slavery alive in all but name. Here is the Fourth Circuit discussing some of this history:\n\n > The South was far from wholly reconciled to the abandonment of the system of forced labor that contributed significantly to the economic success of its agriculture. *See* [R. Fogel and S. Engerman, *Time on the Cross* (1974)](_URL_1_). Many planters felt strongly that they simply could not work their fields without compulsory service. *A Georgia Leader on Reconstruction and Conversation of Alabama Planters* in *R.N. Current, ed., Reconstruction [1865-1877]*, at 39, 46 (1969). Moreover, the war-torn South had large numbers of homeless uprooted people who today would probably be characterized as refugees but were then commonly seen as roaming, \"dangerous\" vagrants.\n\n > Some local authorities responded by permitting employers to engage laborers on a basis that essentially bound the worker for life. [C. V. Woodward, *The Strange Career of Jim Crow* 23 (3d Rev.Ed.1974)](_URL_6_). Many states enacted so-called \"Black Codes\" that severely restricted the freedom of the former slaves and provided tough criminal sanctions for those who violated their \"labor contracts\" with employers. [J. H. Franklin, *Reconstruction After the Civil War* 48-50 (1961)](_URL_4_); [J. L. Roark, *Masters Without Slaves* 139-40 (1977)](_URL_3_).\n\n > ...\n\n > In [*Bailey v. Alabama*, 219 U.S. 219 (1911)](_URL_7_), the Supreme Court held invalid an Alabama statute that prescribed criminal penalties for laborers who breached their employment contracts without satisfying debts owed their employer. The statute established a presumption of criminal intent to defraud the employer by the fact of the mere breach of the contract. The Court ruled that the statute effectively required compulsory service impermissible under the thirteenth amendment because the compulsion inherent in the threat of criminal sanctions was as strong as that inherent in the use of physical force.\n\n > In [*United States v. McClellan*, 127 F. 971 (_URL_0_.1904)](_URL_2_), the district court refused to quash an indictment that charged several defendants with the sale of a man into forced labor, holding that the [federal statutes] broadly regulated behavior of this type and were neither unconstitutional nor were to be confined to the narrow circumstances of the particular evils which they were intended to redress.\n\n[*United States v. Booker*, 655 F. 2d 562 (4th Cir. 1981)](_URL_5_) (some citations omitted and some spacing added).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "PBS produced a beautiful documentary on exactly this subject: [Slavery by another name](_URL_0_)\n > Directed by Sam Pollard, produced by Catherine Allan and Douglas Blackmon, written by Sheila Curran Bernard, the tpt National Productions project is based on the 2009 Pulitzer Prize-winning book by Blackmon. Slavery by Another Name challenges one of our country’s most cherished assumptions: the belief that slavery ended with Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. The documentary recounts how in the years following the Civil War, insidious new forms of forced labor emerged in the American South, keeping hundreds of thousands of African Americans in bondage, trapping them in a brutal system that would persist until the onset of World War II.\n\n > Based on Blackmon’s research, Slavery by Another Name spans eight decades, from 1865 to 1945, revealing the interlocking forces in both the South and the North that enabled this “neoslavery” to begin and persist. Using archival photographs and dramatic re-enactments filmed on location in Alabama and Georgia, it tells the forgotten stories of both victims and perpetrators of neoslavery and includes interviews with their descendants living today. The program also features interviews with Douglas Blackmon and with leading scholars of this period.\n \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50715286", "title": "History of unfree labor in the United States", "section": "Section::::Other forms of legalized slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 530, "text": "Proponents of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution knew that without legislation that codified the 13th Amendment in the form of laws and statutes along with law enforcement agencies to uphold the laws, there would be no true end to slavery, and this is the reason for the inclusion of Section 2 of the 13th Amendment authorizing Congress to establish laws upholding the amendment. The federal government also sent troops to the south to provide protection to the former slaves who were still living among their former captors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253264", "title": "Slavery in the United States", "section": "Section::::Reconstruction to present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 240, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 240, "end_character": 530, "text": "Proponents of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution knew that without legislation that codified the 13th Amendment in the form of laws and statutes along with law enforcement agencies to uphold the laws, there would be no true end to slavery, and this is the reason for the inclusion of Section 2 of the 13th Amendment authorizing Congress to establish laws upholding the amendment. The federal government also sent troops to the south to provide protection to the former slaves who were still living among their former masters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29653334", "title": "Transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking", "section": "Section::::Transnational efforts.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 202, "text": "The Thirteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was added to the United States Constitution and ratified on December 6, 1865, making slavery and the trafficking of Humans in America illegal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31665", "title": "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 753, "text": "Though the amendment formally abolished slavery throughout the United States, factors such as Black Codes, white supremacist violence, and selective enforcement of statutes continued to subject some black Americans to involuntary labor, particularly in the South. In contrast to the other Reconstruction Amendments, the Thirteenth Amendment was rarely cited in later case law, but has been used to strike down peonage and some race-based discrimination as \"badges and incidents of slavery.\" The Thirteenth Amendment applies to the actions of private citizens, while the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments apply only to state actors. The Thirteenth Amendment also enables Congress to pass laws against sex trafficking and other modern forms of slavery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31644", "title": "Constitution of the United States", "section": "Section::::Ratified amendments.:Safeguards of civil rights (Amendments 13, 14, 15, 19, 23, 24, and 26).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 591, "text": "The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and authorized Congress to enforce abolition. Though millions of slaves had been declared free by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post Civil War status was unclear, as was the status of other millions. Congress intended the Thirteenth Amendment to be a proclamation of freedom for all slaves throughout the nation and to take the question of emancipation away from politics. This amendment rendered inoperative or moot several of the original parts of the constitution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5858078", "title": "Reconstruction Amendments", "section": "Section::::Thirteenth Amendment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 834, "text": "The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. It was passed by the U.S. Senate on April 8, 1864, and, after one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31, 1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by all but three Union states (the exceptions were Delaware, New Jersey, and Kentucky), and by a sufficient number of border and \"reconstructed\" Southern states, to be ratified by December 6, 1865. On December 18, 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed it to have been incorporated into the federal Constitution. It became part of the Constitution 61 years after the Twelfth Amendment, the longest interval between constitutional amendments to date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "950939", "title": "Equal Protection Clause", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 539, "text": "Shortly after the Union victory in the American Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment was proposed by Congress and ratified by the states in 1865, abolishing slavery. Subsequently, many ex-Confederate states then adopted Black Codes following the war, with these laws severely restricting the rights of blacks to hold property, including real property (such as real estate), and many forms of personal property, and to form legally enforceable contracts. Such codes also established harsher criminal consequences for blacks than for whites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Twenty years of peace is much better than no peace at all. Twenty years is enough time for a generation of young men to forgo military service, time to build infrastructure, time to consolidate power, and time grow a treasury.\n\nThere are also plenty of examples of peaces that last longer than twenty years, or even result in permanent peace and consolidation. The nation of Spain was formed from [the union of the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Aragon](_URL_0_), a union that was set in motion when Isabella of Castile, the future queen, married Ferdinand the Catholic, a future king of Aragon. Their grandson Charles V and great grandson Phillip II would later become kings of a united Spain. James the VI of Scotland similarly oversaw the personal union of England and Scotland when he inherited the crown of England, becoming James I, in 1603. England and Scotland would later formally join together to become the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.\n\nYour question also implies that it is particularly unusual for a peace treaty to last less than twenty years. There are numerous examples of more modern treaties that did not maintain peace for much longer than twenty years. There were only twenty-one years between the World Wars (1918 to 1939) and only twelve years between the Gulf War (ended 1991) and the Iraq War (began 2003).\n\nI can try to include better sources if asked, but I don't think anything I've said here is controversial. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24439076", "title": "Women in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 566, "text": "Regionally and across the time span of the Middle Ages, marriage could be formed differently. Marriage could be proclaimed in secret by the mutually consenting couple, or arranged between families as long as the man and woman were not forced and consented freely; but by the 12th century in western canon law, consent (whether in mutual secrecy or in a public sphere) between the couple was imperative. Marriages confirmed in secrecy were seen as problematic in the legal sphere due to spouses redacting and denying that the marriage was solidified and consummated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "395673", "title": "Marriage in the Catholic Church", "section": "Section::::History of marriage in the Catholic Church.:Medieval period.:Liturgical practice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1302, "text": "Thus, with few local exceptions, until in some cases long after the Council of Trent, marriages in Europe were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties. The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required. This promise was known as the \"verbum.\" If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., \"I marry you\"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense (\"I will marry you\"), it would constitute a betrothal. One of the functions of churches from the Middle Ages was to register marriages, which was not obligatory. There was no state involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts. During the Middle Ages marriages were arranged, sometimes as early as birth, and these early pledges to marry were often used to ensure treaties between different royal families, nobles, and heirs of fiefdoms. The church resisted these imposed unions, and increased the number of causes for nullification of these arrangements. As Christianity spread during the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the idea of free choice in selecting marriage partners increased and spread with it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26503411", "title": "Arranged marriage", "section": "Section::::Causes and prevalence.:Politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 481, "text": "Arranged marriages across feudal lords, city states and kingdoms, as a means of establishing political alliances, trade and peace were common in human history. When a king married his son to a neighboring state's daughter, it indicated an alliance among equals, and signaled the former's state superiority. For example, the fourth daughter of Maria Theresa, Queen of Austria-Hungary, Marie Antoinette, married the dauphin (crown prince) of France, who would become King Louis XVI.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4609694", "title": "Royal intermarriage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 969, "text": "In Europe, the practice was most prevalent from the medieval era until the outbreak of World War I, but evidence of intermarriage between royal dynasties in other parts of the world can be found as far back as the Late Bronze Age. Monarchs were often in pursuit of national and international aggrandisement on behalf of themselves and their dynasties, thus bonds of kinship tended to promote or restrain aggression. Marriage between dynasties could serve to initiate, reinforce or guarantee peace between nations. Alternatively, kinship by marriage could secure an alliance between two dynasties which sought to reduce the sense of threat from or to initiate aggression against the realm of a third dynasty. It could also enhance the prospect of territorial acquisition for a dynasty by procuring legal claim to a foreign throne, or portions of its realm (e.g., colonies), through inheritance from an heiress whenever a monarch failed to leave an undisputed male heir.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26368", "title": "Richard I of England", "section": "Section::::Early life and accession in Aquitaine.:Childhood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 815, "text": "Marriage alliances were common among medieval royalty: they led to political alliances and peace treaties and allowed families to stake claims of succession on each other's lands. In March 1159 it was arranged that Richard would marry one of the daughters of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona; however, these arrangements failed, and the marriage never took place. Henry the Young King was married to Margaret, daughter of Louis VII of France, on 2 November 1160. Despite this alliance between the Plantagenets and the Capetians, the dynasty on the French throne, the two houses were sometimes in conflict. In 1168, the intercession of Pope Alexander III was necessary to secure a truce between them. Henry II had conquered Brittany and taken control of and the Vexin, which had been part of Margaret's dowry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19728", "title": "Marriage", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 285, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 285, "end_character": 551, "text": "With few local exceptions, until 1545, Christian marriages in Europe were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties. The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required. This promise was known as the \"verbum.\" If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., \"I marry you\"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense (\"I will marry you\"), it would constitute a betrothal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177428", "title": "Wife", "section": "Section::::Differences in cultures.:Western cultures.:Historical status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 752, "text": "In pre-modern times, it was unusual to marry for love alone, although it became an ideal in literature by the early modern period. In the 12th century, the Roman Catholic Church drastically changed legal standards for marital consent by allowing daughters over 12 and sons over 14 to marry without their parents' approval, even if their marriage was made clandestinely. Parish studies have confirmed that late medieval women did sometimes marry against their parents' approval. The Roman Catholic Church's policy of considering clandestine marriages and marriages made without parental consent to be valid was controversial, and in the 16th century both the French monarchy and the Lutheran church sought to end these practices, with limited success. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I gave a relatively brief answer to this [here](_URL_0_), focusing more on the Germans (for whom I had a relevant source handy). If I get the chance later today, I'll try and expand on it!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34925553", "title": "Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 521, "text": "The Yugoslav volunteers in the Spanish Civil War, known as Spanish fighters (, , / \"Španski borci\") and Yugoslav brigadistas (), was a contingent of volunteers from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that fought beside the Republican side (in support of the Second Spanish Republic) in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). An estimated 1,664 \"Yugoslav brigadistas\" fought in the war, out of whom c. 800 were killed in action. According to the Spanish statistics, 148 Yugoslav volunteers received the officer rank during the conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49850668", "title": "Karel Dufek", "section": "Section::::Later life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 282, "text": "In connection with the 70th anniversary of the Spanish Civil War, Dufek and two other surviving Czech volunteers of the International Brigades were personally received by the Czech Minister of Defence Karel Kühnl and thanked for their contributions in the struggle against fascism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10962621", "title": "Kurt Julius Goldstein", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 306, "text": "A year later, the Spanish Civil War erupted and many German Communists volunteered to fight. Goldstein soon joined them. When the Second Spanish Republic collapsed in early 1939, Goldstein escaped across the border into France. As return to Germany was impossible, he was interned and held in Camp Vernet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10685061", "title": "International Brigades order of battle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 594, "text": "The International Brigades (IB) were volunteer military units of foreigners who fought on the side of the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War. The number of combatant volunteers has been estimated at between 32,000–35,000, though with no more than about 20,000 active at any one time. A further 10,000 people probably participated in non-combatant roles and about 3,000–5,000 foreigners were members of CNT or POUM. They came from a claimed \"53 nations\" to fight against the Spanish Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and assisted by German and Italian forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201699", "title": "Regia Aeronautica", "section": "Section::::History.:Spanish Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 505, "text": "During the Spanish Civil War Italian pilots fought alongside Spanish Nationalist and German Luftwaffe pilots as members of the \"Aviazione Legionaria\" (\"Aviation Legion\"). This deployment took place from July 1936 to March 1939 and complemented an expeditionary force of Italian ground troops titled \"Corps of Volunteer Troops\". In Spain, the Italian pilots were under direct command of the Spanish Nationalists and took part in training and joint operations with the pilots of the German \"Condor Legion\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15296684", "title": "Flechas Negras Mixed Brigade", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 349, "text": "In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Italians from the Corpo Truppe Volontarie began to serve in mixed Italo-Spanish Flechas (Arrows) units where the Italians provided the officers and technical personnel, while the Spanish served in the rank-and-file. One, the Flechas Negras Mixed Brigade \"Black Arrows\" first served in Vizcaya from April 1937.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23108273", "title": "Five Cartridges", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 529, "text": "During the Spanish Civil War, a battalion of the International Brigades is cut off without water or ammunition. The commander, Major Bolaños, requests his commissar, the German Heinrich Witting, to select five volunteers who will remain in the trenches and hold off the enemy, while the battalion retreats across the Ebro River. Witting chooses the Frenchman Pierre, the German Willi, the Pole Oleg, the Spaniard José and the Bulgarian Dimitri. In addition, the Soviet radio operator Vasia stays behind to handle communications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The desert people of the American Southwest generally understood the concept of oceans as not being fundamentally different from a large lake or stream. Among the [recorded] creation myths of the O'odham peoples, at least two contain gods or demigods turning small rivers into vast oceans, splitting apart the original peoples of the Earth, although the survival of remote peoples is left ambiguous. One of these stories later goes on to discuss the people who survived the flood on the other side of the ocean, who were conveniently white-skinned. Another passage from the same source states that another group of people over the ocean were in fact dark brown. Both of these groups were the result of mistakes in creation, after which the perfectly colored Hohokam groups were created. As prophetic as these may sound, our one source of these tales was recorded from a drunkard by a priest in the 1930s. Given that it is the only semi-complete history of the O'odham remaining today, we have no means to determine how far back the individual elements go. \n\nAmong the Hopi and other Puebloan peoples, we have an understanding that the oceans were not the complete end of land. At the very least they understood that people lived in the islands off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts from trade with groups living nearer to the sea. \n\nBoth groups had an accurate understanding of the geography of their continent between the oceans and an understanding that humans could live on the water as their neighbors did. It's not impossible that they conceived of other lands similar to their own across the water, which was understood to be similar to a large river or lake. The stories we have hint at this understanding, but the near-complete absence of historical records about the O'odham and Yuman people make that suggestion speculative at best. The situation among the Puebloans is little better. While they clearly understood the concept of sailing quite well, the myths make scarce mention of foreign lands that would not have been visible from shore.\n\nBahr, Donald M., et al. *The short, swift time of gods on earth: The Hohokam chronicles.* Univ of California Press, 1994.\n\nCourlander, Harold, ed. *The fourth world of the Hopis.* UNM Press, 1971.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32759787", "title": "Exploration of the Pacific", "section": "Section::::European exploration.:Iberian pioneers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 821, "text": "The Pacific recognized: Europeans knew that there was a vast ocean to the west, and the Chinese knew that there was one to the east. Learned Europeans thought that the world was round and that the two oceans were one. In 1492 Columbus sailed west to what he thought was Asia. When Pedro Álvares Cabral, en route to Asia via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans, reached Brazil, in 1500, the true extent of the Americas began to become known. The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans. This guess was confirmed in 1513 when Balboa crossed Panama and found salt water. The Magellan expedition of 1519-22 proved that there was one continuous ocean from the Americas to Asia. The Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2393552", "title": "New World", "section": "Section::::Origin of term.:Cartographic representation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 729, "text": "The western coast of the New World – the Pacific Ocean – was only discovered in 1513 by Vasco Núñez de Balboa. But it would take a few more years – Ferdinand Magellan's voyage of 1519–22 – to determine that the Pacific definitely formed a single large body of water separating Asia from the Americas. It would be several more years before the Pacific Coast of North America was mapped, dispelling lingering doubts. Until the discovery of the Bering Straits in the 17th century, there was no absolute confirmation that Asia and North America were not connected, and some European maps of the 16th century still continued to hopefully depict North America connected by a land bridge to Asia (e.g. the 1533 Johannes Schöner globe).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60101743", "title": "Pre-1939 South Pacific cyclone seasons", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 828, "text": "Ancient Polynesians and others who inhabited the tropical Pacific before the Europeans arrived, knew of and feared the hurricanes of the South Pacific. They were keen and accurate observers of nature and developed various myths and legends, which reflected their knowledge of these systems. For example, the people of Mangaia in the Cook Islands had over 30 different names for the wind direction including Maoaketa, which indicated that a cyclonic storm existed to the west of the island. During the 1700s, Captain James Cook conducted three voyages within the Pacific Ocean and it is thought that he didn't collect any information about or experience any tropical cyclones. European's that followed Cook soon realised that the South Pacific was not free of hurricanes and were the first to publish accounts about the systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4522556", "title": "Waldseemüller map", "section": "Section::::Wall map.:Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 866, "text": "Apparently among most map-makers until that time, it was still erroneously believed that the lands discovered by Christopher Columbus, Vespucci, and others formed part of the Indies of Asia. Thus some believe that it is impossible that Waldseemüller could have known about the Pacific, which is depicted on his map. The historian Peter Whitfield has theorized that Waldseemüller incorporated the ocean into his map because Vespucci's accounts of the Americas, with their so-called \"savage\" peoples, could not be reconciled with contemporary knowledge of India, China, and the islands of Indies. Thus, in the view of Whitfield, Waldseemüller reasoned that the newly discovered lands could not be part of Asia, but must be separate from it, a leap of intuition that was later proved uncannily precise. An alternative explanation is that of George E. Nunn (see below).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2010881", "title": "Southern California Bight", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 676, "text": "In 1513, there were an estimated 700,000 Native Americans living in the region making it the most populated area of North America. In 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo of Spain and his crew were the first European explorers to land on this coastal region in the present day San Diego Bay. The first permanent European settlers of the Southern California Bight led by Juan Pérez arrived in 1769 on the San Antonio. The Spanish government had planned a three-part occupation plan to check the Russian’s settlement in Alta California. The Chumash Indian tribe occupied the coastal region of Southern California for thousands of years prior to the arrival of international explorers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32759787", "title": "Exploration of the Pacific", "section": "Section::::European exploration.:Iberian pioneers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 758, "text": "Spanish explorer Balboa was the first European to sight the Pacific from America in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached a new ocean. He named it \"Mar del Sur\" (literally, \"Sea of the South\" or \"South Sea\") because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian (\"Spanish\") expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519. Magellan called the ocean \"Pacífico\" (or \"Pacific\" meaning, \"peaceful\") because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the \"Sea of Magellan\" in his honor until the eighteenth century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2564087", "title": "Sublimis Deus", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 340, "text": "With the realization that the Americas represented regions of the Earth of which the Europeans were not aware earlier, there arose intense speculation over the question whether the natives of these lands were true humans or not. Together with that went a debate over the (mis)treatment of these natives by the Conquistadores and colonists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Is it possible that in the distant future, an organism that exists right now on Earth, will evolve to the point that it can be considered intelligent life?\n\nYes, it's possible, but by no means is it a sure thing. Evolution doesn't have a goal in mind, nor does it have specific end points that are inherently better than others. Evolution adapts to the environment, and what works works, what doesn't dies off.\n > Which animal comes the closest?\n\nWe have a difficult time defining intelligence *within our own species*. The difficulty goes up astronomically when you look at other species.\n\nAre you talking about technic intelligence? It's unlikely anything in the ocean will ever develop technology (at least, as far as we can tell - without fire lots of tools are going to be difficult to make).\n\nSocial intelligence? Well, insects seem to have a big advantage there... but they're probably a ways off on the tool front.\n\netc, etc, etc.\n\n\nYou see the difficulties? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Evolution is not directed.\n\nWe can't answer this without speculation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11579", "title": "Fermi paradox", "section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:No other intelligent species have arisen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 379, "text": "It is possible that even if complex life is common, intelligence (and consequently civilizations) is not. While there are remote sensing techniques that could perhaps detect life-bearing planets without relying on the signs of technology, none of them has any ability to tell if any detected life is intelligent. This is sometimes referred to as the \"algae vs. alumnae\" problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9588", "title": "Extraterrestrial life", "section": "Section::::General.:Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 913, "text": "A study published in 2017 suggests that due to how complexity evolved in species on Earth, the level of predictability for alien evolution elsewhere would make them look similar to life on our planet. One of the study authors, Sam Levin, notes \"Like humans, we predict that they are made-up of a hierarchy of entities, which all cooperate to produce an alien. At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning. We can even offer some examples of what these mechanisms will be.\" There is also research in assessing the capacity of life for developing intelligence. It has been suggested that this capacity arises with the number of potential niches a planet contains, and that the complexity of life itself is reflected in the information density of planetary environments, which in turn can be computed from its niches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6384129", "title": "Mundane science fiction", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 514, "text": "Scientists have not uncovered any evidence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. Although absence of evidence is not necessarily evidence of absence, Mundane science fiction writers believe it's unlikely that alien intelligence will overcome the physical constraints on interstellar travel any better than we can. As such, Mundane science fiction writers imagine a future on Earth and within the solar system and believe it's highly unlikely that intelligent life survives elsewhere in this solar system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8787159", "title": "Objections to evolution", "section": "Section::::Plausibility.:Improbability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 1119, "text": "A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life, in its complexity and apparent \"design,\" to have arisen \"by chance.\" It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so astronomically low that it is unreasonable \"not\" to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world, and specifically from the diversity of life. A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures (see the Creation of complex structures section below). The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the \"probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane, sweeping through a scrapyard, would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747\"—a claim attributed to astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and known as Hoyle's fallacy. Hoyle was a Darwinist, atheist and anti-theist, but advocated the theory of panspermia, in which abiogenesis begins in outer space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1347945", "title": "Great Filter", "section": "Section::::Counterarguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 487, "text": "There are many alternative scenarios that might allow for the evolution of intelligent life to occur multiple times without either catastrophic self-destruction or glaringly visible evidence. These are possible resolutions to the Fermi paradox: \"They do exist, but we see no evidence\". Other ideas include: it is too expensive to spread physically throughout the galaxy; Earth is purposefully isolated; it is dangerous to communicate and hence civilizations actively hide, among others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "827792", "title": "Rare Earth hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:The hypothesis appears anthropocentric.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 313, "text": "The hypothesis concludes, more or less, that complex life is rare because it can evolve only on the surface of an Earth-like planet or on a suitable satellite of a planet. Some biologists, such as Jack Cohen, believe this assumption too restrictive and unimaginative; they see it as a form of circular reasoning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11579", "title": "Fermi paradox", "section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:Extraterrestrial life is rare or non-existent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 383, "text": "Those who think that intelligent extraterrestrial life is (nearly) impossible argue that the conditions needed for the evolution of life—or at least the evolution of biological complexity—are rare or even unique to Earth. Under this assumption, called the rare Earth hypothesis, a rejection of the mediocrity principle, complex multicellular life is regarded as exceedingly unusual.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well this is fun, we literally just covered this kind of stuff in my advanced molecular biology course.\n\nYour genome will contain variation depending on genetics that has been passed down from your parents. You may be homozygous for 11 copies of a short-tandem repeat (STR, 2-3 'letters' repeated over and over again in the sequence) where I will be heterozygous for 13 and 8 copies. Your \"DNA fingerprint\" that the FBI uses involves these regions, when the areas that contain them are amplified by PCR, they show up as different lengths.\n\nFurthermore, there are single-nucleotide-polymorphisms (SNPs) where you may have an A where I have a C (or C-A or T-G or T-A...you get the point). There are also \"indels\" - insersions or deletions relative to one genomre or another. These can serve as markers for disease or other traits, especially if they occur in protein coding genes. There are a very very large number of these variations, and I could predict (not even close to 100% certainty, though) some traits about you as well as heritable diseases you may carry. The debate on nature/nurture is how certain could I be given your genotype?\n\n[This database](_URL_0_) is called Online Mendellian Inheritance in Man and catalogs diseases/traits and contains a *wealth* of SNP and indel data about them. Doing some mining, you can find tables like [these](_URL_1_) that will list all known variants for a gene and link to more information about them. This example is the Von Willebrands Factor, mutations of which cause Von Willebrands Disease which is a mild bleeding disorder. I don't know your background, but this site contains a lot of very technical information.\n\nYou may have heard of [23andMe](_URL_2_) which is a commercial service that will assay your genome for specific markers as well.\n\nEDIT: If your family has submitted their genomes to a database as well, we could ID them as well", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15993881", "title": "1000 Genomes Project", "section": "Section::::Project description.:Outline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 378, "text": "Over the course of the next three years, scientists at the Sanger Institute, BGI Shenzhen and the National Human Genome Research Institute’s Large-Scale Sequencing Network are planning to sequence a minimum of 1,000 human genomes. Due to the large amount of sequence data that need to be generated and analyzed it is possible that other participants may be recruited over time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2039930", "title": "Ensembl genome database project", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 558, "text": "The human genome consists of three billion base pairs, which code for approximately 20,000–25,000 genes. However the genome alone is of little use, unless the locations and relationships of individual genes can be identified. One option is manual annotation, whereby a team of scientists tries to locate genes using experimental data from scientific journals and public databases. However this is a slow, painstaking task. The alternative, known as automated annotation, is to use the power of computers to do the complex pattern-matching of protein to DNA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10727258", "title": "Garvan Institute of Medical Research", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 344, "text": "In 2014 the Institute became one of only three organisations in the world – and the only one outside the United States – able to sequence the human genome at a base cost below 1,000 each (the $1,000 genome) when it purchased the next generation of genome sequencing equipment, which is capable of sequencing 350 genomes a week (18,000 a year).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55251966", "title": "DNA encryption", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1227, "text": " In 2003, the National Human Genome Research Institute and its affiliated partners successfully sequenced the first whole human genome, a project that took just under $3 billion to complete. Four years later, James Watson – one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA – was able to sequence his genome for less than $1.5 million. As genetic sequencing technologies have proliferated, streamlined and become adapted to clinical means, they can now provide incredible insight into individual genetic identities at a much lower cost, with biotech competitors vying for the title of the $1,000 genome. Genetic material can now be extracted from a person's saliva, hair, skin, blood, or other sources, sequenced, digitized, stored, and used for numerous purposes. Whenever data is digitized and stored, there is the possibility of privacy breaches. While modern whole genome sequencing technology has allowed for unprecedented access and understanding of the human genome, and excitement for the potentialities of personalized medicine, it has also generated serious conversation about the ethics and privacy risks that accompany this process of uncovering an individual's essential instructions of being: their DNA sequence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22364466", "title": "Timeline of United States discoveries", "section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 337, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 337, "end_character": 813, "text": "BULLET::::- The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs. Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. While working at the National Institute of Health, Craig Venter discovered a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags. Through his scientific research of bringing the world one step closer to personalized medicine, Craig Venter was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15993881", "title": "1000 Genomes Project", "section": "Section::::Project description.:Outline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 317, "text": "The human genome consists of approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs and is estimated to carry around 20,000 protein coding genes. In designing the study the consortium needed to address several critical issues regarding the project metrics such as technology challenges, data quality standards and sequence coverage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18403497", "title": "Gene Wiki", "section": "Section::::Project goals and scope.:Number of gene articles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 547, "text": "The human genome contains an estimated 20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes. The goal of the Gene Wiki project is to create seed articles for every human gene, that is, every gene whose function has been assigned in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. Approximately half of human genes have assigned function, therefore the total number of articles seeded by the Gene Wiki project would be expected to be in the range of 10,000–15,000. To date, approximately 11,000 articles have been created or augmented to include Gene Wiki project content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hispanic is not a race. It's an ethnicity. There are white Hispanics, black Hispanics, Native American Hispanics, and even Asian Hispanics.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "White is an ever shifting definition. It wasn't that long ago that Irish, Italians, Eastern Europeans and Jews weren't considered white.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nothing about racial categories makes sense, and that's because race is a social, not biological construct.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Latinos/Hispanics (technically different but let's stay out of the weeds for this) are a label applied to a group that look incredibly different because it's defined as being descended from a Spanish speaking country, countries that aren't necessarily near or historically like each other.\n\nPeople from the Dominican Republic and Mexico tend to look very different for instance. Cameron Diaz, Jessica Alba, Rosario Dawson and Zoe Saldana are all Latina actresses, yet look different. Diaz has pale skin with blue eyes while Zoe Saldana would be classified as black by pretty much everyone in the U.S. despite being Puerto Rican. So, technically, the \"white\" Cameron Diaz and the \"black\" Zoe Saldana are the same ethnicity.\n\nThis is because the concept of people descended fromspanish-speaking places being the same group was made up [very recently](_URL_0_). \"Hispanic\" wasn't on U.S. forms until the 70s. The 1970s. That recently in the past.\n\nBasically, \"Hispanics\" are the group that really show just how silly the idea of race/ethnicity is. It's completely made up and it happened so recently we have documents that prove it. Yet, for some reason, we forget about this when talking about other groups who happen to have a longer history of being labeled as a group.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What if you thought of everyone from English speaking countries as a group...let's say Hugh Jackman, Bob Marley, and Narendra ModI (Prime Minister of India)...you could say that they're all Anglos...but they're not the same race.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You'll never get the right answer for this, because apparently there isn't one. There's always conflicts between who is and who isn't Latino. Also the word Hispanic gets a lot of incorrect definitions", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You seem to be misunderstanding how the US Census Hispanic and White categories work. Have a look at [the race and ethnicity questions in the US Census](_URL_5_). You'll note that they ask two independent questions of each person that is reported in the form:\n\n* Is this person of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?\n* What is this person's race?\n\nThe first is a yes/no question, but the \"Yes\" options include choices for various Hispanic nationality groups (Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, write-in). The second is a multiple-choice question—you can pick more than one choice—and also has a write-in option. People can fill in any combination of answers to those two questions, and the statistics count all the combinations. \n\nSo you can answer \"Yes\" to the Hispanic question and \"White\" to the race question—or \"Yes\" to Hispanic and \"Black\" to race, \"Yes/Native American,\" \"Yes/Asian,\" \"Yes/White+Black,\" etc. And none of those is an unusual answer! Watch these videos to understand why:\n\n* _URL_1_\n* _URL_3_\n* _URL_6_\n* _URL_0_\n* _URL_7_\n* _URL_4_\n* _URL_2_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hispanic = from a Spanish speaking country. There are white, black, asian, and native peoples who originate from the many spanish speaking countries. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone help me out here. So all 4 of my grandparents were born in mexico. My maternal grandmother definitely had indigenous blood in her which was evident when you saw her. Same for my grandfather. I think my paternal grandmother might have been half german. My ethnicity is hispanic, but what would be my race? I always check the \"other\" box on documents and write mexican american. I don't look white, black, or native american. I look mexican. Wtf is my race?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Historically blacks and Hispanics follow the one-drop rule i.e if you have a drop of black blood you are black, a drop of Hispanic blood and you are Hispanic. The Hispanic race is from Spain a subset of white people, many Hispanics are mixed with Native American people. Objectively the classifications don't really make any sense.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "as a person not from the US I was initially baffled that you guys didn't consider hispanics white", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So that \"white\" can continue being the majority. Nothing like changing socially constructed definitions so you can keep oppressing people. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What exactly is \"Hispanic\" and do Americans consider Spanish people to be non-white?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Former Census worker and anthropology geek here. Hispanic is NOT a race like white, black, Asian, etc.. It is a cultural definition. You can be a Hispanic and be of any race. The majority of Hispanics are mixed race anyways. Also, a large number of Hispanics consider themselves white and put that as their race on the Census.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live in a country where race and ethnicity isn't registered anywhere.\n\nIs there any discussion about just do away with this categorization completely in the US? It's seems to be mostly confusing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2016458", "title": "Majority minority", "section": "Section::::United States.:Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 688, "text": "In January 2016, CUNY sociologist Richard Alba wrote an article in the American Prospect arguing that the way in which majority-minority calculations are made by the Census are misleading. Anyone with any Hispanic, Asian, or Black ancestry is seen as non-white, even if they also have white ancestry. Alba argues that the incomes, marriage patterns, and identities of people of who are mixed Hispanic-white and Asian-white are closer to those of white people than monoracial Hispanics or Asians. Thus, when the Census says that non-Hispanic whites are projected to be less than 50% of the population by the 2040s, people of mixed-race ancestry are improperly excluded from that category.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70197", "title": "Demography of the United States", "section": "Section::::Race and ethnicity.:Race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 539, "text": "Data about race and ethnicity are self-reported to the Census Bureau. Since the 2000 census, Congress has authorized people to identify themselves according to more than one racial classification by selecting more than one category. Only one ethnicity may be selected, however, because the U.S. Census recognizes only two ethnicities—Hispanic and Non-Hispanic—which are mutually exclusive since you can be one or the other, but not both. The Census Bureau defines \"Hispanic\" as any person who has an ancestral connection to Latin America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3058522", "title": "Race and ethnicity in the United States", "section": "Section::::Racial makeup of the U.S. population.:Members of other races.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 575, "text": "Due to this category's non-standard status, statistics from government agencies other than the Census Bureau (for example: the Centers for Disease Control's data on vital statistics, or the FBI's crime statistics), but also the Bureau's own official Population Estimates, omit the \"some other race\" category and include most of the people in this group in the white population, thus including the vast majority (about 90%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the white population. For an example of this, see The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2156133", "title": "Hyperdescent", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Latin America.:Hispanic America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 425, "text": "About 41.2% of U.S. Hispanics identify as \"Some other race\" as of 2006, but government agencies which do not recognize \"Some other race\" (such as the FBI, the CDC, and the NCHS) include this group, and therefore over 90% of Hispanics, within the white population. In such cases, such as with the NCHS, separate statistics are often kept for \"White\" (which includes whites and over 90% of Hispanics) and \"non-Hispanic white\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24849513", "title": "Non-Hispanic whites", "section": "Section::::Population stagnation and decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1159, "text": "3. Methodology. In the 2000 Census, people were allowed to check more than one race in addition to choosing \"Hispanic.\" There was strong opposition to this from some civil rights activists who feared that this would reduce the size of various racial minorities. The government responded by counting those who are white and of one minority race or ethnicity as minorities for the purposes of civil-rights monitoring and enforcement. Hence one could be 1/8th black and still be counted as a minority. Also, because this does not apply to Hispanic origin (one is either Hispanic or not, but cannot be both Hispanic \"and\" non-Hispanic), the offspring of Hispanics and non-Hispanics are usually counted as Hispanic. In 2017, the Pew Research Center reported that high intermarriage rates and declining Latin American immigration has led to 11% of U.S. adults with Hispanic ancestry (5.0 million people) to no longer identify as Hispanic. First generation immigrants from Spain and Latin America identify as Hispanic at very high rates (97%) which reduces in each succeeding generation, second generation (92%), third generation (77%), and fourth generation (50%).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15144359", "title": "Black Hispanic and Latino Americans", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 540, "text": "Hispanicity, which is independent of race, is the only \"ethnic\" category, as opposed to racial category, which is officially collated by the U.S. Census Bureau. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of any official race category, including \"Black\", is between those who report Hispanic backgrounds and all others who do not. \"Non-Hispanic Blacks\" consists of an ethnically diverse collection of all others who are classified as Black or African American that do not report Hispanic ethnic backgrounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92408", "title": "Pasadena, California", "section": "Section::::Notes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 173, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 173, "end_character": 210, "text": "The number of people counted statistically in demographics will sometimes exceed 100% because some Hispanics and Latinos identify as both White and Hispanic. See Race and ethnicity in the United States Census.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**NOTE**: I am not a medical doctor, and this is not a diagnosis; just the best attempt I can at explaining it.\n\nIt's likely caused by the gel inside of his eyes rubbing on or pulling at the retina. If he stood up after a car ride, it can cause a change in blood pressure as well, which would lead to less oxygen going to the brain and some experience flashes of light along with a narrowing of the field of vision.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24521594", "title": "Causes of seizures", "section": "Section::::Vision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 657, "text": "In some epileptics, flickering or flashing lights, such as strobe lights, can be responsible for the onset of a tonic clonic, absence, or myoclonic seizure. This condition is known as photosensitive epilepsy and, in some cases, the seizures can be triggered by activities that are harmless to others, such as watching television or playing video games, or by driving or riding during daylight along a road with spaced trees, thereby simulating the \"flashing light\" effect. Some people can suffer a seizure as a result of blinking one's own eyes. Contrary to popular belief, this form of epilepsy is relatively uncommon, accounting for just 3% of all cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2843559", "title": "Emergency vehicle lighting", "section": "Section::::Scientific research.:Potential hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 636, "text": "BULLET::::- Photosensitive epilepsy - This is an epileptic reaction to flashing lights in susceptible persons, which can range in severity from an unusual feeling or involuntary twitch to a generalized seizure. This epileptogenic response can be triggered by lights flashing in the frequency range of 10–20 Hz, regardless of color. While individual light sources used on emergency vehicles generally have much lower flash rates than this, the Loughborough study suggests that such possibilities be minimized. It also notes that emergency workers may report distraction and eyestrain unrelated to epilepsy from working under the lights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1245254", "title": "Mind machine", "section": "Section::::Other information.:Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 269, "text": "Rapidly flashing lights may be dangerous for people with photosensitive epilepsy or other nervous disorders. It is thought that one out of 10,000 adults will experience a seizure while viewing such a device; about twice as many children will have a similar ill effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5963247", "title": "ZX Spectrum graphic modes", "section": "Section::::3colour / Multichrome / RGB-3 / Interchrome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 259, "text": "This effect is simulated in another image linked to (\"warning\": the linked image flashes colours very rapidly, which could potentially cause seizures in people with photosensitive epilepsy); the flashing is less noticeable when viewed on a television screen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6922153", "title": "Flash blindness", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 335, "text": "Flash blindness is caused by bleaching (oversaturation) of the retinal pigment. As the pigment returns to normal, so too does sight. In daylight the eye's pupil constricts, thus reducing the amount of light entering after a flash. At night, the dark-adapted pupil is wide open so flash blindness has a greater effect and lasts longer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7864043", "title": "Flicker vertigo", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 497, "text": "Flicker vertigo, sometimes called the Bucha effect, is \"an imbalance in brain-cell activity caused by exposure to low-frequency flickering (or flashing) of a relatively bright light.\" It is a disorientation-, vertigo-, and nausea-inducing effect of a strobe light flashing at 1 Hz to 20 Hz, approximately the frequency of human brainwaves. The effects are similar to seizures caused by epilepsy (in particular photosensitive epilepsy), but are not restricted to people with histories of epilepsy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "299593", "title": "Strobe light", "section": "Section::::Strobe lights and epilepsy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 660, "text": "Sometimes strobe lighting can trigger seizures in photosensitive epilepsy. An infamous event took place in 1997 in Japan when an episode of the Pokémon anime, \"Dennō Senshi Porygon\" (commonly translated as \"Electric Soldier Porygon\"), featured a scene that depicted a huge explosion using flashing red and blue lights, causing about 685 of the viewing children to be sent to hospitals. These flashes were extremely bright strobe lights. They involved multiple colors with a strobe effect at about 12 Hz. Although 95% of the 685 just complained of dizziness, some were hospitalized. Organizers later said that they did not know about the threshold of strobing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on the severity of the accident compared to the severity of the call they're en route to. If they see a horrible car wreck, and they're on a call for a broken bone, they'll stop for the wreck and radio in to let the dispatcher know to send out a new ambulance for the initial call. However, if they were on their way to a heart attack victim, they'll likely radio in and request a new ambulance for the wreck.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Paramedic here.\n\nWe stop, have a short look and call dispatch. Ultimately, until we reach the patient it's their call so they set the priorities in such a situation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26048342", "title": "Refusal of medical assistance", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 776, "text": "The refusal of medical assistance, or RMA, ensures the continuum of care that ambulance squads have a responsibility towards. In a typical emergency call, the ambulance service will assess and transport the patient to an appropriate facility. The ambulance squad's duty towards the patient begins with patient contact and generally ends with transfer to the emergency department of the receiving hospital. The call can terminate in other ways; for example an ambulance service may cancel their own services if the patient becomes violent (scene safety), if they are canceled by on-scene personnel (such as the police or, in the case of a MICU service, the on-scene BLS EMT), or at the discretion of the dispatcher (if another ambulance is better positioned to take the call).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146317", "title": "Ambulance", "section": "Section::::Appearance and markings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 991, "text": "Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in hazardous situations, including incidents such as a road traffic collision, as these emergencies create people who are likely to be in need of treatment. They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as possible, and in many countries, are given dispensation from obeying certain traffic laws. For instance, they may be able to treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield sign ('give way'), or be permitted to break the speed limit. Generally, the priority of the response to the call will be assigned by the dispatcher, but the priority of the return will be decided by the ambulance crew based on the severity of the patient's illness or injury. Patients in significant danger to life and limb (as determined by triage) require urgent treatment by advanced medical personnel, and because of this need, emergency ambulances are often fitted with passive and active visual and/or audible warnings to alert road users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2044733", "title": "Duty to rescue", "section": "Section::::Civil law system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 611, "text": "This can mean that anyone who finds someone in need of medical help must take all reasonable steps to seek medical care and render best-effort first aid. Commonly, the situation arises on an event of a traffic accident: other drivers and passers-by must take an action to help the injured without regard to possible personal reasons not to help (e.g. having no time, being in a hurry) or ascertain that help has been requested from officials. In practice however, almost all cases of compulsory rescue simply require the rescuer to alert the relevant entity (police, fire brigade, ambulance) with a phone call.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14934121", "title": "Community first responder", "section": "Section::::Operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 827, "text": "In general, first responders are sent to immediately life-threatening situations such as cardiac arrest. Some ambulance services restrict the type of calls which responders can attend, either through blanket prohibition or by more detailed call screening by the emergency dispatch centre. This is because responders do not necessarily have the levels of training or equipment available to full-time staff, and may arrive on their own, increasing risks. Types of call which responders may not be asked to attend (or be stood down if already en route) include drugs related problems, domestic violence and abusive patients as well as dangerous scenes such as traffic collisions or building sites. In some areas, responders are also not dispatched to paediatric cases, although other areas have this as a main part of their role.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10780998", "title": "ETHANE", "section": "Section::::Definition and process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 388, "text": "In the event of this being used for a major incident, the reporting first on scene officer would not usually get involved with the rescue work, but act as a co-ordinator on scene for arriving emergency vehicles. This may be achieved by the first vehicle on scene leaving its lightbar running, whilst all others turn theirs off on arrival, to make identifying the incident officer easier.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11838315", "title": "Tram accident", "section": "Section::::Rescue tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 470, "text": "After the patients have been treated and transported, police inquiries may take place. After a full inspection, the vehicles involved may be allowed to be removed from the scene. In severe accidents, special traffic or accident investigation boards may analyze the accident and its consequences, and give recommendations to improve safety in traffic. After the accident, the accident scene should be cleaned. The tram, the tracks and the overhead lines may need repair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30066996", "title": "Healthcare in Belgium", "section": "Section::::Organisation of Care.:Emergency services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 544, "text": "Calling an ambulance is not a free service. The ambulance will bring the patient to the nearest hospital. An ambulance is manned by two people - a driver and a paramedic. Depending on the medical condition, a Medical Emergency Response vehicle may be dispatched. That is manned by three people - a driver, an ER-doctor and a senior ER-nurse. The ER-doctor will choose the nearest appropriate hospital that has the necessary facilities based on the patient's symptoms and condition, or a hospital in which the patient is under active treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sure, if you've never experienced true binocularity (brain fusing each eye's image into one that is 3D), you might not realize you don't have it. It's possible to develop that skill so long as both eyes are physically intact and functional and so is your brain. Neuroscience ftw!\n\n A book that discusses this is \"Stereo Sue\" by Sue Barry about a lady scientist who didn't realize that very thing she was in her 50s and was able to regain it. It's an interesting story! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "302794", "title": "Depth perception", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 437, "text": "Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions (3D) and the distance of an object. Depth sensation is the corresponding term for animals, since although it is known that animals can sense the distance of an object (because of their ability to move accurately, or to respond consistently, according to that distance), it is not known whether they \"perceive\" it in the same subjective way that humans do.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531432", "title": "Autostereogram", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms for viewing.:3D perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 295, "text": "Depth perception results from many monocular and binocular visual clues. For objects relatively close to the eyes, binocular vision plays an important role in depth perception. Binocular vision allows the brain to create a single Cyclopean image and to attach a depth level to each point in it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4163064", "title": "Glossary of machine vision", "section": "Section::::D.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::- Depth perception. DP is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions. It is a trait common to many higher animals. Depth perception allows the beholder to accurately gauge the distance to an object.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302794", "title": "Depth perception", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 557, "text": "Depth perception arises from a variety of depth cues. These are typically classified into binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye. Binocular cues include stereopsis, eye convergence, disparity, and yielding depth from binocular vision through exploitation of parallax. Monocular cues include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201460", "title": "Stereoscopy", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 635, "text": "Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three-dimensional depth from given two-dimensional images. Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process, which only begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing ensues within the brain, as it strives to make sense of the raw information. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, and the depth dimension of those objects. The \"cues\" that the brain uses to gauge relative distances and depth in a perceived scene include\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18685654", "title": "Infant cognitive development", "section": "Section::::The development of mental processes.:Perception.:Depth perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 665, "text": "The acquisition of depth perception and its development in infant cognitive systems was researched by Richard D. Walk. Walk found that human infants is able to discriminate depth well from an \"innate learned\" point of view, they are able to discriminate depth from the age at which they can be tested. However, their visual mechanisms are still maturing. Walk discovered that infants are better able to discriminate depth when there is a definitive pattern separating the deeper and shallower areas, than if either one is at all indefinite, and the depth and distance must be of a certain level of distance in order to be successfully distinguished by the infant. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5209682", "title": "Infant visual development", "section": "Section::::Development.:Depth perception.:Cues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1142, "text": "From an infant's standpoint, depth perception can be inferred using three means: binocular, static, and kinetic cues. As mentioned previous, humans are binocular and each eye views the external world with a different angle – providing essential information into depth. The convergence of each eye on a particular object and the stereopsis, also known as the retinal disparity among two objects, provides some information for infants older than ten weeks. With binocular vision development, infants between four and five months also develop a sense of size and shape constancy objects, regardless of the objects location and orientation in space. From static cues based upon monocular vision, infants older of five month of age have the ability to predict depth perception from pictorial position of objects. In other words, edges of closer objects overlap objects in the distance. Lastly, kinetic cues are another factor in depth perception for humans, especially young infants. Infants ranging from three to five months are able to move when an object approaches them in the intent to hit them – implying that infants have depth perception.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As far as I know there is no scientific proof that essential oils work anyway, but yes your skin can only absorb so much.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Essential oils are worthless for everything but smelling good anyway, so adding water certainly doesn't improve anything", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33065713", "title": "Lactylate", "section": "Section::::Functionality.:Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 283, "text": "Due to differences in physical properties, oil does not readily mix with water. Many food and non-food systems require stabilization of mixtures of oil and water in order to prevent phase separation. Therefore, additives are used to provide stability. Lactylates are such additives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1483634", "title": "Nutmeg oil", "section": "Section::::General uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 601, "text": "The essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of ground nutmeg and is used heavily in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The nutmeg essential oil is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages (e.g. Coca-Cola), sweets etc. It replaces ground nutmeg as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries for instance in tooth paste and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for illnesses related to the nervous and digestive systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1826695", "title": "Coolant", "section": "Section::::Liquids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 425, "text": "Oils are often used for applications where water is unsuitable. With higher boiling points than water, oils can be raised to considerably higher temperatures (above 100 degrees Celsius) without introducing high pressures within the container or loop system in question. Many oils have uses encompassing heat transfer, lubrication, pressure transfer (hydraulic fluids), sometimes even fuel, or several such functions at once.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52863", "title": "Seasoning", "section": "Section::::Oil infusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 248, "text": "Infused oils are also used for seasoning. There are two methods for doing an infusion—hot and cold. Olive oil makes a good infusion base for some herbs, but tends to go rancid more quickly than other oils. Infused oils should be kept refrigerated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48782628", "title": "Total base number", "section": "Section::::Oil Additives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 253, "text": "An oil formulation consists of the base or stock oil and oil additives. Most oil formulations contain basic additives and detergents, designed to react with and neutralise acids, preventing damage to engine parts, including corrosion of metal surfaces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25974209", "title": "Brinjevec", "section": "Section::::Medicinal use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 350, "text": "Essential oil is a side product of distilling \"brinjevec\". As mentioned, it was used to ease menstrual pain, stomach ache or cure digestion problems of children by anointing it around navel and lower abdomen. This oil was sold in the past to local pharmacies mostly in Trieste (Italy) and it is still very expensive (€160 or more per liter in 2010).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12915400", "title": "Polyolester", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 463, "text": "The use of this type of oil is in the process of being phased-in by manufacturers who use compressors in their products. The need to replace the old oils has arisen due to environmental restrictions causing incompatibility of the old oils with the new refrigerants. POE oils are very good solvents and easily dissolve most of the residual mineral oils that they may be replacing. So even though small amounts of the old oil may remain, it won't clog the system. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "a nuclear device functions by joining two or more chunks of radioactive material with explosive force together attaining a critical sustainable mass. A nuke dropped on nukes would not trigger this....the grounded nukes could only, theoretically, add to the radioactive fallout as their unspent nuclear material is scattered about \n\nPs your premise is a bit flawed as MOST nukes are detonated ABOVE a target, not on impact with it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nuclear bombs need to be set off in a controlled way in order to explode in the massive yield they normally would. However they contain conventional explosives which would certainly spread radioactive material around. But if you are setting them off with a nuke that won't be a big impact.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In any design that's actually been built the nuclear bomb can't be detonated externally, they must be triggered through a very specific and carefully timed sequence of events.\n\nBombing them would just damage them and possibly scatter radioactive material.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depends on a lot of things.\n\nNuclear bombs work by changing the critical mass of the nuclear fuel. \"Critical mass\" is the amount of nuclear material you need to have a sustained nuclear reaction. You can artificially make a smaller-than-critical mass into a critical mass in several ways. One way is to cover it with a material that reflects neutrons (which would cause all the neutrons that would've escaped outwards from the material to reflect back inwards, generally used in nuclear reactors and research), but another way is to change the temperature and pressure of the material (which is done in nuclear weapons by using \"explosive lenses\" which is a fancy way of saying you surround it with conventional explosives).\n\nWithout those explosives going off (and a few other things I'd guess) that nuclear weapon isn't actually fissile (able to undergo fission). A nuclear explosion above the silo where the bombs are stored is just as likely to vaporize the exposive as anything else, not to mention that unless that explosion is able to actually trigger the explosive correctly it's not going to explode. (C4 and TNT for example are completely safe to burn, and only explode with specific stimulii.)\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Detonating a nuclear bomb is a very precise process, a lot of complicated things have to happen in just the right order. Even the most primitive bombs would be unlikely to go off in a high order explosion just because of a nearby explosion, nuclear or not. Modern nuclear weapons are actually deliberately designed so this is impossible, as a safety measure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nuclear weapons are conceptually simple, you smash together enough U-235 (a 'supercritical mass') and it goes boom. The hard part is making it go boom when you want it to, and NOT melt when it's sitting in a silo.\n\nThere are two kinds of 'explosions' that occur in a nuclear weapon. The most obvious one is the nuclear fission chain reaction that makes a nuke what it is, which I'll call 'nuclear detonation'. The second kind of explosion (technically the first to happen) is what I'll call a 'primary detonation', which is a bunch of high explosives rigged precisely to trigger or 'ignite' the big boom.\n\nThere are two main ways in which these parts are put together, the 'Gun' and the 'implosion' methods. In the gun device, a big slug of U-235 is shot at high speed into another mass of U-235 that fits it like a glove, bringing together a supercritical mass. This device was constructed during the Manhattan Project by essentially strapping a bunch of expensive equipment and U-235 to an artillery piece and firing it. The second method uses a hollow sphere (also known as a pit) made of Uranium. In its hollow shape, the mass is not supercritical, but when it is compressed by the primary detonation into a solid ball, the mass becomes supercritical. It's a lot like crushing a soda can, but your hands are TNT and the soda can is going to blow your block party off the map.\n\nIn both methods of detonation, the critical mass must be brought together very quickly and very precisely. Otherwise, instead of the desired nuclear ignition, a 'premature detonation' will occur, severely reducing the weapon's power (loads better for the world than premature ejaculation ;). \n\nSo, to answer the question, if a nuclear warhead were dropped on a warehouse full of nukes, it would NOT cause nuclear detonations in the other weapons. It would, however, cause lots of bad shit, including:\n\n-Big Boom from the original warhead\n\n-All of the nuclear materials in the bombs is now volatile nuclear waste that may be in various states of criticality and may or may not fissioning and creating more hazardous waste. To get an idea of what this could develop into in the worst case scenario, read up on the elephant's foot at Chernobyl. Its not exactly the same situation, but Chernobyl gives us an idea of how difficult it is to move and protect ourselves from uncontained fission materials.\n\n-Detonation of high explosives from primary detonation systems of other bombs. This is unlikely to cause any nuclear detonations because the precision of the detonation is completely overwhelmed by the initial warhead, but explosives are explosives. TBH the size of these explosions is nothing compared to the initial weapon's power, and amounts to something like a mosquito bite on an arm that a bear just tore off of you.\n\n-WWIII (Assuming some head-ass didn't bomb their own country, which almost happened once in North Carolina I think)\n\n\nTL;DR: No, it won't cause a 'Double Explosion', but it's still a nuke, and it's gonna kill the heck out of you.\n\n\nSide note: For similar reasons, nuking or crashing a plane into a nuclear power plant does not cause a nuclear detonation. Nuclear weapons are devices carefully orchestrated and calibrated to 'make the stars align' so to speak, and create the very narrow conditions that make a nuclear explosion possible. On the other hand, a power plant is designed to generate electricity in a sustained and controlled fashion, which inherently precludes the possibility of a nuclear detonation, simply because the specifications on how to trigger a nuclear detonation are so tight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41097", "title": "Nuclear electromagnetic pulse", "section": "Section::::Effects.:On aircraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 410, "text": "Many nuclear detonations have taken place using [[aerial bomb]]s. The [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] aircraft that delivered the nuclear weapons at [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] did not lose power from electrical damage, because [[electron]]s (ejected from the air by gamma rays) are stopped quickly in normal air for bursts below roughly , so they are not significantly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50893060", "title": "Nuclear blackout", "section": "Section::::Bomb effects.:Within the atmosphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 345, "text": "When a nuclear bomb is exploded near ground level, the dense atmosphere interacts with many of the subatomic particles being released. This normally takes place within a short distance, on the order of meters. This energy heats the air, promptly ionizing it to incandescence and causing a roughly spherical fireball to form within microseconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "191479", "title": "Unguided bomb", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 228, "text": "Unguided bombs typically use a contact fuse for detonation upon impact, or some milliseconds after if a penetration effect is required. One alternative is a fuse with an altimeter, to cause an air burst at the desired altitude.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53683", "title": "Nuclear fallout", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting fallout.:Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 514, "text": "There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5506351", "title": "Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 683, "text": "During a weapon's crucial triggering phase, explosive charges that surround the nuclear fuel are detonated at multiple points. The result is a shock wave that moves inward (implosion) at supersonic speeds, compressing the fuel to higher and higher density. Implosion ends when the fuel reaches a supercritical density, the density at which nuclear reactions in the fuel build up an uncontainable amount of energy, which is then released in a massive explosion. To make the mockup non-nuclear, a heavy metal surrogate (such as depleted uranium or lead) stands in for the nuclear fuel, but all other components can be exact replicas. Sub-critical masses of plutonium may also be used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "858827", "title": "Duck and Cover (film)", "section": "Section::::Accuracy and usefulness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 992, "text": "While this (or any) tactic would be useless for someone at ground zero during a surface burst nuclear explosion, it would be beneficial to the vast majority of people who are positioned away from the blast hypocenter: both the thermal pulse of some weapons and the shrapnel from all weapons (particularly from shattered windows) could be evaded, at least in part. In particular, higher yield thermonuclear weapons have thermal pulses which last for several seconds. By promptly putting something between yourself and the fireball during these crucial couple of seconds, you could avoid or reduce the severity of the burns you would have otherwise received. For those not at ground zero, like a shortened version of the delay between lightning and thunder, there would be a delay between the flash (indicating the need to duck and cover) and the arrival of the blast wave, which will shatter windows turning non-safety glass into missile-like shards, and cause other blast or impact injuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "833011", "title": "Duck and cover", "section": "Section::::Efficacy during a nuclear explosion.:Delayed nuclear radiation, \"fallout\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 345, "text": "Apart from the intrinsic \"prompt effects\" of nuclear detonations, that of thermal flash, blast and initial radiation releases, if any part of the fireball of the nuclear detonation contacts the ground, in what is known as a surface burst, another, comparatively slowly increasing, radiation hazard will also begin to form in the immediate area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Its to make the plastic stronger. Without it they would have to add much more plastic to make it stable, which is more expensive. The bottle wouldn't explode, but it would cause the thinner areas to sag and deform. That would increase the chance of it bursting apart when force is applied. But with the divot, that sort of outcome is essentially impossible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It can be for strength, if the contents are under pressure, or it can just be so it will sit flat on a surface without rocking. You could in theory do that with a perfectly flat bottom, but that requires more precise and expensive molds(have to account for distortion as it cools too). Or it can be to make the bottle look bigger, compared to its volume. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you had a flat bottom it would simply bulge out. Now you would have a shitty bottle that can't stand. The dome simply distributes the forces evenly to the outside ring of the dome. It's the outside ring that has a bit more ridigity that prevents that from deforming.\n\nI suggest you look up the making and design of a soda can on YouTube. It explains the engineering behind it. Pretty cool stuff. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The dent and curved rim on the bottom of a can gives it the strength to be stacked on without bursting", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't speak much for glass bottles, but plastic bottles and aluminum cans have these features so that if they freeze, the plastic will bulge out and pop into a new position that gives the liquid more free volume to occupy. This prevents a sticky mess on the consumer's garage floor", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "507190", "title": "Steel and tin cans", "section": "Section::::Opening cans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 306, "text": "Some cans, such as those used for sardines, have a specially scored lid so that the user can break out the metal by the leverage of winding it around a slotted church key. Until the mid-20th century, some sardine tins had solder-attached lids, and the winding key worked by forcing the solder joint apart.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37132851", "title": "List of bottle types, brands and companies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 583, "text": "This is a list of bottle types, brands and companies. A bottle is a rigid container with a neck that is narrower than the body, and a \"mouth\". Bottles are often made of glass, clay, plastic, aluminum or other impervious materials, and are typically used to store liquids. The bottle has developed over millennia of use, with some of the earliest examples appearing in China, Phoenicia, Rome and Crete. Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material. Some regions have a container deposit which is refunded after returning the bottle to the retailer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2986220", "title": "Jug", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 300, "text": "Several other types of containers are also called jugs, depending on locale, tradition, and personal preference. Some types of bottles can be called jugs, particularly if the container has a narrow mouth and has a handle. Closures such as stoppers or screw caps are common for these retail packages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1068557", "title": "Shotgunning", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 516, "text": "A related technique, strawpedoing, is used for containers not easily punctured such as a glass bottles. A straw is inserted into the bottle and bent around the hole. When the bottle is tilted, the beverage quickly drains and is quickly consumed. The technique increases beverage delivery since the extra hole allows the liquid to leave while air enters simultaneously through the main hole. The bottleneck, created where air entering the container must travel through the same orifice as liquid leaving, is removed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37411634", "title": "GreenBottle", "section": "Section::::The process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 321, "text": "The bottles are made by moulding the pulp of wood fibre which is then pressed into shape. The plastic liner is automatically vacuum formed and inserted into one half shell, another half shell is placed on top and the two are then sealed together. The bottles are designed to easily integrate with existing filling lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228744", "title": "Bottle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 431, "text": "A bottle is a narrow-necked container made of an impermeable material (clay, glass, plastic, aluminium etc.) in various shapes and sizes to store and transport liquids (water, milk, beer, wine, ink, cooking oil, medicine, soft drinks, shampoo, and chemicals, etc.) and whose mouth at the bottling line can be sealed with an internal stopper, an external bottle cap, a closure, or a conductive \"inner seal\" using induction sealing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11205281", "title": "Bologna bottle", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 240, "text": "Because of the seemingly paradoxical nature of the glass (being both extremely durable and extremely fragile), Bologna bottles are often used as props in magic tricks, where the bottle can be shattered by rattling a small object inside it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It means that Mr. Market is scared, and the future looks really bleak. \n\nThe market believes a recession or worse is coming and that for the foreseeable future, things in an economic sense look bad. \n\nRetirement funds are based heavily on the stock market (not entirely) which will go down correspondingly. However, they are also based to some degree on bonds, which generally go up when stocks go down. \n\nGenerally....\n\nThe thing is, no one really truly knows the answer. And if they did, they could use that knowledge to make money. \n\nWhat it means for you and for me is that most experts foresee bad things happening. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What u/Chumkil said but it is unlikely to be a long-lasting drop, the underlying economy is strong and, once the excitement has died down, the markets will return to their original state - i.e. rising.\n\nThe BBC were talking about this yesterday, apparently these flash-crashes are more to do with computer algorithm trading more than human sentiment. Their analyst's advice to investors was \"play the long game and sit tight, use any significant drop to expand your portfolio.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What I don't understand is how the market is falling, when markets have been closed since 4:00pm EST and the first polls don't close until 7....I mean I can see how people will forecast the drop tonight, but wouldn't the market have to open in the morning to actually drop?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47361", "title": "Dow Jones Industrial Average", "section": "Section::::History.:Post internet-bubble era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 635, "text": "On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at a record high of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow traded at an intra-day level high of 14,198.10, a mark which would not be matched until March 2013. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21402059", "title": "Global financial crisis in November 2008", "section": "Section::::Week of November 16.:Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 291, "text": "On Thursday, November 20 the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped 445 points in the last minutes of the trading session, closing at 7,552, the lowest point in six years. Shares in Citigroup plummeted another 26%, and shares of other major US financial institutions dropped by more than 10%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34579", "title": "2000s (decade)", "section": "Section::::Economics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 217, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 217, "end_character": 829, "text": "BULLET::::- On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at the record level of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow would trade at its highest intra-day level ever, at the 14,198.10 mark. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates. Roughly on par with the 2000 record when adjusted for inflation, this represented the final high of the cyclical bull. The index closed 2007 at 13,264.82, a level it would not surpass for nearly five years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21402059", "title": "Global financial crisis in November 2008", "section": "Section::::Week of November 9.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 412, "text": "On Thursday November 13, the Dow Jones Industrial Average marked another dramatic session, with the index (opening at 8,282.66) that after a mixed start tumbled again below the 8,000 mark (to a low of 7,965.42) but then reversed the trend and gained more than 900 points (fourth largest daily swing ever) in less than three hours closing at 8,835.25 with a net gain of more than 550 points (third largest ever).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9740633", "title": "Automated trading system", "section": "Section::::Market disruption and manipulation.:Notable examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 478, "text": "BULLET::::- On May 6, 2010, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined about 1,000 points (about 9 percent) and recovered those losses within minutes. It was the second-largest point swing (1,010.14 points) and the largest one-day point decline (998.5 points) on an intraday basis in the Average's history. This market disruption became known as the Flash Crash and resulted in U.S. regulators issuing new regulations to control market access achieved through automated trading.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21402010", "title": "Global financial crisis in October 2008", "section": "Section::::Beginning of October.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 957, "text": "On October 10, within the first five minutes of the trading session on Wall Street, the Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged 697 points, falling below 7900 to its lowest level since March 17, 2003. Later in the afternoon, the Dow made violent swings back and forth across the breakeven line, toppling as much as 600 points and rising 322 points. The Dow ended the day losing only 128 points, or 1.49%. Trading on New York Stock Exchange closed for the week with the Dow at 8,451, down 1,874 points, or 18% for the week, and after 8 days of losses, 40% down from its record high October 9, 2007. Trading on Friday was marked by extreme volatility with a steep loss in the first few minutes followed by a rise into positive territory, closing down at the end of the day. In S&P100 some financial corporate showing signals upwards also. President George W. Bush reassured investors that the government will solve the financial crisis gripping world economies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32684354", "title": "Black Monday (2011)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 300, "text": "By market close, the Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 634.76 points (-5.55%) to close at 10,809.85, making it the 6th largest drop of the index in history. Black Monday 2011 followed just one trading day behind the 10th largest drop of the Dow Jones Index, a 512.76 (-4.31%) drop on August 4, 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I would see a distinct difference between \"peak of tensions\" and \"closest we came to a nuclear exchange.\" The Berlin crisis of 1948 was potentially a higher \"peak of tensions\" than Able Archer 83, but because the nuclear situation was only one-sided, it is not cited as a \"close call.\" I would not consider Able Archer 83 a \"peak of tensions,\" as it was primarily one-sided, though it was definitely one of the top \"close calls.\" (What made it so dangerous was that the USA/NATO was so utterly unaware of how tense the Soviets felt about it.) \n\nSimilarly, there were other \"close calls\" that were not marked by \"peaks of tensions\" — such as the numerous \"false alarm\" scares that the US and USSR both suffered from errors in their early warning systems. \n\nI would disentangle these two categories. What makes the Cuban Missile Crisis so remarkable and interesting is that it is the rare confluence of the two — a peak of tension _and_ a close call. There were many other very tense moments that were not close calls, and many close calls that were not actually peaks of tensions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "110221", "title": "Fort Stewart", "section": "Section::::History.:Vietnam War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 356, "text": "After the Cuban Missile Crisis had passed, the Cold War situation kept Fort Stewart in an active training role. During the late 1960s, another developing situation would bring about yet another change in Fort Stewart’s mission. With tensions growing in the divided country of Vietnam, the U.S. found itself becoming increasingly involved in that conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4612450", "title": "Marine Aircraft Group 24", "section": "Section::::History.:Cuban Missile Crisis (October – November 1962).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 837, "text": "While the Cuban missile crisis was unique in that it played out primarily between the President and Premier the mobilization of the U.S. Armed Forces to meet the threat was notable. By the time the U.S. and Soviets came to terms on 28 October all of 2nd Marine Division deployed with 40 ships. At Key West MAG-26, and MAG-32 (-) had joined M=Shortly after 28 October the 5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade was moved east with 18,000 Marines, 20 Ships, and included HMM-361, VMA-121, and VMGR-352. Overall, 400,000 American troops were mobilized to the meet the threat. Forty thousand of those troops were Marines and mobilized in only eight days. The current Commandant of the Marine Corps General David M. Shoup stated: “I couldn't be happier about our readiness in this crisis. This time we not only have been ready, we’ve been steady.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "263637", "title": "Orlando International Airport", "section": "Section::::History.:Military years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 566, "text": "During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, McCoy AFB became a temporary forward operating base for more than 120 F-100 Super Sabre and F-105 Thunderchief fighter bombers and the primary base for U-2 reconnaissance aircraft flying over Cuba. One of these U-2s was shot down by Soviet-operated SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles near Banes, Cuba. Its pilot, Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr., USAF, was the crisis' only combat death. Following the crisis, McCoy AFB hosted a permanent U-2 operating detachment of the 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing until 1973.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8944176", "title": "42nd Air Base Wing", "section": "Section::::Cold War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 722, "text": "Cold War tensions between the United States and Russia came to a head in October 1962. President John F. Kennedy informed the American public that the Soviet Union had installed missile sites in Cuba from which it could strike the United States. As a result, SAC canceled flying training and increased the size of its ground and airborne alert forces. The wing launched four B-52s on Chrome Dome and Hard Head VI missions, established the Loring Tanker Task Force, and aircraft not supporting airborne alert were put on ground alert. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, wing bombers flew 132 airborne alert missions and its tankers flew 214 air refueling missions, transferring almost 24 million pounds of fuel to the B-52s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14066117", "title": "479th Tactical Training Wing", "section": "Section::::History.:F-104 Starfighter era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 690, "text": "During the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, the 435th TFS deployed to Naval Air Station Key West, Florida to carry out air strikes against targets in Cuba in case an invasion proved to be necessary. Fortunately, the crisis was peacefully resolved. Following the crisis, Air Defense Command (ADC) organized a squadron of F-104As at Homestead Air Force Base, Florida to defend against possible intrusions by Cuban fighters. However, the F-104A was armed only with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles and ADC began retrofitting its F-104As with Vulcan cannons. During the first half of 1964, while these planes were being modified, the 479th deployed F-104Cs to Homestead to augment ADC's alert forces there.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4045672", "title": "2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-war years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 282, "text": "In October 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 2nd Battalion deployed to the waters off the coast of Cuba as part of a task force of 40 ships and 20,000 Marines and Sailors. When the successful blockade terminated on December 3, 1962, the Battalion returned to Camp Lejeune.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1489517", "title": "R-14 Chusovaya", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 411, "text": "Prior to the onset of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet Union planned to deploy two regiments with 32 R-14 IRBMs and 16 launchers to Cuba. By the time the United States declared a quarantine of the island, 24 one-megaton warheads had arrived but no missiles or launchers had yet been shipped. The warheads were removed and the deployment of the R-14 to Cuba was cancelled after the crisis was resolved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Food coloring is not considered toxic by most people. From Google:\n\n > \n > \n > While red dye #2 was subsequently banned from products sold in the United States, many health-conscious consumers continue to avoid foods with other artificial colors or dyes — **even though the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) still considers them safe for human consumption**.\n\n\n\nBut that doesn't even tell the full story. \n\nRed Dye #2 might have never been particularly unsafe to humans. \n\n > \n > \n > In 1976, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that, in high doses, Red No. 2 could cause cancer in female rats. The FDA declared it an ingredient non grata in the United States because **although it had never been shown to pose health risks to humans, no one had been able to prove it safe, either**.\n\nBut the media painted a scary picture of Red Dye #2.\n\n > \n > \n > In 1971, however, Soviet scientists announced that Red No. 2 caused cancer. Public outcry in the U.S. against the dye quickly gained such fervor that the Mars candy company temporarily stopped producing red M & Ms despite the fact that they had never contained Red No. 2 in the first place.\n\n\nRed dye #2 was replaced in America by Red Dye #40, but #2 is still available and considered safe in Europe where one last bizarre fact enters the picture:\n\n > \n > \n > But in a twist of fate, the European Food Safety Authority recently recommended limiting children's intake of Red No. 40. As a result, while Red No. 2 is illegal in the U.S. but flows freely in the EU, the near-opposite is true for Red No. 40.\n\n\nYou can read more about it [here](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "458008", "title": "Tartrazine", "section": "Section::::Regulation.:United Kingdom and EU.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 817, "text": "In response to concerns about the safety of certain food additives, the UK FSA commissioned a study by researchers at Southampton University of the effect of a mixture of six food dyes (Tartrazine, Allura Red, Ponceau 4R, Quinoline Yellow WS, Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine (dubbed the \"Southampton 6\")) and sodium benzoate (a preservative) on children in the general population, who consumed them in beverages; the study published in 2007. The study found \"a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity\" in the children; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations, the results could not be extrapolated to the general population, and further testing was recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71234", "title": "Orange (colour)", "section": "Section::::Science.:Food colourings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 305, "text": "Because many consumers are worried about possible health consequences of synthetic dyes, some companies are beginning to use natural food colours. Since these food colours are natural, they do not require any certification from the Food and Drug Administration. The most popular natural food colours are:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952492", "title": "Anthocyanin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 312, "text": "Although approved to color foods and beverages in the European Union, anthocyanins are not approved for use as a food additive because they have not been verified as safe when used as food or supplement ingredients. There is no conclusive evidence that anthocyanins have any effect on human biology or diseases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "164956", "title": "Food coloring", "section": "Section::::Criticism and health implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 551, "text": "Widespread public belief that artificial food coloring causes ADHD-like hyperactivity in children originated from Benjamin Feingold, a pediatric allergist from California, who proposed in 1973 that salicylates, artificial colors, and artificial flavors cause hyperactivity in children; however, there is no evidence to support broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children. It is possible that certain food colorings may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed, but the evidence is weak.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61230", "title": "Candy", "section": "Section::::History.:Industrial Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 524, "text": "As the path from producer to market became increasingly complicated, many foods were affected by adulteration and the addition of additives which ranged from relatively harmless ingredients, such as cheap cornstarch and corn syrup, to poisonous ones. Some manufacturers produced bright colors in candy by the addition of hazardous substances for which there was no legal regulation: green (chromium oxide and copper acetate), red (lead oxide and mercury sulfide), yellow (lead chromate) and white (chalk, arsenic trioxide).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3246442", "title": "Allura Red AC", "section": "Section::::Studies on safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 647, "text": "The UK FSA commissioned a study of six food dyes (tartrazine, Allura red, Ponceau 4R, Quinoline Yellow, sunset yellow, carmoisine (dubbed the \"Southampton 6\")), and sodium benzoate (a preservative) on children in the general population, who consumed them in beverages. The study found \"a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity\" in the children; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations, the results could not be extrapolated to the general population, and further testing was recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952492", "title": "Anthocyanin", "section": "Section::::Colorant safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 623, "text": "Anthocyanins are approved for use as food colorants in the European Union, Australia, and New Zealand, having colorant code E163. In 2013, a panel of scientific experts for the European Food Safety Authority concluded that anthocyanins from various fruits and vegetables have been insufficiently characterized by safety and toxicology studies to approve their use as food additives. Extending from a safe history of using red grape skin extract and blackcurrant extracts to color foods produced in Europe, the panel concluded that these extract sources were exceptions to the ruling and were sufficiently shown to be safe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's related to the fight-or-flight response. Your body prioritizes your extremities and blood is drawn away from \"non-essentials\" such as the digestive system. This leads to that uneasy stomach feeling you get.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8146278", "title": "Test anxiety", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 457, "text": "During states of excitement or stress, the body releases adrenaline. Adrenaline is known to cause physical symptoms that accompany test anxiety, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and rapid breathing. In many cases having adrenaline is a good thing. It is helpful when dealing with stressful situations, ensuring alertness and preparation. But for some people the symptoms are difficult or impossible to handle, making it impossible to focus on tests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42158503", "title": "Behavioral endocrinology", "section": "Section::::Adrenal Hormones.:Adrenaline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 311, "text": "Adrenaline, or other wise known as Epineephrine) is released from the Adrenal medulla. Adrenaline is also released in response to the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system or stress. Adrenal is known as the \"fight or flight\" hormone as rapidly rushes blood to muscles and brain and produce the effects:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156635", "title": "Glossophobia", "section": "Section::::Causes and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 536, "text": "During the phobic response, adrenaline secretion produces a wide array of symptoms which enhances the \"fight or flight\" response. As Garcia-Lopez (2013) has noted, symptoms can include acute hearing, increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilated pupils, increased perspiration and oxygen intake, stiffening of neck/upper back muscles, and dry mouth. Uncontrollable shaking is also common and often occurs prior to the phobia-eliciting stimulus. Symptoms may sometimes be alleviated or mitigated by medications such as beta-blockers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15548640", "title": "Adrenaline", "section": "Section::::Biosynthesis and regulation.:Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 237, "text": "The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high or low ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in the central nervous system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31110904", "title": "Effects of stress on memory", "section": "Section::::Physiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 842, "text": "When a stressful situation is encountered, stress hormones are released into the blood stream. Adrenaline is released by the adrenal glands to begin the response in the body. Adrenaline acts as a catalyst for the fight-or-flight response, which is a response of the sympathetic nervous system to encourage the body to react to the apparent stressor. This response causes an increase in heart-rate, blood pressure, and accelerated breathing. The kidneys release glucose, providing energy to combat or flee the stressor. Blood is redirected to the brain and major muscle groups, diverted away from energy consuming bodily functions unrelated to survival at the present time. There are three important axes, the adrenocorticotropic axis, the vasopressin axis and the thyroxine axis, which are responsible for the physiologic response to stress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "471415", "title": "Adrenal medulla", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 441, "text": "Notable effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline include increased heart rate and blood pressure, blood vessel constriction in the skin and gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle (bronchiole and capillary) dilation, and increased metabolism, all of which are characteristic of the fight-or-flight response. Release of catecholamines is stimulated by nerve impulses, and receptors for catecholamines are widely distributed throughout the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59743", "title": "Panic attack", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1011, "text": "The symptoms of a panic attack may cause the person to feel that their body is failing. The symptoms can be understood as follows. First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the fight-or-flight response when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), causing compensatory metabolic acidosis activating chemosensing mechanisms which translate this pH shift into autonomic and respiratory responses. The person him/herself may overlook the hyperventilation, having become preoccupied with the associated somatic symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are Hospitals/infirmaries in prisons. They'd likely just spend their final time in there.\n\nOr they might just be put in with the general population if they don't need constant medical care.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They still go to prison, there was a nazi war criminal/guard recently convicted about a year or so ago. At 90 they shipped him off to Germany to be incarcerated", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If they were convicted when already suffering from the disease, they would likely be held in prison as normal, and provided medical care for the rest of their natural life.\n\nThere's also a thing called compassionate release, where a prisoner that develops a terminal illness while in prison will be released, essentially to die with their family. Most states, and the federal government have some kind of program like this, though the number of people released under those programs is still pretty small.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26665023", "title": "Felony murder rule (Florida)", "section": "Section::::Penalties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 290, "text": "If a person committing a predicate felony directly contributed to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the first degree - felony murder which is a capital felony. The only two sentences available for that statute are life in prison and the death penalty. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26665023", "title": "Felony murder rule (Florida)", "section": "Section::::Penalties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 255, "text": "If a person commits a predicate felony, but was not the direct contributor to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the second degree - felony murder which is a felony of the first degree. The maximum prison term is life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26346184", "title": "Murder (Portuguese law)", "section": "Section::::Homicide.:Status of convicts and felons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 337, "text": "Any criminal conviction registered on the felon’s criminal record is stricken after a certain period of time, depending on the gravity of the offence. In the case of murder, this fact would be stricken from the murderer's criminal record once 15 years have elapsed from fully serving their sentence without committing any other offence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26346214", "title": "Murder (United States law)", "section": "Section::::Sentencing guidelines.:California.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 330, "text": "A person convicted of first-degree murder will face a sentence of 25 years-to-life in prison, and thus must serve at least 25 years before being eligible for parole. If the murder was committed because of the victim’s race, religion, or gender, the convicted will be sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24154710", "title": "Life imprisonment in France", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 326, "text": "In the case of child murder involving rape or torture, the premeditated murder of a state official (since 2011), and terrorism resulting in death, the court can impose a safety period of up to 30 years, or order that the prisoner is ineligible for parole at all, and thus will spend the rest of their natural lives in prison.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24154648", "title": "Life imprisonment in Canada", "section": "Section::::Mandatory life sentence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 483, "text": "High treason and first degree murder carry a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment with a full parole ineligibility period of 25 years. Previously, in the case of high treason or first-degree murder (where the offender has been convicted of a single murder) offenders could have their parole ineligibility period reduced to no less than 15 years under the Faint hope clause. However, this option under the Criminal Code was ended by Act of Parliament, effective in December, 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3275619", "title": "Life imprisonment in England and Wales", "section": "Section::::Whole life order.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 505, "text": "A number of prisoners who are unlikely to ever be released or have received very long sentences have declared their wish to die; for example, Ian Brady. At least two such inmates have died by suicide in prison, Harold Shipman and Daniel Gonzalez, and there have been attempted suicides by such prisoners, including Ian Huntley. A number have since died in prison as a result of ill health, including Brady's accomplice Myra Hindley and the \"Black Panther\" serial murderer and armed robber Donald Neilson.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Platelets don't have antigens (the things antibodies recognize) on them. What might be a good way to remember this is that they're not made from red blood cells where the ABO blood group antigens are, they're shed from cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes. \n\nThat's not to say platelets are JUST floating bits of cytoplasm. They've got glycoproteins on the outside to recognize various signals that, if received, may then induce them to release granules filled with clotting factors.\n\nBut why don't people have antibodies to these glycoproteins? People have antibodies against certain glycoproteins on red blood cells, right? Yes, they do. However, basically EVERYONE has the same platelet glycoproteins. Developing an immune reaction against them would almost certainly mean death. Super bad thrombocytopenia (low platelets) AND what's basically a bad transfusion reaction, which can kill a person in minutes.\n\nThat being said, there are bleeding disorders where people lack some of these platelet factors (von Willebrand disease, for example). That's different from their bodies actively attacking any cell that has them, and they have problems with clotting and blood vessel damage, for the most part.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3516857", "title": "Blood donation in England", "section": "Section::::Donations.:Blood Component donations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 642, "text": "Most platelet donations are given to patients who are unable to make enough platelets in their bone marrow. For example, patients with leukaemia or other cancers may have too few platelets as the result of their disease or treatment. Also after major surgery or extensive injury, patients may need platelet transfusions to replace those lost through bleeding. Platelets are often life-saving and special in that they can help up to 3 adults or even 12 children. As platelets can only be stored for a few days, regular and frequent donors are in great demand and that is why platelet donors are asked to attend at least 8 - 10 times per year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "196121", "title": "Platelet", "section": "Section::::Therapy with platelets.:Transfusion.:Collection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 1428, "text": "Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1494752", "title": "Plateletpheresis", "section": "Section::::Platelet collection.:Apheresis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 202, "text": "Platelets are the clotting cells of the blood, and when donated, frequently go to cancer patients, because due to chemotherapy many cancer patients are unable to generate enough platelets of their own.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5129355", "title": "NHS Blood and Transplant", "section": "Section::::Operations.:Blood Donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 268, "text": "Besides the main blood donations, known as \"whole blood\", platelets are also collected. As platelets can only be stored for a few days, regular and frequent donors are in great demand and that is why platelet donors are asked to attend at least 8 – 10 times per year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1494752", "title": "Plateletpheresis", "section": "Section::::Platelet transfusion.:Whole blood platelets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 671, "text": "Not all platelet transfusions use platelets collected by automated apheresis. The platelets can also be separated from donations of whole blood collected in a traditional blood donation, but there are several advantages to separating the platelets at the time of collection. The first advantage is that the whole-blood platelets, sometimes called \"random\" platelets, from a single donation are not numerous enough for a dose to give to an adult patient. They must be pooled from several donors to create a single transfusion, and this complicates processing and increases the risk of diseases that can be spread in transfused blood, such as human immunodeficiency virus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1494752", "title": "Plateletpheresis", "section": "Section::::Platelet collection.:Leukoreduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 629, "text": "Due to their higher relative density, white blood cells are collected as an unwanted component with the platelets. Since it takes up to 3 liters of whole blood (the amount of a dozen blood bags) to generate a dose of platelets, white blood cells from one or several donors will also be collected along with the platelets. A 70 kg (154 lb) man has only about 6 liters of blood. If all of the incidentally collected white blood cells are transfused with the platelets, substantial rejection problems can occur. Therefore, it is standard practice to filter out white blood cells before transfusion by the process of leukoreduction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3516857", "title": "Blood donation in England", "section": "Section::::Donations.:Post-donation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 732, "text": "Donations can also be taken by machines called cell separators, usually in larger blood donation centres located in city centres. These machines use a process called apheresis to collect either blood plasma only, or plasma and platelets, the other blood cells being returned to the patient. Platelets are the tiny fragments of cells in the blood which help it to clot and so stop bleeding, and are used in the treatment of cancer and leukaemia. A constant supply is vital because platelets only last five days once collected. People who give plasma and/or platelets can donate every two weeks, and each donation usually gives two or three adult doses. One adult dose of platelets would otherwise require four whole blood donations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well you can. Masturbate everyday, and compare it to not masturbating for a month. You do build up a tolerance if you will. It's less intense.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can confirm this too, from exhaustive experimenting. Then more frequent you repeat it, the smaller a kick you get.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5384623", "title": "Sex and drugs", "section": "Section::::Sexual function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 354, "text": "Some forms of sexual dysfunction such as erectile dysfunction can be treated with drugs. Because of their effects, erectile dysfunction drugs are sometimes used for recreational purposes. Many drugs, both legal and illegal, some sold online, have side effects that affect the user's sexual function. Many drugs can cause loss of libido as a side effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8900371", "title": "Religious views on masturbation", "section": "Section::::Taoism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 634, "text": "Some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. They say that ejaculation in this way reduces \"origin qi\" from dantian, the energy center located in the lower abdomen. Some maintain that sex with a partner does not do this because the partners replenish each other's qi. Some practitioners therefore say that males should not practice martial arts for at least 48 hours after masturbation while others prescribe up to six months, because the loss of Origin Qi does not allow new qi to be created for this kind of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8188174", "title": "Openness to experience", "section": "Section::::Drug use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 360, "text": "Cross-cultural studies have found that cultures high in Openness to experience have higher rates of use of the drug ecstasy, although a study at the individual level in the Netherlands found no differences in openness levels between users and non-users. Ecstasy users actually tended to be higher in extraversion and lower in conscientiousness than non-users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6169130", "title": "Sexless marriage", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 632, "text": "Sexual dysfunction or difficulty during any stage of the sexual act includes but is not limited to severe vaginismus or erectile dysfunction, and lack of sensations, desire or ability to achieve orgasm resulting as side effects from medication or illegal drugs. Some antidepressant drugs such as SSRIs can cause difficulty with achieving an erection or an orgasm. Sexless marriages can be caused by post-pregnancy issues and hormonal imbalances, which can be temporary or permanent in nature, or by illness of one or both partners that affect physical or psychological sexuality (e.g., clinical depression of one or both partners).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10791413", "title": "Alfred R. Lindesmith", "section": "Section::::Theory of addiction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 571, "text": "This learning process has two parts. First, opiate users must connect their drug withdrawal to their use of the drug, which is something that individuals exposed to opiates in hospital settings are more likely to do. When withdrawal is interpreted as a form of addiction, the perceived (and felt) need for more drugs grows. More recent research has shown that, because hospital patients often associate opiate analgesia with an illness and/or hospital care, and because the drugs cause sedation and other mind-altering effects, patients rarely experience any withdrawal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20962", "title": "Methadone", "section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Tolerance and dependence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 547, "text": "As with other opioid medications, tolerance and dependence usually develop with repeated doses. There is some clinical evidence that tolerance to analgesia is less with methadone compared to other opioids; this may be due to its activity at the NMDA receptor. Tolerance to the different physiological effects of methadone varies; tolerance to analgesic properties may or may not develop quickly, but tolerance to euphoria usually develops rapidly, whereas tolerance to constipation, sedation, and respiratory depression develops slowly (if ever).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7875419", "title": "Opioid-induced hyperalgesia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1672, "text": "Tolerance, another condition that can arise from prolonged exposure to opioids, can often be mistaken for opioid-induced hyperalgesia and vice versa, as the clinical presentation can appear similar. Although tolerance and opioid-induced hyperalgesia both result in a similar need for dose escalation to receive the same level of effect to treat pain, they are nevertheless caused by two distinct mechanisms. The similar net effect makes the two phenomena difficult to distinguish in a clinical setting. Under chronic opioid treatment, a particular individual's requirement for dose escalation may be due to tolerance, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, or a combination of both. In tolerance, there is a lower sensitivity to opioids, which occurs via two major theories: decreased receptor activation (desensitization of antinociceptive mechanisms) and opioid receptor down-regulation (internalization of membrane receptors). In opioid-induced hyperalgesia, sensitization of pronociceptive mechanisms occurs, resulting in a decrease in the pain threshold, or allodynia. In addition, what appears to be opioid tolerance can be caused by opioid-induced hyperalgesia lowering the baseline pain level, thus masking the drug's analgesic effects. Identifying the development of hyperalgesia is of great clinical importance since patients receiving opioids to relieve pain may paradoxically experience more pain as a result of treatment. Whereas increasing the dose of opioid can be an effective way to overcome tolerance, doing so to compensate for opioid-induced hyperalgesia may worsen the patient's condition by increasing sensitivity to pain while escalating physical dependence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Awesome thank you. I checked the FAQ and totally missed it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "277246", "title": "Schiltron", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1058, "text": "The term dates from at least 1000 AD and derives from Old English roots expressing the idea of a \"shield-troop\". Some researchers have also posited this etymological relation may show the schiltron is directly descended from the Anglo-Saxon shield wall, and still others give evidence \"schiltron\" is a name derived from a Viking circular formation (generally no less than a thousand fighters) in extremely close formation, intended to present an enemy's cavalry charge with an \"infinite\" obstacle (that is, a perimeter horses refuse to breach). Matters are confused by use of this term in Middle English to clearly refer to a body of soldiers without reference to formation, including cavalry and archers. The first mention of the schiltron as a specific formation of spearmen appears to be at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. There is, however, no reason to believe this is the first time such a formation was used and it may have had a long previous history in Scotland, as the Picts used to employ spears in block formation as the backbone of their armies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2011284", "title": "Shield wall", "section": "Section::::History.:Early medieval.:Tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 325, "text": "In the battles between the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes in England, most of the Saxon army would have consisted of the inexperienced \"Fyrd\" — a militia composed of free peasants. The shield-wall tactic suited such soldiers, as it did not require extraordinary skill, being essentially a shoving and fencing match with weapons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36355277", "title": "Vikings (2013 TV series)", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Historical accuracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 549, "text": "Monty Dobson, a historian at Central Michigan University, criticised the depiction of Viking clothing but went on to say that fictional shows like \"Vikings\" could still be a useful teaching tool. The Norwegian newspaper \"Aftenposten\" reported that the series incorrectly depicted the temple at Uppsala as a stave church in the mountains, whereas the historical temple was situated on flat land and stave churches were characteristic of later Christian architecture. The temple in the series has similarities with reconstructions of the Uppåkra hof.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12888809", "title": "Viking: Battle for Asgard", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 469, "text": "Viking: Battle for Asgard is an action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Creative Assembly and published by Sega. It was announced on August 21, 2007 by Sega Europe and released in North America on March 25 and Europe on March 28, 2008. The game is based on Norse mythology, where the war between the gods has sparked further conflict in the mortal realm of Midgard, where Freya's champion Skarin must lead Viking forces against that of the Goddess Hel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1020078", "title": "Götavirke", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 230, "text": "The wall supported a wooden pale and behind it are traces of a military road, which makes it similar to the Danevirke protecting the contemporary town of Hedeby. No Viking Age towns are however known in the vicinity of Götavirke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9652708", "title": "Anglo-Saxon London", "section": "Section::::The Vikings' return.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 306, "text": "Æthelred returned with his ally the Norwegian king Olaf and reclaimed London. A Norse saga tells of a battle during the Viking occupation where the English king Æthelred returned to attack Viking-occupied London. According to the saga, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1091379", "title": "Viking Age arms and armour", "section": "Section::::Shields.:Kite shields.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 235, "text": "It has been proposed that the medieval era \"kite shield\" favoured by the Normans was introduced to Europe by the Vikings. However, no documentation or remains of kite shields from the Viking period have been located by archaeologists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Caliber is a measure of the internal diameter of a gun barrel. Inches are an SAE unit, and millimeters are a metric unit. Either can be used to describe the caliber, based on the manufacturer's preference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Oh boy, this one is a rabbit hole because there's no real standards and *a lot* of marketing nonsense.\n\nFirst, the basics: When a firearm is described as \"thirty caliber\" (.30) that means that the internal diameter of the barrel is .3 inches. Since the late 1800s most of the world outside of the UK and USA has used metric measurements (millimeters) for the same thing. So a gun that is \"nine millimeter\" (9mm) has a barrel with an internal diameter of 9mm.\n\nNow comes the confusing stuff, because there is another set of important measurements, cartridge length. For example, the most common 9mm cartridge is 9x19mm, and it is 9mm wide and 19mm long. It is commonly known as 9mm Parabellum or 9mm Luger. It is not interchangeable with 9x18mm (9mm Makarov), 9x20mm (9mm Browning Long), 9x17mm (9mm Kurz), etc.\n\nImperial measurements play an even dumber game, because they are often just lies. .38 Special is actually .357 inches in diameter, the same width as .357 Magnum. .45 ACP is actually .451\" and .45 Colt is .452\". It gets real silly.\n\nThen you have OLD stuff, which was often measured in caliber and charge. So you get .45-70 Government (.45 caliber, 70 grains of powder) and 30-30 (.30 caliber, 30 grains). \n\nDon't even get me started on naming conventions for artillery because they are twice as insane.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11966", "title": "Firearm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 738, "text": "Modern firearms can be described by their caliber (i.e. their bore diameter; this is given in millimeters or inches e.g. 7.5 mm, .357 in.) or in the case of shotguns by their gauge (e.g. 12 ga.); by the type of action employed (muzzleloader, breechloader, lever, bolt, pump, revolver, semi-automatic, fully automatic, etc.) together with the usual means of deportment (hand-held or mechanical mounting). Further classification may make reference to the type of barrel used (rifled) and to the barrel length (24 inch), to the firing mechanism (e.g. matchlock, wheellock, flintlock, percussion lock), to the design's primary intended use (e.g. hunting rifle), or to the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (e.g. Gatling gun).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26156202", "title": "Caliber (artillery)", "section": "Section::::Barrel length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 636, "text": "The length of the barrel (especially for larger guns) is often quoted in calibers. For example, US Naval Rifles or larger. The effective length of the barrel (from breech to muzzle) is divided by the barrel diameter to give a dimensionless quantity. As an example, the main guns of the s can be referred to as 16\"/50 caliber. They are 16 inches in diameter and the barrel is 800 inches long (16 × 50 = 800). This is also sometimes indicated using the prefix /L; so for example, the most common gun for the Panzer V tank is described as a \"75 mm /L70,\" meaning a barrel with an internal bore of 75 mm, and 5,250 mm long (17 ft 2.69 in).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175965", "title": "Caliber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1098, "text": "In guns, particularly firearms, caliber (or calibre in British English) is the specified nominal internal diameter of the gun barrel bore regardless of how or where the bore is measured and whether or not the finished bore matches that specification. It is measured in inches to an accuracy of hundredths or thousandths of an inch or in millimeters. For example, a \".45 caliber\" firearm has a barrel diameter of roughly . Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions. For example, a \"9 mm pistol\" has a barrel diameter of about 9 millimeters. Due to the inaccuracy and imprecision of imperial dimensions \"converted\" to metric units, metric designations are typically far out of specifications published in decimal inches. True \"caliber\" specifications require imperial measure, and even when cartridge designations (often mistakenly referred to as \"caliber\") only specify caliber to even tenths or hundredths of an inch, actual barrel/chamber/projectile dimensions are published to at least thousandths of an inch and frequently tolerances extend into ten-thousandths of an inch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5293178", "title": "5\"/38 caliber gun", "section": "Section::::Mark 12 5\"/38 cal gun assembly.:Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 325, "text": "BULLET::::- 5″ is the caliber of this gun. The term \"caliber\" used here is the artillery caliber definition, and its value is equal to the bore diameter as measured from land to land. (Lands are the raised portions of the bore rifling, between the grooves.) (Note: artillery caliber and small arms caliber are not the same.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175965", "title": "Caliber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 226, "text": "Regardless of common practice among \"shooters\", caliber refers to specific, precise and crucial bore/bullet dimensions and generic categorizations involving \"caliber\" are of little benefit to the shooting and arms industries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175965", "title": "Caliber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 580, "text": "While modern firearms are generally referred to by the name of the cartridge the gun is chambered for, they are still categorized together based on bore diameter. For example, a firearm might be described as a \"30 caliber rifle\", which could be any of a wide range of cartridges using a roughly projectile; or a \"22 rimfire\", referring to any rimfire firearms firing cartridges with a .22 caliber projectile. However, there can be significant differences in nominal bullet and bore dimensions and all cartridges so \"categorized\" are not automatically identical in actual caliber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175965", "title": "Caliber", "section": "Section::::Metric and US customary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 424, "text": "The following table lists some of the commonly used calibers where both metric and US customary are used as equivalents. Due to variations in naming conventions, and the whims of the cartridge manufacturers, bullet diameters can vary widely from the diameter implied by the name. For example, a difference of 0.045 in (1.15 mm) occurs between the smallest and largest of the several cartridges designated as \".38 caliber\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hydrogen is highly reactive, it bonds to oxygen, forming water. Water is quite dense, even as a vapor, and is therefore quite durable in the atmosphere.\n\nHelium is a noble gas and nearly perfectly inert. Being unbound to any heavier elements, it quickly rises to the top of the atmosphere and is lost to space by various mechanisms. \n\nHydrogen is lost over time, but only slowly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A partial answer:\nMolecular hydrogen is both reactive and escapes easily. Helium, although not reactive, escapes more easily due to its low mass. Additionally, the only source of helium is radioactive do decay. \nHTH", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38930", "title": "Jupiter", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 416, "text": "The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Helium is also depleted to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13256", "title": "Helium", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Isotopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 612, "text": "There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth's atmosphere, one atom is for every million that are . Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14380", "title": "Helium-3", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 491, "text": "Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from the Earth's crust into the atmosphere and into outer space over millions of years. Helium-3 is also thought to be a natural nucleogenic and cosmogenic nuclide, one produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by spontaneous fission and by nuclear reactions with cosmic rays. Some of the helium-3 found in the terrestrial atmosphere is also a relic of atmospheric and underwater nuclear weapons testing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13255", "title": "Hydrogen", "section": "Section::::Cosmic prevalence and distribution.:States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 580, "text": "Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1012996", "title": "Helium-4", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 487, "text": "Alpha decay of heavy elements in the Earth's crust is the source of most naturally occurring helium-4 on Earth, produced after the planet cooled and solidified. While it is also produced by nuclear fusion in stars, most helium-4 in the Sun and in the universe is thought to have been produced by the Big Bang, and is referred to as \"primordial helium\". However, primordial helium-4 is largely absent from the Earth, having escaped during the high-temperature phase of Earth's formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25783324", "title": "Helium planet", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 562, "text": "Helium planets are expected to be distinguishable from regular hydrogen-dominated planets by strong evidence of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Due to hydrogen-depletion, the expected methane in the atmosphere cannot form because there is no hydrogen for the carbon to combine with, and hence carbon combines with oxygen instead, forming CO and CO. Due to the atmospheric composition, helium planets are expected to be white or grey in appearance. Such a signature can be found in Gliese 436 b, which has a predominance of carbon monoxide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86350", "title": "Period (periodic table)", "section": "Section::::Periods.:Period 1.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 498, "text": "BULLET::::- Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions. It is the second-lightest element and is the second-most abundant in the universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements. Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Vostok Station is one of the most [inhospitable places for humans to work](_URL_0_). December is the Antarctic summer, so the weather will be better, temperatures warmer, and up to 24 hours of daylight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "97905", "title": "Lake Vostok", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 491, "text": "By plan, the following summer, the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it. The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012. The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later, they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble, France, for analysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "97905", "title": "Lake Vostok", "section": "Section::::Research.:Biology results.:Russia and France.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 575, "text": "Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water, uncontaminated by drilling fluid. Regardless of the contamination issues, in May 2013 the drilling facility at the Russian Vostok Antarctic station was declared a historic monument as \"the result of the recognition of the achievements of the Russian research of Antarctica by the international scientific community, and of the unique operations on opening the subglacial Lake Vostok performed by Russian scientists on February 5, 2012.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2827594", "title": "Mir (submersible)", "section": "Section::::Expeditions.:2008–2009 Expedition to Lake Baikal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 480, "text": "In July 2008 both \"Mir\" submersibles began a two-year expedition to Lake Baikal, the world's largest freshwater reservoir. The expedition is being led by the Russian Academy of Sciences. The group's mission chief said that a total of 60 dives were planned. In July 29, the \"Mir-1\" and \"Mir-2\" submersibles reached the bottom of Lake Baikal, making the 1.05-mile descent. On August 1, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin accompanied the dive in the southern portion of the lake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2417836", "title": "Saint Petersburg Mining University", "section": "Section::::Science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 870, "text": "One of the key achievements of the university's scientists has been the invention of techniques to drill through several miles of Antarctic ice to reach the sub-glacial Lake Vostok. Professor Nikolai Vasiliev, head of the drilling department at the university, has led the drilling efforts, while scientific research into the layers of ice that cover the lake, the possibility of new forms of microbial life existing in the lake, and a host of other areas of research connected to the lake are based at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, the , the All-Russian Research Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources of the World Ocean (), the in Moscow, the in Irkutsk and the in Grenoble, France. Lake Vostok is one of the world's most closely watched scientific projects, and the expertise of the Russian drillers, directed by Professor Vasiliev, is recognised.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5709699", "title": "History of research ships", "section": "Section::::The postwar period.:Increasing collaboration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 671, "text": "With the \"Overflow\" program, scientists tried to reconnoiter the overflow of the cold Arctic ground water over the submarine ridge between Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Nine research ships of five European countries took a stake in. This program was repeated at a larger scale: thirteen research ships of seven countries were on its way. Denmark appointed the \"Dana\" and the \"Jens Christian Svabo\", Iceland the \"Bjarni Sæmundson\", Canada the \"Hudson\", Norway the \"Helland Hansen\", USSR the \"Boris Davydov\" and the \"Professor Zubov\", Great Britain the Challenger, the \"Shackleton\" and the Explorer, West Germany the \"Meteor\", the \"Walther Herwig\" and the \"Meerkatze II\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68915", "title": "Aral Sea", "section": "Section::::History.:Irrigation canals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 428, "text": "The disappearance of the lake was no surprise to the Soviets; they expected it to happen long before. As early as 1964, Aleksandr Asarin at the Hydroproject Institute pointed out that the lake was doomed, explaining, \"It was part of the five-year plans, approved by the council of ministers and the Politburo. Nobody on a lower level would dare to say a word contradicting those plans, even if it was the fate of the Aral Sea.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "97905", "title": "Lake Vostok", "section": "Section::::Research.:Biology results.:Russia and France.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1001, "text": "Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole, by constructing numerous DNA libraries, which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria may belong to. Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water, and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid. So far, the scientists have been able to identify 255 contaminant species, but also have found an unknown bacterium when they initially drilled down to the lake's surface in 2012, with no matches in any international databases, and they hope it may be a unique inhabitant of Lake Vostok. However, Vladimar Korolev, the laboratory head of the study at the same institution, said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that uses kerosene—the antifreeze used during drilling—as an energy source.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, there was definitely rape committed by the Wehrmacht/SS. This is from Timothy Snyder's *Bloodlands*: \n > [The Wehrmacht] would also rape Jewish women, casually, as though this were not an offense for which they could be punished. When they were caught, they were reminded of German laws against racial mixing. \n\nRape of 'sub humans' was fairly common on the Eastern Front. I can't answer the second part of your question unfortunately. I'm in no place to speculate on that. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was far less documentation about rape under the Nazis, because Nazi race-defilement laws specifically forbid German men to have sex with Jewish women or even to kiss them. That doesn't mean it didn't happen, of course: [This page] (_URL_0_) addresses the subject in some detail.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Rape as a weapon and/or collateral atrocity of war was all too common in WWII, including by [American servicemen](_URL_0_) stationed in occupied Japan after the end of the war.\n\nAs my old Social History of War professor emphasized over and over, wherever there's war, there's rape.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A book that might interest you is: Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing, and Dying. It's composed of transcripts of recordings made in British prisons, mostly Wehrmacht troops talking to each other. I've been meaning to get it for a while now but I haven't gotten around to it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This topic is very well covered in two Russian books: [this one](_URL_3_), called \"For What the Soviet People Were Fighting\" and [this one](_URL_2_), called \"Unknown Faces of War\". The Nazis invaded the Soviet Union in WWII with the overall mindset of creating Lebensraum and the getting rid of most of the local population (keeping some for slave labour), since Russians, Belorussians, Ukranians and Jews alike were all considered Untermenschen. When the Soviet Army was pushing the Nazis back and liberating captured towns and villages it was very often the case that they were discovered entirely empty. Houses were burnt, wells were filled with bodies and trenches filled with bodies were all over the place. \n\nRape of the local populace by the advancing Nazis was as commonplace as the fighting itself and in addition to the \"unorganised\" rape carried out normally, organised brothels were set up to service the officers and soldiers. [Here](_URL_0_) and [here](_URL_1_) are fragments from the respective two books which summarise the extent of what was going on. The sources for the books are Nuremberg trial materials and eyewitness accounts from both sides. \n\nEDIT: The following is a particularly telling excerpt: \"We went to the village near the town of Gatchina Rozhdestvenno - told who served on the Seversky airport Private Peter Shuber. - We had a mission: to bring the girls the officers. We have successfully carried out the operation, all cordoned off the house. We collected a truckload of girls. All night the girls kept the officers, but in the morning they gave us - the soldiers. In large cities, organized stationary brothels. It was standard practice Wehrmacht. \"There were soldiers' brothels,\" puffs \"were called - remember shturmbannfyurera SS Avenir Bennigsen. - Almost all fronts. Girls from all over Europe, of all nationalities, from all camps collected. By the way, an indispensable accessory of a German soldier and an officer were two condoms, which are regularly issued in the army. \" But while in Europe the Wehrmacht brothels staffed with more or less voluntarily, on Soviet soil invaders such delicacy is not going to show. Girls and women for the German soldiers for the most part collected by force - a scene that will forever remember the people trapped under the occupation. In Smolensk, for example, women dragged by the arms and hair, dragged on the pavement - in the officer's brothel, organized in one of the hotels. In case of refusal to stay in a brothel followed the shooting. After the Red Army drove the Germans out of Kerch, views of Red terrible sight presented itself: \"In the prison yard was found mutilated shapeless pile of naked girls' bodies, wild and tortured by the Nazis cynically.\"\n\nThe way the advancing Nazi army treated the captured territories was known to the people fighting in the Soviet Army, and after the turning point occurred and the captured territories were liberated, the extent of the brutailty only served to increase the anger felt by the Soviets, resulting in the mass rape that occurred in East Germany when the war came there. The Soviet materials regarding the matter are still classified, but the German director, Helke Sander, states that a million women were raped by the Soviets in [this film](_URL_4_). However, reading the accounts of what the Germans did, it's really no wonder that the Soviets responded in kind, and helps explain why Victory Day (VE Day) is marked on a much larger scale in Russia today than in the Western Allied countries.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Possibly because the Nazis killed so many soviets and burned their villages that it takes a lot of attention away from the rape. Soviet causalities were obscenely high for both civilians and military. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The German army raped, and that has been well documented. Maybe interesting to note because it's seldom talked about, is that (for example) a lot of women were raped in Normandy by the allied forces. It's not really talked about much because the allied forces were the liberators of France, and as the liberators and it was ... uncouth to talk about the bad/horrible things the allied forces did to the local populace, or seems to have been considered so by the French authorities/populace. \n\nThis continued on to road into Germany as well - where the allied transgressions are far less publicized as well.\n\n[BBC article](_URL_0_) based amongst others on Hitchcock's Bitter Road to Freedom.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer to the second part of the question is quite obvious.\n\nCold war , the war that still exists partially today. One of the most common tactics of psychological conditioning of your own troops, was imprinting the fact : you represent order , morality , your men are best and showing that the enemy is worse trained ,equiped poorly and will inflict major attrocities on the people. In order to increase the effect you should remove the enemies reason to do so and display it as their nature.\n\nThis is the reason why we have these myths :\n\nRed army had 1 rifle per two men . (this was an isolated incident during defense of Moscow).\n\nRussians had no other tactics than frontal assaults.\n\nMillions raped on territory of Germany. (In the begging there were many incidets , but there was an order according to which any attrocities against the local population were punshable by death.) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not surprised that a lot of Historians don't want to touch this with a 10 foot pole.. .particularly the ones on here that are knowledgeable about Soviet Russia, Nazi Germany or World War II.\n\nThere are misconceptions about the Soviet Army in World War II, particularly when it comes to their level of technical and Organisational sophistication. \n\nThey weren't some sort of Asiatic horde riding out from the Steppes, they were an Army with a high degree of discipline and professionalism. Which makes the mass rapes that took place all the more horrifying as they couldn't have taken place without the support of the chain of command.\n\nAs for the German military, a rape would have been punished because It violated the NAZI race laws, military discipline was unconcerned about whether it was rape, but having sex with someone that was classed as less than Aryan was something that was punished serverely.\n\nDuring the NAZI occupation of western Europe, rape by the Germans of local civilian women was actually far less common than by the Allied liberators... largely because German military discipline was far harsher.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25854438", "title": "Rape during the occupation of Germany", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 750, "text": "As Allied troops entered and occupied German territory during the later stages of World War II, mass rapes of women took place both in connection with combat operations and during the subsequent occupation. Most Western scholars agree that the majority of the rapes were committed by Soviet servicemen, while some Russian historians maintain that these crimes were not widespread. The wartime rapes had been surrounded by decades of silence. According to Antony Beevor, whose books were banned in 2015 from some Russian schools and colleges, NKVD (Soviet secret police) files have revealed that the leadership knew what was happening, but did little to stop it. Some Russian historians disagree, claiming that the Soviet leadership took some action.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17572536", "title": "Wartime sexual violence", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Europe.:Red Army.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 172, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 172, "end_character": 596, "text": "During the war, German women were victims of brutal mass rapes committed against them by Soviet soldiers. Polish sources claim that mass rapes were committed in Polish cities that had been taken by the Red Army. It is reported that in Kraków, the Soviet occupation was accompanied by the mass rape of Polish women and girls, as well as the plunder of all private property by Soviet soldiers. Reportedly the scale of the attacks prompted communists installed by the Soviets to prepare a letter of protest to Joseph Stalin, while masses in churches were held in expectation of a Soviet withdrawal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7980471", "title": "Rape", "section": "Section::::History.:War rape.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 171, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 171, "end_character": 343, "text": "Rapes happened under occupied territories by the Red Army. A female Soviet war correspondent described what she had witnessed: \"The Russian soldiers were raping every German female from eight to eighty. It was an army of rapists.\" According to German historian Miriam Gebhardt, as many as 190,000 women were raped by U.S. soldiers in Germany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17572536", "title": "Wartime sexual violence", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Europe.:British.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 846, "text": "Although far from the scale of those committed by the Wehrmacht or Red Army, rapes of local women and girls were committed by British troops during the last months of WWII in Germany. Even elderly women were targeted. Though a high-profile issue for the Royal Military Police, some officers treated the behaviour of their men with leniency. Many rapes were committed by men who were either under the influence of alcohol or suffering from post-traumatic stress, but there were cases of premeditated attack, like the assault on three German women in the town of Neustadt am Rübemberge, on 16 April 1945, or the attempted gang rape of two local girls at gunpoint in the village of Oyle, near Nienburg, which ended in the death of one of the women when, whether intentionally or not, one of the soldiers discharged his gun, hitting her in the neck.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7980471", "title": "Rape", "section": "Section::::History.:War rape.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 170, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 170, "end_character": 688, "text": "Rapes were also committed by German forces stationed on the Eastern Front, where they were largely unpunished (as opposed to rapes committed in Western Europe)Wehrmacht also established a system of military brothels, in which young women and girls from occupied territories were forced into prostitution under harsh conditions.In the Soviet Union women were kidnapped by German forces for prostitution as well; one report by the International Military Tribunal writes \"\"in the city of Smolensk the German Command opened a brothel for officers in one of the hotels into which hundreds of women and girls were driven; they were mercilessly dragged down the street by their arms and hair\".\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22618", "title": "Operation Barbarossa", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:War crimes.:Sexual violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 951, "text": "Rape was a widespread phenomenon in the East as German soldiers regularly committed violent sexual acts against Soviet women. Whole units were occasionally involved in the crime with upwards of one-third of the instances being gang rape. Historian Hannes Heer relates that in the world of the eastern front, where the German army equated Russia with Communism, everything was \"fair game\"; thus, rape went unreported unless entire units were involved. Frequently in the case of Jewish women, they were immediately murdered following acts of sexual violence. Historian Birgit Beck emphasizes that military decrees, which served to authorize wholesale brutality on many levels, essentially destroyed the basis for any prosecution of sexual offenses committed by German soldiers in the East. She also contends that detection of such instances was limited by the fact that sexual violence was often inflicted in the context of billets in civilian housing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17572536", "title": "Wartime sexual violence", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Europe.:German forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 163, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 163, "end_character": 852, "text": "Rapes were committed by Wehrmacht forces on Jewish women and girls during the Invasion of Poland in September 1939; they were also committed against Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian women and girls during mass executions which were primarily carried out by the Selbstschutz units, with the assistance of Wehrmacht soldiers who were stationed in territory that was under the administration of the German military; the rapes were committed against female captives before they were shot. Only one case of rape was prosecuted by a German court during the military campaign in Poland, and even then the German judge found the perpetrator guilty of \"Rassenschande\" (committing a shameful act against his race as defined by the racial policy of Nazi Germany), rather than rape. Jewish women were particularly vulnerable to rape during The Holocaust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Wood in general is a very complicated material. The specific heat of any particular piece of wood is going to be dominated by the amount of water in that wood. So it can vary significantly not only from species to species but also within species according to what treatment, if any, the wood has undergone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "481098", "title": "Firewood", "section": "Section::::Heating value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 319, "text": "The energy content of a measure of wood depends on the tree species. For example, it can range from per cord. The higher the moisture content, the more energy that must be used to evaporate (boil) the water in the wood before it will burn. Dry wood delivers more energy for heating than green wood of the same species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "481098", "title": "Firewood", "section": "Section::::Heating value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 397, "text": "The moisture content of firewood determines how it burns and how much heat is released. Unseasoned (green) wood moisture content varies by the species; green wood may weigh 70 to 100 percent more than seasoned wood due to water content. Typically, seasoned (dry) wood has 20% or less moisture content. Use of the lower heating value is advised as a reasonable standard way of reporting this data.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43229740", "title": "Thermally modified wood", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 500, "text": "Thermally modified wood, is wood that has been modified by a controlled pyrolysis process of wood being heated ( 180 °C) in absence of oxygen inducing some chemical changes to the chemical structures of cell wall components (lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose) in the wood in order to increase its durability. Low oxygen content prevents the wood from burning at these high temperatures. Several different technologies are introduced using different media including nitrogen gas, steam and hot oil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18387734", "title": "Wood-burning stove", "section": "Section::::Fuel.:Hardwood or softwood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 480, "text": "The primary advantage of hardwoods are that they tend to contain more potential energy than the same volume of a softwood, thus increasing the amount of potential heat that can be stacked into one stoveload. Hardwood tends to form and maintain a bed of hot coals, which release lower amounts of heat for a long time. Hardwoods are ideal for long, low burns, especially in stoves with a poor ability to sustain a low burn, or in mild weather when high heat output is not required.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52995", "title": "Smoking (cooking)", "section": "Section::::Wood smoke.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 801, "text": "Since different species of trees have different ratios of components, various types of wood do impart a different flavor to food. Another important factor is the temperature at which the wood burns. High-temperature fires see the flavor molecules broken down further into unpleasant or flavorless compounds. The optimal conditions for smoke flavor are low, smoldering temperatures between . This is the temperature of the burning wood itself, not of the smoking environment, which uses much lower temperatures. Woods that are high in lignin content tend to burn hot; to keep them smoldering requires restricted oxygen supplies or a high moisture content. When smoking using wood chips or chunks, the combustion temperature is often raised by soaking the pieces in water before placing them on a fire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "695742", "title": "Cordwood construction", "section": "Section::::Thermal mass and insulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 691, "text": "However, wood is an anisotropic material with respect to heat flow. That means its thermal resistance depends on the direction of heat flow relative to the wood grain. While wood has a commonly quoted R-value of about 1.25 per inch (depending on the species and moisture content), that only applies if the heat flow is perpendicular to the grain, such as occurs in common wood frame construction. With cordwood/stackwall construction, the direction of heat flow is parallel to the grain. For this configuration, the R-value is only about 40% of that perpendicular to the grain. Thus, the actual R-value of wood, when used in cordwood/stackwall construction is closer to about 0.50 per inch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4396843", "title": "Wood drying", "section": "Section::::Wood–water relationships.:Equilibrium moisture content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 392, "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Greeks in antiquity did a *lot* of science, and we kept a lot of their words for things. I've said more than once in my anatomy class that “if it's not Latin, it's Greek.” To stay on topic, Greek has a lot more words in biology and physics (including those words), and Latin is more for chemical symbols and engineering.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most of what we consider 'Science' was developed in the European university system post-Renaissance. Since such universities were almost always affiliated with the Church, they created a common course of study that included Latin and Greek.\n\nAs a result, while scientists in different nations spoke different native languages, they *all* had familiarity with Latin (and, to a lesser extent, Greek). The Greek *letters* in particularly came to be used for many mathematical formulas because they were distinct from the standard alphabet, but still recognizable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Greek (and Latin, which occupies a very similar position) isn't directly used in science, but Greek and Latin words are very frequently mashed together to form technical (from Greek techn-: art, skill, craft) terms. Prior to English becoming the main language of science, Greek and Latin were used because those languages were spoken and read by nearly all highly educated Europeans regardless of their national origin. For example, Newton and Linnaeus wrote in Latin. These languages also had a reputation thanks to their connection to Classical writers whose thoughts formed the starting point for education at the time. \n\nAs people stopped writing in Latin and Greek they carried over the use of terms and even expanded it. A couple contributing factors may be at play. Less nobly, it acts as a sort of gatekeeping. You have to be educated to know the meanings. Every industry has a tendency toward jargon. But there's another more practical and probably more important reason, which is that it allows greater precision. Words in English or another language already have a meaning in that language. Roots may have multiple meanings or senses to a native speaker that may shift with time. But scientific roots in Greek or Latin have defined meanings that don't shift or change. And they can also be repurposed from their original meanings and used for specific scientific meanings. For example, haploid just comes from the Greek word for single. But scientifically Haploid doesn't mean \"single\" it means \"having a single set of chromosomes\". If we tried to call cells \"single cells\" in English it would be confusing because \"single cells\" also means \"there's just one cell\". But we can use haploid for a specific meaning of the word \"single\" that strips out the ambiguity and keeps us from having to explain what we mean exactly (as long as we know what haploid means anyway). \n\nEdit: another great example of how this works is with words surrounding \"knowledge\". The very word \"science\" comes from a Latin word scientia, which simply means \"knowledge.\" But of course we use it to mean a specific _type_ of knowledge. The _Greek_ root for knowledge is _gnos_, from which we derive things like \"Diagnosis\" and \"Cognition\"...other specific terms related to knowledge. So having another language of roots to draw on can really help you come up with specific terms for more specific versions of things your language already has a word for. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is true in English and other European countries. Less so elsewhere, except to the extent that they've adopted Western scientific terminology.\n\nSo, most early Christian texts were either in Latin or certain Greek dialects.\n\nThrough most of the middle ages, the people who carried on scholarly traditions of reading and penmanship, were christian clergy, or people taught by them. So you learned the \"old languages\" by means of translating and copying old religious documents. That meant that if you were a wealthy, educated person, you knew some Greek or Latin.\n\nMoreover If you wanted to publish something in and have it understood by scholars in other countries who might not speak your language, or if you wanted people in the future to understand it......Latin or Greek. And chances are, if you wanted to quote something someone said in the past....you guessed it.\n\nMuslim scholars in the middle ages also had a role in this as well. The middle Eastern world was trading with 3 continents and collecting ideas from all of them at the time when most of Europe was constantly warring over farmland. I feel that Muslim scholarship traditionally takes accuracy in of copying religious works especially seriously. They had an advantage of dry climate where paper/parchment was a lot less likely to deteriorate.\n\nSo, middle Eastern scholars were able to preserve the writing of classical Greek philosophers. They then combined that with maths traded from India and China.\n\n Then there was a major flourishing of science in Renaissance Europe. Lots of people publishing what turned out to be pertinent and timely stuff... using Greek or Latin terms to describe things.\n\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Latin is a so called dead language and doesn't change, so does the meaning of what you express in latin.\n\nLet's use an actual example for greek. Todays leading language in IT is english. People from all over the world can talk about IT topics in english and understand each other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24792410", "title": "Eugenios Voulgaris", "section": "Section::::Greek language question.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 676, "text": "The discussion on the Greek language question began at the end of the 18th century. Because western Europeans were familiar with, and valued, the ancient Greek language, Eugenios Voulgaris, along with Lambros Photiadis, Stephanos Commitas (1770–1832) and Neophytos Doukas, proposed that the modern Greek language should be archaised and assimilated to Ancient Greek, while his students Iosipos Moisiodax (1725–1800) and Dimitrios Katartzis (c. 1725–1807) preferred the use of the contemporary vernacular language as it had evolved (Dimotiki). This discussion would become crucial when it was to be decided which form should be the official language of the modern Greek state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11887", "title": "Greek language", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 666, "text": "The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world and Christianity; the canon of ancient Greek literature includes works in the Western canon such as the epic poems \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\". Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science, especially astronomy, mathematics and logic and Western philosophy, such as the Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle, are composed; the New Testament of the Christian Bible was written in Koiné Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5178", "title": "Classics", "section": "Section::::Classical Greece.:Language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 431, "text": "Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55419", "title": "History of linguistics", "section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Greece.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 498, "text": "At that period, the Greek language functioned as a \"lingua franca\", a language spoken throughout the known world (for the Greeks and Romans) of that time and, as a result, modern linguistics struggles to overcome this. With the Greeks a tradition commenced in the study of language. The Romans and the medieval world followed, and their laborious work is considered today as a part of our everyday language. Think, for example, of notions such as the word, the syllable, the verb, the subject etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14817052", "title": "Greek language question", "section": "Section::::Historical development.:1976: Resolution and the end of diglossia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 225, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 225, "end_character": 432, "text": "The result has been that with SMG, \"the Greeks of today have the best of both worlds, since their contemporary language offers them potentially the most expressive and productive features of both demotic and \"katharevousa\"\"; and that now \"People can use this language without political implications or personal risk, and the old embarrassment stemming from uncertainty about 'correct' written usage is largely a thing of the past.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148363", "title": "Ancient Greek", "section": "Section::::Modern use.:Modern real-world usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 444, "text": "Ancient Greek is also used by organizations and individuals, mainly Greek, who wish to denote their respect, admiration or preference for the use of this language. This use is sometimes considered graphical, nationalistic or humorous. In any case, the fact that modern Greeks can still wholly or partly understand texts written in non-archaic forms of ancient Greek shows the affinity of the modern Greek language to its ancestral predecessor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34544710", "title": "Floris Italicae lingue libri novem", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 397, "text": "Greek becomes the refuge of the vernacular in order to fill those linguistic gaps left by Latin, when the latter could not supply an etymology - this leading Monosini to credit Homer’s language with a series of words that have nothing to do with Greek roots. However, those Hellenic suggestions that Monosini made in his lexicon, one may take them for correct within an Indo-European perspective.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I wrote a report on slave narratives. I read Frederick Douglas', Harriet Jacob's and W.E.B. DuBois (although DuBois was not a slave himself). Not every slave owner was cruel to their slaves. Although there was a stigma of a man that wasn't stern with his slaves, as the community would think that he was not doing his job as a slave owner. However, Douglas had an awful story about how he was nearly beaten to death. And Jacob's story was about how she lived in an attic for 7 years in order to avoid her master in the hopes of one day finding an escape. \nRegardless, the average slave was property, therefore given the bare essentials and often lacking that. The system was all about making money. If a slave owner thought that he'd make more productive slaves by beating them and occasionally making serious examples, then it was reasonable to do so. \nBut regardless of how they are currently depicted or whatever stories we hear from that time period, we need to be respectful of what happened and realize that it was despicable because of their status, not only their conditions. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > but people don't beat their horses to within one inch of their life. \n\nOf course they do. \n\nIn the 1930s the WPA interviewed more than 2000 slaves, who describe their treatment in detail. These are available [online](_URL_1_). [Here](_URL_0_) is a selection with brief descriptions of their contents. The first link takes you to a master link of narratives. They're quite brutal. It is not pleasant reading in any sense. Of course, Solomon Northrup's own account can also be found online, [here](_URL_1_) for example. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was a reason why masters beat slaves much more severely than they beat animals--slaves were a lot smarter. Tie an animal to a post and the animal won't and can't run away. Not so with people. If you read the book upon which 12 Years a Slave was based, you'll learn that 24/7 policing was necessary to prevent slaves from running away. You'll also note that in 12 Years a Slave, the cruelty and torture to which Northup was subjected, was not limited to just one person--it was a large number of different people in different circumstances and different states who committed it. As the WPA interviews, and other slave narratives, demonstrate, such cruelty was indeed widespread. Some slaves were lucky enough to avoid some of it. But most could not. White men could basically rape their enslaved women any time they felt like it, with no punishment or even acknowledgement that anything was wrong. In the delicate language of the 19th century, this is described in all the literature. Every slave was subject to being parted from their loved ones at any time, forever. In short, yes, things were as bad for the average slave as were depicted in the film. Not for every slave, but for a very large percentage of them. And actually, if you read the book, you'll see that things were quite a bit WORSE than were depicted in the movie. But if they had depicted it accurately, it would have become redundant and the audience would have been desensitized to the violence and degradation. What we today say is evil, was at that time considered to be normal, necessary, and GOOD. Spare the rod, spoil the child. Bible passages were quoted aplenty to show why it was important to make slaves obey and work. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I didn't want to make another thread about the movie, but I wanted to ask a side question: How often were black people kidnapped and forced into slavery. It always seemed like a very plausible thing to do as record-keeping was spotty.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was no average life for an average slave on an average plantation -- that's one of the reasons I really enjoyed the film *12 Years a Slave*. It shows the multiple ways that slaves existed, and the numerous strategies that slave owners adopted. One strategy was essentially a paternalist approach, epitomized in the film by Benedict Cumberbatch's character. The idea is that the slave owner won't face as much resistance from slaves if he treats them with some measure of decency, and develops a bond of some kind between slave and master. In case you're interested, this way of mediating between master and slave was famously charted by Eugene Genovese in his book *Roll, Jordan, Roll*. \n\nThe other major strategy was to inspire terror. I think that you err in assuming that these slave owners' infliction of violence on their slaves was irrational. Your comparison between them and \"Hitler/Satan\" and your example of people not beating their horses suggests this, at least to me. Rather, slave owners' violence was often quite calculated and strategic. As someone else noted in this thread, slaves were much smarter than horses. They saw that they could be beaten or killed for any act of defiance. In the antebellum South, many slave owners maintained a constant atmosphere of violence and fear, in order to keep slaves under control. Slave owners were not simply cruel for no reason. Admittedly, in the film, Epps seemed to be motivated by simple malice. Fassbender's portrayal didn't allow for much nuance. However, slave owners would have known precisely why they were attacking or beating their slaves. \n\nA final point I'll make tonight is that if we look beyond the antebellum South, prior to the abolition of the slave trade, it was not uncommon for slave owners to beat or work their \"property\" to death, knowing that they could cheaply replace them. Admittedly, this changed to an extent after the slave trade was abolished, but I would argue that the logic was not really that much different in the mid-nineteenth century United States. Slaves were replaceable, and a slave that resisted his/her master's tyranny in any way might seem to be more trouble than he or she was worth. This logic certainly holds for other kinds of property - horses, in your example.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd respond to your question with a definitive yes. I'd suggest reading up on how Cecil Rhodes exploited black South Africans in the 1800's as a way to extract minerals that were plentiful in the area, or how black people were treated in King Leopold's Congo Free State. To imperialists like these, blacks were considered to be less than human beings,were seen as instruments for economic advancement, and were treated accordingly. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I find your question fascinating in that it proves that the post-war propaganda of former confederate leaders was really successful. They managed to make it sound, against all evidence, like the war was not about slavery, and that slavery was not that bad. Their declarations during or before the war attest to their dishonesty. \n\nAs for your comparison with Hitler, as far as I know he never got his hands dirty killing jews. In fact if I'm not mistaken he saved at least one, his childhood doctor and his family. At the same time, the actual perpetrators were, in their own words, \"just following orders.\" Even if the end result is similarly horrible as what you describe, nazism was thus actually much easier for the human psyche. \n\nThus it took extremely bad people, or a system powerful enough to turn normal ones into very bad ones. That's probably why racism is still so rampant in the Southern US, it had to be extreme so as to have cognitive dissonance resolve towards treating slaves like chattel.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Note: strictly speaking this is not an answer to this question, it is more of a meta-answer, but it provides some points which I think are important so I'm posting it regardless.\n\nFirst off, realize that it is fundamentally impossible to truly understand the nature of slavery (anywhere) through any narrative, no matter how intimate. The fact is that without spending years and years of your life as a slave, without having the sure certain knowledge that you will live all the rest of your years and die as the property of another man burned into your consciousness you can only possibly understand the rudimentary outlines of slavery.\n\nSecond, the truth does not solve this problem. The truth is, was, that the day to day life of many slaves wasn't all that bad. In fact, compared to the average experience of the average \"free\" citizen of North America through the mid 19th century it really wasn't so bad at all, and some slaves lived lives that might seem preferable compared to many non-slaves in America, even up through, say, 1850. If you were an alien from a remote stellar system who had no knowledge of the history of slavery and through some high-tech device you were able to watch, say, an entire week's worth of footage of some random subset of American slaves circa 1850 you might not think it was such a bad deal.\n\nBut such conclusions would be erroneous, and hugely so. The problem here is that humans are great at coping, it's one of our most powerful features, and statistics can lead you to incorrect conclusions because outlier events can be so important that they define the nature of a thing. As a hypothetical, imagine a father who rapes his pre-teen daughter every year on her birthday. Statistically that incest/rape is an outlier, but that event is so important that the fact that it happens at all, let alone repeatedly, makes a huge qualitative and categorical difference.\n\nAnd that's the situation with oppression in general and slavery in particular. If the master only whips one of many slaves on a plantation once over a period of a decade the fact that such a thing ever happened and that it's possible for such a thing to happen utterly characterizes the master/slave relationship. You can look into someone's eyes, you can talk with them, you can spend hours and hours with them, you can think you know them but there is a good chance that you may never learn that for them every waking moment they are living in fear. There are thousands of abused spouses in this county who are living in fear and hiding their fear from even their closest friends. Imagine what it must have been like to live as a slave in 19th century America. To know the degree to which it is codified in the informal and formal rules of society and in the laws of the land that you are less. That any white man can say anything he wants to you or order you around. That your master controls your fate not you. That your master could force you to marry whoever he chose. That your master could sell your children or your wife and you could do nothing about it. That your master could rape your wife or your daughter and you could do nothing to stop it. Less. Powerless. Worthless. Hopeless.\n\nCould you imagine how that would affect your thinking, your personality, your capacity for happiness every single waking moment of your life? And imagine how it must feel to build up little mental rationalizations in your mind, to think that your master isn't so bad, that he doesn't seem likely to ever rape you or your friends or loved ones, or sell you or them off to some other plantation. And then one day something happens that's just slightly out of character for your master, maybe he gets angry and is verbally abusive when he's never been before, who knows. Or maybe he just takes ill for a little while and you're faced thinking about what will happen if you're forced to work for another master. Suddenly your little house of rationalizations is in doubt, suddenly there is nothing that you can depend on in your life. Suddenly the possibility of being whipped repeatedly, casually executed for sport, raped or see your loved ones raped, all of that becomes a lingering possibility at the back of your mind.\n\nThat's the true horror of slavery. And it's that sort of thing that is impossible to get across without dressing up slavery in \"stage makeup\" and focusing on abuses more than ordinary daily life, because those events are by and large more relevant.\n\nAbuses were not universally the norm, they were often the exception. But the fact that they did still happen and the fact that they could happen at any time is what characterized slavery in that setting and time period. As I said, there is absolutely no way to get across the entirety of the experience of slavery through the medium of film, television, or literature, so then it becomes necessary to provide a sketch, an impression of the nature of slavery. And any such sketch which does not include abuses as a fundamental aspect of the nature of slavery in America is one that is irredeemably flawed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends (as everything else) on *when* you are talking about. Before Slavery began to be restricted in terms of import/export, it was cheaper in French Caribbean and British West Indies sugar producing colonies to import slaves, and simply work them to death and purchase new ones, afterwards, it was not. \n\nIn that time before restriction, on sugar plantations, your idea of a slave as a performing asset held little weight and the death tolls were staggering, and are often overlooked. \n\nBut, post 1807 for the Brits, and 1808 for the US, the actual trade if not the condition of slavery ended. This made it harder to obtain slaves. The British on one track, having not had slavery in Britain itself, were on the way to freeing slaves in the imperial colonies by 1834. The US on the other hand, demurred from making a nationally binding decision and continued chattel slavery in their slave states until the American Civil War decided the question. \n\nThis makes the idea of a slave as a performing asset somewhat more valid, as simply buying up a load of new people became far more expensive, new slaves had to be bred, or bought instead of simply harvested. \n\nBut the literature and narratives often show us that far from being the kind of class that would treat a slave like one should a productive asset, and ensure full output, they instead opted for what is called the BPM in Poli/sci and economics, and that is do just enough to succeed and no more than necessary. So slaves were fed, and clothed, but not exceptionally well. They were disciplined, sometimes harshly, sometimes to death. And let us not be naïve, part and parcel of the condition of being a slave was the mental conditioning that kept them from rebelling or running away, which to the present mind, is cruel beyond comprehension. And the possibility of rape, the division of family, and of punishment unto death, hangs heavy on the present mind. These all existed, like Damocles’ sword above their heads, whether they were inflicted or not. \n\nAlthough, it also has to be said that not every slave tried to escape and some didn't see any hope in an attempt, the condition and conditioning thereof was designed to convince them of same, round the clock, their entire life. \n\nAnd furthermore, underneath that conditioning, that lay upon the human spirit like a blanket, the slave was still a thinking human being who without that conditioning, had a natural desire for freedom and a natural desire to use all of their powers to obtain that freedom, if they had not been broken. This made a strong motivation for the owning class to keep them alive and working, but not too much else, less they gain enough faculty or strength to overcome their condition by force. So treating them too well, was expressly against good management practice of the time period. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I wrote an essay in my undergrad on the sexual lives of slaves in antebellum south. [The primary source I used were interviews with surviving slaves, most of whom were children during the war.](_URL_0_) The conclusions I drew were that masters controlled virtually every aspect of a slave's sexual life, except that which the slave could carve out for him/herself in private. \n\nMasters controlled who slaves had sex with, and would \"breed\" them. They would separate them from their spouses and chidlren, and *might* consider selling families together, but pretty much only if they were convinced that such a sale would increase their productivity. \n\nMasters would have sex with their female slaves, who had virtually no way of resisting. They would use rape as punishment, as well as just because they could.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2410117", "title": "Richard Cohen (columnist)", "section": "Section::::Opinions.:Racial issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 679, "text": "On November 4, 2013, Cohen published a column about the film \"12 Years a Slave\", in which he wrote: \"Instead, beginning with school, I got a gauzy version. I learned that slavery was wrong, yes, that it was evil, no doubt, but really, that many blacks were sort of content. Slave owners were mostly nice people — fellow Americans, after all — and the sadistic Simon Legree was the concoction of that demented propagandist, Harriet Beecher Stowe.\" Shortly afterwards, on November 11, in the course of a column about New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, Cohen referred to the recent victory of Bill de Blasio as Mayor of New York City and de Blasio's wife Chirlane McCray writing: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37125755", "title": "12 Years a Slave (film)", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Box office.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 675, "text": "\"12 Years a Slave\" earned $187.7 million, including $56.7 million in the United States. During its opening limited release in the United States, \"12 Years a Slave\" debuted with a weekend total of $923,715 on 19 screens for a $48,617 per-screen average. The following weekend, the film entered the top ten after expanding to 123 theatres and grossing an additional $2.1 million. It continued to improve into its third weekend, grossing $4.6 million at 410 locations. The film release was expanded to over 1,100 locations on November 8, 2013. In 2014, \"12 Years a Slave\" was the 10th most-illegally downloaded movie, with 23.653 million such downloads, according to \"Variety\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3947788", "title": "William Saunders Crowdy", "section": "Section::::Early life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 627, "text": "Life was hard on a 19th-century plantation and the cruel overseer on Crowdy's plantation punished the slaves brutally. Despite it being illegal for slaves to read, Crowdy was a religious and caring man from a young age and learned the Hebrew prophets, especially Elijah. According to oral history Crowdy was beaten by the slavemaster at age 7 for taking too much cornpone from the ration cook to feed his sister. He spent the night locked in a barn for punishment but prayed to Moses to be released from bondage of his captors. Ten years to the day later, in 1863, at age 17, Crowdy escaped from his master after an argument. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7528772", "title": "Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (Charleston, South Carolina)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 481, "text": "Of the five cabins on site, four were built in slavery times and one about 1900. They have been restored to differing periods: 1850 and other decades after the war, into the twentieth century, as they housed free as well as enslaved workers. The interpretive program reflects African-American history at the plantation, \"From Slavery to Freedom\". Archeological work is revealing more about the lives of both slaves and free black workers, who were skilled gardeners and craftsmen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10923511", "title": "Slave health on plantations in the United States", "section": "Section::::Diseases among slaves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 307, "text": "While working on plantations in the Southern United States, many slaves faced serious health problems. Improper nutrition, unsanitary living conditions, and excessive labor made them more susceptible to diseases than their owners; the death rates among the slaves were significantly higher due to diseases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37125755", "title": "12 Years a Slave (film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 649, "text": "12 Years a Slave is a 2013 biographical period drama film and an adaptation of the 1853 slave memoir \"Twelve Years a Slave\" by Solomon Northup, a New York State-born free African-American man who was kidnapped in Washington, D.C. by two conmen in 1841 and sold into slavery. Northup was put to work on plantations in the state of Louisiana for 12 years before being released. The first scholarly edition of Northup's memoir, co-edited in 1968 by Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon, carefully retraced and validated the account and concluded it to be accurate. Other characters in the film were also real people, including Edwin and Mary Epps, and Patsey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37125755", "title": "12 Years a Slave (film)", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 700, "text": "Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 95% of critics gave the film a positive rating, based on 355 reviews with an average score of 8.91/10, with the site's consensus stating, \"It's far from comfortable viewing, but \"12 Years a Slave\"s unflinchingly brutal look at American slavery is also brilliant – and quite possibly essential – cinema.\" Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 96 out of 100 based on 57 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be \"universal acclaim\". It is currently one of the site's highest-rated films, as well as the best-reviewed film of 2013. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an \"A\" grade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Daylight time changes vary by latitude; in July the North pole experiences 24 hours of daylight while in December it experiences 0, so there must be a change of at least 24 hours daylight time in 180 days, which turns out to average about 8 minutes a day change. At the equator no change is perceived at all (0 minutes per day).\n\nMore than that, the *rate* of change varies through the year. At the winter and summer solstices the changes are relatively slow. At the autumn and spring equinoxes the rates of change are at their highest. This is because during winter and summer the earths pole is pointing directly away or toward the sun (depending on hemisphere and season), while at spring and autumn the earths axis is perpendicular to the sun.\n\nAs a result the daily change in daylight hours varies by how North or South you are, as well as the time of year. You can explore the range of impact here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "190933", "title": "Sunset", "section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1154, "text": "The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20020609", "title": "Mirage of astronomical objects", "section": "Section::::Novaya Zemlya effect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 328, "text": "Due to a normal atmospheric refraction, sunrise occurs shortly before the Sun crosses above the horizon. Light from the Sun is bent, or refracted, as it enters earth's atmosphere. This effect causes the apparent sunrise to be earlier than the actual sunrise. Similarly, apparent sunset occurs slightly later than actual sunset.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "190933", "title": "Sunset", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 323, "text": "The time of sunset is defined in astronomy as the moment when the upper limb of the Sun disappears below the horizon. Near the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes sunlight rays to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the solar disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when a sunset is observed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "190933", "title": "Sunset", "section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1044, "text": "As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "997476", "title": "Night sky", "section": "Section::::Brightness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 376, "text": "After sunset the civil twilight sets in, and ends when the sun drops more than 6° below the horizon. This is followed by the nautical twilight, when the sun reaches heights of -6° and -12°, after which comes the astronomical twilight defined as the period from -12° to -18°. When the sun drops more than 18° below the horizon the sky generally attains its minimum brightness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20611356", "title": "Equator", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 443, "text": "Locations on the Equator experience the shortest sunrises and sunsets because the Sun's daily path is nearly perpendicular to the horizon for most of the year. The length of daylight (sunrise to sunset) is almost constant throughout the year; it is about 14 minutes longer than nighttime due to atmospheric refraction and the fact that sunrise begins (or sunset ends) as the upper limb, not the center, of the Sun's disk contacts the horizon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10100", "title": "Equinox", "section": "Section::::Equinoxes on Earth.:Geocentric view of the astronomical seasons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 910, "text": "BULLET::::- Sunrise and sunset are commonly defined for the upper limb of the solar disk, rather than its center. The upper limb is already up for at least a minute before the center appears, and the upper limb likewise sets later than the center of the solar disk. Also, when the Sun is near the horizon, atmospheric refraction shifts its apparent position above its true position by a little more than its own diameter. This makes sunrise more than two minutes earlier and sunset an equal amount later. These two effects combine to make the equinox day 12 h 7 min long and the night only 11 h 53 min. Note, however, that these numbers are only true for the tropics. For moderate latitudes, the discrepancy increases (e.g., 12 minutes in London); and closer to the poles it becomes very much larger (in terms of time). Up to about 100 km from either pole, the Sun is up for a full 24 hours on an equinox day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Let me disect your question.\n\nWhat is a fetish? Whoever you ask, be it a psychologist, a biologist or a sociologist, you probably will in detail receive very different answers.\nHowever, they will most likely all have one thing in common:\n\nSexual behaviour outside the norm.\n\nThe differences will most likely be regarding the answer of \"what is the norm / normal\"\n\nTo answer your question we will go with what the biologist may have to say about that: \nAny sexual behaviour which does not directly produce offspring.\n\nRecreational sex is simply a waste of energy.\n\nWith this - granted - very narrow definition of what a fetish is, you will be able to observe them with animals as well. \n\nBonobos, for example, the so-called \"hippie apes,\" are known for same-sex interactions, and for interactions between mature individuals and sub-adults or juveniles.\n\nOral sex also occurs with some frequency throughout the animal kingdom. It's been observed in primates, spotted hyenas, goats and sheep. Female cheetahs and lions lick and rub the males' genitals as a part of their courtship ritual.\n\nWe humans did just take it to the extrem, just like with everything else.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depends on what you call a fetish.\n\nMale goats have been shown to like pee play and seeing female goats simulate sex. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43094", "title": "Gender role", "section": "Section::::Communication.:Communication and sexual desire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 586, "text": "This may be greatly affected by masculine people being less inhibited by social norms for expressing their desire, being more aware of their sexual desire or succumbing to the expectation of their gender culture. When feminine people employ tactics to show their sexual desire, they are typically more indirect in nature. On the other hand, it is known masculinity is associated with aggressive behavior in all mammals, and most likely explains at least part of the fact that masculine people are more likely to express their sexual interest. This is known as the Challenge hypothesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14083964", "title": "Animal psychopathology", "section": "Section::::Behavioral disorders.:Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 440, "text": "Obsessive compulsive behavior in animals, often called \"stereotypy\" or \"stereotypical behavior\" can be defined as a specific, unnecessary action (or series of actions) repeated more often than would normally be expected. It is unknown whether animals are able to 'obsess' in the same way as humans, and because the motivation for compulsive acts in non-human animals is unknown, the term \"abnormal repetitive behaviour\" is less misleading.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1787105", "title": "Animal sexual behaviour", "section": "Section::::Motivation.:Pleasure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 771, "text": "It is often assumed that animals do not have sex for pleasure, or alternatively that humans, pigs, bonobos (and perhaps dolphins and one or two more species of primates) are the only species that do. This is sometimes stated as \"animals mate only for reproduction\". This view is considered a misconception by some scholars. Jonathan Balcombe argues that the prevalence of non-reproductive sexual behaviour in certain species suggests that sexual stimulation is pleasurable. He also points to the presence of the clitoris in some female mammals, and evidence for female orgasm in primates. On the other hand, it is impossible to know the subjective feelings of animals, and the notion that non-human animals experience emotions similar to humans is a contentious subject.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10365830", "title": "Stable vices", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 313, "text": "Stereotypical behaviors in animals are generally thought to be caused by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioral needs. Rather than refer to these behaviors as abnormal, it has been suggested that they be described as \"behavior indicative of an abnormal environment.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14529239", "title": "Zoophilia", "section": "Section::::Debate over zoophilia or zoophilic relations.:Arguments for bestiality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 372, "text": "Research has proven that non-human animals can and do have sex for non-reproductive purposes (and for pleasure). In 2006, a Danish Animal Ethics Council report concluded that ethically performed zoosexual activity is capable of providing a positive experience for all participants, and that some non-human animals are sexually attracted to humans (for example, dolphins).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156115", "title": "Sexual fetishism", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 383, "text": "Various explanations have been put forth for the rarity of female fetishists. Most fetishes are visual in nature, and males are thought to be more sexually sensitive to visual stimuli. Roy Baumeister suggests that male sexuality is unchangeable, except for a brief period in childhood during which fetishism could become established, while female sexuality is fluid throughout life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51741134", "title": "Akodessawa Fetish Market", "section": "Section::::Fetish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 256, "text": "The fetish is comparable to the Orisha of Yoruba. A fetish can be God, but also human, plant, animal or material. This depends on the ritual and the situation. In the ritual, the fetish is activated and strengthened. Fetishes may have been special people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is primarily an infection involving the upper respiratory tract. The virus is primarily shed through coughing/sneezing. The likelihood of semen or sweat containing the virus is low and unless those fluids are inhaled it wouldn't cause an infection. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18842168", "title": "Semen", "section": "Section::::Health.:Disease transmission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 434, "text": "Semen can transmit many sexually transmitted diseases and pathogens, including viruses like HIV and Ebola. Swallowing semen carries no additional risk other than those inherent in fellatio. This includes transmission risk for sexually transmitted diseases such as human papillomavirus (HPV) or herpes, especially for people with bleeding gums, gingivitis or open sores. Viruses in semen survive for a long time once outside the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19019270", "title": "Sexually transmitted infection", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Viruses in semen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 268, "text": "Twenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted. Those found in semen are listed by the CDC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "403043", "title": "Cum shot", "section": "Section::::Health risks.:Transmission of disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 452, "text": "Any sexual activity that involves contact with the bodily fluids of another person contains the risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Semen is in itself generally harmless on the skin or if swallowed. However, semen can be the vehicle for many sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV and hepatitis. The California Occupational Safety and Health Administration categorizes semen as \"other potentially infectious material\" or OPIM.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "77538", "title": "Perspiration", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Pathological sweating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 251, "text": "Some people can develop a sweat allergy. The allergy is not due to the sweat itself but instead to an allergy-producing protein secreted by bacteria found on the skin. Tannic-acid has been found to suppress the allergic response along with showering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "828290", "title": "Underarm hair", "section": "Section::::Development and function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 257, "text": "The evolutionary significance of human underarm hair is still debated. It may naturally wick sweat or other moisture away from the skin, aiding ventilation. Colonization by odor-producing bacteria is thereby transferred away from the skin (see skin flora).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21009963", "title": "Meningitis", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Behavioral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 531, "text": "Bacterial and viral meningitis are contagious, but neither is as contagious as the common cold or flu. Both can be transmitted through droplets of respiratory secretions during close contact such as kissing, sneezing or coughing on someone, but cannot be spread by only breathing the air where a person with meningitis has been. Viral meningitis is typically caused by enteroviruses, and is most commonly spread through fecal contamination. The risk of infection can be decreased by changing the behavior that led to transmission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "447152", "title": "Facial (sex act)", "section": "Section::::Health risks.:Transmission of disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 466, "text": "Any sexual activity that involves contact with the bodily fluids of another person contains the risk of transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs). Semen is in itself generally harmless on the skin or if swallowed. However, semen can be the vehicle for many sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV and hepatitis. The California Occupational Safety and Health Administration categorizes semen as \"other potentially infectious material\" or OPIM.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "For the same reason that they're used (or used to be used) at baseball games: volume. Even a small hockey stadium is a huge place, filled with screaming fans, and the pipe organ has the oomph to be heard in that environment.\n\nNowadays, most use \"electronic pipe organs.\" The one in Chicago's United Center, for example, uses recorded pipe organ sound, and cost something near $150,000.\n\nIt's not as fun as the one that was demolished with \"The Madhouse on Madison,\" but it still sounds good.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "96914", "title": "Pitch pipe", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 291, "text": "A pitch pipe is a small device used to provide a pitch reference for musicians without absolute pitch. Although it may be described as a musical instrument, it is not typically used to play music as such. Technically, it is a harmonica; however, it lacks many characteristics of harmonicas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2304632", "title": "Mišnice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 361, "text": "It is played by blowing into one pipe while using the fingers to cover or uncover holes in another pipe. It sounds similar to modern bagpipes, but not identical. The chanter, on which the melody is played, is actually a double pipe, with six holes on each side; one set of holes is used as the drone, while the other plays the tune in almost the same register.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246292", "title": "Great Highland bagpipe", "section": "Section::::Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 458, "text": "Bagpipes are rarely played with other instruments due to their tuning. Most other instruments tune at standard concert pitch which is 440 Hz whilst a bagpipe tunes between around 475 HZ and 485 Hz depending on humidity levels. It is possible to change the pitch by using different chanters and reeds, which is why bagpipes are sometimes used with other instruments however, the pipes sound sweeter when played at the pitch they are supposed to be played at.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10115779", "title": "Tholu bommalata", "section": "Section::::Performance details.:Musical instruments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 481, "text": "The musical instruments consist of a harmonium, a portable keyboard organ that sometimes serves only as a drone; a long, two-headed South Indian drum with tapering ends (mrudangam); strings of bells worn on the ankles and wrists; and pairs of finger cymbals. A wooden shoe with stilts is used to keep its wearer above the mud during the rainy season, and can be struck against schoolchildren's seating planks to create dramatic clacking and banging sound effects for fight scenes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1437688", "title": "Electronic drum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 208, "text": "Strictly speaking, sequencers playing pre-programmed electronic drum tracks and electronic or digital drum machines are not electronic drums, because a drummer or other musician is not triggering the sounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7464628", "title": "Mickey's Ultimate Challenge", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1093, "text": "\"Playing the Pipes\" is another memory game. Several pipes light up and make different noises in a pattern that builds every turn. Mickey must listen, remember, and repeat what he heard. He can do this by jumping on the top of the pipes and playing the notes back in the proper order. The pipes only play one melody, adding one note after every time Mickey successfully completes the previous one. Difficulty of game play determines the length of the melody. Players must play all the right pipes to receive the item from Huey, Dewey, and Louie. In \"Guess the Tools\", Goofy wants Mickey to guess what tools are in his toolbox. Mickey has seven attempts to successfully guess the tools and their order inside Goofy's toolbox. After each guess, a clue appears telling players how many and which tools you guessed in the correct order. In easier games, the tools turn red or green to denote correctness. In more difficult games, a small quartered square of red and green pieces tells Mickey which ones are right. Players must correctly guess what is in Goofy's toolbox to earn an item from Goofy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2092226", "title": "One-man band", "section": "Section::::History and meanings.:Live instruments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 730, "text": "The earliest known records of multiple musical instruments being played at the same time date from the 13th century, and were the pipe and tabor. The pipe was a simple three-holed flute that could be played with one hand; the tabor is more commonly known today as a snare drum. This type of playing can still be heard in parts of rural France, in England and Spain. An Elizabethan-era woodcut shows a clown playing the pipe and tabor. An 1820s watercolour painting shows a one-man band with a rhythm-making stick, panpipes around his neck and a bass drum and tambourine beside him. Henry Mayhew's history of London street life in the 1840s and 1850s described a blind street performer who played bells, the violin and accordions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not well versed on their reaction to all of the Crusades, but their opinion of the First Crusade was initially very positive. Emperor Alexius had extracted oaths of loyalty from the prominent Crusader leaders, and promises to restore reconquered territory in Anatolia to the Romans, and this is what happened initially. Alexius gave the Crusader armies extensive supplies for their journey, as well as knowledgeable guides. He sent his navy along the coasts to help them whenever possible, and eventually sent armies in their wake to protect the conquests of the Crusaders (which, naturally, he wanted to see restored to his empire). Cooperation between the Romans and the Crusaders was effective and relation were relatively positive - both parties had the same objectives; to defeat the Seljuks and restore land to the Christians. However, things took a sharp turn when the Crusaders refused to hand over Antioch to the Romans following its capture in 1098. Alexius was understandably angry, since it was in direct violation of their previous agreements. \n\nThings took a further negative turn when the Crusaders revealed their intention of invading the Fatamid Caliphate and retaking the Holy Land. Alexius was on good terms with the Fatamids, since both of them viewed the Seljuks as a more serious threat than each other, and they agreed that it was in both of their best interests to focus their attention on defending against the Seljuks rather than fighting each other. Alexius warned the Crusaders not to start a war with the Fatamids, but they ignored him and marched down the Levant coast. The Emperor was furious and promptly cut off all aid he was giving them, including supplies and naval assistance. For the rest of the First Crusade (which at that point continued for only a few more months) there was no cooperation between the Romans and Crusaders. Alexius saw the invasion of the Holy Land as pointless from a strategic perspective and in nobody's best interests, and quickly distanced himself from the Crusaders and tried to maintain positive relations with the Fatamids, telling them he had nothing to do with it.\n\nThe only Crusader state that the Romans had somewhat positive (or at least not overtly negative) relations with was the Principality of Antioch, since its prince, Bohemund, swore fealty to Alexius as his overlord. This took some of the sting off the Crusaders' refusal to hand over the city, although Roman control of the principality was minimal and tensions were always high, since the princes simultaneously were influenced by the Kingdom of Jerusalem as well.\n\nSource: *God's War: A New History of the Crusades* by Christopher Tyreman", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "u/Wonderfully_Mediocre’s not at all mediocre post already goes over the First Crusade, so I’ll just link to some previous answers of mine about that: [When the Crusaders left Anatolia, was the Levant still covered by their oath to return territory to the Byzantine Empire?](_URL_2_) and [Why did Bohemund declare himself the Prince of Antioch, not the King?](_URL_1_)\n\nAfter the First Crusade, the Byzantines were happy that Jerusalem and the other holy sites were in Christian hands again, but they wanted to make sure that the rights of Greek Christians were respected (which they were very often not, under crusader rule). Otherwise they didn’t really think anything of it from a political point of view, since Jerusalem was strategically unimportant to them. They did have a fairly good relationship with the crusader kingdom in Jerusalem; the royal families intermarried, and they tried to conduct military expeditions together (particularly against Egypt), but the Byzantines didn’t really want to rule anything except Antioch.\n\nFor the Second Crusade, both Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany travelled through Constantinople, as the First Crusade had done. In that case, the Byzantines were fairly worried: \n\n > “The appearance of a large crusading army was a cause for grave concern in Constantinople. Unlike in the background to the First Crusade, when Alexius I had requested a western force to come to his aid, there was no such invitation in 1146-7.” (Phillips, *The Second Crusade*, pg. 170)\n\nSicily had been attacking Byzantine territories around the same time, so the Byzantines worried that the crusaders were working with the Sicilians. They were also worried that the crusade would besiege Constantinople, but the crusaders had no intention of attacking the empire and they were eventually ferried across the Bosporus and made their way to Jerusalem. \n\nConrad wasn’t technically the Holy Roman Emperor, so there was no problem with two emperors both claiming to be the Roman Emperor, as there was on the Third Crusade. I answered [a previous question](_URL_0_) about that as well: Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Byzantine Emperor Isaac II both claimed to be the legimitate Roman emperor so it was extremely difficult for them to agree to anything. The other problem for the Third Crusaders was that the crusaders believed the Byzantines were [secretly allying with Saladin](_URL_3_) to destroy them. The Byzantines were probably just exploring all their diplomatic options though, not conspiring against the crusade specifically. \n\nIn any case, the problems on the Third Crusade were also overcome and the German crusaders made their way to the Holy Land (although Emperor Frederick died along the way). The other contingents from England and France avoided the overland route and took the sea route, but the English managed to somewhat accidentally conquer the Byzantine province of Cyprus. The Byzantines were not particularly happy about that, but Cyprus was ruled by a rebellious lord, so it was really already outside of the authority of Constantinople.\n\nThe Fourth Crusade is of course an entirely different matter…the Byzantines, in hindsight, obviously felt that it was a huge disaster for them. Very briefly, the emperor at the time, Alexios III, had deposed the previous emperor, his brother, the aforementioned Isaac II. Isaac’s son Alexios IV came to an agreement with the leaders of the crusade to divert it from its original target (Egypt) to Constantinople to restore Isaac to the throne. So, there were at least some Byzantines who were in favour of that…but not many, since the people actually living in Constantinople were opposed. Alexios IV and the crusaders did manage to restore Isaac to the throne, with Alexios IV as co-emperor, but then Isaac died. Alexios IV was then overthrown and murdered by yet another Alexios, who became Alexios V. The crusaders were still there though so they attacked and conquered the entire city. The disastrous part of this in Byzantine eyes was not the rapid overthrow and murder of various emperors (which happened often enough), but the crusader sack of the city. The Byzantines were always paranoid that a crusader army showing up at their door would sack the city, and finally with the Fourth Crusade, it actually happened. \n\nThe other crusades then largely bypassed Constantinople, because it was already under Christian control - interestingly, the problems faced by the First, Second, and Third Crusades, arriving at a somewhat hostile Constantinople, would have no longer been problems for the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Crusades, but the later crusades avoided it anyway and took the faster sea route.\n\nSources:\n\nCharles M. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West (Harvard University Press, 1968)\n\nJonathan Harris, *Byzantium and the Crusades* (Hambledon and London, 2003)\n\nJonathan Phillips, *The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople* (Pimlico, 2005)\n\nJonathan Phillips, *The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom* (Yale University Press, 2007)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22987465", "title": "Christianity in the 13th century", "section": "Section::::Crusades.:Crusades against the Eastern Orthodox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1043, "text": "Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders were not exclusive to the fourth crusade nor the Mediterranean. The sacking of Constantinople and the Church of Holy Wisdom, the destruction of the Monastery of Stoudios, Library of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople and also throughout West Asia Minor and Greece (see the Kingdom of Thessalonica, Kingdom of Cyprus) are considered definitive though. This is in light of perceived Roman Catholic atrocities not exclusive to the capital city of Constantinople in 1204 starting the period in the East referred to as Frangokratia. The establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 was intended to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. This is symbolized by many Orthodox churches being converted into Roman Catholic properties and churches like Hagia Sophia and Church of the Pantokrator, and it is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Some of the European Christian community actively endorsed the attacking of Eastern Christians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22987465", "title": "Christianity in the 13th century", "section": "Section::::Crusades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 895, "text": "Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the Mediterranean though (see also the Northern Crusades and the Battle of the Ice). The sacking of Constantinople and the Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2623640", "title": "Religious fanaticism", "section": "Section::::Examples of religious fanaticism.:Christianity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 445, "text": "The Crusades were very much holy wars waged to maintain Christianity's theological and social control. On their way to conquering the Holy Land from the Muslims by force of arms, the crusaders destroyed dozens of Jewish communities and killed thousands because the Jews would not accept the Christian faith. Jews had to be killed in the religious campaign because their very existence challenged the sole truth espoused by the Christian Church.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410784", "title": "Criticism of the Catholic Church", "section": "Section::::Historical.:Crusades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 676, "text": "Elements of the Crusades were criticized by some from the time of their inception in 1095. Roger Bacon felt the Crusades were counter-productive because, \"those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith.\" In spite of some criticism, the movement was still widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291. After that, the Crusades to recover Jerusalem and the Christian East were unsuccessful. Eighteenth century rationalists judged the Crusaders harshly. In the 1950s, Sir Steven Runciman published a highly critical account of the Crusades which referred to Holy War as \"a sin against the Holy Ghost\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "316868", "title": "War against Islam conspiracy theory", "section": "Section::::Claims of proof for a \"War against Islam\".:Alleged legacy of the Crusades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 931, "text": "In contrast, historian Bernard Lewis points out that the Crusaders had strong motives to wage the Crusade other than the denigration of Islam. The lands they attempted to recover were the lands where Christianity was founded, including \"the holy land where Christ had lived, taught and died\", and where \"a substantial proportion of the population ... perhaps even a majority, was still Christian\", since \"not much more than four centuries had passed since the Arab Muslim conquerors had wrested theses lands from Christendom\". Rather than the Crusades leaving a psychological scar passed down through the ages among Muslims, the Arabs of the time did not refer to the Crusaders as Crusaders or Christians but as Franks or Infidels, and \"with few exceptions\", the Muslim historians of the time showed \"little interest in whence or why the Franks had come, and report their arrival and their departure with equal lack of curiosity\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "405419", "title": "History of antisemitism", "section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Crusades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 258, "text": "The Crusades were a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy in Rome, which took place from the end of the 11th century until the 13th century. They began as endeavors to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22677569", "title": "Historiography of the Crusades", "section": "Section::::Popular reception.:Romanticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 410, "text": "The principle of the crusades was a savage fanaticism; and the most important effects were analogous to the cause…. The belief of the Catholics was corrupted by new legends…. The active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of their reason and religion…. The lives and labours of millions, which were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of their native country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You'll talk to an advisor who will give you a schedule based on the program you are enrolling in. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11177803", "title": "CU Online", "section": "Section::::Assignments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 439, "text": "Online courses are typically divided into units of class discussions (ongoing posts of classmate queries and comments), downloadable assignments and quizzes. What students are actually graded on is based on the course and the professor, however, class participation is usually required in the form of threaded discussions. Similar to a traditional on campus course, the content of the course is subject to the discretion of the professor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "976513", "title": "Third-level education in the Republic of Ireland", "section": "Section::::Framework.:Institutions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 966, "text": "Entry into higher education institutions is normally done through the CAO. In this way, students wishing to enter university apply to the CAO rather than the individual university. Places in courses are usually awarded based on results in the Leaving Certificate Examination or any international equivalent. Each university has a minimum entry requirement, usually requiring a pass grade in either English or Irish, as well as maths. Some also require a pass grade in a modern continental European language (French, German, Spanish or Italian). Each individual course has further entry requirements, for example, science courses usually require a certain grade in one or two sciences. The student must also achieve the number of points required for the course under the points system. However, universities also have systems in place for accepting mature students, and students who have successfully completed a Post Leaving Certificate or Further Education course.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11177803", "title": "CU Online", "section": "Section::::Exams.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 428, "text": "Exams are taken and administered in a variety of ways. They can be administered \"online\" by using course software with an internet browser (Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, etc.), as a “take home” exam where the exam is printed out and handed in, or \"proctored\" by outside parties, instructor, or the teaching assistant (TA) at a designated location. A 24/7 help desk is also available for both students and faculty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2288827", "title": "University of Rochester College of Arts Sciences and Engineering", "section": "Section::::Departments and concentrations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 388, "text": "Students may take courses from any of the many departments within the College. Each department may offer concentrations, minors, clusters or other degree programs. There are also many interdepartmental programs and students have the option of creating their own courses of study with a special application. The College also offers graduate programs of study in addition to undergraduate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1524959", "title": "University and college admission", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 188, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 188, "end_character": 625, "text": "Students apply to one or more colleges or universities by submitting an application which each college evaluates using its own criteria. The college then decides whether or not to extend an offer of admission (and possibly financial aid) to the student. The majority of colleges admit students to the college as a whole, and not to a particular academic major, although this may not be the case in some specialized programs such as engineering and architecture and maybe more impacted in certain majors. The system is decentralized: each college has its own criteria for admission, even when using a common application form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47715900", "title": "Rural Institute of Higher Studies", "section": "Section::::Admission procedure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 254, "text": "In that process students have to fill application on-line with uploading of required documents, the web automated software for admission chooses the right college for the student/candidate with reference to the student's marks, reservation category etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8081063", "title": "Engineering education", "section": "Section::::South America.:Brazil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 181, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 181, "end_character": 323, "text": "Towards the end of their undergraduate education, students are required to develop the Course Completion Paper under the guidance of an adviser to be presented to and graded by a number of professors. In some institutions, students are also required to pursue an internship (the amount of time depends on the institution).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The same reason you should never dry fire a bow (shooting a bow without an arrow in place). If there is no arrow to transfer the energy of the pulled bowstring, all of that energy will go into the bow itself and can damage or shatter the bow.\n\nYour arm functions the same way as a bow: transfering energy into the ball (arrow). A lighter or smaller ball doesn't require as much energy to launch. If you perform your normal throw on the lighter ball, the excess energy not transferred to the ball will travel back through your arm and can strain it especially if you don't do a full follow-through to help release the energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53002210", "title": "Bouncing ball", "section": "Section::::Forces during flight and effect on motion.:Gravity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 276, "text": "Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because lighter balls accelerate more readily, their motion tends to be affected more by such forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24890169", "title": "Composite baseball bat", "section": "Section::::Advantages.:Swing weight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 448, "text": "The swing weight of a baseball bat deals with how heavy the bat \"feels\" when swinging. The swing weight is measured around a certain pivot point along the bat. Once a pivot point is determined (usually 6 inches for baseball bats) the bats balance point, total weight and the amount of time it takes for the bat to swing from side to side like a pendulum are used to determine its 'swing weight', or as some refer to it, its mass moment of inertia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41730913", "title": "Hitting mechanics", "section": "Section::::Hitting analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 901, "text": "Hitters have a wide variation of swings, but in the end staying balanced and having stable posture is the most important aspect of hitting a baseball. If the hitter becomes unbalanced throughout the swing the chance of making solid contact with the baseball is very slim. Once balanced throughout the swing, bat speed comes into the next most important aspect of the baseball swing. The faster the bat speed, the faster the ball will come off the bat. Furthermore, researchers have long established that home run hits are dependant on swing speed. Most notably, one can logically assume that a faster swing will result in the ball traveling farther. A 3-6% increase in bat speed can significantly affect the distance a ball travels after contact in competition (7). In terms of simple physics and mathematics, the conservation of momentum (E1) and a kinematic equation (E2) also reinforces this idea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24890169", "title": "Composite baseball bat", "section": "Section::::Advantages.:Vibration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 576, "text": "Ball players often experience a \"sting\" in their hands caused by vibrations when the ball does not come in contact with the sweet spot of the bat. The frequency of these vibrations throughout the bat is related to the bending stiffness. Daniel A. Russell of Kettering University has shown that standard aluminum bats have a high bending stiffness that produces vibrational frequencies in the range where most hands are sensitive; therefore, causing more sting. He also has shown that composite materials can lower this bending stiffness without compromising other advantages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "524402", "title": "Elston Howard", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 527, "text": "Howard is credited with inventing the batting \"doughnut\", a circular lead weight with a rubber shell used by batters in the on-deck circle by placing it around a bat to make it feel heavier, so that it will feel lighter at the plate and easier to swing. Its widespread use caused the discontinuation of the practice of hitters swinging multiple bats at the same time while waiting to hit. Howard helped two New Jersey entrepreneurs, Frank Hamilton and Vince Salvucci, to market the bat weight and lent his name to the product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144553", "title": "Projectile", "section": "Section::::Sport projectiles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 335, "text": "In projectile motion the most important force applied to the ‘projectile’ is the propelling force, in this case the propelling forces are the muscles that act upon the ball to make it move, and the stronger the force applied, the more propelling force, which means the projectile (the ball) will travel farther. See pitching, bowling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1090018", "title": "Newton's cradle", "section": "Section::::Physics explanation.:Heat and friction losses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 743, "text": "This discussion has neglected energy losses from heat generated in the balls from non-perfect elasticity, friction in the strings, friction from air resistance, and sound generated from the clank of the vibrating balls. The energy losses are the reason the balls eventually come to a stop, but they are not the primary or initial cause of the action to become more disorderly, away from the ideal action of only one ball moving at any instant. The increase in the non-ideal action is caused by collisions that involve more than two balls at a time, effectively making the struck ball appear heavier. The size of the steel balls is limited because the collisions may exceed the elastic limit of the steel, deforming it and causing heat losses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's quite a lot to read over for so little potential gain. Could you be more specific?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a lot of crap on that page.\n\nFirst, carbon dating doesn't work for things like dinosaur fossils. They're too old.\n\nThe number 22,380 has no reference next to it so I'm not sure which reference at the bottom they're referring to.\n\nThe premise of the article is that in 2005 a fossil was dated to 20-30k years. None of their references seems to point to this event, nor does Google come up with anything that's not a blog or some anti-evolution web site. Hugh Miller comes up a few times, he's apparently a creationist.\n\nThere's nothing on that page that can be responded to without vomiting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5299", "title": "Carbon", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Isotopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 823, "text": "Carbon-14 (C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope, created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays. It is found in trace amounts on Earth of 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%) or more, mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146250", "title": "Carbon-14", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 532, "text": "Carbon-14, (C), or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues (1949) to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological samples. Carbon-14 was discovered on February 27, 1940, by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, California. Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26298", "title": "Radiometric dating", "section": "Section::::Modern dating methods.:Radiocarbon dating method.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 770, "text": "The rate of creation of carbon-14 appears to be roughly constant, as cross-checks of carbon-14 dating with other dating methods show it gives consistent results. However, local eruptions of volcanoes or other events that give off large amounts of carbon dioxide can reduce local concentrations of carbon-14 and give inaccurate dates. The releases of carbon dioxide into the biosphere as a consequence of industrialization have also depressed the proportion of carbon-14 by a few percent; conversely, the amount of carbon-14 was increased by above-ground nuclear bomb tests that were conducted into the early 1960s. Also, an increase in the solar wind or the Earth's magnetic field above the current value would depress the amount of carbon-14 created in the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48035153", "title": "RATE project", "section": "Section::::Findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 551, "text": "BULLET::::- Radiocarbon in ancient coals and diamonds: The authors argued that trace quantities of carbon-14 in diamonds, coals and other ancient rocks indicated that they were much younger than thought, as there should be no carbon-14 left after 100,000 years. However, the levels reported were consistent with levels expected from contamination and other extraneous sources, which are impossible to eliminate even when extraordinary care is taken in handling the samples, and chronologists disregard levels of carbon-14 below 0.5% of modern levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8355163", "title": "Radioactivity in the life sciences", "section": "Section::::Examples of biologically useful radionuclei.:Carbon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 484, "text": "Carbon-14 has a long half-life of 5,730±40 years. Its maximum specific activity is 0.0624 Ci/mmol (2.31 TBq/mol). It is used in applications such as radiometric dating or drug tests. C-14 labeling is common in drug development to do ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) studies in animal models and in human toxicology and clinical trials. Since tritium exchange may occur in some radiolabeled compounds, this does not happen with C-14 and may thus be preferred.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3093672", "title": "Common beta emitters", "section": "Section::::Neutron activation products.:Carbon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1012, "text": "Carbon-14 is also commonly used as a beta source in research, it is commonly used as a radiotracer in organic compounds. While the energy of the beta particles is higher than those of tritium they are still quite low in energy. For instance the walls of a glass bottle are able to absorb it. Carbon-14 is made by the np reaction of nitrogen-14 with neutrons. It is generated in the atmosphere by the action of cosmic rays on nitrogen. Also a large amount was generated by the neutrons from the air bursts during nuclear weapons testing conducted in the 20th century. The specific activity of atmospheric carbon increased as a result of the nuclear testing but due to the exchange of carbon between the air and other parts of the carbon cycle it has now returned to a very low value. For small amounts of carbon-14 one of the favoured disposal methods is to burn the waste in a medical incinerator, the idea is that by dispersing the radioactivity over a very wide area the threat to any one human is very small.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36064581", "title": "774–775 carbon-14 spike", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 462, "text": "The 774–775 carbon-14 spike is an observed increase of 1.2% in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD, which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation. It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees, with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology. A surge in beryllium isotope , detected in Antarctic ice cores, has also been associated with the 774–775 event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The grooves aren't intentionally cut differently, but the wavelength representation is longer near the edge compared to the center because the speed of the track increases from the center to the edge. Since the grooves are cut directly into the recording material, no external adjustment is necessary, since it's always going to be a 1 to 1 correspondence when played back at the same speed it was cut.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Early floppy-drive computers included some models which varied the speed of the disc drive, as the head moved across the radial distance. This is constant linear velocity, as opposed to constant angular velocity.\n\nLP cutting heads are often linear track. The cutting needle is on a screwshaft. LP reading heads are typically designed to pivot. Audiophiles used to argue if this mattered, if the parallelogram of forces on the needle didn't accurately track what was cut. Some LP players therefore had linear drive reader heads, but not all golden ears agree they sound better.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > As the needle approaches the centre of a record, its speed increases, right? \n\nIncorrect.\n\nThe record always spins at, say, 33-1/3 rpm. The diameter of a standard LP is 30 cm, so when the needle is at the outer edge, it passes along about 90 cm of groove for each revolution, or about 52 cm per second. If the diameter of the label is about 10 cm, then when the needle gets in to the center, it passes along only about 30 cm per revolution, or 17 cm per second.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20037207", "title": "Vertical cut recording", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 386, "text": "Examining a vertically-cut groove along its length reveals a continuous wavy line as the needle cuts at different depths according to the tone and the loudness of the audio being recorded. These grooves show a transition from high to low peak as a smooth curve, giving the characteristic rounded 'hill and dale' effect to the groove, similar to the appearance of many geographic areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172121", "title": "Phonograph record", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 893, "text": "Towards the center, at the end of the groove, there is another wide-pitched section known as the \"lead-out\". At the very end of this section the groove joins itself to form a complete circle, called the lock groove; when the stylus reaches this point, it circles repeatedly until lifted from the record. On some recordings (for example \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" by The Beatles, \"Super Trouper\" by ABBA and \"Atom Heart Mother\" by Pink Floyd), the sound continues on the lock groove, which gives a strange repeating effect. Automatic turntables rely on the position or angular velocity of the arm, as it reaches the wider spacing in the groove, to trigger a mechanism that lifts the arm off the record. Precisely because of this mechanism, most automatic turntables are incapable of playing any audio in the lock groove, since they will lift the arm before it reaches that groove.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172121", "title": "Phonograph record", "section": "Section::::New sizes and materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 392, "text": "On a few early phonograph systems and radio transcription discs, as well as some entire albums, the direction of the groove is reversed, beginning near the center of the disc and leading to the outside. A small number of records (such as \"The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief\") were manufactured with multiple separate grooves to differentiate the tracks (usually called \"NSC-X2\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "548425", "title": "Format war", "section": "Section::::1920s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1499, "text": "BULLET::::- Gramophone record formats: lateral versus vertical \"hill-and-dale\" groove cutting. When Edison introduced his \"Diamond Disc\" (played with a diamond stylus instead of a steel needle) record in 1912, it was cut \"hill-and-dale\", meaning that the groove was modulated along its vertical axis, as it had been on all cylinders—unlike other manufacturers' discs, which were cut laterally, meaning that their grooves were of constant depth and modulated along the horizontal axis. Machines designed to play lateral-cut discs could not play vertical-cut ones and vice versa. Pathé Records also adopted the hill-and-dale format for their discs, first issued in 1906, but they used a very wide, shallow groove, played with a small sapphire ball, which was incompatible with Edison products. In 1929 Thomas Edison quit the record industry, ceasing all production of both discs and cylinders. Pathé had been making a transition to the lateral format during the 1920s and in 1932 decisively abandoned the vertical format. There was no standard speed for all disc records until 78 rpm was settled on during the latter half of the 1920s, although because most turntables could be adjusted to run at a fairly wide range of speeds that did not really constitute a format war. Some Berliner discs played at about 60 rpm. Some of Pathé's largest discs, which were 50 cm (nearly 20 inches) in diameter, played at 120 rpm. Diamond Discs were 80 rpm. Those makers aside, speeds in the mid-70s were more usual.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1708787", "title": "Tungsten (music)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 445, "text": "Typically, a new steel needle is required for every record played on an old acoustic phonograph. This is because the record contains abrasive material. In the first few silent tracks this abrasion hones the steel needle to a profile that tracks the grooves properly. The needle continues to wear as it plays the record, so that by the end its diameter has increased to the point where the sharp edges may damage the grooves on subsequent plays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "803696", "title": "Unusual types of gramophone records", "section": "Section::::Unusual holes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1673, "text": "The vast majority of records used a standard small spindle hole slightly more than \" in diameter. The only common exception to this is the 7-inch 45 RPM record, which was designed with a center hole slightly more than 1.5\" in diameter both for convenience in handling and to accommodate a very fast record-changing mechanism contained inside a correspondingly large spindle, as implemented in RCA Victor's early stand-alone \"45\" players. The spindle and any records stacked on it rotated with the turntable, so that each waiting disc was already up to speed before it dropped. Large mechanized spindle adaptors were supplied with most multi-speed automatic record changers sold in the 1950s and 1960s, but they were not as fast and efficient. The large hole also facilitates use in jukeboxes, which mechanically place the \"45\" onto a turntable with a conical spindle having a matching diameter at its base, making the placement operation easier, safer, and surer than it was with the small-diameter holes and spindles in 78 RPM jukeboxes. Most 7-inch records in the USA continue to be pressed with a large hole, requiring an adaptor to be used on standard turntables. In other territories such as Europe, 7-inch records intended for home use have standard-sized holes. Many such 7-inch records had a center which could be easily snapped out, yielding a record with a larger hole to be used in jukeboxes or certain record-stacking players; this approach was common in the United Kingdom from the 1950s until the early 1980s, with standard, solid centres becoming gradually more common. Some 7-inch singles in the early-mid-1990s had large holes also, but this was a rarity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25093875", "title": "Seeburg 1000", "section": "Section::::Phonograph.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 449, "text": "The mechanism causes the lower portion of the spindle to rotate clockwise like an ordinary record player, while the top half of the spindle rotates counterclockwise to permit the bottom of the record to be played in the correct direction. The spindle contains three sets of retractable claws which hold the records in the upper and lower playing positions, and permit one record at a time to be dropped from the upper to the lower playing position.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "While there were a numerous way in which the English East India company were able to maintain control over their massive Indian territory , I will cover some important ways in which they exerted control :\n\n#**Part 1**\n\n#**Control over the rulers**\n\nOne of the important pillars of power of company support were a loyal class of local rulers . These rulers were helpful because \n\n1) They helped maintain an illusion of indigenous rule when in reality they were nothing more than company stooges .\n\n2) They helped in suppression of local rebellions and other minor disputes that were not big enough or important enough to warrant the use of the company army\n\n3) By getting support and loyalty of these indigenous rulers , They hoped to obtain a sense of legitimacy as they often touted themselves as the protector of mughal empire and in later years as successors of the mughal state\n\nBut how did the company develop this class of royal rulers?\n\nThe Company exerted control over the rules and various kingdoms via mainly the \n\n* Subsidiary Alliance system \n* Protection alliance and protective custody \n* Picking sides in succession disputes to install a puppet \n* Doctrine of Lapse and Adoption \n* Using wars between rival Indian kingdoms to their advantage\n\nLet us understand each of the above in a brief manner\n\n***Subsidiary alliance system***\n\nUnder the subsidiary alliance system , The ruler agreed to enter an alliance with the company . The terms of these alliance were as follows:\n\n > An Indian ruler entering into a subsidiary alliance with the British would accept British forces within his territory and to pay for their maintenance.\n\n > * The ruler would accept a British official (resident) in his state.\n\n > * The ruler who entered into a subsidiary alliance would not join any alliance with any other power or declare war against any \n power without the permission of the British.\n > * The ruler would dismiss any Europeans other than the British and avoid employing new ones.\n > * The ruler would let the British rule on any conflict any other state.\n > * The ruler would acknowledge the East India Company as the paramount power in India.\n > * The ruler would have his state be protected by the Company from external dangers and internal disorders.\n > * If the rulers failed to make the payments that were required by the alliance, part of their territory would be taken away as a penalty.\n > * Indian rulers have to maintain British troops in his state. \n\nAs you can see after reading the above terms , Any kingdom which entered / or was forced to enter into a subsidiary alliance was reduced to nothing but a kingdom with a rubber stamp ruler who were official puppets of the company on almost all matters of importance \n\n*Examples of kingdoms which entered the subsidiary alliance system : Awadh , Many maratha princely kingdoms ,Tanjore , Indore etc*\n\n***Protection alliance or protective custody***\n\nMany Indian rulers or royal families who were afraid of being attacked by their rivals or by members of their own house often entered British protective custody . These forms of agreements generally involved the Company defeating/killing/driving off the enemies of the person seeking protection . In return for these , The ruler would become predisposed to the company and do what the company advised them in case they needed the company protection in the future again \n\n***Picking sides in succession disputes to install a puppet***\n\nThe company often took advantage of succession disputes to further their own advantage . They would select one of the people involved in the disputes and offer their support , resources and help to get the throne . In return , the ruler would have to promise to be favor and have good relations with the Company when he becomes the ruler \n\nSuch actions were also often done when they felt that a ruler soon to come to power in a throne would be bad for the prospects of the company \n\nIn most of the cases , Getting the official support of company on your side generally meant that the game was over for the opposing side more or less\n\nThus , by helping these rulers ascend the throne , they got a loyal group of rulers who they could rely on in times of difficulty \n\n***Doctrine of lapse and adoption***\n\n > Under an ancient Hindu custom, to avoid a disputed succession to the throne, a ruler with no born-to heir could adopt a male of any age from another branch of the ruling family and appoint him heir apparent. This parallels similar customs in ancient Rome and during the Chinese Qing Dynasty.\n\n > When the British Empire came to India in 1757, among the land-grabbing stratagems devised was the Doctrine of Lapse, which abrogated the ancient custom. Under this doctrine the British arrogated to themselves the right to veto the succession of an adopted heir, and instead, to annex the territory concerned, although the adopted successor and his heirs were usually allowed to keep their titles and a substantial annual allowance. \n\nThus , this one more method to install a puppet regime in many kingdoms . Many big Indian princely thus fell to this policy \n\n~~**# Part 2 to follow soon**~~\n\n# ***Part 2*** \n\n# ***Military power of the company***\n\nThe army of the East India Company were one of the most feared and powerful in the subcontinent uptil its dissolution in 1857 \n\n* Company army had massive superiority over indigenous kingdoms in terms of artillery , firepower and firearms ,military discipline and military tactitcs\n\n* To help the company further , they had a exceptional and experienced class of military commanders and officers who had experience fighting in many terrains and countries in different parts of the world . In many wars , the company won not to due to superior quality of equipment , but rather due to the experienced officers and commanders leading the charge during the war .\n\n* The trademark red coat and bucket coat that the company is now famous for stuck fear in many Indian kingdoms. In order to increase troop morale , many Indian kingdoms introduced a similar looking uniform for their own army \n\n* The payment system of the company was **extremely punctual**. The company placed a great emphasis on ensuring that due salary payments were done to all troops . This ensured that the Company army became a lucrative job for many Indians . The best and smartest of various kingdoms often tried their hands to get a job in the company army \n\n* Any disturbance anywhere in the country that had the potential to weaken company hold over power invited a visit from the Company army . Many regiments in the company evoked special fear such as the Bengal regiment which were the backbone of company power in the country \n\n# Part 3 to follow soon\n\nMeanwhile you can read my answer regarding opinion of various sections of the Indian society towards East India company to understand the flames of discontentment that were rising in the Indian society\n\n[Answer](_URL_0_)\n\n\n# ***How much indigenous resistance was there?***\n\nLet me quote you a section which will directly answer this part of question\n\n > Among the myths which became current in the wake of the rebellion of\n1857-8 was the idea that it was a unique event, something that had to\nbe explained in terms of the peculiar folly of the revenue policy of the\n\n > With this in mind, several broad types of dissidence can be isolated\nfrom the great range of revolts between 1800 and i860. Most notable\nwere the periodic revolts of zamindars and other superior landholders\nfighting off demands for higher revenue or invasions of their status as\n'little kings' in the countryside. Then there were conflicts between\nlandlords and groups of tenants or under-tenants objecting to the\ntransformation of customary dues into landlord rights or to some violation of the obligations between agrarian lord and dependant.\nNext there was a range of conflicts arising from tension between wandering\nor tribal people and settled peasant farmers which usually\ncentred on the control of forests, grazing grounds or other communally\nexploited resources. Finally, there were frequent revolts in cities\nand towns. These had many causes: some were riots over market control\nand taxation. Some involved bloodshed between religious or caste\ngroups or the protests of embattled artisan communities. All these\ntypes of conflict were widespread but they surfaced in exaggerated\nform in the course of the Mutiny and Rebellion of 1857.\n\nSource for the above quoted text :Indian society and makings of british empire", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[1/2]\n\nI would like to add a few points here, because u/HarshKarve's posts seems to me very strongly (if not to say solely) informed by a British perspective, leading to a rather positive overall assessment of the East India Company. Although they quote a short paragraph on resistance at the end, it basically seems in the post as if the British were in control due to their superior strategies and military. This is misleading, because in fact indigenous resistance to colonial rule was continuos from the beginning in the Raj in the late 18th c. roughly until the rebellion of 1857, which led to the British Crown taking over. Also and crucially it reinforces colonial stereotypes that don't ascribe agency to non-Europeans (here from South Asia), effectively writing them out of history. So it's important to keep in mind that British rule was far from secure even as late as 1857, where in the first months it was not clear at all that the British could regain control. \n\nHaving said that, I'll especially focus on two points below: 1) native resistance, and 2) (more briefly) changes under British rule. \n\nThe EIC increasingly formed a parallel state in India, with private armies and great administrative control. It had managed over decades to take over princely states and form an economic basis. To do so it had increasingly built on indigenous sources and networks of information gathering since the 1760s (cf Bayly, Empire and Information). However, all this came at a cost (C.A. Bayly, Indian Society making British Empire, 106):\n\n > The [EIC] rose to power because it had provided a secure financial base for its powerful mercenary army. The land revenues of Bengal, combined with the capital - Indian as much as European - generated in the coastal trading economy, allowed the Company's Indian operations to sustain the massive debts incurred in its fight to finish with the Indian kingdoms. However, political dominion did not solve the Company's financial problems. The ominous presence and constant pressure of this part-oriental, part-European state continued to tempt petty rulers within and outside its domains into revolt. Though aspects of the social and political conflict which had drawn the Company into expansion were suppressed under its ruler, so too was much of the economic dynamism which had given rise to that conflict. India's huge agricultural economy was not performing well enough to underwrite the costs of European dominion. The [EIC]'s rule widely came to be seen as a dismal failure long before the Great Rebellion of 1857 blew up its foundations. \n\nWe should note that this perception of the Company's failure was not just from Indian perspectives, but that there were important discussions in British parliament in the 19th c. over restricting the company's influence. One major criticism there was the perceived corruption of the EIC's leading administrators. Another point to add here is that the perceived \"low performance\" of the native economy is connected also to British tactics of importing British textiles to India which would over the long-term weaken this important branch of South Asian economies (among other influences). Adding to this was that the \"*needs of its financial and military machine had tended to snuff out that buoyant entrepreneurship of revenue farmers, merchants and soldiers which had kept the indigenous system functioning*\" (ibid). As mentioned such developments taken together led to resistance in various forms and for various reasons.\n\n.\n\n**Indigenous resistance to colonial rule**\n\nI'll begin by quoting [an earlier reply of mine](_URL_1_) on the time preceding the rebellion of 1857:\n\n > The rebellion took place 100 years after the beginning of the rule of the Easty India Company (EIC) in South Asia, and has to be understood as a continuation of a long tradition of local resistance to colonial rule (that continued up to independence). In this light, the rebellion was particular in its scope, but not in its goals and demands. There were many different kinds of and motivations for resistance: Among others religious insurrections, banditry, acts of revenge – but also peaceful opposition. Most of those insurrections were connected in some way to the very common economic exploitation and political marginalisation through the EIC, and thus to popular discontent. \n\n > It's also interesting to note that such discontent ran through all social classes. As a common ideology we can identify the central role of the community principle to the rural populace (including the caste system), and that of traditional land rights. Most (if not all) of these motivations for and forms of resistance played major roles during 1857. On the other hand, the lack of a coordinated, unified organisation meant that the British could count on parts of the local population, and was a major influence in the rebellion's failure.\n\nLet's look a bit closer at those earlier revolts: At almost any moment during colonial times a rebellion or revolt took place somewhere in SOuth Asia. There are reports of hundreds of revolts already in the 17th century, and according to Kathleen Gough there were at least 77 agrarian revotls from the 18th c., drawing tens to hundreds of thousands of peasants. While they were officially called 'localized', they actually took place on larger territories than those of the well-known European agrarian revolts when considerian South Asia's huge size. Certain areas had more frequent revolts taking place, esp. Bengal, but also tribal areas of modern-day Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad) und Kerala (in the South West).\n\nAs a larger ideology behind such resistance we can see the central role of the *community* principle for the rural populace, especially the spiritual foundation of the caste system and traditional land rights: \"*Community as 'the characterisitc unifying feature of peasant consciousness*\" (Chatterjee). This served to seperate friends from traditional foes during revolts - between, but also within religious groups. Another feature of the community was the major role of politico-social justice. Justice could take the form of rights to complaint, peaceful forms of protest such as migration. An important result of this was that even people of the lower classes could reclaim their rights before local authorities -- which was not possible anymore in this way under the _URL_0_ many revolts can be connected to a pre-colonial sense of justice not compatible with British conceptions, which because of this were often not succesful. Then again, revolts often led to adaptions of the colonial system, e.g. throiugh agreements with local leaders and groups from which they could profit. \n\nI'll now look in a bit more detail at forms of resistant other than those agrarian revolts, and then turn to consequences of the revotl of 1857 (1857 itself falls sort of outside of the scope of this):\n\n- Revolts of land owners/ *zamindars*: These went against larger tributes and the lowering of their status. E.g. when the British tried to move one of their candidates onto the throne of a realm (as mentioned in the above post), contrary to the political alliances of a given region. Especially frequent was resistance in regions that had never been under Mughal control, but were now supposed to be controlled by the EIC (or its rulers). Examples include Awadh and Bundelkhand. Privileges were accorded by the British to local leaders in order to thwart further rebellions.\n\n- *Resistance of village leaders:* Here often the sole possibility was moving away or deserting, but also revolts took place (Dekkan 1850s/'60s, Konkan 1857-'59). In addition there were conflicts within rural societies, between landowners and tenants, which only increased with the stronger influence of cash cropping. Tenants often reisted the transformaton of their land rights; and conlficts between non-sedentary tribes and sedentary farmers were also quite frequent.\n\n\n\n- *Religious unrest*: Oftentimes agrarian conflicts took on religious character through the influence of reformist Islam. This was the case with the Faraizi movement in Eastern Bengal (1820s to '50s), which revolted in favor of weavers and their taxation, and attacked Hindu money-lenders as well as European indio-estates. Moreoever there was an increase in revolutionary messianism taking place, esp. in Muslim (but also in Hindu) communities reeling from theri increasing social deracination. These were collective movements looking towards a sacred realm on earth, and for an imminent huge change through supernatural means. Apocalyptical preachers (like Tipu Sahib in East Bengal) prophetised the end of British rule and mobilized mountain tribes in this way.\n\n\n\n- *Urban revolts*: Were connected to economic and religous difficulties. Once more the decrease of urban weavers and artisans led to revolts of these groups. In their own organisations muslim faith would often strengthen communal ties, and strikes against local officials and traders happened often. The most frequent resistance in cities came from the elites -- they were against colonial taxations and taxation of houses. The replacement of traditional guardians of the law through colonial officials further led to agitation.\n\n.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43281", "title": "East India Company", "section": "Section::::Legacy and criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 604, "text": "The East India Company was one of the most powerful and enduring organisations in history and had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved by the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its professionally trained armies rose to dominate the sub-continent and were to become the armies of British India after 1857. It played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India. This also led to Macaulayism in the Indian subcontinent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7765366", "title": "India Office Records", "section": "Section::::Historical background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 497, "text": "In 1858, in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British government abolished the East India Company's right to govern India, and brought the subcontinent directly under the control of the British Empire. The India Office, under the direction of the Secretary of State for India, was established to maintain administrative control over the increasingly important colony. In 1937, a separate Burma Office was established to alleviate some of the India Office's administrative burden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15443", "title": "Western imperialism in Asia", "section": "Section::::British in India.:Collapse of Mughal India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 344, "text": "The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 Battle of Plassey. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of a Mughal dynasty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35536005", "title": "Political warfare in British colonial India", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 923, "text": "The East India Company obtained a foothold in India in 1695 and from that start expanded the territory it controlled until it was the primary power in the subcontinent. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British Government nationalised the Company creating the British Raj. The Company lost all its administrative powers; its Indian possessions, including its armed forces, were taken over by the Crown pursuant to the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858. A new British government department, the India Council, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor-General of India gained a new title (Viceroy of India), and implemented the policies devised by the India council. As a result of their relatively small presence in the country the British resorted to many methods to retain control of India.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13890", "title": "History of India", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 752, "text": "From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the East India Company, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government. Dissatisfaction with Company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which rocked parts of north and central India, and let to the dissolution of the Company. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and noted for nonviolence. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1954058", "title": "Economic history of India", "section": "Section::::British rule.:British East India Company rule (1764–1857).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 215, "text": "During this period, the East India Company began tax administration reforms in a fast expanding empire spread over , or 35 percent of Indian domain. Indirect rule was established on protectorates and buffer states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2553921", "title": "Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad", "section": "Section::::History during the Nawab's rule.:Nawabs of Bengal under British rule and their decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 383, "text": "After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended, and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service, which had administrative control over all areas in India, except the Princely States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Reactions have an [activation energy](_URL_0_) associated that acts as a barrier from all reactants rapidly and spontaneously turning into products. That is, there requires some extra energy put into the reaction before it can proceed. Commonly this is heat energy - hence reactions occurring faster at higher temperatures.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "540448", "title": "Product (chemistry)", "section": "Section::::Determination of reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 568, "text": "If the products are higher in chemical energy than the reactants then the reaction will require energy to be performed and is therefore an endergonic reaction. Additionally if the product is less stable than a reactant, then Leffler's assumption holds that the transition state will more closely resemble the product than the reactant. Sometimes the product will differ significantly enough from the reactant that it is easily purified following the reaction such as when a product is insoluble and precipitates out of solution while the reactants remained dissolved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "359135", "title": "Chemical kinetics", "section": "Section::::Free energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 766, "text": "In general terms, the free energy change (ΔG) of a reaction determines whether a chemical change will take place, but kinetics describes how fast the reaction is. A reaction can be very exothermic and have a very positive entropy change but will not happen in practice if the reaction is too slow. If a reactant can produce two different products, the thermodynamically most stable one will in general form, except in special circumstances when the reaction is said to be under kinetic reaction control. The Curtin–Hammett principle applies when determining the product ratio for two reactants interconverting rapidly, each going to a different product. It is possible to make predictions about reaction rate constants for a reaction from free-energy relationships.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21544", "title": "Nuclear fusion", "section": "Section::::Important reactions.:Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 287, "text": "For reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies. For reactions that can result in more than one set of products, the branching ratios are given.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14149235", "title": "Energy profile (chemistry)", "section": "Section::::Reaction coordinate diagrams.:Kinetic and thermodynamic considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 550, "text": "A chemical reaction can be defined by two important parameters- the Gibbs free energy associated with a chemical transformation and the rate of such a transformation. These parameters are independent of each other. While free energy change describes the stability of products relative to reactants, the rate of any reaction is defined by the energy of the transition state relative to the starting material. Depending on these parameters, a reaction can be favorable or unfavorable, fast or slow and reversible or irreversible, as shown in figure 8.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57555", "title": "Acid dissociation constant", "section": "Section::::Factors that affect p\"K\" values.:Thermodynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 300, "text": "Note that the \"standard\" free energy change for the reaction is for the changes \"from\" the reactants in their standard states \"to\" the products in their standard states. The free energy change \"at\" equilibrium is zero since the chemical potentials of reactants and products are equal at equilibrium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1326645", "title": "Chemical change", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 484, "text": "When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an energy change as new products are generated. An example of a chemical change is the reaction between sodium and water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. So much energy is released that the hydrogen gas released spontaneously burns in the air. This is an example of a chemical change because the end products are chemically different from the substances before the chemical reaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5936", "title": "Chemical thermodynamics", "section": "Section::::Chemical energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1100, "text": "Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants. This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical reaction. Where formula_1 is the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules that can be calculated from the bond energies of the various chemical bonds of the molecules under consideration and formula_2 is the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The change in internal energy is a process which is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume (at STP condition), as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the enthalpy of formation).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The reason for the chain reaction in the first place, is a chance for a neutron emitted by an atom to hit another atom. This event in turn emits even more neutrons. If those manage to hit an atom, the chain will continue.\n\nCritical mass ensures that emitted neutrons do not just miss everything and fly away, but they keep hitting more atoms (because there are enough atoms around). This gives you a sustainable chain reaction.\n\nThere is no simple formula for calculating the exact value of the critical mass. It depends on cross section of the material, energy of emitted neutrons, presence of neutron reflecting shield around the material etc. Figuring out the critical mass value for a particular material is basically what physicists get paid for. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fission results in the release of 2 to 3 free neutrons. To sustain a critical chain reaction, on average, one of these neutrons should be captured by a fissile nucleus and cause it to fission.\n\nSo what you need to understand is the parameters that affect how likely it is for a free neutron to be captured in this way.\n\nOne important parameter is the shape of the material. If a neutron escapes the material it is lost from the system and doesn't contribute to the chain reaction. This is called leakage. A sphere is the most efficient shape as it has the smallest surface area from which leakage will occur for a given volume. We also want to maximise the density of the material as this will also minimise the surface area for a given mass.\n\nThe larger the mass of the sphere the less likely it is a neutron will escape i.e. a neutron will on average have to pass by more fissile nuclei before it can escape the edge of the sphere. For each pure fissile material of full density in a vacuum there is an ideal spherical mass where a just critical chain reaction will occur. Any less material and there will be too much leakage and the system will be subcritical.\n\nThis critical mass can be reduced by adding a reflector around the fissile material. Beryllium is an excellent reflector, as it has a high neutron scatter cross section and a low neutron capture cross section (I'll come back to these terms in a bit). By adding a thick shell of beryllium around our spherical critical mass we minimise leakage and thus reduce our critical mass.\n\nThe next thing to understand is how neutron capture or scatter cross sections vary with neutron energy. Cross sections are measured in barns, a unit of area. The bigger the cross section, the more likely it is that a neutron will be absorbed or scattered when its comes into proximity with a nucleus. After a fission the free neutrons are \"fast\" and have an energy in the MeV range. By slowing down neutrons to a \"thermal\" energy in the eV range the cross sections increase significantly and neutrons can more easily captured. So if we reduce the average neutron energy then we need on average fewer interactions between a neutron and fissile nuclei before a capture occurs. In which case the volume needed for a chain reaction reduces further. Slowing down neutrons is achieved by including a \"moderator\". This is a material with a low atomic mass which reduces the energy of a neutron by elastically scattering it. This is analogous to a pool ball being slowed down by multiple collisions with other balls by transferring some of its energy to them. The best moderator is one with a similar mass to a neutron as momentum transfer is most efficient at equal mass. A secondary factor is that the moderator should not capture too many neutrons. Hydrogen-1 is by far the most effective moderator. The next best, deuterium, is much less efficient at absorbing momentum energy. Again we want to minimise the size of our sphere so we want a material with a high hydrogen density. Water has a good hydrogen density, but polythene is even better.\n\nSide note: Moderation also has a secondary benefit in that thermal fission produces slightly more neutrons per fission than fast fission on average. This further improves our balance of neutrons available for the chain reaction.\n\nThe next point to make is that a nucleus can absorb a neutron without contributing to fission. This is called parasitic absorption. This can happen with the fissile nuclei itself, which is unavoidable, with the moderator and the reflector and also with any impurities that may be present. To minimise this we want to exclude any impurities and to use just enough moderator mixed in a ideal way with the fissile material (a homogeneous mix for high enriched uranium and plutonium or a lattice for very low enriched uranium).\n\nTaking all of that into account we can now design our system with a minimum critical mass. Most minimum critical masses reported will be for pure u-233, u-235, pu-239 and pu-241 mixed homogeneously at maximum density with an ideal concentration of polythene, surrounded by beryllium.\n\nThe differences between the masses for each fissile isotope are due to there different capture-fission and capture-parasitic absorption cross sections and the differences in the average number of free neutrons produced per fission.\n\nTechnically there are some ways we could produce an even smaller minimum critical mass. In theory beryllium hydride is an even better moderator than polythene and could result in a critical mass of as little as 87 grams for pu-239. Additionally some of the higher transuranics are also fissile and have very very small minimum critical masses (a few grams, maybe less). Both of these cases are a bit academic and not really relevant in industrial settings (e.g. Where want want to know the minimum critical mass for safety control purposes).\n\nEdit: How is it calculated? These days we use computer software to very accurately model a system. The most accurate tools are Monte Carlo models that individually model the fate of many postulated neutrons until the statistical error is negligible. These models are validated against a library of test data. The better validated the data, the more accurate the model. There are analytical approaches that can be used, with formulas to estimate the effects of geometry, moderation, etc (try googling geometric and material buckling as an example). These are rarely used outside of a classroom as the software models are more effective and widely available.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "175875", "title": "Critical mass", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 379, "text": "A critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass of a fissionable material depends upon its nuclear properties (specifically, the nuclear fission cross-section), its density, its shape, its enrichment, its purity, its temperature, and its surroundings. The concept is important in nuclear weapon design.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175875", "title": "Critical mass", "section": "Section::::Explanation of criticality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 332, "text": "A numerical measure of a critical mass is dependent on the effective neutron multiplication factor , the average number of neutrons released per fission event that go on to cause another fission event rather than being absorbed or leaving the material. When \"k\" = 1, the mass is critical, and the chain reaction is self-sustaining.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "949651", "title": "Criticality accident", "section": "Section::::Physical basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 308, "text": "Criticality occurs when sufficient fissile material (a critical mass) accumulates in a small volume such that each fission, on average, produces a neutron that in turn strikes another fissile atom causing another fission; this causes the chain reaction to become self-sustaining within the mass of material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "481843", "title": "Uranium-235", "section": "Section::::Fission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1054, "text": "If at least one neutron from uranium-235 fission strikes another nucleus and causes it to fission, then the chain reaction will continue. If the reaction will sustain itself, it is said to be critical, and the mass of U-235 required to produce the critical condition is said to be a critical mass. A critical chain reaction can be achieved at low concentrations of U-235 if the neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. The power output of nuclear reactors is adjusted by the location of control rods containing elements that strongly absorb neutrons, e.g., boron, cadmium, or hafnium, in the reactor core. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates a nuclear explosion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22054", "title": "Nuclear fission", "section": "Section::::Physical overview.:Chain reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 664, "text": "An assembly that supports a sustained nuclear chain reaction is called a critical assembly or, if the assembly is almost entirely made of a nuclear fuel, a critical mass. The word \"critical\" refers to a cusp in the behavior of the differential equation that governs the number of free neutrons present in the fuel: if less than a critical mass is present, then the amount of neutrons is determined by radioactive decay, but if a critical mass or more is present, then the amount of neutrons is controlled instead by the physics of the chain reaction. The actual mass of a \"critical mass\" of nuclear fuel depends strongly on the geometry and surrounding materials.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2021419", "title": "Relativistic mechanics", "section": "Section::::Relativistic dynamics.:Closed (isolated) systems.:Center of momentum frame.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 1174, "text": "For isolated systems (closed to all mass and energy exchange), mass never disappears in the center of momentum frame, because energy cannot disappear. Instead, this equation, in context, means only that when any energy is added to, or escapes from, a system in the center-of-momentum frame, the system will be measured as having gained or lost mass, in proportion to energy added or removed. Thus, in theory, if an atomic bomb were placed in a box strong enough to hold its blast, and detonated upon a scale, the mass of this closed system would not change, and the scale would not move. Only when a transparent \"window\" was opened in the super-strong plasma-filled box, and light and heat were allowed to escape in a beam, and the bomb components to cool, would the system lose the mass associated with the energy of the blast. In a 21 kiloton bomb, for example, about a gram of light and heat is created. If this heat and light were allowed to escape, the remains of the bomb would lose a gram of mass, as it cooled. In this thought-experiment, the light and heat carry away the gram of mass, and would therefore deposit this gram of mass in the objects that absorb them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8262357", "title": "Mass excess", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 785, "text": "The mass excess of a nuclide is the difference between its actual mass and its mass number in atomic mass units. It is one of the predominant methods for tabulating nuclear mass. The mass of an atomic nucleus is well approximated (less than 0.1% difference for most nuclides) by its mass number, which indicates that most of the mass of a nucleus arises from mass of its constituent protons and neutrons. Thus, the mass excess is an expression of the nuclear binding energy, relative to the binding energy per nucleon of carbon-12 (which defines the atomic mass unit). If the mass excess is negative, the nucleus has more binding energy than C, and vice versa. If a nucleus has a large excess of mass compared to a nearby nuclear species, it can radioactively decay, releasing energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Generally speaking, they don't. The public Webcam feeds you can find online are usually there because of shit security settings on peoples' networks and computers.\n\nIf someone had the skills to rewrite or modify the webcam driver file, it would be pretty easy to change the settings to not turn on the light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > How do hackers hack a web cam?\n\nBugs. A lot of software is insecure. Not all. A standalone webcamera is an \"Internet of Things\" device. Oh god, there are so many poorly secured IoT devices. \n\n > And is it possible for them to record without the indicator light turning on?\n\nDepends. If the light is hardwired to the power of the camera, no. But other devices, like [logitech cameras](_URL_1_) or [macbooks](_URL_0_) don't even need the firmware flashed. So, that's a solid yes. \n\n > specifically a laptop's built-in webcam - if that makes a difference...\n\nAs a device that's part of a real laptop, with a real OS, then it's probably more secure. But on the flip side, OS's do a lot more stuff which are more vectors for an attack. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30674676", "title": "Camfecting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 592, "text": "Camfecting, in the field of computer security, is the process of attempting to hack into a person's webcam and activate it without the webcam owner's permission. The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision, sometimes including the webcam owner themselves. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to their webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim's webcam, and hence the name \"camfecting\", a portmanteau of the words \"camera\" and \"infecting\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92171", "title": "Webcam", "section": "Section::::Privacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 570, "text": "The fraudulent process of attempting to hack into a person's webcam and activate it without the webcam owner's permission has been called camfecting. The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision, sometimes the webcam owner itself. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to the victim's webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim's webcam, and hence the name \"camfecting\", a portmanteau of the words \"cam\" and \"infecting\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30674676", "title": "Camfecting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 559, "text": "Typically, a webcam hacker or a camfecter sends his victim an innocent-looking application which has a hidden Trojan software through which the camfecter can control the victim's webcam. The camfecter virus installs itself silently when the victim runs the original application. Once installed, the camfecter can turn on the webcam and capture pictures/videos. The camfecter software works just like the original webcam software present in the victim computer, the only difference being that the camfecter controls the software instead of the webcam's owner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4442888", "title": "Softcam", "section": "Section::::Risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 549, "text": "Typically, a webcam hacker or a camfecter sends his victim an innocent-looking application which has a Trojan horse software through which the camfecter can control the victim's webcam. The camfecter virus installs itself silently when the victim runs the original application. Once installed, the camfecter can turn on the webcam and capture pictures/videos. The camfecter software works just like the original webcam software present in the computer, the only difference being that the camfecter controls the software instead of the webcam owner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1163729", "title": "ROM hacking", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Data editing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 504, "text": "A core component of many hacks (especially of role-playing video games) is editing data such as character, item, and enemy properties. This is usually done either \"by hand\" (with a hex editor) if the location and structure of the data is known, or with a game-specific editor that has this functionality. Through this, a hacker can alter how weapons work, how strong enemies are or how they act, etc. This can be done to make the game easier or harder, or to create new scenarios for the player to face.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4442888", "title": "Softcam", "section": "Section::::Risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 416, "text": "Remotely activated webcams can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision, sometimes including the webcam owner themselves. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to the webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim's webcam, and hence the name camfecting, a portmanteau of the words cam and infecting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34826296", "title": "Doxing", "section": "Section::::Common techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 317, "text": "A hacker may obtain an individual's dox without making the information public. A hacker may look for this information in order to extort or coerce a known or unknown target. Also, a hacker may harvest a victim's information in order to break into their Internet accounts, or to take over their social media accounts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Probably not. Many of the indigenous languages at that point were only spoken languages and were not written, which is why you aren't finding many, if any, sources in an indigenous language. You should be fine if you focus on one of the European languages (French or Spanish if you are studying an area colonized by the Spanish). In the unlikely event that you need an indigenous language for your area of research, your future advisor will tell you and help you find a way to learn it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To move through graduate school you would not *need* to be fluent in Native American languages. It sounds like it could not hurt, given what you would like to study, but the fact is, most historians of colonial America do not know any Native American languages, much less have fluency. The major reason for this is not necessary euro-centrism, though that doesn't help, but rather that most historians gather their data and evidence from written sources, which, almost by default, are filtered through Europeans and European languages before being recorded (or as they are recorded). This means that there are few truly Native American sources available in that form, so many historians, even of those who look at European-Native American interactions, are not what you would call fluent in any Native American language. Of course, if that will be your main focus, it cannot hurt to learn as much as you can, and also to investigate the Native American cultures you'll study such as they exist today. Generally, a historian of such interactions tries to get as much perspective as possible, by approaching the subject from as many angles as possible. I highly recommend \"Facing East From Indian Country\" by Daniel Richter for you, as his introduction discusses exactly this issue of recovering Native American perspectives and opinions when the overwhelming majority of information about them and their interactions has been filtered through Europeans and Colonists first. The rest of the book attempts to engage in just such recoveries in a number of instances.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of this depends on your particular subject. For example, if you're doing work that connects to extant groups and potentially their oral histories (a methodology that requires mastery in itself!) you may. However, often the acquisition of those languages happens in the field, precisely because they are not normally taught in an instructional setting. In learning certain southern African languages, that was my only choice--even going to teachers who work in the language wouldn't help, because they were already dealing with native speakers, not second-language speakers. So you may well not be able to acquire a relevant one to you until the need is apparent.\n\nI will say that having such a language, and more importantly a demonstrated ability to work in that language, is a helpful differentiator on the market. But for the era you're discussing, it's not an absolute requirement for the general field. When we did our colonial US search, none of the finalists had a Native American language. Constrast that, if you're curious, to our most recent US West/18th-19th search, where two of the four finalists had research ability in a Native American language. As /u/Mictlantecuhtli points out below, the need is very subject- and geography-dependent.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Even if you don't need it for translating primary sources, I think that it would be a sign of respect and thoughtfulness to learn the language that is or was most prevalent in the main location of your research. It might give you insight into the structure, interests, and investments of the culture you're studying\\*. Studying the protocols that go along with language in conversational settings with peers and with elders may help you to develop relationships, and thereby gain appropriate, respectful access to oral histories directly from the source in an ethical, non-exploitative manner. \n\nCould you do some research without this knowledge? Absolutely. Could you do more, more interesting, and maybe more groundbreaking research with it? I think so. But you'd probably have to seek out a graduate institution with the programs, training opportunities, and community links to help you on your way. \n\n\\*For example, as far as I understand it, the Cree language uses different grammatical structures for animate vs. inanimate nouns, but the dividing line does not line up with a Western scientific/biological understanding of what constitutes an animate object. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58562234", "title": "Lisa Brooks", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 251, "text": "Lisa Brooks is an historian, writer, and professor of English and American studies at Amherst College in Massachusetts where she specializes in the history of Native American and European interactions from the American colonial period to the present.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53394446", "title": "Alden Vaughan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 332, "text": "Alden T. Vaughan (born 1929) is an American historian, having taught at Columbia University, has published several books about New England and Indians in the 17th and 18th centuries and has been largely collected by libraries. His current research is studying the relationships between the Native Americans and non-native settlers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58519279", "title": "Joseph M. Hall, Jr.", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 243, "text": "Joseph M. Hall, Jr. is an historian, writer, and American history professor at Bates College in Lewiston, Maine where he specializes in the history of Native American and European interactions from the American colonial period to the present.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60952479", "title": "Camilla Townsend", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 301, "text": "Camilla Townsend (born January 29, 1965) is an American historian and Distinguished Professor of History at Rutgers University. She specializes in the early history of Native Americans in the United States, as well as in the history of Latin America. In 2010, she was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22140499", "title": "Mary Maples Dunn", "section": "Section::::Professional life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 843, "text": "While Dunn's scholarship primarily concerned William Penn, Pennsylvania, and the history of English-speaking colonies in the middle-Atlantic portion of what is now the United States, she was not guilty of the limited visions of those who understand \"colonial America\" to refer only to the \"original\" thirteen English coast on the Atlantic Coast of North America. As a history professor at Bryn Mawr College, Dunn taught an innovative interdisciplinary course in Latin American Studies in the mid-1970s. This early foray into interdisciplinary Latin American studies incorporated history, culture, and architecture. The Mary Maples Dunn Prize, established in 2008, honors \"the best article in early American women’s history by an untenured scholar published in The William and Mary Quarterly that uses gender as a primary analytical category\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21032884", "title": "Cipriano Muñoz, 2nd Count of la Viñaza", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 604, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Bibliografía Española de Lenguas Indigenas de América\" (Spanish bibliography of indigenous American languages), Madrid, Ed. Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, xxv + 427 pages, 1892, reprinted by Father Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María, 1977: . A catalogue of 1,100 works in indigenous American languages with Spanish translations, printed from the 16th to 19th centuries. The bibliography includes profiles of the works' authors, many Spanish-born or mixed race bilingual descendants of Spanish and Indian parents. Many of the books concern the teaching of Christianity in aboriginal American languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27079097", "title": "Intercultural bilingual education", "section": "Section::::Other similar models.:North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 755, "text": "In the U.S. and Canada there are an estimated 184 living indigenous languages—however, only 20 of these 184 are currently learned in a naturalistic environment by children (that is to say, learned at home through immersion with family and community). Many of these minority languages are part of the various Native American tribes which, through the history of reservation creation and racism by the dominant society, have come close to extinction. Similarly to the case with the Hispanicization of Latin America, the prevailing idea that English is a prestige language associated with opportunity and literacy led to an ambivalence towards sustaining various tribal languages—despite the important role they play in tribal community and ethnic identity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You're comparing apples to oranges. You can't/shouldn't compare efficiency across different methods of extracting energy. What you should care about is dollar pr watt hour. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The major problem with solar is it only works about 8-12 hours a day. Then not at all during the night. So, if you wanted 100 % solar 100 % of the time, then you have to design a system for the extremes of weather patterns. I live in Alabama, and over the summer we went 5 straight days with thick overcast. That is some huge batteries. \n\nThe main reason fossil fuels are winning, and will continue to do so, is because they provide on demand power and are more reliable. Germany's wind turbines are currently facing this problem. They produce so much during the night, which is when energy is in the least demand. That it causes issues on the grid. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm certaily not qualified to give a definite answer for your overlying question, but I can give a couple details/points of clarifiation:\n\nCurrent photovoltaic (PV) cells (made of mostly silicon) have an efficiency of ~22 %. The upper limit for singly layered silicon PV cells is ~33 %. This is considering three phenomena: that silicon (and pretty much everything else, called blackbody radiation) radiates at all times (~7 % drop), that not all excitations will last long enough to be useful (~10 % drop) and that some sunlight will be too low energy to induce excitations, while high energy sunlight will not be used to its fullest (~52 % drop) ([ref for these](_URL_0_), [alternately the wiki article](_URL_2_)). Silicon-based PVs are generally considered a pretty mature technology.\n\nA type of solar that shows some promise is called a dye-sensitized solar cell. Unfortunately, that's where my knowledge ends, so the best I can do it [reference you to the wiki article](_URL_1_).\n\nEdit: sorry about some overlap hithisishal's comment", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45079636", "title": "Protect Our Winters", "section": "Section::::Policy Agenda.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 300, "text": "BULLET::::- To realistically reduce our reliance on fossil fuels as a source of power, we have to utilize clean sources of energy. Solar energy is a sustainable source of energy with incredible potential for expansion and opportunity to develop on both the individual level and the commercial scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27743", "title": "Solar energy", "section": "Section::::Development, deployment and economics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 548, "text": "In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the Sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. \"The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9273237", "title": "World energy resources", "section": "Section::::Renewable resources.:Solar energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 1211, "text": "Renewable energy sources are even larger than the traditional fossil fuels and in theory can easily supply the world's energy needs. 89 PW of solar power falls on the planet's surface. While it is not possible to capture all, or even most, of this energy, capturing less than 0.02% would be enough to meet the current energy needs. Barriers to further solar generation include the high price of making solar cells and reliance on weather patterns to generate electricity. Also, current solar generation does not produce electricity at night, which is a particular problem in high northern and southern latitude countries; energy demand is highest in winter, while availability of solar energy is lowest. This could be overcome by buying power from countries closer to the equator during winter months, and may also be addressed with technological developments such as the development of inexpensive energy storage. Globally, solar generation is the fastest growing source of energy, seeing an annual average growth of 35% over the past few years. Japan, Europe, China, U.S. and India are the major growing investors in solar energy. Solar power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50769435", "title": "Composite bearing", "section": "Section::::Application and uses.:Solar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 359, "text": "Solar has become a viable source of energy. According to the International Energy Agency, Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) could be responsible for up to 11.5% of global electricity production by 2050. The life expectancy of the CSP plant could be up to 40 years (13)and energy companies are looking for components that will last the lifetime of the CSP plant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34504569", "title": "Solar fuel", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 542, "text": "The world's dependence on the declining reserves of fossil fuels poses not only environmental problems but also geopolitical ones. Solar fuels, in particular hydrogen, are viewed as an alternative source of energy for replacing fossil fuels especially where storage is essential. Electricity can be produced directly from sunlight through photovoltaics, but this form of energy is rather inefficient to store compared to hydrogen. A solar fuel can be produced when and where sunlight is available, and stored and transported for later usage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54269557", "title": "Solar energy conversion", "section": "Section::::Economic development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 487, "text": "Solar energy conversion has the potential to be a very cost-effective technology. Solar installations are becoming cheaper and more readily available to countries where energy demand is high, but supply is low due to economic circumstances. A 1 GW solar power plant can produce almost 10 times as much power as a fossil fuel combustion power plant that would cost twice as much to establish. Solar power plants have been projected to be the leader of energy production by the year 2050.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "199804", "title": "Science and technology in the United States", "section": "Section::::The Atomic Age and \"Big Science\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 244, "text": "Meanwhile, American scientists have been experimenting with other renewable energy, including solar power. Although solar power generation is still not economical in much of the United States, recent developments might make it more affordable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most body frames (skeletons) are very similar, and most \"shape\" comes from fat or muscle on those bones.\n\nThe heavier you are, the more work you have to do. It's easier to move 150 pounds 100 feet than 200 pounds 100 feet.\n\nRunning results in injury to heavier people more often. Joints stand up better to 150 pounds coming down on them than 200 pounds. This is a \"[squares and cubes](_URL_0_)\" problem. Stuff gets heavier basically in a cubic function, stuff gets stronger basically in a square function. n^3 grows much faster than n^2.\n\nMarathoning and training burns a lot of calories. Compared to eating less, running isn't usually as effective for weightloss, but when you start talking 20 miles, you're talking about burning in the area of 2500 calories, which is more calories than the average person should consume per day. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Running long distances or doing aerobic exercise is very taxing in terms of calories burned. In short distance sprints, very tall and muscular people have the advantage due to length of stride and the power that extra muscle bulk provides, but with long distances, those muscles and that extra height becomes just extra baggage that you have to carry for 20 or so miles. Adding 50 pounds and half a foot of height can bring up the amount of calories required to complete the run by about 1000. This goes up even further if you want to be competitive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51191507", "title": "F4 (classification)", "section": "Section::::Sports.:Athletics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 432, "text": "Athletes in this class who good trunk control and mobility have an advantage over athletes in the same class who have less functional trunk control and mobility. This functional difference can cause different performance results within the same class, with discus throwers with more control in a class able to throw the discus further. Wheelchair racers in this class frequently are much faster than their able-bodied counterparts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3282507", "title": "Chondrodystrophy", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Coping with chondrodystrophy.:Physical education and sports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 316, "text": "Having short limbs can limit ball handling, and athletic performance in racquet sports and certain track events, like the long jump and high jump. However, short limbs can be an advantage for a sport like power lifting. Additionally, swimming and bicycling are recommended due to their limited impact on the joints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43719", "title": "Sport of athletics", "section": "Section::::Categories.:Athletes with disabilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 485, "text": "In wheelchair racing athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Most major marathons have wheelchair divisions and the elite racers consistently beat the runners on foot. The speed of wheel chair racers has caused difficulties for race organisers in properly staggering their start times compared to runners. A collision between Josh Cassidy (a wheelchair racer) and Tiki Gelana (a leading female marathoner) at the 2013 London Marathon brought the issue into the spotlight again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4824617", "title": "Most Muscular", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 296, "text": "The most muscular is a common bodybuilding pose, often used to highlight as much of a contestant's muscle repertoire as possible by demonstrating the maximum mass of muscle to the judging panel. There are a few variants including the crab, hands clasped, hands on the waist are the most popular.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33792679", "title": "T34 (classification)", "section": "Section::::Performance and rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1230, "text": "Athletes in this class used secure frames for throwing events. The frame can be only one of two shapes: A rectangle or square. The sides must be at least long. The seat needs to be lower at the back or level, and it cannot be taller than . This height includes any cushioning or padding. Throwers can have footplates on their frames, but the footplate can only be used for stability. It cannot be used to push off from. Rests can be used on the frame but they need to be present only for safety reasons and to aide in athlete stability. They need to be manufactured from rigid materials that do not move. These materials may include steel or aluminum. The backrest can have cushioning but it cannot be thicker than . It cannot have any movable parts. The frame can also have a holding bar. The holding bar needs to be round or square, and needs to be a single straight piece. Athletes are not required to use a holding bar during their throw, and they can hold on to any part of the frame during their throw. Throwing frames should be inspected prior to the event. This should be done either in the call room or in the competition area. In general, people in this class should be allocated around 2 minutes to set up their chair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51136581", "title": "F56 (classification)", "section": "Section::::Performance and rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1230, "text": "Athletes in this class used secure frames for throwing events. The frame can be only one of two shapes: A rectangle or square. The sides must be at least long. The seat needs to be lower at the back or level, and it cannot be taller than . This height includes any cushioning or padding. Throwers can have footplates on their frames, but the footplate can only be used for stability. It cannot be used to push off from. Rests can be used on the frame but they need to be present only for safety reasons and to aide in athlete stability. They need to be manufactured from rigid materials that do not move. These materials may include steel or aluminum. The backrest can have cushioning but it cannot be thicker than . It cannot have any movable parts. The frame can also have a holding bar. The holding bar needs to be round or square, and needs to be a single straight piece. Athletes are not required to use a holding bar during their throw, and they can hold on to any part of the frame during their throw. Throwing frames should be inspected prior to the event. This should be done either in the call room or in the competition area. In general, people in this class should be allocated around 2 minutes to set up their chair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51136580", "title": "F57 (classification)", "section": "Section::::Performance and rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1230, "text": "Athletes in this class used secure frames for throwing events. The frame can be only one of two shapes: A rectangle or square. The sides must be at least long. The seat needs to be lower at the back or level, and it cannot be taller than . This height includes any cushioning or padding. Throwers can have footplates on their frames, but the footplate can only be used for stability. It cannot be used to push off from. Rests can be used on the frame but they need to be present only for safety reasons and to aide in athlete stability. They need to be manufactured from rigid materials that do not move. These materials may include steel or aluminum. The backrest can have cushioning but it cannot be thicker than . It cannot have any movable parts. The frame can also have a holding bar. The holding bar needs to be round or square, and needs to be a single straight piece. Athletes are not required to use a holding bar during their throw, and they can hold on to any part of the frame during their throw. Throwing frames should be inspected prior to the event. This should be done either in the call room or in the competition area. In general, people in this class should be allocated around 2 minutes to set up their chair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This probably isn't exactly how they do it computationally, but intuitively you could do this:\n\nEvery number can be uniquely factored into primes, i.e. 10 = 2*5, 28 = 2^2*7, etc. \n\nIf a number is prime it only has one factor, itself. If a number is composite, it is made of of 2 or more prime factors. \n\nIt's not too difficult to see that a composite number, call it n, has some factor less than sqrt(n). So all you have to do is divide n by all the primes less than sqrt(n). \n\nIf you don't get a whole number for any of those divisions n is prime.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For very large prime numbers we use probabilistic tests like Fermat's test or Miller-Rabin and others.\n\nThe largest known primes are at the moment Mersenne Primes and they are found primarily by using the Lucas–Lehmer primality test.\n(And other algorithms in a certain context.)\n\nEDIT: A Miller-Rabin test e.g. will not give us a 100% accurate answer, but we can \"tweak\" the algorithm to give us a very good accuracy.\n\nEDIT2: If we really want to be 100% sure we can do an expensive trial division, but that takes some time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are fast primality tests: _URL_0_. These tests aren't easy to understand, and we only proved that they are \"fast\" (polynomial time in the number of digits) recently. Historically, we used imperfect algorithms that basically just tell you that a number is \"not prime\" or \"almost certainly prime.\"\n\nIf your goal is just to hunt for very large primes, then one way is to use the Lehmer-Lucas test. Given a prime p, it's computationally easy to find out if a number of the form 2^p - 1 is prime.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wrote an honors thesis on this.\n\nFirst, start with Fermat's Little Theorem: (x^(p-1) - 1)/x is a whole number if (but not only if) p is prime.\n\nThe contrapositive statement: \"p is not prime if (x^(p-1)-1)/x is not an integer\" identifies most composite numbers in one test. But there are numbers - called Carmichael numbers - that fool this test. 1729 = 7 * 13 * 19 is one such number - (4^1728 - 1) is a multiple of 1729, and this is true if you replace 4 with any whole number that isn't a multiple of 7, 13 or 19.\n\nSecondly, you hunt for Carmichael numbers by the following method: You hunt for a square root of 1, modulo p, that is not equal to -1 or +1. (That means you look for x such that x^2-1 is a multiple of p, but neither x-1 nor x+1 is a multiple of p). For 1729, an example of such a square root would be 246. 246^2 - 1 = 35 * 1729.\n\nThe existence of such a square root enables you to find a proper factor of p.\n\nThe way to do this is to consider each of x^1728, x^(1728/2), x^(1728/4), x^(1728/8)... until you are raising x to an odd power for each of dozens of values of x. There is a theorem that if p is prime, no more than 1 in 4 possible values of x will fail to have a proper square root of x in this series.\n\n\nThis provides a practical test that allows you to probabalistically test if a number is prime. PROVING it is prime beyond a sliver of doubt then requires elliptic curve primality proving - where you construct a mathematical group (the abstract algebra concept of group) of points with certain properties on a curve of the form y^2 = x^3 + ax + b and define an operation on those points. This allows you to reduce the problem of 'is p prime' to be equivalent to 'is p1 prime' for a number p1 with p1 < p^0.5. Repeated iteration of this allows you to then get to a number small enough to check it against a table of known primes (in practice, usually once you get under 100 billion you just do this).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23666", "title": "Prime number", "section": "Section::::Computational methods.:Trial division.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 144, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 144, "end_character": 465, "text": "Although this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs grows exponentially as a function of the number of digits of these integers. However, trial division is still used, with a smaller limit than the square root on the divisor size, to quickly discover composite numbers with small factors, before using more complicated methods on the numbers that pass this filter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23666", "title": "Prime number", "section": "Section::::Computational methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 448, "text": "The most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called factorization algorithms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183751", "title": "Primality test", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 682, "text": "A primality test is an algorithm for determining whether an input number is prime. Among other fields of mathematics, it is used for cryptography. Unlike integer factorization, primality tests do not generally give prime factors, only stating whether the input number is prime or not. Factorization is thought to be a computationally difficult problem, whereas primality testing is comparatively easy (its running time is polynomial in the size of the input). Some primality tests \"prove\" that a number is prime, while others like Miller–Rabin prove that a number is composite. Therefore, the latter might more accurately be called \"compositeness tests\" instead of primality tests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188999", "title": "Miller–Rabin primality test", "section": "Section::::Deterministic variants.:Testing against small sets of bases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 217, "text": "Other criteria of this sort, often more efficient (fewer bases required) than those shown above, exist. They give very fast deterministic primality tests for numbers in the appropriate range, without any assumptions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183751", "title": "Primality test", "section": "Section::::Probabilistic tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 656, "text": "Many popular primality tests are probabilistic tests. These tests use, apart from the tested number \"n\", some other numbers \"a\" which are chosen at random from some sample space; the usual randomized primality tests never report a prime number as composite, but it is possible for a composite number to be reported as prime. The probability of error can be reduced by repeating the test with several independently chosen values of \"a\"; for two commonly used tests, for \"any\" composite \"n\" at least half the \"a\"s detect \"n\"s compositeness, so \"k\" repetitions reduce the error probability to at most 2, which can be made arbitrarily small by increasing \"k\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23666", "title": "Prime number", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 350, "text": "Many mathematicians have worked on primality tests for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include Pépin's test for Fermat numbers (1877), Proth's theorem (c. 1878), the Lucas–Lehmer primality test (originated 1856), and the generalized Lucas primality test.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91127", "title": "Fermat number", "section": "Section::::Factorization of Fermat numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 801, "text": "Because of the size of Fermat numbers, it is difficult to factorize or even to check primality. Pépin's test gives a necessary and sufficient condition for primality of Fermat numbers, and can be implemented by modern computers. The elliptic curve method is a fast method for finding small prime divisors of numbers. Distributed computing project \"Fermatsearch\" has successfully found some factors of Fermat numbers. Yves Gallot's proth.exe has been used to find factors of large Fermat numbers. Édouard Lucas, improving the above-mentioned result by Euler, proved in 1878 that every factor of Fermat number formula_11, with \"n\" at least 2, is of the form formula_18 (see Proth number), where \"k\" is a positive integer. By itself, this makes it easy to prove the primality of the known Fermat primes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One of the problems you'll note when reviewing literature on MDMA is the recent influx of research on MDMA assisted psychotherapy. This research tends to be biased towards showing the safety of the substance, and it's making it harder and harder for unbiased research to make clear conclusions about MDMA. It might be part of the reason why you're getting mixed messages.\n\nWith that said, even within the unbiased scientific research, there isn't a clear understanding on what exactly the relationship is between MDMA and permanent neuronal dysfunction. It is well accepted that high dose MDMA use is associated with long-term dysfunction of serotonergic circuitry, and for a long time it was thought that the dysfunction was actually from neuronal death. However, more recently there have been studies that challenge this because with CNS death you should see certain glial cell markers, and those markers aren't seen in high dose MDMA associated serotonergic dysfunction. So with serotonin at least, we know that MDMA disrupts normal functioning, but we don't know the exact mechanisms. Similar findings of acute dysfunction with dopamine and norepineprhine have been reported, but it's generally felt that the monoamines are not disrupted as severely as serotonin or with as much concern for permanence. \n\nThe last thing I'll mention is that most of this research is done on primates and occasionally rats, and less is known about the specifics in humans. With all of that said, I certainly wouldn't classify it as \"safe\" or \"harmless\" especially when used in high doses, but the exact mechanisms and potential for permanent neural dysfunction are not clear at this point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Layman here, but I did spend a lot of time doing drugs and researching on [erowid](_URL_0_) in my younger days. It seems like you know what you are talking about and already know this information, but this information **needs** to be in this thread for someone who clicks across it an decides to use this thread as justification for taking a tab.\n\nThe problem with street MDMA is that it's rarely pure. One tab might contain 25% mdma, 25% meth and 50% caffeine, while another will contain 50% psilocybin and 50% mephedrone. This makes determining the safety of a tab very difficult without a test kit and the proper reference materials to check on the behaviors of different chemicals when mixed and their safe doses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the problems you'll note when reviewing literature on MDMA is the recent influx of research on MDMA assisted psychotherapy. This research tends to be biased towards showing the safety of the substance, and it's making it harder and harder for unbiased research to make clear conclusions about MDMA. It might be part of the reason why you're getting mixed messages.\n\nWith that said, even within the unbiased scientific research, there isn't a clear understanding on what exactly the relationship is between MDMA and permanent neuronal dysfunction. It is well accepted that high dose MDMA use is associated with long-term dysfunction of serotonergic circuitry, and for a long time it was thought that the dysfunction was actually from neuronal death. However, more recently there have been studies that challenge this because with CNS death you should see certain glial cell markers, and those markers aren't seen in high dose MDMA associated serotonergic dysfunction. So with serotonin at least, we know that MDMA disrupts normal functioning, but we don't know the exact mechanisms. Similar findings of acute dysfunction with dopamine and norepineprhine have been reported, but it's generally felt that the monoamines are not disrupted as severely as serotonin or with as much concern for permanence. \n\nThe last thing I'll mention is that most of this research is done on primates and occasionally rats, and less is known about the specifics in humans. With all of that said, I certainly wouldn't classify it as \"safe\" or \"harmless\" especially when used in high doses, but the exact mechanisms and potential for permanent neural dysfunction are not clear at this point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Layman here, but I did spend a lot of time doing drugs and researching on [erowid](_URL_0_) in my younger days. It seems like you know what you are talking about and already know this information, but this information **needs** to be in this thread for someone who clicks across it an decides to use this thread as justification for taking a tab.\n\nThe problem with street MDMA is that it's rarely pure. One tab might contain 25% mdma, 25% meth and 50% caffeine, while another will contain 50% psilocybin and 50% mephedrone. This makes determining the safety of a tab very difficult without a test kit and the proper reference materials to check on the behaviors of different chemicals when mixed and their safe doses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22203772", "title": "MDAI", "section": "Section::::Use in scientific research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 287, "text": "MDAI and other similar drugs have been widely used in scientific research, as they are able to replicate many of the effects of MDMA, but without causing the neurotoxicity which may be associated with MDMA and some related drugs. No tests have been performed on cardiovascular toxicity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10024", "title": "MDMA", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 524, "text": "MDMA is illegal in most countries and, as of 2018, has no approved medical uses. Limited exceptions are sometimes made for research. Researchers are investigating whether MDMA may assist in treating severe, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with phase 3 clinical trials to look at effectiveness and safety expected to begin in 2018. In 2017 the FDA granted MDMA a breakthrough therapy designation for PTSD, meaning if studies show promise, a review for potential medical use could occur more quickly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60912660", "title": "MDMA-assisted psychotherapy", "section": "Section::::Other research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 516, "text": "MDMA has been proposed as an adjunct for other psychiatric disorders. For example, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy has been tested in a pilot study of anxiety related to advanced stage cancer. This study was terminated due to lack of funding and insufficient patient enrollment. Recreational users have published personal testimonies recounting positive body image experiences both during and following their use of MDMA, and MDMA-assisted psychotherapy has been proposed as a potential treatment for eating disorders. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60912660", "title": "MDMA-assisted psychotherapy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 376, "text": "The research is controversial due to the risks of taking MDMA, made evident by the illegal and unregulated use of MDMA in the form of ecstasy. There were 50 MDMA related deaths in the UK in 2014, and 10,000 hospitalizations for MDMA related illness/injury in 2011 in the US. The use of psychedelics for therapy has been characterized as 'countercultural' in Western cultures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66391", "title": "Stimulant", "section": "Section::::Notable stimulants.:MDMA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 262, "text": "Due to the relative safety of MDMA, some researchers such as David Nutt have criticized the scheduling level, writing a satirical article finding MDMA to be 28 times less dangerous than horseriding, a condition he termed \"equasy\" or \"Equine Addiction Syndrome\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "692929", "title": "3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 340, "text": "MDA is rarely sought after as a recreational drug compared to other drugs in the amphetamine family; however, it remains an important and widely used drug due to it being a primary metabolite, the product of hepatic N-dealkylation, of MDMA (ecstasy), In addition, it is not uncommon to find MDA as an adulterant of illicitly produced MDMA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10024", "title": "MDMA", "section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Long-term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 363, "text": "At high doses, MDMA induces a neuroimmune response which, through several mechanisms, increases the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, thereby making the brain more susceptible to environmental toxins and pathogens. In addition, MDMA has immunosuppressive effects in the peripheral nervous system and pro-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Without bringing current events into it:\n\nAn \"economic contagion\" or \"financial contagion\" is the idea that effects in the economy - particularly bad ones - have a way of spreading from one market to another.\n\nA \"market\" can be an industry - for instance, if the housing industry sees fewer people buying houses, then in turn the banking industry is impacted when fewer people take out loans, which in turn impacts other businesses who rely on the banks' strength.\n\nA \"market\" can also be a country - if a country's production takes a major hit, then its trade partners will be affected, any places relying on tourism or other cashflow from the country will be affected, etc.\n\nThe idea of an economic contagion is an attempt to explain real-world events. The word \"contagion\" is kind of controversial because these effects don't really have much in common with an infectious disease in any way; they are simply an effect of financial interdependence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most business and currency is based on confidence and belief. \n\nBelief that things will largely be worth tomorrow, what they are today.\n\nConfidence that the systems and structures that are useful and effective today, will remain so for the indefinite future.\n\nWith these ideas, you can plan on a micro-level how to allocate your time and money. On a macro-level, economies do the same thing.\n\nProblems arise when you lose confidence and belief. Should you plant your fields? Can you sell your produce in six months? Should you build a new expansion? Where should you put your money? Stocks? Guns? Gold?\n\nNothing has actually happened, but you are starting to consider or make choices that don’t follow the usual pattern. I see you doing that and I get spooked and change my behaviour. Now you and I are both acting unusually and spending or saving money in ways that spook our suppliers and customers... Things start spiraling, even though again, nothing has changed except you got a little panic-y.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1803851", "title": "Financial contagion", "section": "Section::::Causes and consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1332, "text": "\"Fundamental causes of contagion include macroeconomic shocks that have repercussions on an international scale and local shocks transmitted through trade links, competitive devaluations, and financial links.\" It can lead to some co-movements in capital flows and asset prices.Common shocks can be similar to the effects of financial links. \"A financial crisis in one country can lead to direct financial effects, including reductions in trade credits, foreign direct investment, and other capital flows abroad.\" Financial links come from financial globalization since countries try to be more economically integrated with global financial markets. Allen and Gale (2000), and Lagunoff and Schreft (2001) analyze financial contagion as a result of linkages among financial intermediaries. The former provide a general equilibrium model to explain a small liquidity preference shock in one region can spread by contagion throughout the economy and the possibility of contagion depends strongly on the completeness of the structure of interregional claims. The latter proposed a dynamic stochastic game-theoretic model of financial fragility, through which they explain interrelated portfolios and payment commitments forge financial linkages among agents and thus make two related types of the financial crisis can occur in response.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1803851", "title": "Financial contagion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 488, "text": "Financial contagion refers to \"the spread of market disturbances mostly on the downside from one country to the other, a process observed through co-movements in exchange rates, stock prices, sovereign spreads, and capital flows\". Financial contagion can be a potential risk for countries who are trying to integrate their financial system with international financial markets and institutions. It helps explain an economic crisis extending across neighboring countries, or even regions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1803851", "title": "Financial contagion", "section": "Section::::Causes and consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1025, "text": "Another branch of contagion is a financial crisis, which is also referred to irrational phenomena. A financial crisis as a branch of contagion is formed when \"a co-movement occurs, even when there are no global shocks and interdependence and fundamentals are not factors.\" It is caused by any of the four agents' behaviors who influence financial globalization. Some examples that can cause contagion are increased risk aversion, lack of confidence, and financial fears. Under the correlated information channel, price changes in one market are perceived as having implications for the values of assets in other markets, causing their prices to change as well (King and Wadhwani (1990)). Also, Calvo (2004) argues for correlated liquidity shock channel meaning that when some market participants need to liquidate and withdraw some of their assets to obtain cash, perhaps after experiencing an unexpected loss in another country and need to restore capital adequacy ratios. This behavior will effectively transmit the shock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22806639", "title": "John R. Talbott", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 254, "text": "\"Contagion: The Financial Epidemic That Is Sweeping the Global Economy ... and How to Protect Yourself from It\" (Wiley, 2008), dissects the possibility of a global recession and the ways in which individuals can protect themselves and their investments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "582932", "title": "Inefficiency", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 406, "text": "BULLET::::- Resource-market inefficiency - refers to barriers that prevent full adjustment of resource markets, so that resources are either unused or misused. For example, structural unemployment results from barriers of mobility in labor markets which prevent workers from moving to places and occupations where there are job vacancies. Thus, unemployed workers can co-exist with unfilled job vacancies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1803851", "title": "Financial contagion", "section": "Section::::Causes and consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 456, "text": "Financial contagion can create financial volatility and can seriously damage the economy and financial systems of countries. There are several branches of classifications that explain the mechanism of financial contagion, which are spillover effects and financial crisis that are caused by the influence of the four agents' behavior. The four agents that influence financial globalization are governments, financial institutions, investors, and borrowers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1803851", "title": "Financial contagion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 528, "text": "The term financial contagion has created controversy throughout the past years. Some argue that strong linkages between countries are not necessarily financial contagion, and that financial contagion should be defined as an increase in cross-market linkages after a shock to one country, which is very hard to figure out by both theoretical model and empirical work. Also, some scholars argue that there is actually no contagion at all, just a high level of market co-movement in all periods, which is market \"interdependence\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It has to do with comparing the previously glaciated terrane with areas which were not (or minimally) glaciated. The lake-rich northern terranes are underlain by glacial sediments. These typically include large proportions of poorly sorted material (such as till) as well as glacio-lacustrine clays, both of which give rise to poor drainage. The landforms created by deglaciation also create all sorts of variations in topography (kames, thermokarst, moraine, etc.) where small shallow lakes can form in these relatively impermeable deposits. \n\nYou will find that the unglaciated areas are much better drained, and probably generally flatter.\n\nYour state is sort of half and half - the northern part was glaciated while the southern part was not.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "249853", "title": "Mackenzie River", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 551, "text": "As recently as the last glacial maximum about 30,000 years ago, the majority of northern Canada was buried under the enormous continental Laurentide ice sheet. The tremendous erosive powers of the Laurentide and its predecessors, at maximum extent, completely buried what is now the Mackenzie watershed under thousands of metres of ice and flattened the eastern portions of the watershed. When the ice sheet receded for the last time, it left a long postglacial lake, Lake McConnell, of which Great Bear, Great Slave and Athabasca Lakes are remnants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9491237", "title": "Glacial history of Minnesota", "section": "Section::::Wisconsin Episode Glaciation.:Cary substage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 519, "text": "The glaciers that advanced out of the northeastern portion of Canada were of sufficient thickness to produce significant erosion in northeastern Minnesota. Because the affected area reached somewhat south of Minneapolis, it is called the \"Minneapolis lobe\". The Minneapolis lobe is characteristically red and sandy because of red sandstone and shale source rocks to the north and northeast; it may be recognized as well by pebbles of basalt, gabbro, red syenite, felsite and iron formation from northeastern Minnesota.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15361", "title": "Ice age", "section": "Section::::Recent glacial and interglacial phases.:Glacial stages in North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 495, "text": "The area from Long Island to Nantucket, Massachusetts was formed from glacial till, and the plethora of lakes on the Canadian Shield in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet thick in the Missouri Valley. Post-glacial rebound continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4108235", "title": "Holocene glacial retreat", "section": "Section::::Geographical alterations.:North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 343, "text": "The retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in Canada led to the formation of moraines and up to 26 proglacial lakes scattered throughout central Canada. The deglaciation occurred from the last glacial maximum (21,000 years ago) until about 7000 years ago. Some of the lakes the southern Ungava Bay area were fully deglaciated c. 6,000 years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1146369", "title": "Ice cap", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 345, "text": "Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area that they occupy. Plastic moulding, gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier's retreat. Many lakes, such as the Great Lakes in North America, as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "327032", "title": "South Saskatchewan River", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 572, "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, the South Saskatchewan would completely freeze over during winter, creating spectacular ice breaks and dangerous conditions in Saskatoon, Medicine Hat and elsewhere. At least one bridge in Saskatoon was destroyed by ice carried by the river. The construction of the Gardiner Dam in the 1960s, however, lessened the power of the river by diverting a substantial portion of the South Saskatchewan's natural flow into the Qu'Appelle River. By the 1980s many permanent sandbars had formed due to the lowering of the level of the river.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53902840", "title": "Buffalo Lake Moraine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 382, "text": "The moraine varied appearance is caused by material embedded within the glacier being left in a layer, as the glacier melted. Remaining large fragments of ice, leave kettle lakes, when they finally melt. Portions of the layers of glacial till, and gravel, are eroded away, leaving a landscape of lakes and bogs, mixed with hills consisting of layers of different kinds of deposits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "How do you breath all your life? Your diaphragm muscles must surely tire of pulling air in all the time, if you spend all your life breathing. Or your heart, which pumps blood nonstop your whole life.\n\nSome muscles don't tire because they can't. They're too important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its not just their muscles that are specialized for swimming constantly. Fish also have a whole specialized organ called a swim bladder that allows them to adjust their buoyancy by pumping water in and out of the swim bladder. Since buoyancy is a hydrostatic force produced by the water itself, the fish expends very little metabolic energy when using the swim bladder to adjust its position. A fish can adjust its swim bladder at any depth so that its weight is supported entirely by the water. This means that a fish can float on the surface of a body of water, or float at the bottom. Wherever it is in the water, a fish is *always* floating. A fish experiences virtually no gravitational resistance thanks to the swim bladder and buoyancy. This cuts down on metabolic expenditure massively. The fish's relatively weak and small striated muscles can focus entirely on lateral movement, while the swim bladder can be used to adjust vertical position at very very small metabolic cost.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Those fish that need to keep moving to prevent suffocation often simply place themselves in a way that they face an underwater current. This has the same effect as moving around in still water and the fish are thus able to relax for a while.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22641483", "title": "Fin and flipper locomotion", "section": "Section::::Aquatic locomotion with fins and flippers.:Aquatic locomotion of fish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1624, "text": "Fish live in Fresh or Saltwater habitats and some exceptions are capable of coming on land (Mudskippers). Most fish have a line of muscle blocks, called myomeres, along each side of the body. To swim, they alternately contract one side and relax the other side in a progression which goes from the head to the tail. In this way, an undulatory locomotion results, first bending the body one way in a wave which travels down the body, and then back the other way, with the contracting and relaxing muscles switching roles. They use their fins to propel themselves through the water in this swimming motion. Actinopterygians, the ray-finned fish show an evolutionary pattern of fine control ability to control the dorsal and ventral lobe of the caudal fin. Through developmental changes, intrinsic caudal muscles were added, which enable fish to exhibit such complex maneuvers such as control during acceleration, braking and backing. Studies have shown that the muscles in the caudal fin, have independent activity patterns from the myotomal musculature. These results show specific kinematic roles for different part of the fish's musculature. A curious example of fish adaption is the Ocean sunfish, also known as the \"Mola mola\". These fish have undergone significant developmental changes reducing their spinal cord, giving them a disk like appearance, and investing in two very large fins for propulsion. This adaptation usually gives them the appearance that they are as long as they are tall. They are also amazing fish in that they hold the world record in weight gain from fry to adult (60 million times its weight).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32506147", "title": "Ichthyoplankton", "section": "Section::::Dispersal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 225, "text": "Fish larvae develop first an ability to swim up and down the water column for short distances. Later they develop an ability to swim horizontally for much longer distances. These swimming developments affect their dispersal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1284761", "title": "Fish locomotion", "section": "Section::::Swimming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 803, "text": "Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is normally achieved by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body in order to generate waves of flexion that travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along. The vector forces exerted on the water by such motion cancel out laterally, but generate a net force backwards which in turn pushes the fish forward through the water. Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body and caudal fin, but many other species move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group swim slowly, but can turn rapidly, as is needed when living in coral reefs for example. But they can't swim as fast as fish using their bodies and caudal fins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26865891", "title": "Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water", "section": "Section::::Swimming fish.:Hydrodynamic principles.:Body-caudal fin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 217, "text": "Most fish swim by generating undulatory waves that propagate down the body through the caudal fin. This form of undulatory locomotion is termed Body-Caudal Fin (BCF) swimming on the basis of the body structures used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4699587", "title": "Fish", "section": "Section::::Diversity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 357, "text": "A typical fish is ectothermic, has a streamlined body for rapid swimming, extracts oxygen from water using gills or uses an accessory breathing organ to breathe atmospheric oxygen, has two sets of paired fins, usually one or two (rarely three) dorsal fins, an anal fin, and a tail fin, has jaws, has skin that is usually covered with scales, and lays eggs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15361011", "title": "Marine vertebrate", "section": "Section::::Marine fish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 494, "text": "Fish fall into two main groups: fish with bony internal skeletons and fish with cartilaginous internal skeletons. Fish anatomy and physiology generally includes a two-chambered heart, eyes adapted to seeing underwater, and a skin protected by scales and mucous. They typically breathe by extracting oxygen from water through gills. Fish use fins to propel and stabilise themselves in the water. Over 33,000 species of fish have been described as of 2017, of which about 20,000 are marine fish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2056572", "title": "Marine life", "section": "Section::::Vertebrate animals.:Marine fish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 494, "text": "Fish fall into two main groups: fish with bony internal skeletons and fish with cartilaginous internal skeletons. Fish anatomy and physiology generally includes a two-chambered heart, eyes adapted to seeing underwater, and a skin protected by scales and mucous. They typically breathe by extracting oxygen from water through gills. Fish use fins to propel and stabilise themselves in the water. Over 33,000 species of fish have been described as of 2017, of which about 20,000 are marine fish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "By the time period in question, the pike blocks [(*not* phalanxes)](_URL_0_) have taken further and further secondary roles to shot/firearm troops. \n\nIn the early 16th century, the shot troops are there to support friendly pike blocks and harass enemy pike blocks when contact is made. By the 17th century the proportions have changed drastically. A figure from *\"Fighting Techniques of the Early Modern World\"* shows:\n\n* 1622: 10 deep formation, 3 pikes for every 2 muskets.\n* 1630: 8 deep formation, 1 pike vs. 1 muskets.\n* 1650: 6 deep, 1 pike vs. 2 muskets. \n\nYou can guess where the trend was heading. Swedish infantry in the 30YW deployed about 1-1 pikes-muskets, and this isn't much different from what the Imperial and Spanish troops deployed, even if the Swedish ran smaller squadrons than their adversaries. \n\nBy the 1650s period, the pike block was a smaller contingent with muskets on both sides. Or rather, perhaps it is more accurate to say that an infantry squadron was a 6-deep line of muskets with a few pikes concentrated in the center. If that squadron is threatened by horse, the pikes then move forward and muskets back behind them to get protection. \n\nYou may want to read through [previous answers](_URL_1_) on pike and shot formations in battle. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1397903", "title": "Pike square", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 821, "text": "The pike square dominated European battlefields and influenced the development of tactics well into the 17th century. Even when muskets became common, their slow rate of fire meant that soldiers armed with them were vulnerable to cavalry; to combat this, some soldiers continued to carry pikes until the improving performance of firearms and the introduction of the bayonet allowed armies to drop the use of pikes. \"As Michael Roberts has demonstrated, major changes occurred between 1560 and 1660 in four areas: tactics, strategy, size of armies, and sociopolitical institutions…. At the tactical level, Maurice of Nassau's doctrinal innovations changed the traditional pike square into a line of musketry only 10 feet deep, all of which minimized the effect of incoming fire while maximizing the outgoing fire effect.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 379, "text": "The rise of firearms and artillery in the 16th century made the large formations consisting entirely of pikemen vulnerable to being shot down despite their close-combat power. The decline of the combat column of pikemen was starkly displayed at the terrible Battle of Bicocca in 1522, for instance, where arquebusiers contributed to the heavy defeat of a force of Swiss pikemen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1001476", "title": "Tercio", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 612, "text": "The use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the Granada War (1482–92). During the Italian Wars, under the direction of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, called \"the great captain\", the system of combined groups of pikemen, arquebusiers and swordsmen developed. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a tactically unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, but by 1534 this had been reduced to the tercio with a maximum of 3,000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1397903", "title": "Pike square", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 358, "text": "The pike square was used to devastating effect at the Battle of Nancy against Charles the Bold of Burgundy in 1477, when the Swiss defeated a smaller but more powerful armored cavalry force. The battle is generally seen as one of the turning points that established the infantry as the primary fighting arm in European warfare from the 16th century onwards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16612805", "title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Notable infantry of the Middle Ages.:Swiss pikemen.:Manoeuvre and formations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 640, "text": "In numerous battles prior to the rise of the Swiss, it was not uncommon for pikemen to group together and await a mounted attack. Such an approach is sensible in certain circumstances, particularly if the phalanx occupies a strong position secured by terrain features. The downside is that it allows the attacking force more initiative. At the Battle of Falkirk, the Scots pikemen managed to hold off their cavalry opponents, but were caught in a static position, providing targets for the English longbow. The Swiss, though by no means the creators of pike tactics, improved on them by adding flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::History.:Renaissance Europe heyday.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 472, "text": "The deep pike attack column remained the primary form of effective infantry combat for the next forty years, and the Swabian War saw the first conflict in which both sides had large formations of well-trained pikemen. After that war, its combatants—the Swiss (thereafter generally serving as mercenaries) and their Landsknecht imitators—would often face each other again in the Italian Wars, which would become in many ways the military proving ground of the Renaissance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::Pike and shot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 717, "text": "The quintessential example of this development was the Spanish Tercio, which consisted of a large square of pikemen with small, mobile squadrons of arquebusiers moving along its perimeter, as well as traditional men-at-arms. These three elements formed a mutually supportive combination of tactical roles: the arquebusiers harried the enemy line, the pikemen protected the arquebusiers from enemy cavalry charges, and the men-at-arms, typically armed with swords and javelins, fought off enemy pikemen when two opposing squares made contact. The Tercio deployed smaller numbers of pikemen than the huge Swiss and Landsknecht columns, and their formation ultimately proved to be much more flexible on the battlefield.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They can't. What they can do is copyright their portrayal of them, so if you write a story or draw cartoons about one of them which is so close as to be mistaken by the man in the street for their version, then they'll jump on you.\n\nOf course, they might well try anyway, which is enough to put many people off - which is an abuse of the copyright system, but i suspect it happens all the time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They don't. They lay claim to their specific versions of Thor and Loki / the specific elements they wrote into the story. You are still completely free to write a different version of them, or write a version based solely on the myths. You just can't use the stuff Marvel added to the stories.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What they hold the copyright on is the specific imagery that they created and the stories they wrote. Their copyright doesn't extend to things they didn't create.\n\nAs a result, you can absolutely make a movie about Thor, as long as it's not based on Marvel's character. For example, there was a [mockbuster](_URL_0_) that did exactly this, captalizing on all the publicity for Marvel's Thor; The Asylum release [Almighty Thor](_URL_1_) that was based on Nordic mythology and their own writers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They can copyright the look/design of *their* interpretation of Thor/Loki and they can copyright their screenplay/etc. but the concepts and names of the characters are not copyrightable outside of a narrow context.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First off, you're confusing copyright and trademark. The comics that Thor and Loki are in are copyrighted. The Marvel characters \"Thor\" and \"Loki\" are trademarked.\n\nTrademarks work a lot differently than copyright, and the two have different purposes. A copyright protects the artist from their work being sold/distributed without their permission (e.g. uploading a movie to YouTube). A trademark protects it's owner from others profiting off of that's trademark's popularity (e.g. Motorola can't put the Apple logo on their phones).\n\nMarvel's \"Thor\" and \"Loki\" and trademarked characters. Anyone else who uses Thor and Loki in a way that might make consumers think that Marvel Comics produced or endorsed those products would be trademark infringement. That doesn't stop people from using those characters (the show up in a lot of other media. The book \"American Gods\" comes to mind). But it does stop those characters (when they show up elsewhere) from looking extremely similar to their Marvel incarnations, or from talking about their last adventure with The Avengers.\n\nIn another example, T-Mobile has a trademark on the color magenta. Does that mean no one can use the color magenta? No. Does it mean that Verizon can't put up big magenta signs that say promoting a \"switch from T-Mobile and get your first month free!\" - yes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short Answer - Marvel can't copyright Thor and Loki outright. They can only copyright their particular interpretation of them.\n\nCopyright protects original artistic expression for a limited amount of time. Copyright law also recognizes that very few artistic expressions are truly 100% original. So instead of only protecting those things that are 100% original, the law allows separate protection of adaptations/arrangements/reinterpretations to the degree that they provide a new expression of an existing idea. \n\nExamples - The novel *The Hobbit* was published in 1937 and is still protected by copyright. In order to use the characters and storylines from the book, one must have the rights to the book. Since the recent films are an adaptation to a new medium (and many things from the books were changed), the filmmakers can claim a copyright on things particular to the film adaptation, such as particular depictions of characters, dialogue original to the film, or new storylines. \n\nIn the case of Thor & Loki, Marvel does not own the rights to anything from Norse Mythology, but only the characters as they have created them and the stories they have written for them to the degree they are new. For example, the fact that Thor uses a hammer, Loki is a trickster, and Odin is the chief god are pulled from Norse mythology and cannot be copyrighted. But the particular visual character designs, location designs, and new storylines are protectable. Nothing can legally stop others from creating content using characters named Loki and Thor and elements of Norse mythology, but the closer those interpretations get to the Marvel interpretations, the greater chance they have of violating Marvel's copyright.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1702675", "title": "Loki (comics)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 572, "text": "Loki is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Stan Lee, scripter Larry Lieber and penciller Jack Kirby, a version of the character first appeared in \"Venus\" #6 (August 1949). The modern day incarnation of Loki first appeared in \"Journey into Mystery\" #85 (October 1962). The character, which is based on the Norse deity of the same name, is the Asgardian god of mischief. He is the adopted brother and often enemy of the superhero Thor, however over the years the character has been depicted as an antihero.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30973726", "title": "Ultimate Comics: Thor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 423, "text": "Ultimate Comics: Thor is a comic book limited series published by Marvel Comics that debuted in October 2010. The series takes place in the alternative Ultimate Marvel universe. Based on the Ultimate Comics version of the Norse god Thor, the series was written by Jonathan Hickman with art by Carlos Pacheco. In an interview, Hickman said that the series would be a prequel to Mark Millar's limited series \"The Ultimates\",\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30389170", "title": "List of Thor (Marvel Comics) titles", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 261, "text": "Thor is a comic book superhero in the . Since 1962, he has starred in several ongoing series, as well as a large number of limited series and specials. All stories are published exclusively by Marvel Comics under their standard imprint, unless otherwise noted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32267545", "title": "Thor: The Dark World", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 857, "text": "Thor: The Dark World is a 2013 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Thor, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2011's \"Thor\" and the eighth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Alan Taylor, with a screenplay by Christopher Yost and the writing team of Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely. It stars Chris Hemsworth as Thor, alongside Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston, Anthony Hopkins, Stellan Skarsgård, Idris Elba, Christopher Eccleston, Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, Kat Dennings, Ray Stevenson, Zachary Levi, Tadanobu Asano, Jaimie Alexander, and Rene Russo. In \"Thor: The Dark World\", Thor teams up with Loki to save the Nine Realms from the Dark Elves led by the vengeful Malekith, who intends to plunge the universe into darkness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18013", "title": "Loki", "section": "Section::::Modern interpretations and legacy.:Modern popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 223, "text": "Loki appears in Marvel Comics and in the Marvel Cinematic Universe as a villain (or antihero), played by Tom Hiddleston, where he consistently comes into conflict with the superhero Thor, his adopted brother and archenemy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12673434", "title": "Thor (film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 769, "text": "Thor is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It is the fourth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Kenneth Branagh, written by the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz along with Don Payne, and stars Chris Hemsworth as the title character, alongside Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston, Stellan Skarsgård, Colm Feore, Ray Stevenson, Idris Elba, Kat Dennings, Rene Russo, and Anthony Hopkins. The film sees Thor banished to Earth from Asgard, stripped of his powers and his hammer Mjölnir, after reigniting a dormant war. As his brother Loki plots to take the Asgardian throne, Thor must prove himself worthy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1702675", "title": "Loki (comics)", "section": "Section::::Publication history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 370, "text": "As one of Thor's arch-nemeses, Loki has frequently made appearances in Thor-related titles like \"Journey into Mystery\" and \"Thor\", as well as other Marvel Universe titles such as \"The Avengers\" and \"X-Men\". As well as brief appearances in the \"Spider-Man\" and \"Defenders\" comic series. He was the starring character in two four-issue miniseries \"Loki\" in 2004 and 2010.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a mirage. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "140458", "title": "Drachten", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Art project \"Water is Life\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 252, "text": "In April 2007, artist Henk Hofstra painted a road in Drachten blue with white lettering and traffic markings. The road is called Moleneind. The lettering spells \"Water is Leven\" (Water is Life), meant to symbolize a prior waterway that was paved over.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30432825", "title": "Ford (crossing)", "section": "Section::::Description.:Watersplash.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 430, "text": "A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a \"watersplash\". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44722365", "title": "The Menin Road (painting)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1072, "text": "\"The Menin Road\" depicts a landscape of flooded shell craters and trenches while tree stumps, devoid of any foliage, point towards a sky full of clouds and plumes of smoke, bisected by shafts of sunlight resembling gun barrels. Two soldiers at the centre of the picture attempt to follow the, almost, unrecognisable road but appear to be trapped by the landscape. Nash composed the picture in three broad strips. The foreground is filled with shell craters and debris, which block access to the road in the middle of the picture. The only possible path, to the side of one of the mud pools, is blocked by a fallen board. Across the centre of the picture, shell holes punch into the road at regular intervals, while debris further breaks up the road, as do the shadows from a line of trees alongside it. Beyond the trees, the battlefield stretches to the horizon, with a wood of stunted trees on the right hand side and to the left a series of seven zigzag streams, that also fail to reach the horizon and escape. Nash came to consider this painting to be his finest work.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55169495", "title": "Ilača apparitions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 492, "text": "In 1865, a shepherd from Ilača, Petar Lazin, claimed seeing water on the middle of the field road although no rain had fallen, and that once he made a hole, water started flowing and continued thereafter. On the same night, another villager, Đuka Ambrušević saw the Virgin Mary with a child. In his dream, she told him that it was her spring, and that he must build a wall around it so that livestock could not drink from it. When he woke up, he saw the image from his dream next to his bed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15341984", "title": "Cats Falck", "section": "Section::::Police investigations.:Initial investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 416, "text": "The theory of how the car ended up where it was in the water has also been debunked. If the car hit the rail and flipped into the water the way the police suggests, it would have to move some 550 m while on the bottom. According to harbour employees, the water in the area has no currents, which is why the harbour is placed there. The bottom is muddy and the car, which had broken windows, would have sunk into it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459689", "title": "Warning sign", "section": "Section::::Modern traffic warning sign shapes and colors.:Road work or construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 825, "text": "These signs are often temporary in nature and used to indicate road work (construction), poor roads, or temporary conditions ahead on the road including: flagmen, survey crew, single-lane, detour, bridge out, utility crew ahead, blasting area, bump, dip, frost heaves, flooding (with signs labeled \"High water\"), soft shoulder, uneven pavement, freshly oiled road, loose gravel, smoke on road, trucks entering, etc. (Note that some \"high water\" signs are posted to alert drivers of a flood-prone area and do not actually mean that there is a flooded section of road ahead.) In France, Italy, Spain, Norway etc., warning (and speed limit) signs connected with road work have a yellow background in place of the usual white background on signs. In America and Ireland, signs connected with road work have an orange background.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1090470", "title": "Going-to-the-Sun Road", "section": "Section::::Cinematic appearances.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 334, "text": "The road is also seen briefly in the 1994 film \"Forrest Gump\". As Forrest reminisces with Jenny he remembers running across the U.S. and remarks, \"Like that mountain lake. It was so clear, Jenny. It looked like there were two skies, one on top of the other.\" The shots in the background are Going-to-the-Sun Road and Saint Mary Lake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Deaf people actually dance to music. Anyone can feel the music, especially if it is very bass heavy, without touching a speaker. \n\nOne of the best concerts I've been to had an amazing sound engineer and you could feel everything. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4887910", "title": "Speech and language pathology in school settings", "section": "Section::::Common communication and language disorders.:Articulation disorders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 1548, "text": "Articulation disorders may be attributed to a variety of causes. A child with hearing loss may not be able to hear certain phonemes pronounced at certain frequencies, or hear the error in their own production of sounds. Oral-motor problems may also be at fault, such as \"developmental verbal dyspraxia\" (a problem with coordination of speech muscles) or \"dysarthria\" (abnormal facial muscle tone, often due to neurological problems such as cerebral palsy). Abnormalities in the structure of the mouth and other speech muscles can cause problems with articulation; cleft palate, tongue thrust, and dental-orthodontia abnormalities are some common examples. Finally, it is difficult for children to hear and produce all of the different phonemes of a given language. Development is slow, and may take up to seven years. Sometimes, as children grow, articulation problems fade and disappear without treatment. Often, however, therapy is necessary. Treatment therapies may target semantic differences related to phonemic differences (e.g., teaching a child the difference between \"toe\" and \"toad\", underlining the importance of the final consonant), physical-motor differences (e.g., using a mirror to show a child the correct tongue placement for a particular sound), or behavior-modification techniques (e.g., repetitive production through prompts and fun learning games). Support and reinforcement of therapy practices, both in the classroom and at home, are crucial to the success of articulation disorder treatment (Boone 122-24, 259-62, 274-76).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53153852", "title": "Amber Galloway Gallego", "section": "Section::::Activism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 241, "text": "Besides watching interpretations, completely deaf people can also feel the vibrations that sound makes, and Galloway is a proponent of music for people of all levels of hearing ability as she views it as a key part of cognitive development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33340026", "title": "Deaf hearing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 447, "text": "When patients are completely deaf in both ears they begin to rely more strongly on their other senses. Because hearing relies on external sound waves, a deaf patient will feel the vibrations, rather than relying on what would normally be perceived as sound. As a patient relies on \"feeling\" sounds rather than hearing them, they subconsciously hear with their sense of touch, therefore reacting to auditory stimuli without actually hearing sound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40051753", "title": "Wave (gesture)", "section": "Section::::History of waving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 208, "text": ". In modern days, the accepted and common way for a deaf individual to applaud is to raise their hands in the air, while simultaneously shaking their open fisted hand and moving their fingers back and forth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31257", "title": "Tadoma", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 710, "text": "In some cases, especially if the speaker knows sign language, the deaf-blind person may use the Tadoma method with one hand, feeling the speaker's face; and at the same time, the deaf-blind person may use their other hand to feel the speaker sign the same words. In this way, the two methods reinforce each other, giving the deaf-blind person a better chance of understanding what the speaker is trying to communicate. In addition, the Tadoma method can provide the deaf-blind person with a closer connection with speech than they might otherwise have had. This can, in turn, help them to retain speech skills that they developed before going deaf, and in special cases, to learn how to speak brand new words.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32036278", "title": "Dichotic listening", "section": "Section::::Dichotic listening test designs.:Testing with emotional factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1036, "text": "An emotional version of the dichotic listening task was developed. In this version individuals listen to the same word in each ear but they hear it in either a surprised, happy, sad, angry, or neutral tone. Participants are then asked to press a button indicating what tone they heard. Usually dichotic listening tests show a right-ear advantage for speech sounds. Right-ear/left-hemisphere advantage is expected, because of evidence from Broca's area and Wernicke's area, which are both located in the left hemisphere. In contrast, the left ear (and therefore the right hemisphere) is often better at processing nonlinguistic material. The data from the emotional dichotic listening task is consistent with the other studies, because participants tend to have more correct responses to their left ear than to the right. It is important to note that the emotional dichotic listening task is seemingly harder for the participants than the phonemic dichotic listening task, meaning more incorrect responses were submitted by individuals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13308639", "title": "Cortical deafness", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 520, "text": "Another important aspect of cortical deafness that is often overlooked is that patients \"feel\" deaf. They are aware of their inability to hear environmental sounds, non-speech and speech sounds. Patients with auditory agnosia can be unaware of their deficit, and insist that they are not deaf. Verbal deafness and auditory agnosia are disorders of a selective, perceptive and associative nature whereas cortical deafness relies on the anatomic and functional disconnection of the auditory cortex from acoustic impulses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are several factors, the main ones that come to mind are that the animals are more advanced and therefore can understand pleasure, while more \"simple\" creatures only know mating, feeding, dying. Secondly, some organisms do not experience orgasms, so sex is not a pleasurable experience even from the start. Other factors which come in to play all sort of branch off from these.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It has mostly to do with the mating behaviors of specific animals. If we're talking about higher vertebrates (mammals, birds), lots of animals will engage in coitus if given the opportunity, presumably because it feels good and/or they have a strong natural instinct to do so. However, not all animals have the opportunity to engage in recreational sex because they don't form stable pair-bonds like humans. Take rutting animals, like elk for example. Pretty hard to go in for a casual lay if every time you make a move, some bro-elk comes along and tries to smash his antlers into your face to c-block you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The simplest explanation is that pleasure is for those who can feel it. Pleasure is a motivational tool given to animals by evolution to seek out what's good for them; therefore, sex is pleasant *because* it leads to fertilization. For others mating is instinctive behavior.\n\nSome mammals like bonobos, capuchin monkeys, lions, macaques, cheetahs and dolphins were reported to perform some form of sexual activity when fertilization wasn't possible, which indicates pleasure-driven motivation for sex. The urge to seek that pleasure is believed to be **a combination of instinct and desire for reward** (e.g. orgasm). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1787105", "title": "Animal sexual behaviour", "section": "Section::::Motivation.:Pleasure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 771, "text": "It is often assumed that animals do not have sex for pleasure, or alternatively that humans, pigs, bonobos (and perhaps dolphins and one or two more species of primates) are the only species that do. This is sometimes stated as \"animals mate only for reproduction\". This view is considered a misconception by some scholars. Jonathan Balcombe argues that the prevalence of non-reproductive sexual behaviour in certain species suggests that sexual stimulation is pleasurable. He also points to the presence of the clitoris in some female mammals, and evidence for female orgasm in primates. On the other hand, it is impossible to know the subjective feelings of animals, and the notion that non-human animals experience emotions similar to humans is a contentious subject.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39373526", "title": "Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 879, "text": "Non-reproductive sexual behavior consists of sexual activities animals participate in that do not lead to the reproduction of the species. Although procreation continues to be the primary explanation for sexual behavior in animals, recent observations on animal behavior have given alternative reasons for the engagement in sexual activities by animals. Animals have been observed to engage in sex for social interaction, demonstration of dominance, aggression relief, exchange for significant materials, and sexual stimulation. Observed non-procreative sexual activities include non-copulatory mounting (without penetration, or by the female), oral sex, genital stimulation, anal stimulation, interspecies mating, and acts of affection. There have also been observations of animals engaging in homosexual behaviors, as well as sex with dead animals and sex involving juveniles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67992", "title": "Isabella Rossellini", "section": "Section::::Stage and live performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 313, "text": "Some animals reproduce with male and female; some animals change sex – they start female and they end male or vice-versa. Some fish do that. Some animals are hermaphrodites – they don't need anybody, they have both vaginas and penises. Then we have animals that don't need sex at all, they just clone themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21378368", "title": "Bisexuality", "section": "Section::::Among other animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 443, "text": "In some cases, animals will choose to engage in sexual activity with different sexes at different times in their lives, and will sometimes engage in sexual activity with different sexes at random. Same-sex sexual activity can also be seasonal in some animals, like male walruses who often engage in same-sex sexual activity with each other outside of the breeding season and will revert to heterosexual sexual activity during breeding season.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14529239", "title": "Zoophilia", "section": "Section::::Debate over zoophilia or zoophilic relations.:Arguments for bestiality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 372, "text": "Research has proven that non-human animals can and do have sex for non-reproductive purposes (and for pleasure). In 2006, a Danish Animal Ethics Council report concluded that ethically performed zoosexual activity is capable of providing a positive experience for all participants, and that some non-human animals are sexually attracted to humans (for example, dolphins).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39373526", "title": "Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals", "section": "Section::::Types of behavior.:Inter-species sex.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 667, "text": "Some animals opportunistically mate with individuals of another species. This is more commonly observed in domesticated species and animals in captivity, possibly because captivity is associated with a decrease in aggression and an increase in sexual receptivity. Nevertheless, animals in the wild have been observed to attempt sexual activity with other species. It is mostly documented among species that belong to the same genus, but sometimes occurs between species of distant taxa. Alfred Kinsey cites reports of sexual activity involving a female eland with an ostrich, a male dog with a chicken, a male monkey with a snake, and a female chimpanzee with a cat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1787105", "title": "Animal sexual behaviour", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 715, "text": "Historically, it was believed that only humans and a small number of other species performed sexual acts other than for reproduction, and that animals' sexuality was instinctive and a simple \"stimulus-response\" behaviour. However, in addition to homosexual behaviours, a range of species masturbate and may use objects as tools to help them do so. Sexual behaviour may be tied more strongly to establishment and maintenance of complex social bonds across a population which support its success in non-reproductive ways. Both reproductive and non-reproductive behaviours can be related to expressions of dominance over another animal or survival within a stressful situation (such as sex due to duress or coercion).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not as crazy as you imagine. The entirety of human civilization is a small place today, it takes mere hours (or sometimes minutes) to travel to the other side of the planet, and it takes mere milliseconds for messages to travel around the world. But it wasn't always that way. For much of human history it took years for news and trade to make its way from one region to another. And some regions were effectively cut off from each other (such as the Americas and the rest of the world). In comparison, being able to send and receive huge volumes of data at the speed of light is a massive improvement, even if it takes tens, hundreds, or thousands of years for that data to be received. Interstellar colonization is technologically possible, but it'll result in a different sort of civilization than we're used to.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Barring some absolutely groundbreaking discovery, I doubt we will ever get outside of the solar system. The distances are pretty extreme.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If we create the technology to travel at close to light speed relativity kicks in and makes things possible. According to Carl Sagan's Cosmos you could travel to the center of the Milky Way in 21 years ship time. Earth on the other hand would have experienced 30,000 years. In addition, with a ship that can keep accelerating getting ever closer to the speed of light you could circumnavigate the known universe. Earth however would have gone through tens of billions of years with the sun having long ago charred it to ashes. So it's certainly a one-way trip and your issues with trying to stay connected to the home world are valid.\n\nWormholes however bring up other possibilities since this connects two points in the universe. I highly doubt we'll ever be able to create, maintain, and travel through one though. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As long as you don't care about communicating with the people back on Earth, this doesn't pose a problem.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29248", "title": "Space colonization", "section": "Section::::Reasons.:Survival of human civilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 267, "text": "The primary argument calling for space colonization is the long-term survival of human civilization. By developing alternative locations off Earth, the planet's species, including humans, could live on in the event of natural or man-made disasters on our own planet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29248", "title": "Space colonization", "section": "Section::::Reasons.:Survival of human civilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 354, "text": "Based on his Copernican principle, J. Richard Gott has estimated that the human race could survive for another 7.8 million years, but it is not likely to ever colonize other planets. However, he expressed a hope to be proven wrong, because \"colonizing other worlds is our best chance to hedge our bets and improve the survival prospects of our species\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1347945", "title": "Great Filter", "section": "Section::::Counterarguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 700, "text": "As one example, astronomer Seth Shostak of the SETI Institute argues that one can postulate a galaxy filled with intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations that have failed to colonize the Earth. Perhaps the aliens lacked the intent and purpose to colonize or depleted their resources, or maybe the galaxy \"is\" colonized but in a heterogeneous manner, or the Earth could be located in a \"galactic backwater\". Although absence of evidence generally is only weak evidence of absence, the absence of extraterrestrial megascale engineering projects, for example, might point to the Great Filter at work. Does this mean that one of the steps leading to intelligent life is unlikely? According to Shostak:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49210464", "title": "A Beautiful Planet", "section": "Section::::Content.:Exoplanet Kepler-186f.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 433, "text": "Even though the idea of interstellar travel to another planetary system like Kepler-186 is not feasible given current astronautics technology, some spaceflight futurists find value in speculating about the currently-impossible, and Samantha Cristoforetti is one of the dreamers. In the film she expresses the hope that someday future human explorers might somehow have the opportunity to investigate the Kepler-186 system in person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11579", "title": "Fermi paradox", "section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:Lack of resources to spread physically throughout the galaxy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 592, "text": "Many speculations about the ability of an alien culture to colonize other star systems are based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible. While the current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of faster-than-light travel, it appears that there are no major theoretical barriers to the construction of \"slow\" interstellar ships, even though the engineering required is considerably beyond our present capabilities. This idea underlies the concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell probe as a potential evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19600770", "title": "The Dream Millennium", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 360, "text": "In the first half of the starship's voyage, Devlin finds only two planets that had any potential for human colonization, and found both unsuitable. One planet was entering Roche's limit and would not remain habitable for much longer, and the other was already inhabited by hostile aliens whose planet was in even worse shape than the Earth he had left behind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29248", "title": "Space colonization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 664, "text": "Many arguments have been made for and against space colonization. The two most common in favor of colonization are survival of human civilization and the biosphere in the event of a planetary-scale disaster (natural or man-made), and the availability of additional resources in space that could enable expansion of human society. The most common objections to colonization include concerns that the commodification of the cosmos may be likely to enhance the interests of the already powerful, including major economic and military institutions, and to exacerbate pre-existing detrimental processes such as wars, economic inequality, and environmental degradation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The short answer is that they don't because they didn't originally.\n\n*Short Message Service*-messages, as they are called in the GSM standard among other more recent standards, is a technical feature offered in the communication protocol used to communicate to and from the phones.\n\nInternet traffic relies on one or several other technical substandards that are also offered in the communication protocols.\n\nFrom the phone operators point of view, a SMS is awesome. Because they have full control.\n\nThe problem, if you wish, is that since they have full control, they also have pretty pricey business models. Or had, at least.\n\niMessage, WhatsApp, Line, Facebook Messenger, Google Hangouts, Signal, Telegram and all the others are internet services that happen to be linked to your phone number. SMS is a phone network service that is offered to your phone number. It doesn't necessarily have anything to do with the internet.\n\nThe idea is pretty much that if the phone plan has a pretty decent cost for data (and often there is a monthly allowance of sorts in the data plan...) it's cheaper to use the data plan for your messages than to pay for each individual message that you send out.\n\nBut. Smartphones too must follow the phone network communication standard. They *must* be able to receive SMS. Which means that they all can. No matter if your grandma has a brand new iPhone 11 (or whatever the newest one is?) or if she runs around with a Motorola from 1996, the terminal has SMS reception capabilities. And probably sending capabilities too.\n\nIt's also a pretty dumb thing if you compare an iPhone and an Android phone; Google has their text messaging app. Apple has theirs. They don't work well together. If you want to communicate with others, you have to first agree on which app to use for your communications.\n\nWith SMS, you don't. You just have to know the phone number, and that's it. Which is why your phone falls back on SMS every time it tries to communicate with someone who is not on iMessage. Because SMS always works. If you typed in the correct number, the message will be received.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "305854", "title": "Text messaging", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1251, "text": "As of 2017, text messages are used by youth and adults for personal, family, business and social purposes. Governmental and non-governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues. In the 2010s, the sending of short informal messages has become an accepted part of many cultures, as happened earlier with emailing. This makes texting a quick and easy way to communicate with friends, family and colleagues, including in contexts where a call would be impolite or inappropriate (e.g., calling very late at night or when one knows the other person is busy with family or work activities). Like e-mail and voicemail, and unlike calls (in which the caller hopes to speak directly with the recipient), texting does not require the caller and recipient to both be free at the same moment; this permits communication even between busy individuals. Text messages can also be used to interact with automated systems, for example, to order products or services from e-commerce websites, or to participate in online contests. Advertisers and service providers use direct text marketing to send messages to mobile users about promotions, payment due dates, and other notifications instead of using postal mail, email, or voicemail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "305854", "title": "Text messaging", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1259, "text": "Text messaging is most often used between private mobile phone users, as a substitute for voice calls in situations where voice communication is impossible or undesirable (e.g., during a school class or a work meeting). Texting is also used to communicate very brief messages, such as informing someone that you will be late or reminding a friend or colleague about a meeting. As with e-mail, informality and brevity have become an accepted part of text messaging. Some text messages such as SMS can also be used for the remote controlling of home appliances. It is widely used in domotics systems. Some amateurs have also built own systems to control (some of) their appliances via SMS. Other methods such as group messaging, which was patented in 2012 by the GM of Andrew Ferry, Devin Peterson, Justin Cowart, Ian Ainsworth, Patrick Messinger, Jacob Delk, Jack Grande, Austin Hughes, Brendan Blake, and Brooks Brasher are used to involve more than two people into a text messaging conversation. A Flash SMS is a type of text message that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox. It can be useful in cases such as an emergency (e.g., fire alarm) or confidentiality (e.g., one-time password).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5426470", "title": "SMS gateway", "section": "Section::::Email clients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 411, "text": "Text messages can be sent from a personal computer to mobile devices via an SMS gateway or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) gateway, using most popular email client programs, such as Outlook, Thunderbird, and so on. The messages must be sent in ASCII \"text-only\" mode. If they are sent in HTML mode, or using non-ASCII characters, they will most likely appear as nonsense on the recipient's mobile telephone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1566175", "title": "Google Talk", "section": "Section::::Features.:Offline messaging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 363, "text": "On November 1, 2006, Google introduced offline messaging to Google Talk. This allows users to send messages to their contacts, even if they are not signed in. They will receive the messages when they next go online even if the user who has sent it is offline. This only works between Gmail-accounts though, not between Google Talk servers and other XMPP servers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11401427", "title": "Concatenated SMS", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 698, "text": "In the cellular phone industry, mobile phones and their networks sometimes support concatenated short message service (or concatenated SMS) to overcome the limitation on the number of characters that can be sent in a single SMS text message transmission (which is usually 160). Using this method, long messages are split into smaller messages by the sending device and recombined at the receiving end. Each message is then billed separately. When the feature works properly, it is nearly transparent to the user, appearing as a single long text message. Previously, due to incompatibilities between providers and lack of support in some phone models, there was not widespread use of this feature. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28207", "title": "SMS", "section": "Section::::Technical details.:Interconnectivity with other networks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 268, "text": "On some carriers nonsubscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an Email-to-SMS gateway. Additionally, many carriers, including AT&T Mobility, T-Mobile USA, Sprint, and Verizon Wireless, offer the ability to do this through their respective web sites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5648093", "title": "Audience response", "section": "Section::::Use in educational settings.:Cell phone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 690, "text": "The familiarity and widespread use of cell phones and text messaging has now given rise to systems that collect SMS responses and display them through a web page. These solutions don't require specialized voting hardware, but they do require telecom hardware (such as a mobile phone) and software, along with a web server, and therefore tend to be operated by dedicated vendors selling usage. They are typically favored by traveling speaking professionals and large conference halls that don't want to distribute, rent, or purchase proprietary ARS hardware. Computing devices with web browsers can also use these serviceLLs through SMS gateways, if a separate web interface isn't provided.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Since I would imagine fighting never stopped and only slowed , I would like to ask an additional question. Did either the Russians or German troops have any tools to aid in thier night vision? I always hear about the Japanese Navy having great night optics but did generals or armies have access to night optics? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Please keep in mind that answers in this subreddit need to follow our rules. An answer consisting of four sentences is not an acceptable answer. We value answers that are **in-depth** and comprehensive.\n\nTo quote our rules:\n\n > Answers in this subreddit are expected to be of a level that historians would provide: comprehensive and informative. As such, all answers will be assessed against the standards of Historiography and Historical Method. You should cite or quote sources where possible. A good answer will go further than a simple short sentence. As described here, \"good answers aren't good just because they are right – they are good because they explain. In your answers, you should seek not just to be right, but to explain.\"\n\nIf you are not completely certain about what you're writing, then refrain from writing. Also refrain from writing if all that you can contribute is a quote from a website, a link to a website or if you do not have the time to contribute more than a couple of sentences. This applies to **all** answers, not only the top level comments.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In reading just now excerts from \"Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 1942-1943 By Antony Beevor\", Its talks of how Chuikov had ordered an emphasis on night raids because the Luftwaffe could not respond and that he was convinced it struck fear into the Germans. It talks about the use of flares to constantly trick soldiers into a belief of an imminent attack. \n\nIn addition a comment from a corporal about the \"eerie change in sound\" of the U-2 bi-planes used for night time bombing as the pilot would turn off the engine on assault until the bomb hit. \n\nSo a constant psychological onslaught from the Russians, the author comments as well that the Germans were exhausting ammo as they would fire at anything during the night. \n\nedit: type in: \"Stalingrad night raid\" the piece i read should be in Google books.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8471013", "title": "Outpost Harry", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 552, "text": "Most of the fighting occurred at night, under heavy mortar fire, while the daylight hours were usually spent by the UN forces evacuating the dead and wounded, replacing the defending company, sending up resupplies and repairing the fortified positions. The daylight hours were punctuated with artillery, mortar and sniper fire, making repairs and reinforcement a more dangerous task. During the 4 to 5 days prior to the initial attack on the outpost, PVA artillery and mortar fire increased from an average of 275 to 670 per day during daylight hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37246818", "title": "February 1943", "section": "Section::::February 2, 1943 (Tuesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 332, "text": "BULLET::::- The Soviet Union announced that the 462-day Battle of Stalingrad had ended after the last of the German Sixth Army forces surrendered. Of the more than 250,000 German soldiers who had fought in the campaign, half were killed in battle, and the other half taken prisoners of war. Only 6,000 would survive to return home.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "157767", "title": "Battle of Wagram", "section": "Section::::The first day.:The night of July 5 to July 6.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 354, "text": "With the fighting fading out completely towards 23:00, the two commanders were at their respective headquarters, knowing that the following day would be decisive for the outcome of the battle. Meanwhile, with an extremely cold night settling in, soldiers from both armies lit fires to warm up, while they were resting and consuming their modest rations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1636789", "title": "Battle of Voronezh (1942)", "section": "Section::::Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 519, "text": "The 2nd did not arrive for another two days, by which time the 4th was heavily engaged and took some time to remove from the line. The 2nd continued the battle until 24 July, when the final Soviet forces west of the Don were defeated and the fighting ended. Adolf Hitler later came to believe that these two days, when combined with other avoidable delays on the drive south, allowed Marshal Semyon Timoshenko to reinforce the forces in Stalingrad before the 4th Panzer Army could arrive to allow taking of Stalingrad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49039149", "title": "Battle of Arbuzovka", "section": "Section::::The pocket.:Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 580, "text": "The battle lasted three days, with the Italian and German forces trying to break out of the encirclement. These attempts, including several bayonet charges by the Italian units, were repelled with high casualties, and the situation seemed hopeless enough that the Italian regimental commanders were ordered to burn their units' flags. The extreme cold, exhaustion and hunger further worsened the situation, along with the complete exposure of the Axis forces (blocked in the valley floor) to the Soviet fire (coming from the sides). Some men committed suicide out of desperation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59402929", "title": "Battle of Varolampi Pond", "section": "Section::::Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 383, "text": "Fighting lasted well into the night and involved close quarters combat and one of the only cases of bayonet fighting during the Winter War. By dawn of the 11 December, the counter-attack succeeded in driving back the Soviet force and inflicted heavy casualties with over 100 dead Soviet troops left on the field according to Finnish estimates along with 20 dead on the Finnish side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17690181", "title": "Carrière Wellington", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 460, "text": "Thousands of soldiers were billeted in the tunnels for eight days prior to the start of the Arras offensive on 9 April 1917. At 05:30 that morning, exits were dynamited to enable the troops to storm the German trenches. The Germans were taken by surprise and were pushed back . This counted as an extraordinary success by the standards of the time. However, the offensive soon bogged down and it was eventually called off after casualties reached 4,000 a day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The shape is dependent on a lot of things. Some are properties of the water itself like viscosity, density, and surface tension. Some are properties of the environment like gravity, density/viscosity of the air you are pouring into. Some are properties of the way you actually pour the water like the shape of the container and its mouth, the velocity of the water as it crosses the mouth and the distance that it falls.\n\nThe shape of the stream of water is dependent on all of things and probably some I didn't mention. The system is complicated enough that you can't say the shape is because of this one thing - they all influence the shape. The best way I could describe it is to say that the stream gets its shape from the edge of the mouth of the container and the amount of fluid flowing over the edge. Once it clears the edge, it's original momentum will be conserved and it will be accelerated by gravity. That will stretch it out as it falls, but surface tension will hold it as a single stream for a certain distance. The sine like shape you see is some combination of all these things. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "113302", "title": "Surface tension", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 432, "text": "Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary \"wall tension\" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "113302", "title": "Surface tension", "section": "Section::::Physics.:Surface curvature and pressure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 244, "text": "Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension (such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14983028", "title": "Secondary flow", "section": "Section::::Examples of secondary flows.:Circular flow in a bowl or cup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 795, "text": "When water in a circular bowl or cup is moving in circular motion the water displays free-vortex flow – the water at the center of the bowl or cup spins at relatively high speed, and the water at the perimeter spins more slowly. The water is a little deeper at the perimeter and a little more shallow at the center, and the surface of the water is not flat but displays the characteristic depression toward the axis of the spinning fluid. At any elevation within the water the pressure is a little greater near the perimeter of the bowl or cup where the water is a little deeper, than near the center. The water pressure is a little greater where the water speed is a little slower, and the pressure is a little less where the speed is faster, and this is consistent with Bernoulli's principle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2174453", "title": "Lotus effect", "section": "Section::::Functional principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 400, "text": "The high surface tension of water causes droplets to assume a nearly spherical shape, since a sphere has minimal surface area, and this shape therefore demands least solid-liquid surface energy. On contact with a surface, adhesion forces result in wetting of the surface. Either complete or incomplete wetting may occur depending on the structure of the surface and the fluid tension of the droplet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14983028", "title": "Secondary flow", "section": "Section::::Examples of secondary flows.:Circular flow in a bowl or cup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 612, "text": "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "845427", "title": "Helictite", "section": "Section::::Helictite growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 274, "text": "For an unknown reason, when the chemical composition of the water is slightly altered, the single crystal structure can change from a cylindrical shape to a conical one. In some of these cases, each crystal fits into the prior one like an inverted stack of ice cream cones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20878009", "title": "French formal garden", "section": "Section::::Technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 762, "text": "A related development took place in hydroplasie, the art and science of shaping water into different shapes as it came out the fountain. The shape of the water depended upon the force of the water and the shape of the nozzle. New forms created through this art were named \"tulipe\" (the tulip), \"double gerbe\" (the double sheaf), \"Girandole\"(centerpiece) \"candélabre\" (candelabra), and \"corbeille\" (bouquet), \"La Boule en l'air\" (Ball in the air), and \"L'Evantail\" (the fan). This art was closely associated with the fireworks of the time, which tried to achieve similar effects with fire instead of water. Both the fountains and fireworks were often accompanied by music, and were designed to show how nature (water and fire) could be shaped by the will of man.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Easy. Because the volcanoes do not put out magma (which forms the islands) at the same, consistent rate that the plate is moving. Kilhuea is erupting steadily right now, but that's after a long lull in activity. The eruptions go in all directions as well, changing from eruption to eruption. But for most of the island's history the plate has been moving steadily.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To form a continuous line, you would have to assume that magma plumbing is continuous; that is that you apply magma at the base of the crust at position x and it comes out at y above, apply at x+1 and it will come out at y+1. That is not the case.\n\nMagma plumbing is highly discontinuous; magma will preferentially propagate along fractures and pre-existing weaknesses in a system. A pool of magma accumulating at the base of the crust will tend to propagate along the same route it first successfully found. That route will be used until the low-level magma suipply is cut off. At this point a new low level accumulation will form, until it too finds itself a new plumbing route.\n\nConsider too that the ocean floor is cut by numerous large faults which cut through pretty much the entire plate - these and their related structures can form preferentially weak loci for magma injection.\n\nThe vast majority of magma never even makes it out to the surface - most is simply crystallised at depth in magma chambers which dead-end several kilometres below the surface, or are injected as dykes or sills within the host strata.\n\nIt's a bit like considering the population living around a city, and thinking that you should be able to draw a straight line from their house to the centre, and that will be their route in, resulting in a perfectly radial distribution of travel. In reality, they move along main arterial roads because that is the *easiest* route, rather than climbing over fences, walking through other peoples houses, and navigating the *shortest* route.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The plate's movement is more or less constant (~10cm per year) while the magma activity experiences periods of flow. It seems like once a volcanic feature is formed, magma tends to want to keep flowing within that structure. Once the plate moves far enough the magma is forced to find a new path of least resistance and breaks through the seafloor creating a new volcano. These older features can remain occasionally active; Hawaii has three volcanoes still considered active.\n\nIn addition, the islands are being constantly eroded. This is why the oldest islands are the smallest. Maui, Molokai, Lanai and Kahoolawe all used to be one big island. In the future Maui will eventually be divided into two islands. Most of this erosion is due to fresh water via rainfall and wind. At higher elevations freeze/thaw contributes ~~greatly~~ to the breaking up of rock.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This assumes plate motion is actually constant. When we determine rates of plate motion, we are often looking at evidence of movement over time scales in thousands to millions of years. While rates may average out to a few millimeters per year, that is still just an average. Movement along fault lines or plate boundaries consists of discrete events with long periods of dormancy in between.\n\nThis coupled with the discontinuous activity of mantle plumes and changes in the direction of plate motion, as described elsewhere in the comments, give us small islands instead of a single strip of land.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I saw a great video explaining it. You know that stereotypical steam train where there's little puffs coming out at regular intervals? That's what it's like with Hawaii, except the steam is magma. So the plates move while the magma gives little puffs making a really long chain of islands that actually goes all the way to Kamchatka. These little islands formed on \"hot spots\". So you get a poof on the hot spot, an island forms, plate moves, hot spot gets hot again, poofs, and it keeps moving in a chain like that. Like a conveyor belt. \n\n\nEdit: found the video. Sorry there's an ad. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The word \"continuous\" is a little misleading here. It doesn't mean a perfectly even, smooth movement, releasing magma at a constant rate in a regular and unchanging plume. The reality of any large-scale natural process is that there's frequently a large amount of variation over time, caused by the surrounding environment, the driving forces behind the process etc.\n\nAs an illustration, here's something you can try: Place your hand on a surface like a table or counter top, and exert a little pressure downwards. Now move your hand forwards slowly and continuously...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Near Brisbane, Australia there is North and South Stradbroke Island, which used to be a solid island before a cargo ship salvage operation using explosives put a nick in the middle of it with sea erosion eventually separating the two halves within two years. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nSo, one answer to your question could be separation by erosion which would likely happen to any magma formed long island to create island chains. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the level of activity is not constant enough for one caldera to stay open continuously. It will become less active and the existing caldera will close. Then activity will pick up, and a new one will open. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13208425", "title": "Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 531, "text": "The volcanic islands that comprise these island arcs are thought to have been formed from the release of volatiles (steam from trapped water, and other gases) being released from the subducted plate, as it reached sufficient depth for the temperature to cause release of these materials. The associated trenches are formed as the oldest (most western) part of the Pacific plate crust increases in density with age, and because of this process finally reaches its lowest point just as it subducts under the crust to the west of it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1102339", "title": "Volcanic arc", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 727, "text": "positioned in an arc shape as seen from above. Offshore volcanoes form islands, resulting in a volcanic island arc. Generally, volcanic arcs result from the subduction of an oceanic tectonic plate under another tectonic plate, and often parallel an oceanic trench. The oceanic plate is saturated with water, and volatiles such as water drastically lower the melting point of the mantle. As the oceanic plate is subducted, it is subjected to greater and greater pressures with increasing depth. This pressure squeezes water out of the plate and introduces it to the mantle. Here the mantle melts and forms magma at depth under the overriding plate. The magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58557899", "title": "Rarotonga hotspot", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 535, "text": "Oceanic plateaus and linear volcanic chains dot the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Their formation has been explained with mantle plumes which rise from the core-mantle boundary and spread out when they rise, forming a large \"head\" that causes intense volcanic activity once it hits the crust. This volcanism is responsible for the formation of the oceanic plateaus. Later, the remnant \"tail\" of the plume is still rising and induces the formation of volcano chains as the crust moves over the plume tail, thus forming the linear chains.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19036", "title": "Mariana Trench", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 289, "text": "The movement of the Pacific and Mariana plates is also indirectly responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. These volcanic islands are caused by flux melting of the upper mantle due to release of water that is trapped in minerals of the subducted portion of the Pacific Plate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "769724", "title": "Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain", "section": "Section::::Aging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 623, "text": "The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawaii hotspot, an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth's mantle. As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease to erupt altogether. At that point erosion of the volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll. Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14587", "title": "Island", "section": "Section::::Types of islands.:Oceanic islands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 989, "text": "A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually \"drowned\" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "806470", "title": "Hanauma Bay", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 433, "text": "The Hawaiian Islands are a group of volcanoes that have risen up over a hot spot, which is a section of the Earth's surface that has exhibited volcanism for an extended period of time. Volcanic chains such as the Hawaiian Islands form as a result of the movement of a tectonic plate across fixed hot spot beneath the surface. In the case of the Hawaiian Islands, the Pacific plate has moved slowly northwestward over such a hotspot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Brownie center lovers are going to debate you on this, but the reason is because the brownie edges simply taste different due to a process called a [maillard reaction](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Off topic, but who would want that shriveled up crunch edge? I'd much rather have a gooey, decadent middle slice. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5667019", "title": "Public squares in Goa", "section": "Section::::Principal public squares.:Public squares in Goa after the Portuguese conquest.:Other architectural details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 299, "text": "Various types of openings and projections give a square character and variety. Doors, windows, and balconies opening into the square give it character while making it more accessible, thus encouraging its use for recreation. The squares therefore are vibrant places with a wide variety of colours. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1312042", "title": "Salty liquorice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 358, "text": "Salty liquorice candy and pastilles are almost always black or very dark brown and can range from soft candy to hard pastille variety, and sometimes hard brittle. The other colours used are white and variants of grey. Salty liquorice or salmiak is also used as a flavouring in other products, such as ice creams, syrups, chewing gum and alcoholic beverages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9072297", "title": "Menu engineering", "section": "Section::::Psychology of menu engineering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 427, "text": "The reasoning being sweet spots stem from the classical effect in psychology known as the serial position effect (also known as the rules of recency and primacy). The thought is, customers are most likely to remember the first and last things they see on a menu—hence, sweet spots on a menu should be where the customers look first and last. To date, there is no empirical evidence on the efficacy of the sweet spots on menus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "497794", "title": "Chocolate brownie", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 313, "text": "Brownies are a form of sheet cookie. Brownies are typically eaten by hand, often accompanied by milk, served warm with ice cream (a la mode), topped with whipped cream, or sprinkled with powdered sugar and fudge. In North America they are common lunchbox treats, and also popular in restaurants and coffeehouses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29003246", "title": "Food coating", "section": "Section::::Definitions.:Objectives of coating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 295, "text": "Appearance and palatability can be improved by adding color (white dragee, brown chocolate), changing the surface aspect (glazed sweets or rough, crispy nuggets); changing or adding tastes (sweet dragee, salted snack) or flavours (fruit-glazed sweet goods), or texture (breaded crispy nuggets).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2240583", "title": "Lakrisal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 248, "text": "Lakrisal is also unlike most salty liquorice candies by not being black. Instead, it is a very light brownish gray colour. Lakrisal drops are disk-shaped, about 18 mm in diameter and about 4 mm thick. They are sold in tubes of about 20 drops each.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214049", "title": "Bagel", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 271, "text": "In the Brick Lane district and surrounding area of London, England, bagels (locally spelled \"beigels\") have been sold since the middle of the 19th century. They were often displayed in the windows of bakeries on vertical wooden dowels, up to a metre in length, on racks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "GDP is the gross domestic product, the total output of the entire nation's industries and workers. Sometimes they list this as \"GDP per capita\" which means how much each person would contribute to that total if it were divided equally.\n\nPPP is purchasing power parity, it's a determination of how much one person could buy with their income, by comparing their currency to another country's. This is sometimes different than GDP per capita because of exchange rates, artificial price controls or tariffs, and various subsidies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The gross domestic product is the estimated total value of all \"final goods and services\" produced within a nations geographic borders. In this case final goods are things that are sold to consumers and are not resources that are going to be used to manufacture another product. It includes goods that are produced within a nation, but the manufacturer doesn't necessarily have to be a company of that nation. It is used as an economic indicator to basically judge if a national economy is expanding or contracting but can also be used for other purposes like comparing one nations economy to another. There are a couple of different ways to calculate it, one is based off of how much money we spend, and the other is based on how much money we earn, and the two different methods will produce two different results.\n\nThe Purchasing Power Parity is used to compare the buying power of money in different nations and compare different currencies to establish exchange rates. Basically they assume that units of currency are equivalent, for example 1 dollar equals 1 euro, and then they see how much of each it would cost to buy the same or similar goods in their respective nations. If it costs less euros to buy something in Europe than it does dollars to buy it in the US, then that shows that the euro has more purchasing power than the dollar and by how much.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "485118", "title": "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 780, "text": "GDP comparisons using PPP are arguably more useful than those using nominal GDP when assessing a nation's domestic market because PPP takes into account the relative cost of local goods, services and inflation rates of the country, rather than using international market exchange rates which may distort the real differences in per capita income. It is however limited when measuring financial flows between countries and when comparing the quality of same goods among countries. PPP is often used to gauge global poverty thresholds and is used by the United Nations in constructing the human development index. These surveys such as the International Comparison Program include both tradable and non-tradable goods in an attempt to estimate a representative basket of all goods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4533241", "title": "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per hour worked", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "The GDP (PPP) per hour worked is a measure of the productivity of a country when not taking into account unemployment or hours worked per week. GDP (PPP) stands for gross domestic product normalised to purchasing power parity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "64489", "title": "Purchasing power parity", "section": "Section::::Concept.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 235, "text": "The PPP concept is based on the law of one price, where in the absence of transaction costs and official trade barriers, identical goods will have the same price in different markets when the prices are expressed in the same currency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1242956", "title": "Gross national income", "section": "Section::::Gross national product.:GNI VS GDP.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 458, "text": "While GDP measures the market value of all final goods and services produced in a given country, GNI measures income generated by the country’s citizens, regardless of the geographic location of the income. In many states, those two figures are close, as the difference between income received by the country versus payments made to the rest of the world is not significant. According to the World Bank, the GNI of the USA in 2016 was 1.5% higher than GDP. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9351", "title": "Economy of Egypt", "section": "Section::::Reform era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 384, "text": "Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$1355 in 1981, to US$2525 in 1991, to US$3686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$4535 in 2006. Based on national currency, GDP per capita at constant 1999 prices increased from EGP 411 in 1981, to EGP 2098 in 1991, to EGP 5493 in 2001 and to EGP 8708 in 2006.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12594", "title": "Gross domestic product", "section": "Section::::GDP vs GNI.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 308, "text": "GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP) or, as it is now known, gross national income (GNI). The difference is that GDP defines its scope according to location, while GNI defines its scope according to ownership. In a global context, world GDP and world GNI are, therefore, equivalent terms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2649947", "title": "Economics of global warming", "section": "Section::::Scenarios.:Factors affecting emissions growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 457, "text": "GDP per person (or \"per capita\") is used as a measure of economic affluence, and changes in technology are described by the other two terms: (energy use / GDP) and (energy-related emissions / energy use). These two terms are often referred to as \"energy intensity of GDP\" and \"carbon intensity of energy\", respectively. Note that the abbreviated term \"carbon intensity\" may also refer to the carbon intensity of GDP, i.e., (energy-related emissions / GDP).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The ice has little bumps on it. Sweeping away the bumps to smooth the ice allows the stone to speed up on the left or right side therefore making essentially different drag on the left or right causing it to turn.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 670, "text": "The player can induce a curved path, described as \"curl\", by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides. The path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms, who accompany it as it slides down the sheet and sweep the ice in front of the stone. \"Sweeping a rock\" decreases the friction, which makes the stone travel a straighter path (with less \"curl\") and a longer distance. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the desired result. This gives curling its nickname of \"chess on ice\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sweeping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 473, "text": "One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter and in some situations one of those is not desirable. For example, a stone may be traveling too fast (said to have too much weight) but require sweeping to prevent curling into another stone. The team must decide which is better: getting by the other stone but traveling too far or hitting the stone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sweeping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 663, "text": "After the stone is delivered, its trajectory is influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to make the stone travel farther, to decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone's path. Sweeping is able to make the stone travel farther and straighter by slightly melting the ice under the brooms, thus decreasing the friction as the stone travels across that part of the ice. The stones curl more as they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sweeping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 740, "text": "Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game are the skip and sweepers exchanging information about the stone's \"line\" and \"weight\" and deciding whether to sweep. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone, ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip. Many teams use a \"number system\" to communicate in which of 10 zones the sweepers estimate the stone will stop. Some sweepers use stopwatches to time the stone from the back line or tee line to the nearest hog line to aid in estimating how far the stone will travel. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7221435", "title": "Wind direction", "section": "Section::::Measurement techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 274, "text": "Another primitive technique for measuring wind direction is to take a pinch of grass and drop it; the direction that the grass falls is the direction the wind is blowing. This last technique is often used by golfers because it allows them to gauge the strength of the wind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Free guard zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 1374, "text": "This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy by teams of gaining a lead in the game and then \"peeling\" all of the opponents' stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). By knocking all stones out the opponents could at best score one point, if they had the last stone of the end (called the hammer). If the team peeling the rocks had the hammer they could peel rock after rock which would \"blank the end\" (leave the end scoreless), keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and newer brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game. The 1990 Brier (Canadian men's championship) was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling and the quick adoption of the free guard zone rule the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6644", "title": "Curling", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sweeping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 454, "text": "Sweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the \"tee line\", once the leading edge of a stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it. Additionally, if a stone is behind the tee line one player from the opposing team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the third.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "i don't know about other buildings, but i know that grocery stores will play slow music because you slow down while browsing the aisles with slow music, thus giving you a higher chance to buy something.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Have you ever been in a department store when the music is turned off? It's creepy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Shit gets creepy real fast when you are around people you don't know in total silence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Up, but I believe that it depends on the objective of the store.\n\nSo if you hear a high tempo song, you are more likely to rush through because you feel there is more spring to your step? Well the basic concept is similar for slow tempo songs, you tend to take a slower walk/ slower heart rate. Studies have supported that faster beat music makes your heart beat faster which ergo make you to take your next step faster. Slower/ calm music makes you feel more to chill. \n\nAddressing your question why government buildings/ mom and pop stores. So slow/ calm music calms down the nerves so that you will not pull a tantrum. Delta does this for their inflight boarding, so that people don't get too upset waiting in long lines to board. \n & nbsp;\n\nTL;DR \nSlow Calm music makes people less likely to cause mayhem. Hence, Airports, Airplanes, Apple stores play a bit more calming music.\n\nSource: Market Data Analyst, message if you want some articles\n\n*Note: Please help me with my grammar, I'm still trying to improve my writing.*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3859329", "title": "Music store", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 517, "text": "In the 2010s, music stores can be \"bricks and mortar\" stores (either individual small businesses or chain stores, which may be a regional or national chain); online musical instrument stores, which consist of a website describing the merchandise, various online payment systems, and shipping or delivery systems; or hybrid stores that have both real-world stores and an online store. Some physical music stores provide services for a fee, such as music lessons, musical instrument repair and guitar amplifier repair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3859329", "title": "Music store", "section": "Section::::Specialized stores.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 412, "text": "Larger cities may have a large enough population to support both general music stores and specialized music stores. Music stores in smaller towns tend to be general music stores, because there is not enough of a customer base to support specialized music stores. In the 2010s, general music stores have had to face competition from online music stores, which offer a huge selection of instruments and equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3859329", "title": "Music store", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 602, "text": "A music store or musical instrument store is a retail business that sells musical instruments and related equipment and accessories, and may provide maintenance services for these instruments and accessories. In United States and Canada, most music stores in the 2010s sell a range of electric instruments, instrument amplifiers; electronic instruments; drum kits (including drums, cymbals and percussion instruments) and acoustic classical, concert band and jazz musical instruments. Stores may sell (and sometimes rent) the sound reinforcement system and PA system gear or sound recording equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9254033", "title": "Other Music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 270, "text": "Other Music was a music retail store that sold CDs, records and cassettes online and at their brick-and-mortar location in the Noho neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. The store specialized in the sale of closely curated underground, rare and experimental music. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12666201", "title": "Music & Arts Center", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 528, "text": "Music & Arts is a music retailer founded in 1952, specializing in band and orchestra instrument sales and rentals, guitars, keyboards, sheet music and books, musical accessories, repairs and private music lessons. In 2005, Music & Arts Center was acquired by Guitar Center, Inc. At the time of the purchase, Music & Arts Center had 60 retail locations, and 7 educational support centers throughout the mid-Atlantic and Southeast. The company has now grown to include over 150 retail locations, and over 100 affiliate locations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43105689", "title": "Downtown Music Gallery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 369, "text": "Downtown Music Gallery is a long-running internationally known record store, mail-order, and performance space, in New York City, specializing in \"Downtown Music\", a recognized catchphrase for avant-garde jazz and contemporary composition, experimental, and improvisational music from around the world. It was founded in 1991, by Stephen Popkin and Bruce Lee Gallanter\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3859329", "title": "Music store", "section": "Section::::Products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 549, "text": "Music stores arose to service the needs of the local community. This included not only individual amateur musicians, but schools from elementary to college level, civic bands and orchestras, churches, and entertainment ensembles that performed at events of the community and its organizations. In service of this diverse clientele, store owners might focus on some specialty or niche market (pianos, sheet music, percussion). Instruments might be purchased outright, leased or rented. Specific or non-stock items could be ordered through the store.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Just to clarify, in the TV show Deadwood, the profanity was anachronistic (in other words, no \"cocksucka\"). The show creator chose to go this route because he felt using period-appropriate slang would have sounded silly rather than profane.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*Sodomite* and its variants were certainly in use at that time in Britain. The Marquis of Queensberry left a calling card at Oscar Wilde's London club in February of 1895 that was addressed \"To Mr. Oscar Wilde, posing as a somdomist\" (sic). His handwriting was so poor that some have suggested that the card was actually intended to read \"ponce and sodomist.\" Either way, Wilde sued for libel, lost, then was tried and convicted of indecency.\n\nEnglish sexologist Havelock Ellis, in his *Studies on the Psychology of Sex* from 1897, used the word *pervert* to refer to a homosexual; the word definitely had negative connotations at the time, but lacks the level of disdain that you're probably looking for.\n\n*Punk* has evolved through several meanings, but it was at the turn of the century that it took on the meaning of the less dominant of two men that are having sexual relations. It was used most frequently in all-male societies such as hoboes, sailors, and prison inmates. A similar term from the time was *prushun*, referring to a young man who served as traveling companion, beggar, and bedmate for an older hobo (who was known as a jocker in such a relationship). In both cases, there is the inference that the less dominant of the two had been coerced into it.\n\nThe word *queen* can be traced back to 1924 in the *OED*, but the use of the word to mean a homosexual man (rather than being a disparaging term for a bold woman) can be traced back to the 1880s, in testimony from London's Cleveland Street Scandal. That testimony also shows us that the word *gay* was used at the time to refer to both homosexual men and female prostitutes. It is believed that because those two groups lived in close association in big cities during the nineteenth century, they used many of the same slang terms, and that was one of the reasons that the use of so many slurs evolved, in that they first referred to one gender, then the other.\n\n*Mary* dates back to the 1890's, and *Nancy*, *nancy-boy*, and *Miss Nancy* to the 1800's. [Andrew Jackson](_URL_1_) even referred to William King, the 13th American Vice President, as \"Miss Nancy.\"\n\nSince you mentioned *cocksucker*, it was included in Farmer & Henley's 1891 dictionary *Slang and Its Analogue*, published in London, with the one-word definition \"feliatrix.\" It was in use there at the time, but was not gender-specific.\n\nAs far as the written record goes, *faggot* as a gay slur dates back to 1914; it is generally regarded as an Americanism, and in fact *to faggot* meant 'to have sex with loose women' in nineteenth century Britain, according to Farmer & Henley.\n\nInfo from Hugh Rawson's *Wicked Words*, 1989, and [The Straight Dope](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23571831", "title": "Nip", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 642, "text": "The earliest recorded occurrence of the slur seems to be in the \"Time\" magazine of 5 January 1942 where \"three Nip pilots\" was mentioned. The American, British, and Australian entry of the Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II heightened the use of racial slurs against the Japanese, such as \"Jap\" and \"Nip\". The word \"Nip\" became a frequently-used slang word amongst the British Armed Forces. The 1942 Royal Air Force journal made numerous references to the Japanese as \"Nips\", even making puns such as \"there's a nip in the air\" This phrase was later re-used for Hirohito's visit to the UK in 1971 by the satirical magazine \"Private Eye\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21634758", "title": "Slum tourism", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 391, "text": "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" dates the first use of the word slumming to 1884. In London, people visited slum neighborhoods such as Whitechapel or Shoreditch in order to observe life in this situation. By 1884 wealthier people in New York City began to visit the Bowery and the Five Points area of the Lower East Side, neighborhoods of poor immigrants, to see \"how the other half lives\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1147879", "title": "Sledging (cricket)", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 381, "text": "According to Ian Chappell, the use of \"sledging\" as a term originated at Adelaide Oval in either the 1963–1964 or 1964–1965 Sheffield Shield competition. Chappell claims that a cricketer who swore in the presence of a woman was said to have reacted to an incident \"like a sledgehammer\". As a result, the direction of insults or obscenities at opponents became known as \"sledging\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533265", "title": "Wanker", "section": "Section::::Differences in perceived levels of offensiveness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 313, "text": "In December 2000, the Advertising Standards Authority published research on attitudes of the British public to pejoratives. It ranked \"wanker\" as the fourth most severe pejorative in English. The BBC describes it as \"moderately offensive\" and \"almost certain\" to generate complaints if used before the watershed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "191383", "title": "Anglophobia", "section": "Section::::Outside the United Kingdom.:Australia and New Zealand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 761, "text": "In recent years, complaints about two newspaper articles blaming English tourists for littering a local beach, and called the English \"Filthy Poms\" in the headlines and \"Poms fill the summer of our discontent\", were accepted as complaints and settled through conciliation by the Australian Human Rights Commission when the newspapers published apologies. However, letters and articles which referred to English people as \"Poms\" or \"Pommies\" did not meet the threshold for racial hatred. In 2007 a complaint to Australia's Advertising Standards Bureau about a television commercial using the term \"Pom\" was upheld and the commercial was withdrawn. Films such as \"Gallipoli\" and \"Breaker Morant\" have highlighted anti-English sentiment felt by some Australians. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198813", "title": "Slum", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 742, "text": "In Europe, slums were common. By the 1920s it had become a common slang expression in England, meaning either various taverns and eating houses, \"loose talk\" or gypsy language, or a room with \"low going-ons\". In \"Life in London\" Pierce Egan used the word in the context of the \"back slums\" of Holy Lane or St Giles. A footnote defined slum to mean \"low, unfrequent parts of the town\". Charles Dickens used the word slum in a similar way in 1840, writing \"I mean to take a great, London, back-slum kind walk tonight\". Slum began to be used to describe bad housing soon after and was used as alternative expression for rookeries. In 1850 the Catholic Cardinal Wiseman described the area known as Devil's Acre in Westminster, London as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46963", "title": "Cunt", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 698, "text": "The earliest known use of the word, according to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", was as part of a placename of a London street, Gropecunt Lane, . Use of the word as a term of abuse is relatively recent, dating from the late nineteenth century. The word appears not to have been taboo in the Middle Ages, but became taboo towards the end of the eighteenth century, and was then not generally admissible in print until the latter part of the twentieth century. The term has various derivative senses, including adjective and verb uses. Feminist writer and English professor Germaine Greer argues that \"cunt\" \"is one of the few remaining words in the English language with a genuine power to shock\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It actually has nothing to do with the tech. You use normal microwaves in a commercial kitchen - it's entirely up to the quality of the food. Your meal would have been prepared that day (or immediately - not everything is nuked!) by someone who knows what they're doing, with OTHER expensive tech. The reason microwave meals suck so much is because they're cheap. Just like any other cheap food, it's not made very well... I think they're starting to improve now, what with the popularity of 'hipster' food growing... But if you nuke good quality fresh food, it'll taste great. 2 day old lasagna may not be as impressive!! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The microwaves are normal.\n\nHowever, they often sear it with a device called a Salamander, or with a torch or broiler which makes a big difference and stuff doesn't taste as \"microwavey\". They also microwave food separately so that it is all the right temp, garnish, etc. to improve it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "proper equipment, things are being cooked at the proper temperatures. Home equipment is often cheaper and you aren't doing it the same as the restaurant. Like a pizza oven or things cooked on a flattop grill.\n\nIf you used the same equipment, or paid more attention to the temperatures you are cooking at it would turn out the same.\n\nThat is the difference I experience when I cook at home vs when I used to cook in a commercial kitchen. My stuff at home just couldn't handle it, my oven didn't handle temps accurately enough and the margin left things burnt or undercooked unless I watched it the entire time. I never worked at a place that microwaved stuff though, but I imagine as other said, they just nuke them separate.\n\nSchwans is a company that sells to places like that, and their stuff is a bit expensive but tastes as good as at the restaurant when nuked. They have the best ice cream too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 689, "text": "Microwave ovens are a common kitchen appliance and are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise slowly prepared foodstuffs, which can easily burn or turn lumpy when cooked in conventional pans, such as hot butter, fats, chocolate or porridge. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, since they rarely attain the necessary temperatures to produce Maillard reactions. Exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items (such as bacon), which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Heating characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 1055, "text": "Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Hazards.:Uneven heating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 418, "text": "Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the safe temperature is not reached, resulting in foodborne illness, as with all inadequate reheating methods. While microwaves can destroy bacteria as well as conventional ovens, they do not cook as evenly, leading to an increased risk that parts of the food will not reach recommended temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Hazards.:Direct microwave exposure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 590, "text": "Microwaves generated in microwave ovens cease to exist once the electrical power is turned off. They do not remain in the food when the power is turned off, any more than light from an electric lamp remains in the walls and furnishings of a room when the lamp is turned off. They do not make the food or the oven radioactive. Compared to conventional cooking, the nutritional content of some foods may be altered differently, but generally in a positive way by preserving more micronutrients - see above. There is no indication of detrimental health issues associated with microwaved food.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::History.:Residential use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 735, "text": "Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971; the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997. In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily. In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998. In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57146", "title": "Chickpea", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Autoclaving, microwave cooking, boiling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 273, "text": "Finally, all treatments lead to an improved protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio, and essential amino acid index. Microwave cooking seems to be an effective method to prepare chickpeas because of its improvement of nutritional values and its lower cooking time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 293, "text": "Microwave ovens have limited roles in professional cooking, because the boiling-range temperatures of a microwave will not produce the flavorful chemical reactions that frying, browning, or baking at a higher temperature will. However, additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the lawyer can tell you what are and are not reasonable offers, and not having the lawyer present will never benefit the suspect. Forgoing a trial benefits both the justice system by avoiding a timely, costly, and pointless procedure (assuming there's clear evidence of guilt), while the suspect can benefit by reduced sentences etc. The lawyer ensures that the deal is reasonable and fair (at least theoretically).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27178362", "title": "Plea bargaining in the United States", "section": "Section::::Controversy.:Constitutionality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 703, "text": "Some legal scholars argue that plea bargaining is unconstitutional because it takes away a person's right to a trial by jury. Justice Hugo Black once noted that, in America, the defendant \"has an absolute, unqualified right to compel the State to investigate its own case, find its own witnesses, prove its own facts, and convince the jury through its own resources. Throughout the process, the defendant has a fundamental right to remain silent, in effect challenging the State at every point to 'Prove it!'\" It is argued that plea bargaining is inconsistent with limits imposed on the powers of the police and prosecutors by the Bill of Rights. This position has been rejected by the nation's courts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476", "title": "Plea bargain", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 871, "text": "Plea bargaining has been defended as a voluntary exchange that leaves both parties better off, in that defendants have many procedural and substantive rights, including a right to trial and to appeal a guilty verdict. By pleading guilty, defendants waive those rights in exchange for a commitment from the prosecutor, such as a reduced charge or more favorable sentence. For a defendant who believes that conviction is almost certain, a discount to the sentence is more useful than an unlikely chance of acquittal. The prosecutor secures a conviction while avoiding the need to commit time and resources to trial preparation and a possible trial. Plea bargaining similarly helps preserve money and resources for the court in which the prosecution occurs. It also means that victims and witnesses do not have to testify at the trial, which in some cases may be traumatic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476", "title": "Plea bargain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 528, "text": "Plea bargaining can present a dilemma to defense attorneys, in that they must choose between vigorously seeking a good deal for their present client, or maintaining a good relationship with the prosecutor for the sake of helping future clients. However, defense attorneys are required by the ethics of the bar to defend the present client's interests over the interests of others. Violation of this rule may result in disciplinary sanctions being imposed against the defense attorney by the appropriate state's bar association.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27178362", "title": "Plea bargaining in the United States", "section": "Section::::Controversy.:Judicial efficiency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 364, "text": "Another argument against plea bargaining is that it may not actually reduce the costs of administering justice. For example, if a prosecutor has only a 25% chance of winning his case and sending the defendant away to prison for 10 years, he may make a plea agreement for a one-year sentence; but if plea bargaining is unavailable, he may drop the case completely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476", "title": "Plea bargain", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages and issues.:Issues related to cost of justice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 377, "text": "Another argument against plea bargaining is that it may not actually reduce the costs of administering justice. For example, if a prosecutor has only a 25% chance of winning his case and sending the defendant away to prison for 10 years, he may make a plea agreement for a sentence of one year; but if plea bargaining is unavailable, a prosecutor may drop the case completely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476", "title": "Plea bargain", "section": "Section::::Usage in common law countries.:England and Wales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 462, "text": "Plea bargaining in Magistrates' Court trials is permitted only to the extent that the prosecutors and the defence can agree that the defendant will plead guilty to some charges and the prosecutor will drop the remainder. However, although this is not conducting a plea bargain, in cases before the Crown Court, the defence can request an indication from the judge of the likely maximum sentence that would be imposed should the defendant decide to plead guilty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476", "title": "Plea bargain", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages and issues.:Consequences for innocent accused.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 594, "text": "More pressure to plea bargain may be applied in weak cases (where there is less certainty of both guilt and jury conviction) than strong cases. Prosecutors tend to be strongly motivated by conviction rates, and \"there are many indications that prosecutors are willing to go a long way to avoid losing cases, [and that] when prosecutors decide to proceed with such weak cases they are often willing to go a long way to assure that a plea bargain is struck\". Prosecutors often have great power to procure a desired level of incentive, as they select the charges to be presented. For this reason,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes you are, not because you're made of water because you have a mass in general. So if you weight yourself on a super precise scale when the moon is straight up in the sky you will be (slightly) lighter than if you weight yourself when the moon is on the opposite position. But that effect is soooo insignificant that you wont notice it on your scale.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The tides exist because all of Earth's water is pooled around a common center of gravity. Due to the presence of the moon, this center of gravity is not the exact center of the Earth. As the moon moves around the Earth, or as the Earth spins, the center of gravity of the Earth-moon system moves along with it, which is what all of Earth's water pools around. Hence sometimes it's lower and sometimes it's higher - the tides.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The short answer is no, the question is based on erroneous understanding of tidal forces.\n\nTidal forces affect all mass. They work because of gravity. Like, let's assume Earth and moon are both points with their masses, surrounded by massless shell we stand on. Gravity that affects you, drawing you in, is directly towards this point in the center, and its strength is determined by your distance from this point in the center.\n\nBut if you think about it, your left arm is pulled slightly inwards towards your body, assuming you stand straight. Also, your feet are closer to the Earth than your head, so they experience larger pull. This means you very slightly experience Earth pulling you inwards on directions other than up/down, and on up/down your head is kinda pulled away from your feet. On Earth, on human-sized objects, this effect is so tiny it's impossible to detect without some really fine measuring device. But near black holes, it can cause so-called spaghettification.\n\nAnyway, the thing is, this difference is amplified the bigger you are. Being bigger means the gravity affecting different sides of you have larger differences in magnitude or direction. So if you're very large, like sea, you have quite large difference in forces, trying to deform you. Sea also is very malleable. It offers no resistance whatsoever to moons tidal forces affecting it differently. So you have tides as result. But you can't see tides on small lakes or such because tidal forces are just too small.\n\nHumans are so small that the compression/stretching caused by tidal forces are completely unnoticeable, and we also are very rigid in comparison, being able to resist much stronger forces, like, you know, Earth pulling us towards Earth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2319776", "title": "Lunar effect", "section": "Section::::Proposed explanations.:Tidal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 750, "text": "Believers in the lunar theory suggest several different mechanisms by which the behaviour of the Moon could influence the behaviour of human beings. A common suggestion is that, since the Moon affects large bodies of water such as the ocean (a phenomenon known as \"tidal force\"), the Moon should be expected to have an analogous effect on human beings, whose bodies contain a great deal of water. However, this is a misconception that fails to take into account differences in scale. The tidal force is in fact very weak and should be expected to exercise no more gravitational pull on the human body than a mosquito. Besides this, the \"suggestion\" failed to account for the dependence of tides from both the phase of the Moon and the \"time of day\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30718", "title": "Tide", "section": "Section::::Physics.:Amplitude and cycle time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 968, "text": "The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of , while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to . Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7250472", "title": "Sanitary sewer overflow", "section": "Section::::Human health and ecological consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 764, "text": "Human health impacts include significant numbers of gastrointestinal illness each year, although death from one overflow event is uncommon. Additional human impacts include beach closures, swimming restrictions and prohibition of the consumption of certain aquatic animals (particularly certain molluscs) after overflow events. Ecological consequences include fish kills, harm to plankton and other aquatic microflora and microfauna. Turbidity increase and dissolved oxygen decrease in receiving waters can lead to accentuated effects beyond the obvious pathogenic induced damage to aquatic ecosystems. It is possible that higher life forms such as marine mammals can be affected since certain seals and sea lions are known to experience peaks in pathogenic harm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47692268", "title": "Mercury pollution in the ocean", "section": "Section::::Health risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 583, "text": "In addition to human health, animal health is also seriously threatened by mercury pollution in the ocean. The effects of high mercury levels on animal health were revealed by the severe mercury poisoning in Minamata Bay in which many animals exhibited extremely strange behaviors and high mortality rates after consuming contaminated seafood or absorbing mercury from the seawater. The cat population essentially disappeared due to cats drowning in the ocean and simply collapsing dead and it became commonplace to witness birds falling out of the sky and fish swimming in circles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "255244", "title": "Seawater", "section": "Section::::Human consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 827, "text": "Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, \"Kon-Tiki\", Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "827792", "title": "Rare Earth hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:A large moon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 262, "text": "If the Earth had no Moon, the ocean tides resulting solely from the Sun's gravity would be only half that of the lunar tides. A large satellite gives rise to tidal pools, which may be essential for the formation of complex life, though this is far from certain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5672031", "title": "Orbit of the Moon", "section": "Section::::Tidal evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 791, "text": "The gravitational attraction that the Moon exerts on Earth is the cause of tides in the sea; the Sun has a smaller tidal influence. If Earth had a global ocean of uniform depth, the Moon would act to deform both the solid Earth (by a small amount) and the ocean in the shape of an ellipsoid with the high points roughly beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of Earth. However, because of the presence of the continents, Earth's much faster rotation and varying ocean depths, this simplistic visualisation does not happen. Although the tidal flow period is generally synchronized to the Moon's orbit around Earth, its relative timing varies greatly. In some places on Earth, there is only one high tide per day, whereas others such as Southampton have four, though this is somewhat rare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't know about 2000 years ago but the size of vegetables sold to consumers has certainly increased significantly over the last century. One reason for this is crop breeding for increasing fruit weight, and this has been successful for pretty much everything you'll find in a supermarket. The other important factor are growing methods like fertilizer, greenhouses, and hydroponics that all result in larger crops. Not only that a U of T study comparing fruit sold in a 50 year period found significant decreases in nutrient levels per weight in almost all crops, including 38% decreases in riboflavin. \n\nDo you have a specific plant in mind? 2000 years ago you wouldn't be able to recognize bananas or corn. I'm speculating now but it seems unlikely that crop breeding for size didn't occur in ancient times. All it would take is a farmer planting seeds from the biggest plants every season and we know they were breeding animals. And there was some absolutely prime agricultural soil back then compared to what the soil in many of those farmlands is now.\n\nHowever neither would touch the maximum sizes way back in the days when CO2 and global temperatures were much higher than they are now.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can give only one example and that is of corn and the domestication was much earlier then 2000 years ago. It was first domesticated in Southern mexico by 4000 to 3000 B.C.E.. The ancestor of corn was a mountain grass called teosinte. It does not look like modern corn. Thousands of years of selective adaptation were required to develop a large cob. Teosinte was about the length of two quarters long.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While we're on the topic, does anyone know how big Diocletian's cabbages would have been?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32405", "title": "Vegetable farming", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 453, "text": "Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5791492", "title": "Vegetable", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 978, "text": "Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries. The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29113229", "title": "Paris japonica", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 443, "text": "The flower has 19 billion more base pairs than the previous record holder, the marbled lungfish, whose 130 billion base pairs weigh in at 132.83 picograms per cell. Since then, other organisms have been assayed and reported to have larger genomes; \"Polychaos dubium\" may be the current record holder, but the authors of one study suggest treating that measurement with caution because it was taken before the advent of modern genomic methods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3991810", "title": "Berry (botany)", "section": "Section::::Uses.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 453, "text": "Cucurbit berries or pepos, particularly from \"Cucurbita\" and \"Lagenaria\", are the earliest plants known to be domesticated – before 9,000–10,000 BP in the Americas, and probably by 12,000–13,000 BP in Asia. Peppers were domesticated in Mesoamerica by 8,000 BP. Many other early cultivated plants were also berries by the strict botanical definition, including grapes, domesticated by 8,000 BP and known to have been used in wine production by 6,000 BP.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25007304", "title": "History of botany", "section": "Section::::Ancient knowledge.:Plant lore and plant selection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 806, "text": "During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts. Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that \"\"cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "496919", "title": "Kolyma River", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 262, "text": "In February 2012, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences reported that scientists had grown plants from 30,000-year-old \"Silene stenophylla\" fruit, which was stored in squirrel burrows near the banks of the Kolyma river and preserved in permafrost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74225", "title": "Chili pepper", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 345, "text": "\"Capsicum\" fruits have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC, and are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas, as origins of cultivating chili peppers are traced to northeastern Mexico some 6,000 years ago. They were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There were many periods of anti-communist sentiment in the United States, each having its own set of domestic and international issues. Many consider the 1930s to be the \"heyday\" of American Communism (see [Harvey Klehr's book](_URL_0_)) because that's when the US was closest to revolution (due to the 1929 stock market crash and millions of unemployed workers- i.e., Communists' ideas seemed pretty good to the downtrodden). So, in the 1930s, the anti-communist sentiment was very much a fear of a domestic revolution- it seemed that Marx was right (in some regards), and that capitalism couldn't support itself. In 1935, the Party entered the Popular Front era, meaning it was more acceptable for communists to associate with liberals, democrats, moderates, union organizers, etc. to push for rights for the working class. So Party influence was at an all-time high. Many historians note that if the US was ever to have a communist revolution, it would've been then due to the Party's influence on politics and culture (and would have been very different from Maoist China or the Bolshevik revolution). This all fell apart when Stalin signed the Soviet-German non-aggression pact, essentially making nice with the Popular Front's greatest enemy: fascism.\n\nIn 1938, the House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC established the Dies committee to hunt for Nazi's in the country, which led to suppression of other political groups, like the communists and socialists. From there, there was no real turning back. After the US entered WWII, the threat of attacks on the US gained credence, and political suppression was seen as a legitimate way to preserve domestic and international peace. I have less expertise in the post-war era and communism, so if someone wants to step in on that, that would be great. But in general, after the communist witch-hunt of the 1950s, most Americans no longer feared the communist revolution, but instead feared espionage and Soviet attacks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7891289", "title": "Executive Order 9835", "section": "Section::::Background and Truman's motivations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 977, "text": "As U.S. relations with the Soviet Union rapidly deteriorated following World War II, there were accompanying concerns about government infiltration by communists. As the U.S. fell from being wartime allies to staunch adversaries with the USSR, American obsession with perceived dangers associated with the Soviet Union, and communists in general, began to grow. Much of this obsession was fueled by reports, in and out of the government, of Soviet spying in the United States. Economic tension helped foster a general state of anger and anxiety in the U.S. and its government. As congressional elections approached in late 1946, many American conservative groups attempted to ignite a new Red Scare. The Republican Party, assisted by a coalition that included the Catholic Church, the FBI and private entrepreneurs, worked to inflame public fear and suspicion. As fear of Communist infiltration in the government grew, it became a central campaign issue in the 1946 elections.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57172673", "title": "Geneva fusillade of 9 November 1932", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Trial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 311, "text": "the worst danger from the Communists was their call for violence and direct action (...) We just went through days that exposed just where these tactics lead. It starts with verbal excitation, and it ends in mass shooting (...) Calling to violence, to take the streets (...) is the antithesis of our programme.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35312641", "title": "History of the Communist Party USA", "section": "Section::::History.:1947–1958: Second Red Scare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 934, "text": "The widespread fear of Communism became even more acute after the Soviets' detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 and discovery of Soviet espionage. Ambitious politicians, including Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, made names for themselves by exposing or threatening to expose Communists within the Truman administration or later—in McCarthy's case—within the United States Army. Liberal groups, such as the Americans for Democratic Action, not only distanced themselves from Communists and Communist causes, but defined themselves as anti-communist. Congress outlawed the Communist Party in the Communist Control Act of 1954. However, the act was largely ineffectual thanks in part to its ambiguous language. In the 1961 case, \"Communist Party v. Catherwood\", the Supreme Court ruled that the act did not bar the party from participating in New York's unemployment insurance system. No administration has tried to enforce it since.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3993649", "title": "Cold War (1979–1985)", "section": "Section::::Collapse of Detente.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 932, "text": "The communists initiated a radical social and political revolution which saw the liquidation of large numbers of dissidents and \"class enemies.\" The coup and subsequent political violence provoked a civil war between the Marxist state and its non-communist opponents, which included, among others, radical Islamists. The deterioration of the communists military position prompted the Soviet Union to intervene in the conflict. The entrance of the Soviet Union into the Afghanistan War is widely credited with ending support for détente and provoked a series of retaliatory responses from the United States, such as the aforementioned withdrawal from SALT II, as well as the imposition of a grain embargo, the boycotting of the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics, and the beginning of weapons sales to Afghan anti-Soviet rebels. Additionally, it diplomatically isolated the Soviet Union on the world stage, particularly in the Middle East.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43254744", "title": "2014 American immigration crisis", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 384, "text": "During the Cold War, the United States backed violent anti-Communist forces throughout Latin America. Academics claim that the violence and high murder rates in many of these countries is the direct legacy of the US intervention on behalf of these anti-Communist forces stretching back into the 1950s with the Guatemalan coup d'état, which has shaped the contemporary refugee crisis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1950", "title": "American Civil Liberties Union", "section": "Section::::Mid-century.:Cold War era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 462, "text": "Anti-Communist sentiment gripped the United States during the Cold War beginning in 1946. Federal investigations caused many persons with Communist or left-leaning affiliations to lose their jobs, become blacklisted, or be jailed. During the Cold War, although the United States collectively ignored the civil rights of Communists, other civil liberties—such as due process in law and separation of church and state—continued to be reinforced and even expanded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1719578", "title": "American Peace Mobilization", "section": "Section::::Organizational history.:Policy reversal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 266, "text": "While the Communist Party and its various \"pro-peace\" front organizations completely reversed their position on the war the moment the pact was violated, the non-interventionists of America First continued their opposition until the U.S. was attacked on December 7.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "hi! feedback on street naming in medieval Europe is welcome, but meanwhile, you might be interested in a couple of posts that discuss other times/places without street names, to get an idea of how it works:\n\n[Did streets in Rome use street numbers during the Republic and/or Empire period?](_URL_1_)\n\n[Why does Tokyo have such unusual street address designations?](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2412892", "title": "Gropecunt Lane", "section": "Section::::Prostitution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 551, "text": "It was normal practice for medieval street names to reflect their function, or the economic activity taking place within them (especially the commodities available for sale), hence the frequency of names such as The Shambles, Silver Street, Fish Street, and Swinegate (pork butchers) in cities with a medieval history. Prostitution may well have been a normal aspect of medieval urban life; in John Stow describes Love Lane as \"so called of Wantons\". The more graphic Gropecunt Lane, however, is possibly the most obvious allusion to sexual activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6579985", "title": "Architecture of Sweden", "section": "Section::::Baroque.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 371, "text": "The 17th century also saw the founding of a number of cities. They were set out with a regular Grid plan street pattern with central squares. The exceptions to this are the Danish Skåne and in Gothenburg, which were laid out to Dutch models in 1619 and include canals. The designs are still recognizable today, even where the original timber buildings have now perished.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1398221", "title": "Bloxham", "section": "Section::::History.:Medieval.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 582, "text": "The medieval street plan survives in the narrow winding alleys where some houses retain a medieval core hidden by later exteriors and alterations. Many of the present street names derive from families living in Bloxham in the early 16th century, e.g. Humber, Job and Budd Lane; although these may remain from middle ages they were not documented until 1700. Bloxham has a large number of well-built yeomen's houses dating from this time, including Bennetts, Seal Cottage and the Joiners Arms. Many have been comparatively little altered, retaining their original details and plans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19218099", "title": "Numbered street", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Germany (Mannheim).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 344, "text": "A notable European example is the city center of Mannheim where blocks are numbered in a grid-like system since 1811, and streets actually do not have names anymore—for example the houses in \"street\" B7 are those in the block in grid B7. The houses on the other side of the street belong to other blocks and therefore have another street name.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9917338", "title": "San Nicolás (Pamplona borough)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 625, "text": "In 1423, some namesake streets existed, but in different boroughs. There were two or three High Streets, Carpenters' Street, Butchers' Street, Shoemakers' Street and some more. The reason for that lies in the fact that streets were named after the shops and businesses operating in them. San Nicolás was home to the oldest streets, since Navarrería had been totally destroyed during the War of the Boroughs (1276), and San Cernin did not go unscathed either, with many buildings, streets and churches ruined. Therefore, the king Charles III of Navarre decided to change the names of the streets in Navarrería and San Cernin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "550422", "title": "Municipalities of Switzerland", "section": "Section::::Size and designations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 386, "text": "Some municipalities designate themselves as \"city\" (\"ville\" or \"Stadt\") or as \"village\" (\"Dorf\"). These designations result from tradition or local preference – for example, several small municipalities designated as cities held city rights in medieval times – and normally do not impact the legal or political rights or obligations of the municipalities under cantonal or federal law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "622977", "title": "Mercedes, Buenos Aires", "section": "Section::::Miscellanea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 273, "text": "The city was organized by a-hundred-meters-long square blocks (as a Roman castra). The streets are numbered with even numbers from South to North and with odd numbers from East to West. Thus, is really easy to orient, find addresses and calculate distances along the city.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The flaw in your premise is asking about Europe, when your question is about Judea.\n\nPretty much west of the Balkans, Latin was the dominant language of the Roman empire, though Greek was very prevalent among educated Romans and among the upper classes diglossia (switching between two languages to talk about different fields/areas of life) appears common. It's extremely likely that Pontius spoke Greek well.\n\nEast of the Balkans , Greek was the dominant lingua franca. Even in areas where another local language was spoken, e.g. Aramaic, Greek was in widespread usage. It was not rven necessarily about formal education, widespread usage of Greek meant that many people were bi or trilingual. For this reason it is not at all unlikely that Jesus knew Greek and could speak in it, even though he was probably not educated in it nor spoke it as well, say, as Pilate.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3610935", "title": "Byzantine Greeks", "section": "Section::::Identity.:Western perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 951, "text": "Popular Western opinion is reflected in the \"Translatio militiae\", whose anonymous Latin author states that the Greeks had lost their courage and their learning, and therefore did not join in the war against the infidels. In another passage, the ancient Greeks are praised for their military skill and their learning, by which means the author draws a contrast with contemporary Byzantine Greeks, who were generally viewed as a non-warlike and schismatic people. While this reputation seems strange to modern eyes given the unceasing military operations of the Byzantines and their eight century struggle against Islam and Islamic states, it reflects the realpolitik sophistication of the Byzantines, who employed diplomacy and trade as well as armed force in foreign policy, and the high-level of their culture in contrast to the zeal of the Crusaders and the ignorance and superstition of the medieval West. As historian Steven Runciman has put it:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16763449", "title": "Greeks in Italy", "section": "Section::::Medieval.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 847, "text": "During the Early Middle Ages, new waves of Greeks came to Magna Graecia from Greece and Asia Minor, as Southern Italy remained governed by the Eastern Roman Empire. Although most of the Greek inhabitants of Southern Italy became de-hellenized and no longer spoke Greek, remarkably a small Griko-speaking minority still exists today in Calabria and mostly in Salento. \"Griko\" is the name of a language combining ancient Doric, Byzantine Greek, and Italian elements, spoken by people in the Magna Graecia region. There is rich oral tradition and Griko folklore, limited now, though once numerous, to only a few thousand people, most of them having become absorbed into the surrounding Italian element. Records of Magna Graecia being predominantly Greek-speaking, date as late as the 11th century (the end of Byzantine domination in Southern Italy).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148363", "title": "Ancient Greek", "section": "Section::::Modern use.:In education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 1422, "text": "The study of Ancient Greek in European countries in addition to Latin occupied an important place in the syllabus from the Renaissance until the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient Greek is still taught as a compulsory or optional subject especially at traditional or elite schools throughout Europe, such as public schools and grammar schools in the United Kingdom. It is compulsory in the Liceo classico in Italy, in the \"gymnasium\" in the Netherlands, in some classes in Austria, in \"klasična gimnazija\" (grammar school - orientation classical languages) in Croatia, in Classical Studies in ASO in Belgium and it is optional in the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Germany (usually as a third language after Latin and English, from the age of 14 to 18). In 2006/07, 15,000 pupils studied Ancient Greek in Germany according to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, and 280,000 pupils studied it in Italy. It is a compulsory subject alongside Latin in the Humanities branch of Spanish Bachillerato. Ancient Greek is also taught at most major universities worldwide, often combined with Latin as part of Classics. It will also be taught in state primary schools in the UK, to boost children's language skills, and will be offered as a foreign language to pupils in all primary schools from 2014 as part of a major drive to boost education standards, together with Latin, Mandarin, French, German, Spanish, and Italian.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21220008", "title": "Medieval Greek", "section": "Section::::History and development.:Diglossia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 450, "text": "As early as in the Hellenistic period, there was a tendency towards a state of diglossia between the Attic literary language and the constantly developing vernacular Koiné. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore. In the Byzantine era, written Greek manifested itself in a whole spectrum of divergent registers, all of which were consciously archaic in comparison with the contemporary spoken vernacular, but in different degrees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148363", "title": "Ancient Greek", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 376, "text": "Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23356529", "title": "Byzantine Papacy", "section": "Section::::History.:The Greek Popes (678–752).:Quinisext Council dispute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 505, "text": "Greek was the language of choice during this period as countless Easterners rose through the ranks of the clergy. According to Ekonomou, between 701 and 750, \"Greeks outnumbered Latins by nearly three and a half to one\". Any power vacuum was swiftly filled from Rome: for example, Pope Gregory II came to the aid of the exarchate of Ravenna in 729 by helping to crush the rebellion of Tiberius Petasius, and Pope Zacharias in 743 and 749 negotiated the withdrawal of the Lombards from imperial territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55419", "title": "History of linguistics", "section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Greece.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 498, "text": "At that period, the Greek language functioned as a \"lingua franca\", a language spoken throughout the known world (for the Greeks and Romans) of that time and, as a result, modern linguistics struggles to overcome this. With the Greeks a tradition commenced in the study of language. The Romans and the medieval world followed, and their laborious work is considered today as a part of our everyday language. Think, for example, of notions such as the word, the syllable, the verb, the subject etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If they owned land, and there was something valuable being produced on that land, then they'd get the money from said stuff being produced. It's also worth noting that not all nobility/aristocrats were rich. Some had high titles, but were relatively poor. Back in feudal and mercantile Europe, ones place in society wasn't directly tied to their wealth the way it is today.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First off, don't trust TV. As far as the income of nobles in those days it came from 2 sources. 1)They owned a lot of land and got the profits of the production of that land. 2) They were the government back then, and taxes were paid to them.\n\n As far as what they did all day generally they held court where they heard from people asking them to do things or resolve disputes or mete justice in criminal matters. They also had to deal with management issues for their properties. They also hunted, a lot.\n\n A lot of medieval aristocrats spent 6 months a year hunting. This wasn't modern hunting, going out on weekends ambushing deer from a blind or stand. They hunted actively in packs chasing down prey and killing them in hand to hand combat. Organizing the groups, getting them in the field, locating animals, tracking them, chasing them and killing them were all a form of military training which was the other main job these people had.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "870322", "title": "History of Russia (1721–96)", "section": "Section::::Daily life during Catherine the Great’s reign.:Nobles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 397, "text": "Despite popular perception, a small estate owner often led a boring and primitive life. The owner had few pursuits to distract him besides maintaining relationships with neighbors, religious and family obligations, and hunting, all of which made for a dull existence in the interim. Palaces did not feature privies during Catherine's time, greatly inconveniencing the inhabitants of these abodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "639072", "title": "Theatrical property", "section": "Section::::Term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 442, "text": "During the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered \"company property\"; hence the term \"property.\" Some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects \"belong\" to whoever uses them on stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7951920", "title": "Servants' quarters", "section": "Section::::The 18th century servant.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 668, "text": "While life upstairs away from the servants became more relaxed with less ceremony, life downstairs became a parody of the former world upstairs. Butlers, housekeepers and cooks now became monarchs in their own small kingdoms. A strict hierarchy among the servants developed which persisted in the grander households until the 20th century. The upper servants in large households often withdrew from the servants' hall to eat their dessert courses in the privacy of a steward's room in much the same way the owners of the house had withdrawn to a solar from the Great Hall in the previous era. Strict orders of precedence and deference evolved which became sacrosanct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33064179", "title": "Rabbits and hares in art", "section": "Section::::In secular art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 605, "text": "From the Middle Ages until modern times, the right to hunt was a vigorously defended privilege of the ruling classes. Hunting Still lifes, often in combination with hunting equipment, adorn the rooms of baroque palaces, indicating the rank and prestige of their owners. Jan Weenix' painting shows a still life reminiscent of a trophy case with birds and small game, fine fruits, a pet dog and a pet monkey, arranged in front of a classicising garden sculpture with the figure of Hercules and an opulent palace in the background. The wealth and luxurious lifestyle of the patron or owner is clearly shown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8449472", "title": "Station master", "section": "Section::::Social position.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 239, "text": "From the late Victorian era onwards, station masters became prominent figures in local communities. Invariably they would be provided with a substantial house and, in rural communities particularly, would have significant social standing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1946883", "title": "Playing company", "section": "Section::::The Elizabethan Age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 543, "text": "In some cases, more so toward the end of the period, noble patronage was nothing more than that legal fig leaf; a company of actors was an independent entity, financially and otherwise. Conversely, some noblemen were beneficent patrons of their players. The Lords Hunsdon Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon (c. 1524–96), and his son George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon (1547–1603) were valuable protectors of their own company, and, when they served in the office of Lord Chamberlain (1585–96 and 1597–1603 respectively), of English drama as a whole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23477542", "title": "History of theatre", "section": "Section::::European theatre.:English Elizabethan theatre.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 475, "text": "Since before the reign of Elizabeth I, companies of players were attached to households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage. The tours of these players gradually replaced the performances of the mystery and morality plays by local players, and a 1572 law eliminated the remaining companies lacking formal patronage by labelling them vagabonds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oxygen! The atmosphere contained different levels of oxygen than it did millions of years ago. The more oxygen present the bigger life forms our Earth can support. Animals evolved to adapt to the levels of oxygen, along with other things, in order to be best suited for the environment. Natural selection eventually brought our current animals to where they are today size wise.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We do have the blue whale which is the largest animal on record, but yes we are at a low point in terms of huge animals, especially land animals. If you're comparing us to the various giant dinosaurs it's worth remembering that they existed over a period of almost 200 million years and we tend to remember the highlights over that whole time, giving a skewed perspective of the average sizes. It may also be that as mammals are warm-blooded they have less energy to invest in growth than the dinosaurs did but that's a bit hand wavy and the blue whales are an obvious exception.\n\nIf we just consider the recent past, as in the past 10 million years or so, we do seem to have lost a lot of the biggest animals. Megatheria, mammoths, aurochs, elephant birds, haast eagles and many more that would be record setters if alive today were all around until very recently. There has been considerable debate as to what brought an end to all these species, the two chief candidates are climate change and human hunting activity. Humans have been confirmed as the guilty party in many cases but there is also evidence for the role of climate. When environments undergo rapid change it tends to be the largest animals that go the fastest as they require larger areas of functioning ecosystem to survive.\n\nLower oxygen levels is primarily associated with smaller insects as they absorb Oxygen through diffusion. Oxygen levels were around the same as they are now when the dinosaurs were around.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "183089", "title": "List of unsolved problems in physics", "section": "Section::::Unsolved problems by subfield.:Cosmology and general relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 781, "text": "BULLET::::- The largest structures in the universe are larger than expected. Current cosmological models say there should be very little structure on scales larger than a few hundred million light years across, due to the expansion of the universe trumping the effect of gravity. But the Sloan Great Wall is 1.38 billion light-years in length. And the largest structure currently known, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, is up to 10 billion light-years in length. Are these actual structures or random density fluctuations? If they are real structures they contradict the '' hypothesis which asserts that at a scale of 300 million light-years structures seen in smaller surveys are randomized to the extent that the smooth distribution of the universe is visually apparent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12229567", "title": "Westinghouse Sign", "section": "Section::::Combinations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 402, "text": "Such a number may be incomprehensibly huge. If the Big Bang is reckoned to have occurred 13.8 billion years ago, there have been \"only\" about 4.35 x 10 seconds since the birth of the universe. It is estimated that the Earth is made up of roughly 5.5 x 10 atoms; the number of atoms in the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 5 x 10, and the number of atoms in the \"universe\" is estimated to be 3.5 x 10.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46758047", "title": "Bigger Than Worlds", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 407, "text": "\"Bigger Than Worlds\" is an essay by the American science fiction writer Larry Niven (born 1938). It was first published in March 1974 in Analog magazine, and has been anthologized in \"A Hole in Space\" (1974) and in \"Playgrounds of the Mind\" (1991). It reviews a number of proposals, not inconsistent with the known laws of physics, which have been made for habitable artificial astronomical megastructures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Misconceptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 249, "text": "\"The Big Bang was \"small\"\": It is misleading to visualize the Big Bang by comparing its size to everyday objects. When the size of the universe at Big Bang is described, it refers to the size of the observable universe, and not the entire universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27319586", "title": "Artificial structures visible from space", "section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 342, "text": "Trivia questions and urban legends often claim certain constructed objects or effects are so large they are visible from outer space. For example, a giant beaver dam in Canada was described as \"so large it is visible from outer space.\" \"Field and Stream\", a Canadian Magazine, wrote, \"How big? Big enough to be visible ... from outer space.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21501041", "title": "Largest prehistoric animals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 632, "text": "The largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is mostly conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic and biomechanical constraints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21014922", "title": "Born Again Tour 1983", "section": "Section::::Staging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 334, "text": "\"We couldn't believe the size of it when we saw it,\" recalled Iommi. \"We seen it when we rehearsed at the NEC \"[in Birmingham]\" for a whole and we'd only seen it on the floor; parts of it – they hadn't finished it… It gets to \"[the 1983]\" Reading \"[festival]\" and we've got these huge ones at the back that are just, like, gigantic.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Here is my first stab at an answer. As I note below I don't think it's the right answer, but it should give you an idea of how we might go about calculating this.\n\nThe power a black hole puts out from [Hawking radiation](_URL_0_) is inversely proportional to its mass squared. For my simple calculation, I'll take the rate that mass flows into black hole as the density of the Earth times the surface area of the event horizon, times the speed of light. If I multiply that by c^2 to get the effective \"power\" of that mass flow, I can set that power equal to the Hawking power and find out what the mass needs to be:\n\n M > (hbar * c^7 / (245760 * pi * density))^(1/4) / G\n\nplugging in 5.5 g/cm^3 for the Earth's density, I get that the limit is **[1.3x10^14 kg](_URL_1_)** (mass of a middling mountain)\n\nI am guessing that the actual answer is lower than this, because it ignores the fact that matter will get compressed as it is pulled into this point, and the evaporation time for this black hole is 6*10^18 years. Any GR people care to comment?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2855255", "title": "Limits of computation", "section": "Section::::Building devices that approach physical limits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 475, "text": "BULLET::::- In \"The Singularity is Near\", Ray Kurzweil cites the calculations of Seth Lloyd that a universal-scale computer is capable of 10 operations per second. The mass of the universe can be estimated at 3 × 10 kilograms. If all matter in the universe was turned into a black hole it would have a lifetime of 2.8 × 10 seconds before evaporating due to Hawking radiation. During that lifetime such a universal-scale black hole computer would perform 2.8 × 10 operations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173724", "title": "Hawking radiation", "section": "Section::::Black hole evaporation.:1976 Page numerical analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 216, "text": "For a mass much larger than 10 grams, Page deduces that electron emission can be ignored, and that black holes of mass in grams evaporate via massless electron and muon neutrinos, photons, and gravitons in a time of\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "510340", "title": "Stellar black hole", "section": "Section::::Properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 264, "text": "The maximum mass that a neutron star can possess (without becoming a black hole) is not fully understood. In 1939, it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996, a different estimate put this upper mass in a range from 1.5 to 3 solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19439560", "title": "Sołtan argument", "section": "Section::::Present constraints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 272, "text": "As of 2008, the best constraints for the supermassive black hole mass per cubic megaparsec in the local universe derived from the Sołtan argument is between 2 - 5 x 10 solar masses. This value is consistent with observations of the mass of local supermassive black holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49107593", "title": "ASASSN-15lh", "section": "Section::::Suggested mechanisms.:Tidal disruption event (TDE).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 898, "text": "One known method for producing extremely large amounts of energy is the tidal disruption of objects such as stars by a supermassive black hole. ASASSN-15lh occurred in the nucleus of a large passive galaxy where a supermassive black hole is likely. Black hole of the mass expected in the host galaxy of ASASSN-15lh would normally swallow stars without a visible flare, The conditions for the production of a highly luminous flare from a TDE around a black hole of the expected mass are unusual, but a rapidly-spinning Kerr black hole might be able to disrupt a star with a mass similar to the sun outside the event horizon and produce a hot accretion disc and luminous transient. It could also account for the temperature changes, rebrightening, and unusual spectral evolution. However, lack of hydrogen and/or helium lines in the spectra of ASASSN-15lh poses a major problem for the TDE scenario.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21751777", "title": "GRO J0422+32", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 324, "text": "The mass of the black hole in GRO J0422+32 falls in the range 3.66 to 4.97 solar masses. This is the smallest yet found for any stellar black hole, and near the theoretical upper mass limit (~2.7 ) for a neutron star. Further analysis in 2012 calculated a mass of , which raises questions as to what the object actually is.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3423392", "title": "NGC 7793", "section": "Section::::Black hole P13 in outer spiral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 563, "text": "Jets from a black hole named P13 power a large nebula named S26 in the outer spiral of this galaxy. Recently, the mass of P13 was determined to be less than 15 solar masses, and its companion star is estimated to be around 20 solar masses. The two orbit each other in 64 days. Based on this estimate, P13 is stripping material away from a nearby star about ten times faster than was previously believed to be physically possible. If correct, this observation would show flaws in theories that a black hole's mass and rate of consumption are a fixed relationship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Consumption of alcohol inhibits the parts of your brain that send alarm signals when you're about to do something stupid (the amygdala complex, if I recall correctly). You're perfectly aware of what you're doing. You may even be able to figure out that it's a dumb thing to do, but the signals that would normally make you back off don't get heard, so you are uninhibited.\n\nThe type of alcohol probably only matters insomuch as what type of alcohol you like to drink, as you won't drink a lot of something you don't like. Different kinds of drinks may also be absorbed by the body at different rates, or may not taste very alcoholic. These kinds of drink may \"sneak up on you\" instead of affecting you quickly. If you know you're getting drunk fast, you may take mental precautions to prevent stupid behavior. If you aren't expecting it, you may not.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The different effect of different alcohols have to do with the social situations they are consumed in. I people drank wine at frat parties and spring break they would associate wine with the behavior that is currently associated with tequila.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This has been asked before, and it's mostly in your head. There's no special ingredients that would make you do specific actions or have specific emotions. A lot of the times it is based on how you drink it, when you drink it, what you drink it with, where you drink it. Then you create the patterns without you realizing it.\n\nAlcohol is euphoric, so it's known as being \"reinforcing\". Broadly, it causes behaviors while drinking alcohol to become linked to it. There is a large component involved in the way you drink it, with rate of alcohol consumption being the most important. Having it with/without food, being properly hydrated, etc. all act on how quickly you get drunk.\n\nFor example, many people drink tequila shots during a night of heavy drinking/partying while they not hydrated/eating. This can usually lead to bad times, so they associate tequila with a bad time...or at least with those kind of nights of excess/partying. \n\nBut someone else may drink tequila only in margaritas, maybe during summer parties or something casual, and so they associate the taste of tequila with relaxation.\n\nWhat happens is, we start drinking things we associate with the mood/theme we want. That first person just broke up with their ex and wants to completely get trashed, so they are downing tequila shots (as they associate it with their mood) to cause the kind of night they want. The other person just got away for the weekend and wants to unwind with a margarita and has a nice relaxing time. The tequila is just tequila, but their moods are what set the stage with how they consume it (along with other alcohol). \n\nWith wine, the same variables play in (although people don't tend to drink it differently). Maybe a lot of people have some wine around and find it completely normal to drink alone. They do this a lot while alone, and usually they are introspective and nostalgic. All of the sudden, someone in a nostalgic mood associates that slightly euphoric feeling of drinking wine...and that's that.\n\nSo in summary, it has to do with levels/rate of what we drink in the different social situations or mood we are in...and the alcohol we associate to fit those moods.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32961", "title": "Wine", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Short-term effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 1645, "text": "Wine contains ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and distilled spirits and as such, wine consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. As with all alcoholic drinks, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties against drunk driving.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3187173", "title": "Health effects of wine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 434, "text": "The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient alcohol. Some studies found that, when comparing people who consume alcohol, drinking small quantities of alcohol (up to one standard drink per day for women and one to two drinks per day for men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and early death. However, other studies found no such effect. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2842910", "title": "Alcohol and cancer", "section": "Section::::Risk factor for specific cancers.:Evidence is mixed.:Pancreatic cancer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 129, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 129, "end_character": 268, "text": "Several studies caution that their findings could be due to confounding factors. Even if a link exists, it \"could be due to the contents of some alcoholic beverages\" other than the alcohol itself. One Dutch study even found that drinkers of white wine had lower risk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25539883", "title": "Ripeness in viticulture", "section": "Section::::What happens to a grape as it ripens.:Varying ripeness levels for different wines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 751, "text": "The presence of alcohol (particularly ethanol) in the wine contributes much more than just intoxication. It has an immense impact of the weight and mouthfeel of the wine as well as the balance of sweetness, tannins and acids. In wine tasting, the anaesthetic qualities of ethanol reduces the sensitivity of the palate to the harsh effects of acids and tannins, making the wine seem softer. It also plays a role during the ageing of wine in its complex interaction with esters and phenolic compounds that produce various aromas in wine that contribute to a wine's flavor profile. For this reason, some winemakers will value having a higher potential alcohol level and delay harvesting until the grapes have a sufficiently high concentration of sugars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3187173", "title": "Health effects of wine", "section": "Section::::Effect on the body.:Psychological and social.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1206, "text": "Danish epidemiological studies suggest that a number of psychological health benefits are associated with drinking wine. In a study testing this idea, Mortensen et al. (2001) measured socioeconomic status, education, IQ, personality, psychiatric symptoms, and health related behaviors, which included alcohol consumption. The analysis was then broken down into groups of those who drank beer, those who drank wine, and then those who did and did not drink at all. The results showed that for both men and women drinking wine was related to higher parental social status, parental education and the social status of the subjects. When the subjects were given an IQ test, wine drinkers consistently scored higher IQs than their counterpart beer drinkers. The average difference of IQ between wine and beer drinkers was 18 points. In regards to psychological functioning, personality, and other health-related behaviors, the study found wine drinkers to operate at optimal levels while beer drinkers performed below optimal levels. As these social and psychological factors also correlate with health outcomes, they represent a plausible explanation for at least some of the apparent health benefits of wine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3187173", "title": "Health effects of wine", "section": "Section::::Effect on the body.:Cardiovascular system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 881, "text": "Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or \"good\" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque build up in the arteries. The alcohol in wine has anticoagulant properties that limits blood clotting by making the platelets in the blood less prone to stick together and reducing the levels of fibrin protein that binds them together.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "319138", "title": "French paradox", "section": "Section::::Possible explanations.:Explanations based on the high per capita consumption of red wine in France.:Alcohol in wine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 245, "text": "Research suggests that moderate drinkers are less likely to suffer heart attacks than are abstainers or heavy drinkers (see alcohol and cardiovascular disease for details). Therefore, the alcohol in wine might be a factor in the French paradox.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They read the Wiki for [Poe's Law](_URL_0_), then cranked the retard full blast and created a subreddit to record the progress.\n\nThe experiment is ongoing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As far as I can tell it's just an endless series of in-jokes made by 'indier-than-thou' basement dwellers, mocking posts that are 'typically Reddit'.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Find a boderline outrageous comment on reddit\n2. Remove any explanatory context\n3. Create a sensationalized title, post to SRS\n4. Send a horde of self righteous dumbasses into the original sub, making reasonable discussion impossible\n5. Smugly comment on what a terrible place reddit has become\n\nFor example, in a discussion on health care policy, someone might suggest now that AIDS is largely treatable, research money is better spent on other diseases. This will show up in SRS under the headline \"Reddit thinks all gays should die!\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53481736", "title": "Everipedia", "section": "Section::::Content and users.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 695, "text": "The site frequently focuses on trending topics, with the few articles created by users of the site mostly being about sensational topics such as YouTubers, memes, activists, white supremacists, and police shooting victims. The site has been criticized for initially presenting false information in wiki pages on breaking news topics. The incidents were identifying the wrong people in the 2017 Las Vegas shooting and the United Express Flight 3411 incident. Jeff John Roberts of \"The Outline\" raised concerns about the privacy ramifications of Everipedia, which developed many of its articles by gathering content from social media, creating publicly visible entries on non-notable individuals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27502884", "title": "Mocha Uson", "section": "Section::::Criticisms and controversies.:Fake news and misinformation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 567, "text": "In April 2018, an administrative complaint was filed against Uson by Akbayan Youth before the Office of the Ombudsman over posting misleading content on her Facebook page, with the charges of grave misconduct, serious dishonesty and conduct prejudicial to the best interest of the service. Uson did not attempt to defend herself against the charges, but rather made a joke thanking the complainants for giving her the idea of starting her own coffee shop business which she would call \"Fire Mocha Café\", named after the hashtag \"#FireMocha\" used by the complainants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28667119", "title": "Gay Nigger Association of America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 561, "text": "The Gay Nigger Association of America (GNAA) is an Internet trolling group. They have trolled several prominent websites and Internet personalities including \"Slashdot\", Wikipedia, CNN, Barack Obama's campaign website, Alex Jones, and prominent members of the blogosphere. They have also released software products and leaked screenshots and information about upcoming operating systems. In addition, they maintain a software repository and a wiki-based site dedicated to Internet commentary. They are listed as a far-right cyberterrorist organization in TRAC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8486860", "title": "The Misanthropic Bitch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 362, "text": "The Misanthropic Bitch (TMB) was a personal blog maintained by a person who referred to herself by the same title. Although originally referred to as a zine, TMB represented one of the earliest online personal \"blogs,\" having originally appeared in 1997. One of her most widely known quotes is \"Nothing can make one a misogynist faster than being born a woman.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55696960", "title": "Fedwa Misk", "section": "Section::::Career.:\"Qandisha\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 476, "text": "The site has been targeted by its opponents. Misk frequently receives hate mail and threats online. Some of its opponents allege that the site was funded by Israel, the US, or France. In June 2012, the site was hacked and the page changed to show the Moroccan royal emblem and national motto \"god, the country and the king\". The hacking occurred after \"Qandisha\" published a letter about homosexuality written by a gay man. The site was subsequently hacked for a second time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23939368", "title": "Pranknet", "section": "Section::::Notable Pranknet incidents.:Craigslist abuse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 474, "text": "Pranknet members frequently place Craigslist ads offering free tickets or items. Inquirers are bombarded with obscene sexual rants and racial epithets. A 12-year-old girl called about a free trampoline, and \"Dex\" told her not to get pregnant by a black man because \"they have AIDS\". Markle frequently calls women who are selling household items on the site. After getting the victim’s home address, he then tells her he is on his way over to rape her and kill her children.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39293123", "title": "Controversial Reddit communities", "section": "Section::::Controversial subreddits.:MensRights.:Doxing incident.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 604, "text": "In April 2013, the subreddit was threatened with a shutdown by Reddit admins after r/MensRights subscribers gathered personal information on a supposed blogger of feminist issues, and the subreddit's moderators advised members of the subreddit on how to proceed with this 'doxing' without running afoul of site rules. Later on it was discovered that they had identified the wrong woman, and it has been reported that many death threats had been sent to her school and employment. Georgetown University confirmed that she was not the same person as the blog's author after receiving threatening messages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The image which you attach is of the battle between the USS Wasp and HMS Reindeer in the War of 1812.\n\nLike most naval battles, this was fought near land (in the approaches to the English Channel) rather than in the middle of the sea. It is hard to find enemy ships (or fleets) in the vast reaches of the open sea, so most battles occurred near ports or other strategic locations close to land.\n\nIn this case, the Wasp's mission was to raid English commerce in the English Channel (a very strategic location, as a vast number of merchant ships trading in or out of England would have to pass through the Channel). The Reindeer was sent out to attack the Wasp once the British learned that she was there, raiding their commerce.\n\nThough it was risky (and not always strategically wise) for a captain to engage in ship on ship battle, sea captains in this era rarely refused battle. It seems to have been a point of honor.\n\nIt could be argued that continuing to destroy British merchant shipping in the Channel approaches was more valuable to the American War effort than destroying one small British warship. (Though the morale and propaganda value of ship to ship victories in the War of 1812 was high). Even though victorious, the Wasp had to put into a French port for repairs, and was out of action as a commerce raider for seven weeks as a result of the battle.\n\nThe Wasp and the Reindeer do not seem to have engaged in much of a tactical duel. The two ships sailed towards each other in very light winds. When they were close, they went broadside to broadside and began firing the cannon. After twenty minutes of cannon fire, the two ships were alongside of each other, and the British tried to board the Wasp but were repulsed. The Americans follwed up by boarding the Reindeer (this is the moment shown in your picture).\n\nThe Wasp had heavier cannon (22 32 pounder carronades vs 18 24 pounder carronades) and more crew (178 vs 118), so had the advantage in both phases of the battle. The Reindeer was too damaged to sail back to port, so she was burned. Reindeer had 25 men killed and 42 wounded when she surrendered. Wasp had 11 killed and 15 wounded.\n\nThere often would be more strategy and maneuvering in a ship on ship battle than there was in this one. \n\nIn the Napoleonic wars, the British liked to try to achieve the \"weather gauge\" (that is to get their ship to windward of the enemy). The ship that had the weather gauge could better control the action and prevent the enemy from escaping. The French often preferred the lee gauge, from which they would try to keep the distance open from the enemy and shoot at sails and rigging, hoping to disable the British ship and gain a maneuverability advantage that might allow them to achieve a raking broadside.\n\nTo be able to \"rake\" the enemy was often a decisive blow. Raking meant to cut across the bow or stern of the enemy ship, so that you could send a broadside down the entire length of the enemy gun deck, while the opponent could not shoot back (having very few guns pointed fore or aft).\n\nMostly, it was hard to out maneuver the opponent well enough to achieve a raking broadside. The USS Constitution, however, seems to have been able to do this in several of her victorious engagements in the War of 1812. Perhaps because she was unexpectedly faster or more maneuverable than her opponents expected.\n\nCannon were very effective in naval combat. They rarely sunk wooden ships, but they crippled them and killed the crew until the ship would no longer function as a fighting force. Ships could be defeated by cannon fire alone (and most often were) but it was also not uncommon for the final action of a battle to be boarding the enemy and hand to hand fighting on the decks (as in the battle between the Wasp and the Reindeer).\n\nSources:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51815", "title": "Anne Arundel County, Maryland", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 391, "text": "On March 25, 1655, during the English Civil War, (1642-1651), in Europe, the Battle of the Severn, the first naval colonial battle ever fought in America was fought in Anne Arundel County on the Severn River between Puritan forces supporting the Commonwealth of England and forces loyal to the Lord Proprietor, Cecilius Calvert. The Commonwealth forces under William Fuller were victorious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3192836", "title": "Naval history of Japan", "section": "Section::::Medieval period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 593, "text": "Naval battles of a very large scale, fought between Japanese clans and involving more than 1000 warships, are recorded from the 12th century. The decisive battle of the Genpei War, and one of the most famous and important naval battles in pre-modern Japanese history, was the 1185 battle of Dan-no-ura, which was fought between the fleets of the Minamoto and Taira clans. These battles consisted first of long-range archery exchanges, then giving way to hand-to-hand combat with swords and daggers. Ships were used largely as floating platforms for what were largely land-based melee tactics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3595931", "title": "Sailing ship tactics", "section": "Section::::Tactical stagnation in the mid-18th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 879, "text": "The wars of the 18th century produced a series of tactically indecisive naval battles between evenly matched fleets in line ahead, such as Málaga (1704), Rügen Island (1715), Toulon (1744), Minorca (1756), Negapatam (1758), Cuddalore (1758), Pondicherry (1759), Ushant (1778), Dogger Bank (1781), the Chesapeake (1781), Hogland (1788) and Öland (1789). Although a few of these battles had important \"strategic\" consequences, like the Chesapeake which the British needed to win, all were \"tactically\" indecisive. Many admirals began to believe that a contest between two equally matched fleets could not produce a decisive result. The tactically decisive actions of the 18th century were all chase actions, where one fleet was clearly superior to the other, such as the two battles of Finisterre (1747), and those at Lagos (1759), Quiberon Bay (1759) and Cape St. Vincent (1780).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1139110", "title": "History of the Royal Navy", "section": "Section::::Pax Britannica, 1815–1895.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 584, "text": "After 1827 there were no major battles until 1914. The navy was used against shore installations, such as those in the Baltic and Black Sea in 1854 and 1855, to fight pirates; to hunt down slave ships; and to assist the army when sailors and marines were landed as naval brigades, as on many occasions between the siege of Sevastopol and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion. With a fleet larger than any two rivals combined, the British nation could take security for granted, but at all times the national leaders and public opinion supported a powerful navy, and service was of high prestige.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1918188", "title": "Galley", "section": "Section::::History.:Mediterranean decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 1282, "text": "Atlantic-style warfare based on heavily armed sailing ships began to change the nature of naval warfare in the Mediterranean in the 17th century. In 1616, a small Spanish squadron of five galleons and a patache was used to cruise the eastern Mediterranean and defeated a fleet of 55 galleys at the battle of Cape Celidonia. By 1650, war galleys were used primarily in the wars between Venice and the Ottoman Empire in their struggle for strategic island and coastal trading bases and until the 1720s by both France and Spain but for largely amphibious and cruising operations or in combination with heavy sailing ships in a major battle, where they played specialized roles. An example of this was when a Spanish fleet used its galleys in a mixed naval/amphibious battle in the second 1641 battle of Tarragona, to break a French naval blockade and land troops and supplies. Even the Venetians, Ottomans and other Mediterranean powers began to build Atlantic style warships for use in the Mediterranean in the latter part of the century. Christian and Muslim corsairs had been using galleys in sea roving and in support of the major powers in times of war, but largely replaced them with xebecs, various sail/oar hybrids, and a few remaining light galleys in the early 17th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "153942", "title": "Battle of Lepanto", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 627, "text": "In the history of naval warfare, Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels, namely the galleys and galeasses which were the direct descendants of ancient trireme warships. The battle was in essence an \"infantry battle on floating platforms\". It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than 400 warships. Over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the \"Age of Sail\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52266", "title": "War of the Austrian Succession", "section": "Section::::Campaign of 1744.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 1359, "text": "During naval operations that were possible preparations for a coordinated French invasion of England, the largest sea battle of the war occurred, on 22 February 1744. This naval battle took place in the Mediterranean off the coast of Toulon, France. A large British fleet under the command of Admiral Thomas Mathews, with Rear Admiral Richard Lestock second in command, was blockading the French coast. A smaller French and Spanish naval force attacked the British blockade and damaged some of the British ships, forcing the British to withdraw and seek repairs. Thus, the British blockade of the French coast was relieved, and the Spanish fleet apparently controlled the Mediterranean Sea. A Spanish squadron took refuge in the harbour at Toulon. The British fleet watched this squadron carefully from a harbour a short distance to the east. On 21 February 1744, the Spanish ships put to sea with a French fleet. Admiral Mathews took his British fleet and attacked the Spanish fleet from 22 February until 23 February 1744 in what has become known as the Battle of Toulon. However, because of miscommunication and possibly treachery on the part of Rear Admiral Lestock, the smaller Spanish fleet was allowed to escape. With the knowledge that a larger French fleet was sailing to the rescue the British ships broke off combat and retreated to the northeast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Leicester City were promoted to the EPL in 2014. They've generally been considered a lesser team, having been relegated several times and rarely have competed with the more established teams of the EPL.\n\nAlso, the EPL has traditionally been dominated by the likes of the big spending clubs such as Manchester United, Manchester City, Chelsea and Arsenal. \n\nLeicester City are *not* a rich club, and have a squad without any superstar players (although their striker Jamie Vardy is fast becoming one), yet they currently sit top of the EPL and look to have a *strong* chance of actually winning the title this season.\n\nThey are considered massive underdogs and will be one of the only teams to break the EPL dominance without having to have spent a lot of money to do so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "BECAUSE *LEICESTER CITY* IS AT THE TOP OF THE PREMIER LEAGUE! AND THEY LOOK LIKE THEY'RE GOING TO WIN!\n\nAhem, sorry, let me start again. \n\nThe TL;DR is: Leicester City is a small team who nobody expected would be in with a chance of winning the Premier League *especially* given that there are bigger, traditionally \"better\" teams who should be beating them.\n\nFor years, the top level of English football had been dominated by Manchester United, headed by Sir Alex Ferguson. Manchester United had huge amounts of money, was managed by a good manager, but crucially, had so much belief in themselves that they were unstoppable. This made the Premier League a bit boring, as it was a bygone conclusion that they, or if not another huge, rich team would win (consider that since the formation of the Premier League in 1992, only [5 out of 47 clubs who have competed in it actually have ever won it](_URL_0_)). Such teams include Chelsea, headed by a capricious Russian oligarch and Manchester City, whose ownership I don't know but basically they have obscene amounts of money, in a sport and league already stuffed full of money.\n\nAnyway, a few years back, Alex Ferguson retired from managing, and left Manchester United, who promptly fell apart and have not even touched their former glory. This has made English football much more interesting, but still dominated by the aforementioned obscenely rich teams (not just those two, but they are the archetypal examples). This is the context for these past few seasons, including this one, where Leicester City took an early lead at the top and seemed to hang on, firmly avoiding being dislodged from their position. Currently, they are two points clear of Tottenham with a game in hand (i.e. there is the potential for them to soon go up to five points above their nearest competitor). No other team has been able to mount a serious sustained offensive on their position, even when they patently should be able to. Without living in England, following the football, the sheer joy at the though of *Leicester* beating such teams as Tottenham, Arsenal, Man City, Man United, Chelsea etc. is a bit difficult to convey, but it is a joy that this (comparatively) small team without access to near unlimited resources might just yet be able to win the Premier League.\n\nA football fan who follows the League more devoutly will probably be better able to explain, but that is what I think and feel, and that covers more or less the gist of it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Football* It's LCFC, Not LCSC.\n\nThe reason they're a big deal is because they are a genuine rags to riches story. In the history of the Premier League, only five teams have ever won it. Blackburn (once, many years ago), Manchester United, Arsenal, Manchester City & Chelsea. With the exception of Blackburn, all those clubs are considered to be 'giants'. All those clubs have money. All those clubs have been either near the top or actually top for extended periods of time.\n\nA few clubs have come close, such as Liverpool, Tottenham and Newcastle United (my team), but no cigar. It's **notoriously** difficult to break into the 'Top Four' (so called as those places mean qualification to the top European competition). Nevermind win.\n\nSo consider Leicester City;\n\nA team in the middle of the Country, that haven't really done much for about 30 years. \nA team who barely had 100,000 fans (compared to a club like Aston Villa, who are bottom of the league, who have about 900,000).\nA team who have players that, for the most part, are decidedly average.\nA team with no money (comparatively).\n\n\nA team that, at the *start* of the season were being tipped by most pundits, bookmakers, fans and experts to be near the bottom of the league at by the end... Are now top of the league with just 10 games to go. And currently beating my team 1-0. It's a massive deal. I believe the Americans call this 'an underdog story'.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50045782", "title": "2016–17 Leicester City F.C. season", "section": "Section::::Competitions.:UEFA Champions League.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 248, "text": "Leicester City qualified for the group stage of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League by winning the 2015–16 Premier League. It was their first participation in this competition. As champions of England, the club was in Pot 1 for the group stage draw.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8595452", "title": "EFL Championship play-offs", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 492, "text": "Leicester City (Division One play-off winners in 1994 and 1996) were the first team to win the play-offs twice as this level, their 1994 triumph being the first time in seven attempts that they had won a match at Wembley Stadium, having lost the previous two play-off finals there, as well as four FA Cups between 1949 and 1969. Crystal Palace's Championship play-off triumph in 2013 made them the first team to reach the top flight of English football as play-off winners on four occasions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "298602", "title": "Leicester City F.C.", "section": "Section::::History.:Premier League champions (2015–16).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 473, "text": "Leicester became known for their counterattacking style of play, \"incredible pace in the areas it is most essential\" and defensive solidarity. Former boss Nigel Pearson was credited by several pundits and fans as having laid the foundations for Leicester's title winning season. Players were often praised for their work ethic and togetherness which was apparent throughout the squad. Reacting to City winning the Premier League, Executive chairman Richard Scudamore said:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38424193", "title": "Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England", "section": "Section::::Reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 758, "text": "Some commentators suggested the discovery and subsequent positive exposure and good morale around the city contributed to Leicester City F.C.'s shock Premier League victory in 2016. A few days after the burial, Leicester City began a winning streak to take them from bottom of the league to comfortably avoiding relegation, and they went on to win the league the following year. Mayor Peter Soulsby said:For too long, people in Leicester have been modest about their achievements and the city they live in. Now – thanks first to the discovery of King Richard III and the Foxes' phenomenal season – it's our time to step into the international limelight. ... It has been said that we are somehow being repaid for burying Richard with honour in our cathedral.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43456720", "title": "Leicester City F.C. in European football", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 556, "text": "Leicester City Football Club is an English football club based in Leicester, Leicestershire. The club was founded in 1884 and has competed in the English football league system since 1894. The 2016–17 UEFA Champions League was their fourth appearance in Europe, following campaigns in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1961–62, and the UEFA Cup in 1997–98 and 2000–01. Leicester have been eliminated by Atlético Madrid on three of their four European appearances. The club have also entered the Anglo-Italian Cup, the Anglo-Scottish Cup and the Texaco Cup.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7207302", "title": "History of Leicester City F.C.", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 340, "text": "This is the history of Leicester City Football Club, based in Leicester, England, the United Kingdom. Having been founded over 100 years ago, for the first time, in the 2015–16 season, Leicester City won the Premier League, with Claudio Ranieri being the manager. Also, in the same season, the team qualified for the UEFA Champions League.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49322280", "title": "Sport in Leicester", "section": "Section::::Football.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1508, "text": "Leicester City have also enjoyed a fair degree of success. In 2016, they became the sixth team to win the Premier League having started the season with odds of 5000 to 1. They have championed the second tier of the English league system on a record seven occasions, competed in the top flight regularly during their history, won three Football League Cups and reached the FA Cup Final four times although they have never won the trophy. In the 2008–09 season they competed in and won League One (third tier), to which they were relegated for the first time. In 2014, they returned to the Premier League after 10 years away. Their current stadium is the King Power Stadium (formerly the Walkers Stadium), situated south of the city centre and near to the site of Filbert Street from which they relocated in 2002 after 111 years. Notable former managers include Jimmy Bloomfield, David Pleat, Brian Little, and Martin O'Neill. Notable former players include Gordon Banks (England's World Cup winning goalkeeper in 1966), Peter Shilton, Frank Worthington, Gary Lineker (the third highest goalscorer of all time for the England team with 48 goals between 1984 and 1992), Alan Smith, Emile Heskey, Neil Lennon, Mark Schwarzer, Simon Grayson and N'Golo Kanté. Notable current players include Kasper Schmeichel, Danny Drinkwater, Wes Morgan, Robert Huth, Jamie Vardy, Andy King, Marc Albrighton, Jeffrey Schlupp, Danny Simpson, Shinji Okazaki, Leonardo Ulloa, Riyad Mahrez, Marcin Wasilewski, and Christian Fuchs. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Antennas are devices that turn radio waves into electrical power (or vice versa). It is possible to harvest energy from ambient electromagnetic radiation, but the amount of power you get is fairly low, usually on the order of a few milliwatts, which can be used to power small electrical devices. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, but not much. Radios work because the passing radio waves induce a current in the receiver, and theoretically, you could extract energy from that.\n\nBut all the energy in radio signals had to be generated somewhere else, so even if you could catch it all, you'd only be getting back what the radio station was putting out.\n\nThe sun doesn't put out too much energy in radio waves, so you'd be much less efficient.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The others have already covered Radio waves to - > electric current. But to answer you second question: any wave up to Gamma waves can be converted directly to energy. But as the wave lengths drop you have to build more finely meshed wafers for them to interact with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What you're talking about is called \"Electromagnetic energy harvesting from ambient radiation sources\":\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt exists. You can harvest energy from all kind of ambient microsources like vibrations, radiowaves, and even the flow of your bodily fluids. Then of course there are the heavy hitters for harvesting like Wind, Solar and Thermal Engines.\n\nHowever, I think you'd be very disappointed in how much energy there actually is in something like ambient radio waves. It obviously depends how close you live to a radio tower but generally you see numbers like tens of microwatts, which is 10,000 times less power than a single incandescent light bulb uses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38822", "title": "Power transmission", "section": "Section::::Electrical power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 212, "text": "Power might also be transmitted by changing electromagnetic fields or by radio waves; microwave energy may be carried efficiently over short distances by a waveguide or in free space via wireless power transfer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9550", "title": "Electricity", "section": "Section::::Concepts.:Electromagnetic wave.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 273, "text": "Thus, the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents, and via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "570662", "title": "Wireless power transfer", "section": "Section::::Far-field (radiative) techniques.:Microwaves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 539, "text": "Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer-distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1406812", "title": "Energy harvesting", "section": "Section::::Devices.:Ambient-radiation sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 382, "text": "A possible source of energy comes from ubiquitous radio transmitters. Historically, either a large collection area or close proximity to the radiating wireless energy source is needed to get useful power levels from this source. The nantenna is one proposed development which would overcome this limitation by making use of the abundant natural radiation (such as solar radiation).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1406812", "title": "Energy harvesting", "section": "Section::::Devices.:Ambient-radiation sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 429, "text": "One idea is to deliberately broadcast RF energy to power and collect information from remote devices: This is now commonplace in passive radio-frequency identification (RFID) systems, but the Safety and US Federal Communications Commission (and equivalent bodies worldwide) limit the maximum power that can be transmitted this way to civilian use. This method has been used to power individual nodes in a wireless sensor network\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15368428", "title": "Radio", "section": "Section::::Radio technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 652, "text": "Radio waves are radiated by electric charges undergoing acceleration. They are generated artificially by time varying electric currents, consisting of electrons flowing back and forth in a metal conductor called an antenna. In transmission, a transmitter generates an alternating current of radio frequency which is applied to an antenna. The antenna radiates the power in the current as radio waves. When the waves strike the antenna of a radio receiver, they push the electrons in the metal back and forth, inducing a tiny alternating current. The radio receiver connected to the receiving antenna detects this oscillating current and amplifies it. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "570662", "title": "Wireless power transfer", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 897, "text": "Wireless power uses the same fields and waves as wireless communication devices like radio, another familiar technology that involves electrical energy transmitted without wires by electromagnetic fields, used in cellphones, radio and television broadcasting, and WiFi. In radio communication the goal is the transmission of information, so the amount of power reaching the receiver is not so important, as long as it is sufficient that the information can be received intelligibly. In wireless communication technologies only tiny amounts of power reach the receiver. In contrast, with wireless power transfer the amount of energy received is the important thing, so the efficiency (fraction of transmitted energy that is received) is the more significant parameter. For this reason, wireless power technologies are likely to be more limited by distance than wireless communication technologies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Interestingly enough, this question coincides with “How was the cow domesticated?”\n\nA little bit of context, the cow (aurochs) before domestication was an absolute brute. They were violent beasts much larger than humans and much larger than the modern cow. So how the heck did it get domesticated???\n\nWell humans didn’t choose to domesticate the cow. It was a symbiotic relationship that developed because both sides learned about the benefits of keeping each other around which develops a tolerance between each other and eventual direct interaction. But that still doesn’t go all the way. Why the heck would humans tolerate such a beast??? (Some surviving documents from Rome/Greece reference the aurochs as an untamable beast. I can track those down if you’re interested. But the aurochs survived until the 1600s while cows were already domesticated.)\n\nSo! If we need them to hang around each other for long enough to realize that they benefit from each other, then what could bring them together in the same place?? WHEAT!\n\nIn Ancient Rome it was punishable by death to let your cows eat from the wheat fields of another farmer... except for certain months of the year. The months of the year where the wheat’s seeds haven’t sprouted yet and we’re just leaves.\n\nWhy? Because the cows would eat the leaves, allowing the wheat to reserve their energy for growing seeds (the substance humans were interested in). This was a practice that was developed well before the cows were domesticated (aurochs at the time), and continued through Rome (recorded in agricultural guides which I can also track down if interested) and the medieval world. \n\nSo to sum it up/tl;dr: A practice of ancient civilizations through the Middle Ages to optimize wheat yields were to have cows eat the leaves off of wheat before the seeds sprouted. This meant the wheat plant would have energy exclusively for growing the seeds which made more larger yields. \n\nSorry for grammar mistakes, I’m at work typing frantically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37738", "title": "Soil", "section": "Section::::History of studies.:Fertility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1287, "text": "Columella's \"Husbandry,\" circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green manure) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Middle Ages, Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam's handbook, with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence. Olivier de Serres, considered as the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations, and he highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His famous book \"Le Théâtre d’Agriculture et mesnage des champs\" contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil improvement (amendment) for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21992152", "title": "Economic history of Europe", "section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Agriculture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 784, "text": "Field crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats; they were used for bread and animal fodder. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as food and as a fodder crop for animals; it also had nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Although the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52992201", "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Productivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 993, "text": "Crop yields in the Middle Ages were extremely low compared to those of the 21st century, although probably not inferior to those in much of the Roman Empire preceding the Middle Ages and the early modern period following the Middle Ages. The most common means of calculating yield was the number of seeds harvested compared to the number of seeds planted. On several manors in Sussex England, for example, the average yield for the years 1350–1399 was 4.34 seeds produced for each seed sown for wheat, 4.01 for barley, and 2.87 for oats. (By contrast, wheat production in the 21st century can total 30 to 40 seeds harvested for each seed sown.) Average yields of grain crops in England from 1250 to 1450 were 7 to 15 bushels per acre (470 to 1000 kg per ha). Poor years, however, might see yields drop to less than 4 bushels per acre. Yields in the 21st century, by contrast, can range upwards to 60 bushels per acre. The yields in England were probably typical for Europe in the Middle Ages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2899597", "title": "History of agriculture", "section": "Section::::Middle Ages and Early Modern.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 726, "text": "Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36858", "title": "Wheat", "section": "Section::::Production and consumption.:Historical factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 400, "text": "Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed) is another 20th-century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three-quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1643390", "title": "Economic history of France", "section": "Section::::Early Modern France.:Renaissance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 616, "text": "Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (Fr. \"pastel\", a source of blue dye), and saffron. The South grew artichokes, melons, romaine lettuce, eggplant, salsifys, celery, fennel, parsley, and alfalfa. After 1500 New World crops appeared such as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation was made worse by repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1358672", "title": "Hula Valley", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 210, "text": "Traditional crops were rice (as early as the Hellenistic period), cotton and sugar cane (brought by the Arabs following their conquest in 636), sorghum and maize (brought after the discovery of the Americas). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Let's consider an RC circuit, with a sinusoidal current. As current flows in one direction, charge will be accumulating on the \"front\" side of the capacitor, while when current flows in the opposite direction, charge will flow off the \"front\" and onto the \"back\" side of the capacitor. Let's call the first direction positive current and the second direction negative current. Let's also take positive voltage for the capacitor to be the case when the \"front\" side of the capacitor has positive charge.\n\nConsider a sinusoidal current, I(t) = I_0 sin(bt).\n\nFor a resistor, the votlage is proportional to the current, so the voltage reaches its maximum when the current does.\n\nFor a resistor, the voltage is proportional to the charge on the \"front\" side of the capacitor. When does this reach a maximum? This charge is increasing as long as I(t) is positive. That means it will be increasing from t=0 right until the point where I(t) reaches 0 again (t=pi/b). Even after I(t) reaches its maximum, the current is positive, so the charge on the \"front\" plate of the capacitor will keep increasing, as will the capacitor's voltage.\n\nIt is only after an additional quarter-cycle after I(t) reaches its maximum that the current reaches 0, and then switches direction, causing the capacitor's voltage to start to decrease. Thus the maximum voltage of the capacitor occurs a quarter-cycle off from when the maximum voltage of the resistor occurs.\n\nA similar effect occurs for inductors, since their voltage goes as dI/dt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "320733", "title": "Impedance matching", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 647, "text": "Impedance is the opposition by a system to the flow of energy from a source. For constant signals, this impedance can also be constant. For varying signals, it usually changes with frequency. The energy involved can be electrical, mechanical, acoustic, magnetic, or thermal. The concept of electrical impedance is perhaps the most commonly known. Electrical impedance, like electrical resistance, is measured in ohms. In general, impedance has a complex value; this means that loads generally have a resistance component (symbol: \"R\") which forms the real part of \"Z\" and a reactance component (symbol: \"X\") which forms the imaginary part of \"Z\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22157108", "title": "Tantalum capacitor", "section": "Section::::Electrical characteristics.:Impedance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 272, "text": "The impedance is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current with both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency in an AC circuit. In this sense impedance is a measure of the ability of the capacitor to attenuate alternating currents and can be used like Ohms law\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "343492", "title": "Electrolytic capacitor", "section": "Section::::Electrical characteristics.:Impedance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 349, "text": "The impedance \"Z\" is the vector sum of reactance and resistance; it describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency. In this sense impedance is a measure of the ability of the capacitor to pass alternating currents and can be used like Ohm's law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44717055", "title": "Aluminum electrolytic capacitor", "section": "Section::::Electrical parameters.:Impedance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 283, "text": "The impedance is the vector sum of reactance and resistance; it describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency in an AC circuit. In this sense impedance can be used like Ohm's law\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45084713", "title": "Impedance analyzer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 437, "text": "An impedance analyzer is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure complex electrical impedance as a function of test frequency. Impedance is an important parameter used to characterize electronic components, electronic circuits, and the materials used to make components. Impedance analysis can also be used to characterize materials exhibiting dielectric behavior such as biological tissue, foodstuffs or geological samples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24559346", "title": "Nominal impedance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 244, "text": "Nominal impedance in electrical engineering and audio engineering refers to the approximate designed impedance of an electrical circuit or device. The term is applied in a number of different fields, most often being encountered in respect of:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27633793", "title": "Impedance analogy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 456, "text": "The impedance analogy is sometimes called the Maxwell analogy after James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) who used mechanical analogies to explain his ideas of electromagnetic fields. However, the term \"impedance\" was not coined until 1886 (by Oliver Heaviside), the idea of complex impedance was introduced by Arthur E. Kennelly in 1893, and the concept of impedance was not extended into the mechanical domain until 1920 by Kennelly and Arthur Gordon Webster.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "baby boomers' kids grew up already so they don't have to worry about them trying pot when they were younger", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It hasn't been sudden, it just hasn't been covered, really. The media would rather see Amanda Bynes' tweet than listen to news anchors try to wrap their heads around legal pot. The battle for MJ legalization has been going on since the beginning of its prohibition. Also, most people associate legal weed with CO, because of stereotypes, and CO usually 'out shines' the new states, focusing more of the attention in them and not the new states.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I wouldn't say that it's been a \"sudden\" change in sentiment. The legalization movement had been gaining traction for quite a while.\n\nTwo big tipping points, however, are probably due to 1) the growing realization that the *War on Drugs* has been one colossal—and expensive—failure, and 2) the nuanced view the Medical establishment has taken on the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes.\n\nEDIT: Several big tipping points!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Suddenly\" isn't how I would put it. Forgetting the path from legality long ago to illegality, the path back to legality starts in the 70s, at least in terms of notably legal changes and/or ballot measures and bills:\n\n1. In 1970, the federal government removed mandatory penalties for weed possession, leaving them in place for \"harder\" drugs. This established a precedent of treating marijuana as \"not like the other drugs\".\n\n2. Oregon decriminalized weed in '73. 4 other states followed suit the next year, and then many others by the end of the '70s. Decriminalization has made it's way through many other states, adding states as recently as a couple of years ago.\n\n3. In 2004, Oakland CA passed laws that made tried to make it it legal, period. In the end, the actual text of the law was written to avoid being struck down and only made it a low priority, but it did setup the framework for taxation of weed - the first time that hit the books anywhere. It acknowledged that it required state-law support to actually move forward on legality.\n\nIf you were to overlay the changes that relate to the _medical_ use of marijuana you'd see a similar trend.\n\nI'd suggest that the \"suddenly\" is a false premise in your question, but...hopefully this info is useful!\n\nedit: correct details of oakland portion, thanks to /u/Sluisifer", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's really nothing sudden about it. In the 80's Nancy Regan was everywhere telling us to Just Say No and DARE was in all the schools, with DARE bumper stickers on tons of cars and lots of kids even wearing the T-shirt. You couldn't even really admit to smoking it to your friends if you were a non-hippie adult, and SWAT teams actually visited people's houses if they were caught growing. Every day on the news there'd be a huge drug bust, although many jurisdictions would weigh the entire plants and say they found that much pot and prosecute accordingly.\n\nIn the 90's it was a little better, a celebrity could openly say pro-pot things and it was shocking, but the backlash wasn't too bad. Clinton got elected after sort-of admitting he'd tried it, but it was a huge campaign issue.\n\nThese days a politician can be openly in favor of marijuana legalization and it's just another issue. Having lived through the 80's in person, it's been a very gradual, but very pleasant change in public attitude. I expect it to continue and even accelerate into a lot more state laws now that Colorado and Washington haven't burned to the ground or ceased to function. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not quite a sudden change. Alaska was the first state to decriminalize it in '74 or '75 (Note: decriminalization isn't the same as weed being legal). There is also the realization that the war on drugs started in the 70s has completely failed to achieve anything except for maybe the militarization of police force and turning neighborhoods against police.\n\nOther countries around the world have already legalized some drugs and many other are voting on it right now like the US. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It wasn't sudden at all.\n\nLegal medical marijuana has been in place since the 1970s, to treat glaucoma. California legalized medical marijuana in 1996, and a number of other states followed, and before the recent elections, nearly half the states had some form of legal marijuana.\n\nDespite dire predictions, there hasn't been much social downside to medical marijuana, even though it often a ruse for recreational use. People in the four legalization states have had well over a decade of medical marijuana to update their sentiments about full legalization.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This has been happening gradually for years. Legalization measures have failed in some states recently too. I think the main changes in the past ten years are:\n\n1. A growing acknowledgement that the war on drugs is a failure.\n2. The growth in influence of the libertarian wing of the Republican party.\n3. Now there are examples of states that have legalized without the sky falling.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Recently there have been a number of studies that have concluded that drug legalization really results in fewer problems, along with a number of former high ranking law enforcement officers coming out and stating that they don't think marijuana enforcement is a good idea, along with a smattering of current-day high ranking law enforcement officers.\n\nIn addition, I think that there's a growing feeling that throwing people in jail over marijuana is contributing substantially to high levels of people in prison (which costs us money), and that police enforcement actions around marijuana actually create more danger to the public. \n\nPut all that together, and you have a climate which is ripe for change.\n\nThe other side of the coin, resisting the change is pretty much the government itself; the 80s and 90s rise of the \"war on drugs\" was riding a wave of higher crime that politicians and law enforcement probably legitimately believed was tied to drug use. Since then, crime rates have fallen substantially.\n\nAt this point, we've got a pretty good idea of what actually caused the higher crime rates; lead poisoning. _URL_0_\n\nSo, we're dealing with a generation of politicians and law enforcement that were came through a time that believed we need(ed) to crack down on drugs in order to reduce crime, along with the issue that we've literally torn up foreign countries in the name of our \"war on drugs\", so politically there will be a lot of ill-will surrounding a reversal of policy, along with the usual folks who got their ideas set in their heads and aren't open to changing what they think. The other issue is that the Republican party is quite thoroughly in bed with the \"moral minority\", so anything which even has a scent of a moral issue, the republicans must take the side of the issue which lines up which lines up with what I'd term \"simplistic morality\".\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "2 main points:\n\n1) The millenials (1980 - 1999) are roughly the same size of the Boomer generation and the vast majority are able to vote now. Younger people tend to vote more liberally.\n\n2) The Oxycotin epidemic - Oxy is legal but far more addictive than MJ, many people with chronic pain are now afraid to take Oxy and need an alternative.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "i think at least partially because people actually thought about the \"gateway drug\" idea and realized it was nonsense\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think another strong factor is probably been seeing how much tax revenue it's bringing in in the states where it is already legal. I think Colorado's tax revenue just from Marijuana was something like 10 times higher than they had estimated.\n\nDon't quote me on that though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Could it also be that the next step for these states could be like Colorado, where there will be real implications on taxes to grow and distribute, helping fund programs that are state run? I'm sure if Colorado can fund Medicaid, there will be a \"weed depot\" on the corner of every street in America within three months ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because More Voters want to get High rather than Drunk and See Marijuana as less dangerous than alcohol.\n\nMost rhetoric revolves around \"It is for medical Purposes\"\nBut from what I really have seen as the Truth is that People want to be able to Get high without fear of arrest.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While there is some gray area like medical marijuana, legality is pretty much binary. It's legal or its not. The gradual change was the % of people who supported flipping that binary switch. They were in the minority but their numbers slowly grew and grew until they were over 50% and the law was changed. \n\nUnless you're in FL, and the measure gets 58% and still loses because of the stupid fucking 60% requirement for amendments in this state despite us just electing our governor with on 48% of the vote! Gah!!!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Three states? I'm missing something. I thought it was only recreationally legal in CO and WA, is there another state? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because we've been arguing about the topic for 40 years now. And the old people that were against it are out of office now and younger politicians who grew up around it are taking over. Drug war is over, we lost, legalize it and let's move one with our lives.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was not sudden, we just had elections and voting day. The legalization was on the ballots in those states. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think there have also been a few studies that demonstrate that marijuana use is not the \"gateway drug\" that it was thought to be as well as it not causing as many deaths as tobacco and alcohol have caused. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Marijuana legalization is in the plurality in the US. Also tellingly young people are in favor, while older people are not. Less old people and more young.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tipping points. To give you a future example, in a couple decades Texas will \"suddenly\" be very blue because the Mexican-American and Central American population will hit a tipping point of swaying elections. See also, gay marriage going from on the defense to seemingly impossible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For a long time ballot initiatives would never get passed the petitioning stage. Largely because of the voting population being against it and the war on drugs creating a fear based environment around the concept.\n\nNow the the war on drugs is proving to be useless, and as @goodsam2 points out, with the rising young population in favor, and declining older population against, the balance has turned.\n\nAdditionally, with states like Colorado spearheading both legal and recreational use with a (relatively) well regulated system, other states have brought back initiatives.\n\nFurthermore, Colorado is doing well financially due to the taxes generated by the industry. Other states, who are probably dealing with their own forms of financial issues, look to it as a way to raise money. Once money is on the table, it becomes a harder and harder issues to defeat. Look at alcohol.\n\nAnd finally, the current Presidential administration has become more lax about their approach to marijuana because it's seen as a drain on resources. This lax position makes it easier for states to take on the risks of engaging medical and rec. marijuana.\n\nEDIT: Grammers", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure about Washington, but Colorado made a shit ton of money taxing the hell out if it. People will vote the law in because they either like pot, like the State profiting from pot, and/or people know a way to make money off the the legalized pot.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cigarettes ain't bringing in the money they used to. Soon enough, if not already, you'll have more pot smokers than cigarette smokers. Add to that the war on drugs never really working anyway, and if people throw in the towel at the local/state level - its not like the feds can do anything anyway. \n\nImagine the backlash if the feds decided to go crazy on pot and enforce federal laws in Washington and Colorado and nowhere else.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A major catalyst was easier accesability to good internet. Back in the mid 2000s the legalization movement gained major traction with the aid of younger users and social media connectivity. The ambiguity of online persona as well as a younger user base really helped closet legalization advocates come out and join forces, as well as acquire a new staging ground for the cause. The internet also helped to gather and pin point legitimate evidence to support legalization. It's makes for a good case for researchers in mass comm to take a look at.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live in Oregon where we just legalized. I live in Portland. Portland has the most people so we basically make the rules for the state. Seriously, the rest of Oregon is definitely not as liberal as Portland. Anyways, medical has been legal for awhile and our neighbor Washington legalized so there was a big push this year. I saw tons of people on the street campaigning petitions just to get it on the ballot. Well they made it! Then it was up to us to vote! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My dad and I smoke all the time. My dad is a medical professional and an Army veteran. My brother and I are both Army Infantry veterans.\n\nSome talking points: \n\nMy brother has PTSD pretty bad. A few years ago he tried to OD on pain killers. He was drunk. Because WA legalized marijuana, he doesn't drink anymore. He smokes a bowl and chills out, and doesn't quite hit those same \"lows\" as he did when he was drinking. There is some legitimacy to the thought that marijuana has medical uses for all sorts of different conditions. For guys like my brother, marijuana has made a pretty massive psychiatric impact in that he doesn't turn to pills or alcohol that come with their own side effects because marijuana is easily available and does *just enough* to take his mind off of things. Other people have experienced success treating symptoms of terrible diseases like cancer through marijuana. That's not to say \"Marijuana cures cancer!\" but more indirectly that marijuana enables chemotherapy patients to retain their appetite, which helps their overall health while their body deals with the tremendous strain of chemo and cancer. That's just one example. \n\nAlso, age has a lot to do with it. My dad was born in 1960. He grew up smoking weed, along with the rest of his buddies. We live in a time where a generation of former potheads have grown up and are running things now. They know all the silly negative myths that have been circulated around marijuana, and through first hand experience with marijuana know that those scare tactics are largely bullshit. \n\nIt's been a long time coming.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of people are giving you a good answer that it wasn't \"sudden\". To further expand on that, Seattle is a good example.\n\nSeattle has tolerated marijuana for many years now. [Seattle's Hempfest](_URL_0_) has been around since 1991. The organizers, police, and city has largely tolerated the entire ordeal, including lots of people openly smoking. Essentially the police hired to provide security didn't enforce marijuana laws at Hempfest because it wouldn't actually provide a service to the city and it wasn't feasible. Hempfest was sort of a symbol for views toward the drug in general. Seattle just didn't find it a big enough deal to worry about if people were getting high.\n\nIt was also many years ago that Seattle officially made marijuana possession the last priority for law enforcement. This meant that cops were literally supposed to stop a jaywalker before someone smoking a joint. This was also done because it wouldn't provide a good enough public service and it wasn't feasible with the culture.\n\nThis general culture spread to the surrounding areas. The entire Puget Sound region has been very tolerant for years now and it developed a pretty stable, mature attitude towards it. Furthermore, medicinal marijuana was around for years.\n\nWhen it came time to vote a couple of years ago it passed because the majority of the voting public lived in this region, and was just the next logical step.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you knew your kid was smoking pot, would you want him risk facing federal charges? Or if you ever smoke pot, would you want to live with the guilt of being a felon? It's not a big deal and people have come to a consensus about the subject, a miraculous thing society does when it functions properly. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Generally it's not a huge change in sentiment. It's unbelievable how many people are for/smoke marijuana. This is the government finally relenting to the wishes of the people, on if in a few small ways.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First, the legalization activists collect signatures from eligible voters to be put the onto a state wide ballot. If they gather enough signatures the question is put to voters. An elected politician can also introduce the question but very few politicians do this. So signature gathering it is. Campaign funding is vital and the more funding a campaign has, the more signatures it can gather. The bar is different for each state, but it usually falls around > 100000 people. \n\nOnce on the ballot, a majority need to approve for it to become law.\n\nAs for changing attitudes, the internet has provided new information on drugs, which is easily accessible for curious googlers. State propaganda has always cast marijuana into a negative light by making false claims about its harm but google results aren't state propaganda. \n\nOne example is the lie that \"marijuana causes brain damage\" so people see through the lies and realize that the truth is nobody has even died from cannabis overdose. \n\nA few years ago California led the way with prop 19. it failed because it only got ~45% of the vote.\n\nBut Colorado and Washington approves the laws in their states shortly after.\n\nAnd finally, yesterday two more states, and DC, also approved the question with majorities. \n\nHope this helps. If you have any more questions or my response needs clarified, let me know. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because marijuana laws are bullshit and the vast majority of people have wanted decriminalization for decades? It just takes a very long time for the government to actually catch up to and listen to the will of the people.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We have decided to lock this thread, as most of the new comments are limited to jokes and non-explanations, as well as the fact that proper explanations have already been given.\nAs always, we'd like to remind you to read the sidebar if you haven't already.\n > Direct replies to the original post (aka \"top-level comments\") are for serious responses only. Jokes, anecdotes, and low effort explanations, are not permitted and subject to removal.\n\nDon't forget that if you have any concerns, you can feel free to reach us at our modmail [here](_URL_0_).\n\nBest regards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "218449", "title": "Illegal drug trade", "section": "Section::::Trade in specific drugs.:Cannabis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 238, "text": "Some studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175440", "title": "Medical cannabis", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 415, "text": "Cannabis began to attract renewed interest as medicine in the 1970s and 1980s, in particular due to its use by cancer and AIDS patients who reported relief from the effects of chemotherapy and wasting syndrome. In 1996, California became the first U.S. state to legalize medical cannabis in defiance of federal law. In 2001, Canada became the first country to adopt a system regulating the medical use of cannabis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56078060", "title": "History of cannabis", "section": "Section::::Liberalizing and legalizing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 415, "text": "Cannabis began to attract renewed interest as medicine in the 1970s and 1980s, in particular due to its use by cancer and AIDS patients who reported relief from the effects of chemotherapy and wasting syndrome. In 1996, California became the first U.S. state to legalize medical cannabis in defiance of federal law. In 2001, Canada became the first country to adopt a system regulating the medical use of cannabis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20566488", "title": "Cannabis in the United States", "section": "Section::::Polling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 320, "text": "Attitudes regarding marijuana regulation changed as some states (Colorado, Washington, Oregon, Maine, and Alaska) passed their own laws legalizing marijuana for recreational use. According to a Gallup Poll published in December 2012, 64% of Americans believe the federal government should not intervene in these states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37646421", "title": "Timeline of cannabis laws in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 517, "text": "The legal history of cannabis in the United States began with state-level prohibition in the early 20th century, with the first major federal limitations occurring in 1937. Starting with Oregon in 1973, individual states began to liberalize cannabis laws through decriminalization. In 1996, California became the first state to legalize medical cannabis, sparking a trend that spread to a majority of states by 2016. In 2012, Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalize cannabis for recreational use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2580053", "title": "Regulatory capture", "section": "Section::::Examples.:United States examples.:Washington State Liquor Control Board and I-502.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 409, "text": "Some commentators have acknowledged that while Washington Initiative 502 \"legalized\" marijuana, it did so in a manner that led to a state-run monopoly on legal marijuana stores with prices far above that of the existing medical dispensaries, which the State is now trying to close down in favor of the recreational stores, where prices are two to five times higher than the product can be obtained elsewhere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22707918", "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States", "section": "Section::::State policy.:Early laws (late 1970s and early 80s).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1222, "text": "Due to increasing public awareness of the medical benefits of cannabis, and in anticipation of forthcoming changes to federal policy, a number of states passed laws in the late 1970s and early 1980s addressing the medical use of cannabis. New Mexico was the first to do so in 1978, and by the end of 1982 over thirty states had followed suit. The majority of these laws sought to provide cannabis through federally-approved research programs administered by the states, using cannabis supplied by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Only seven states ended up implementing the programs, however, due to the large bureaucratic and regulatory obstacles imposed by the federal government. Other states passed legislation allowing doctors to prescribe cannabis, or reclassifying cannabis in a state's internal drug scheduling system. These laws were largely ineffectual though, due to the continued prohibition of medical cannabis at the federal level. A few states passed laws affirming the right of individuals to present a medical necessity defense at trial. By the mid-80s, however, efforts to pass new medical cannabis laws had ground to a halt, and a number of existing laws were either repealed or allowed to expire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are multiple techniques to avoid this. \n\nThe first one that comes to mind is only activating one gamete at a time. A plant may choose to do it in 6 month cycles, say 6 months of pollen release with stigma closed and then 6 months of stigma open with pollen not being released (in actual fact the time will probably be less than this but you get the point).\n\nPlants also have chemical markers on their pollen and chemical receptors on the stamen. The plant is able to recognize self from non-self and reject the self pollen. There is only a finite amount of chemical markers so plants will often reject foreign pollen because it has an identical marker. \n\nPlants do not have to avoid pollinating themselves all the time. In cases where there is fewer potential 'mates' self pollination is a great idea. There are many plant species that do not mate at all and in effect produce clones of themselves with no real genetic diversity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Plants don't usually pollinate themselves because they are resistant to the enzyme in their own pollen grains that would normally help it bore into the stigma.Probably the most common method to prevent self-pollinaion is self-incompatibility. The plant can recognize its own pollen because of a gene it carries. Pollen from the same plant is unable to fertilize an egg.\n\nHowever species such as rice, wheat, tomato and \npea are naturally self-pollinating.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "407234", "title": "Self-pollination", "section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 841, "text": "Few plants self-pollinate without the aid of pollen vectors (such as wind or insects). The mechanism is seen most often in some legumes such as peanuts. In another legume, soybeans, the flowers open and remain receptive to insect cross pollination during the day. If this is not accomplished, the flowers self-pollinate as they are closing. Among other plants that can self-pollinate are many kinds of orchids, peas, sunflowers and tridax. Most of the self-pollinating plants have small, relatively inconspicuous flowers that shed pollen directly onto the stigma, sometimes even before the bud opens. Self-pollinated plants expend less energy in the production of pollinator attractants and can grow in areas where the kinds of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or very scarce—as in the Arctic or at high elevations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6161213", "title": "Pollination syndrome", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Advantages of generalization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 383, "text": "Pollinators fluctuate in abundance and activity independently of their plants, and any one species may fail to pollinate a plant in a particular year. Thus a plant may be at an advantage if it attracts several species or types of pollinators, ensuring pollen transfer every year. Many species of plants have the back-up option of self-pollination, if they are not self-incompatible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "407234", "title": "Self-pollination", "section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 302, "text": "Self-pollination limits the variety of progeny and may depress plant vigor. However, self-pollination can be advantageous, allowing plants to spread beyond the range of suitable pollinators or produce offspring in areas where pollinator populations have been greatly reduced or are naturally variable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9940234", "title": "Tomato", "section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Pollination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 1029, "text": "This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants (one brand of vibrator is a wand called an \"electric bee\" that is used manually), or more often today, by cultured bumblebees. The anther of a tomato flower is shaped like a hollow tube, with the pollen produced within the structure, rather than on the surface, as in most species. The pollen moves through pores in the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of externally-induced motion. The ideal vibratory frequencies to release pollen grains are provided by an insect, such as a bumblebee, or the original wild halictid pollinator, capable of engaging in a behavior known as buzz pollination, which honey bees cannot perform. In an outdoors setting, wind or animals usually provide sufficient motion to produce commercially viable crops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246940", "title": "Malvaceae", "section": "Section::::Description.:Pollination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 249, "text": "Self-pollination is often avoided by means of protandry. Most species are entomophilous (pollinated by insects). Bees from the tribe Emphorini of the Apidae (including \"Ptilothrix\", \"Diadasia\", and \"Melitoma\") are known to specialize on the plants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "233609", "title": "Pollination", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 281, "text": "Pollination also requires consideration of pollenizers, the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are \"self-compatible\" (\"self-fertile\") and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to self-pollination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "745028", "title": "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "section": "Section::::Technical resources.:Plants and animals.:Insects and pollinators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 941, "text": "Pollination by insects plays a huge role in the production of food crop and flowering plants. Without pollinators searching for nectar and pollen for food the plants would not produce a seed that will create another plant. NRCS sees the importance of this process so they are taking measures to increase the declining number of pollinators. There are many resources provided from the NRCS that will help any individual do their part in conservation of these important insects. Such as Backyard Conservation which tells an individual exactly how to help by just creating a small habitat in minutes. There are many others such as: Plants for pollinators, pollinators habitat in pastures, pollinator value of NRCS plant releases in conservation planting, plant materials publications relating to insects and pollinators, PLANTS database: NRCS pollinator documents. All of these are valuable resources that any individual can take advantage of.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Toothpaste isn't a liquid. It's a paste. And the easiest way to dispense a thicker substance like that is in a tube you can squeeze. Also, nobody needs a 1L carton of toothpaste. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The paper in cartons has a plastic coating on it. It used to be wax.\n\nToothpaste tubes wouldn't be durable enough if made of the same material.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, in the specific case of toothpaste, a paper container wouldn't be as convenient for getting it out. Current toothpaste containers make it easy to squeeze it out. Toothpaste in plastic containers is runnier, not as pasty as tube toothpaste, but it still squeezes out.\n\nAlso, I think we \"handle\" toothpaste more than liquids in paper cartons, so we need something more durable than paper. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "698858", "title": "Carton", "section": "Section::::Types of cartons.:Aseptic carton.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 823, "text": "Cartons for liquids can be fabricated from laminates of liquid packaging board, foil, and polyethylene. Most are based on either Tetra Pak or SIG Combibloc systems. One option is to have the printed laminate supplied on a roll. The carton is cut, scored, and formed at the packager. A second option is to have the pre-assembled tubes delivered to the packager for completion and filling. These are suited for aseptic processing and are used for milk, soup, juice, etc. Paperboard-based cartons are lighter compared to a similarly-sized steel can, but are more difficult to recycle. Some open-loop recycling operations pelletize or flatten ground-up cartons for use in building materials; closed-loop recycling is possible by separating the layers before processing, though some recyclers only recycle the cardboard fibers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "698858", "title": "Carton", "section": "Section::::Materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 416, "text": "Cartons can be made from many materials: paperboard, duplex, white kraft, recycled and many more various plastics, or a composite. Some are \"food grade\" for direct contact with foods. Many cartons are made out of a single piece of paperboard. Depending on the need, this paperboard can be waxed or coated with polyethylene to form a moisture barrier. This may serve to contain a liquid product or keep a powder dry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3671404", "title": "Ruben Rausing", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 504, "text": "At the time, non-carbonated drinks such as milk and juices were sold in heavy and cumbersome glass bottles and Rausing was determined to find a way of implementing the new, modern packaging technology, spending a lot of resources on developing new concepts. With the aim of producing a carton container for liquid foods, similar to the hygienic and practical wax-coated paper cartons Rausing had seen overseas, Åkerlund & Rausing created the plastic-coated carton tetrahedron, patented on 27 March 1944.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10714509", "title": "Plastic cup", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 251, "text": "Plastic cups are often used for gatherings where it would be inconvenient to wash dishes afterward, due to factors such as location or number of guests. Plastic cups can be used for storing most liquids, but hot liquids may melt or warp the material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37411634", "title": "GreenBottle", "section": "Section::::Compared to laminated cartons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 328, "text": "The laminated carton was among the most innovative developments in packaging over the last 60 years. Laminated cartons are made from layers of paper board fused with a plastic lining containing a small amount of aluminium. The packaging can keep liquids fresh over long distances and periods of time, locked within a safe seal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2138217", "title": "Low-density polyethylene", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 226, "text": "BULLET::::- Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and LDPE (as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of aluminum foil (thus becoming aseptic packaging).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5652480", "title": "Fishcake", "section": "Section::::Packaging and labeling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 263, "text": "If carton is used in packaging it is usually are made up of solid white cardboard,paper or chipboard.The material used is then coated with wax, plastic or aluminium foil. The manufacturers then have the option to freeze, defrost or vacuum package it. (Picture 2)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A compound is a substance where one part gives electrons and the other part takes them (this is very simplified).\n \nMetals tend to give them up and non-metals want to take them. \n \nSo two metals both have extra electrons and they do not want to take more.\n \nThe reason is that when the electrons (- charge) and protons (+ charge) balance out to zero, the result is a stable molecule.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They do, we just call them alloys, and they use metallic bonding, where electrons are shared in kind of a big sheet which electrons can move around at-will, rather than covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between a limited number of specific atoms.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can answer this and I made an account because I really wanted to answer this!\n\nI'm a metallurgists, basically a metals engineer and I work at a steel factory. Metals are unique in that they don't make up what people think of as \"normal\" compounds. But they do make substances with other metals. A lot of people think this is because of metals only taking electrons, but this is a misconception. Metals, more or less, share electrons, kind of like CO2, but it's a weaker bond. \n\nThis is how stronger steels are created. Steel is mostly iron and carbon, but in order to get things like stainless steel, you have to add elements like chrome or nickel. And to make them stronger, you add thing like titanium or aluminum. The way steels get stronger, in this case with nickel and titanium additions, is that the nickel and titanium form a compound known as an intermettalic phase (or compound) that is Ni3Ti. It happens with aluminum Niobium, Cobalt, and other elements too. Some things, like lead solder or even gold, are compounds. Lead solder is actually lead and tin and gold is typically gold and copper (the karats deal with purity I'm gold. So the higher the karats, the purer, and less alloyed, it is). All of these compounds need a lot of energy to form. Which is why it typically only happens during melting or at high temperatures of < 800F°.\n\nTL;DR. Metal does compound with other metals. It just needs the another metal that will be able to form something with it at a high enough temperature.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38452", "title": "Oxidation state", "section": "Section::::History of the oxidation state concept.:Use in nomenclature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 719, "text": "When it was realized that some metals form two different binary compounds with the same nonmetal, the two compounds were often distinguished by using the ending \"-ic\" for the higher metal oxidation state and the ending \"-ous\" for the lower. For example, FeCl is ferric chloride and FeCl is ferrous chloride. This system is not very satisfactory (although sometimes still used) because different metals have different oxidation states which have to be learned: ferric and ferrous are +3 and +2 respectively, but cupric and cuprous are +2 and +1, and stannic and stannous are +4 and +2. Also there was no allowance for metals with more than two oxidation states, such as vanadium with oxidation states +2, +3, +4 and +5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35802855", "title": "Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Metals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 227, "text": "Metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form mixtures (alloys) when combined with other metals; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1187", "title": "Alloy", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1451, "text": "Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen, increasing the chances of contamination from any contacting surface, thus requires vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper crucibles in order to melt it. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron (liquid-gas), nitriding, carbonitriding or other forms of case hardening (solid-gas), or the cementation process used to make blister steel (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding (solid-solid), shear steel (solid-solid), or crucible steel production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state diffusion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1187", "title": "Alloy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1482, "text": "An alloy is a combination of metals or a combination of one or more metals with non-metallic elements. For example, combining the metallic elements gold and copper produces red gold, gold and silver becomes white gold, and silver combined with copper produces sterling silver. Elemental iron, combined with non-metallic carbon or silicon, produces alloys called steel or silicon steel. The resulting mixture forms a substance with properties that often differ from those of the pure metals, such as increased strength or hardness. Unlike other substances that may contain metallic bases but do not behave as metals, such as aluminium oxide (sapphire), beryllium aluminium silicate (emerald) or sodium chloride (salt), an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, opaqueness, and luster. Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium-alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze and amalgams.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23053", "title": "Periodic table", "section": "Section::::Grouping methods.:Metals, metalloids and nonmetals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 551, "text": "According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than noble gases). A majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1187", "title": "Alloy", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1289, "text": "Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a saturation point, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the otheri However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19838", "title": "Metallic bonding", "section": "Section::::Solubility and compound formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1209, "text": "Metals are insoluble in water or organic solvents unless they undergo a reaction with them. Typically this is an oxidation reaction that robs the metal atoms of their itinerant electrons, destroying the metallic bonding. However metals are often readily soluble in each other while retaining the metallic character of their bonding. Gold, for example, dissolves easily in mercury, even at room temperature. Even in solid metals, the solubility can be extensive. If the structures of the two metals are the same, there can even be complete solid solubility, as in the case of electrum, the alloys of silver and gold. At times, however, two metals will form alloys with different structures than either of the two parents. One could call these materials metal compounds, but, because materials with metallic bonding are typically not molecular, Dalton's law of integral proportions is not valid and often a range of stoichiometric ratios can be achieved. It is better to abandon such concepts as 'pure substance' or 'solute' is such cases and speak of phases instead. The study of such phases has traditionally been more the domain of metallurgy than of chemistry, although the two fields overlap considerably.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It doesn't exactly \"block\" anything.\n\nWhat it does is it darkens the reflection of light off your own face into your eyes. If you're looking into sunlight, the brightness of your own cheekbones below your eyes causes glare that can be distracting. It sounds absurd, \"glare off my own face? Wtf\", until you actually try it sometime. You get a noticeable increase in visibility when looking into the sun if you have eyeblack under your eyes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31054937", "title": "Canceled NFL games", "section": "Section::::2016 Hall of Fame Game.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 821, "text": "Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, officials discovered the logos at midfield and in the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on the newly installed FieldTurf. Subsequently, the paint had not fully dried, and officials heated the field to speed up the drying process, causing the turf's rubber to melt; the affected areas were described as being slick and \"like cement,\" making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying paint thinner to the turf, but a Packers employee noticed a label warning that the paint thinner could result in severe burns when exposed to skin, and alerted them to the discovery. When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331752", "title": "Pterygium (conjunctiva)", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 519, "text": "As it is associated with excessive sun or wind exposure, wearing protective sunglasses with side shields and/or wide brimmed hats and using artificial tears throughout the day may help prevent their formation or stop further growth. Surfers and other water-sport athletes should wear eye protection that blocks 100% of the UV rays from the water, as is often used by snow-sport athletes. Many of those who are at greatest risk of pterygium from work or play sun exposure do not understand the importance of protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "294419", "title": "Sunscreen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 375, "text": "Sunscreen, also known as sunblock, is a lotion, spray, gel, foam (such as an expanded foam lotion or whipped lotion), stick or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation and thus helps protect against sunburn. Diligent use of sunscreen can also slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles, moles and sagging skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187603", "title": "Rashomon", "section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 445, "text": "\"Rashomon\" had camera shots that were directly into the sun. Kurosawa wanted to use natural light, but it was too weak; they solved the problem by using a mirror to reflect the natural light. The result makes the strong sunlight look as though it has traveled through the branches, hitting the actors. The rain in the scenes at the gate had to be tinted with black ink because camera lenses could not capture the water pumped through the hoses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11814346", "title": "Automotive paint", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 238, "text": "Automotive paint is paint used on automobiles for both protection and decoration purposes. Water-based acrylic polyurethane enamel paint is currently the most widely used paint for reasons including reducing paint's environmental impact.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "525023", "title": "Lecithin", "section": "Section::::Properties and applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 590, "text": "BULLET::::- In the paint industry, it forms protective coatings for surfaces with painting and printing ink, has antioxidant properties, helps as a rust inhibitor, is a colour-intensifying agent, catalyst, conditioning aid modifier, and dispersing aid; it is a good stabilizing and suspending agent, emulsifier, and wetting agent, helps in maintaining uniform mixture of several pigments, helps in grinding of metal oxide pigments, is a spreading and mixing aid, prevents hard settling of pigments, eliminates foam in water-based paints, and helps in fast dispersion of latex-based paints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23134898", "title": "Anti-graffiti coating", "section": "Section::::Types of coatings.:Permanent coatings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 634, "text": "Fluorinated coatings are some of the most effective in the field of graffiti prevention. Fluorine is the most electronegative element, meaning that it shows very little affinity for the electrons of other elements. When fluorine is attached to a surface it will decrease surface energy at the interface, minimizing the contact with the graffiti paint. For the same reason that a Teflon-coated pan repels both water and oil, a fluorinated coating will repel water and oil-based paints. These coatings also have the added benefit of being chemically inert as well as very durable. They are also expensive and can be difficult to apply.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a pretty broad question and there is no hard and fast rule for every aspect of your question. One of the chief concerns for a Roman soldier was booty, particularly during the Republican when such booty would make up the majority of their pay during their soldierly career. The types of deprivations inflicted upon a city were going to be based on highly complex factors. Sometimes a city was not sacked, other times it was. Sometimes that sack was orderly, often times it was not. In general, if a city was to be sacked, a commander would grant his men leave to basically be scoundrels, and sometimes this played out with horror. \n\nSo, let's begin:\n\n > What happened to people inside the city\nA quote from Polybius:\n\n > The incidents of the capture of Corinth were melancholy. The soldiers cared nothing for the works of art and the consecrated statues. I saw with my own eyes pictures thrown on the ground and soldiers playing dice on them; among them was a picture of Dionysus by Aristeides---in reference to which they say that the proverbial saying arose, \"Nothing to the Dionysus,\"---and the Hercules tortured by the shirt of Deianeira. . .\n\nThe holy places of even your enemy had power and deserved respect in the ancient world, so to treat them with such disrespect was as sacrilege and brutish as it gets. The fate of the Corinthians was not particularly pleasant either of course. According to Diodorus Siculus\n\n > This was the city that, to the dismay of later ages, was now wiped out by her conquerors. Nor was it only at the time of her downfall that Corinth evoked great compassion from those that saw her; even in later times, when they saw the city leveled to the ground, all who looked upon her were moved to pity. p443No traveller passing by but wept, though he beheld but a few scant relics of her past prosperity and glory. Wherefore in ancient times, nearly a hundred years later, Gaius Iulius Caesar (who for his great deeds was entitled divus), after viewing the site restored the city.\n\nSo this city lay in ruins for a century before being rebuilt. For the record, Corinth was basically sacked to the ground, with all women and children carried off into slavery. Those that were not enslaved were slaughtered. The Romans could be quite brutal. You'll note from the writings here that even they were quite shocked by what occurred in Corinth, and it could be called a bit of an over-reaction. It did serve a purpose though, which was to put the Greek (and Mediterranean world) on notice that to challenge Rome wouldn't mean you would be conquered, it meant you would be annihilated. Twenty years earlier during the Third Macedonian War, Epirus had seen a reported 150,000 people enslaved, and was devastated to such a point that centuries later it was noted that what had once been a highly populated state was still barren and empty.\n\n > what happened to soldiers and officers still alive\n\nGenerally, common soldiers were slaughtered at worst and enslaved at best. Leaders would be spared for a triumph, which would see them paraded in Rome in chains before being strangled. This is assuming they didn't commit suicide to avoid such shame.\n\n > what happened to commerce, trade and daily routine in the city\n\nWe can assume that if a city was destroyed, such commerce would end. However, in many cases, as with Corinth, the city itself occupied a position that was valuable (thus explaining the existence of the city in the first place). Both Corinth and Carthage would be rebuilt and occupied near or on top of their former sites as Roman colonies. If the city remained unsacked and simply surrendered, we can assume trade would continue (as it did for Carthage after the second Punic War).\n\n > How long would the Romans stay in a city, is there a reason to raise the city, or keep the city?\n\nThis depended entirely on the period and the situation within the city. During the Republican Period, particularly prior to the integration of the provinces after the sacks of Corinth and Carthage, permanent Roman garrisons were not a common thing. Roman policy was designed not around direct occupation and control during these years, but around force projection and client states/tribes. Tribes were expected to police themselves, and when they didn't, incidents like Corinth would occur to set the rest straight. Sometimes it worked, sometimes it didn't. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35707", "title": "546", "section": "Section::::Events.:By place.:Byzantine Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 368, "text": "BULLET::::- December 17 – Sack of Rome: After almost a year's siege, the capture of a grain fleet sent by the exiled Pope Vigilius near the mouth of the Tiber, and failure of troops of the Byzantine Empire under Belisarius to relieve the city, the Ostrogoths under King Totila plunder Rome and destroy its fortifications. He then withdraws to Apulia (Southern Italy).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3162376", "title": "Sack of Rome (410)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 478, "text": "The Sack of Rome occurred on 24 August 410 AD. The city was attacked by the Visigoths led by King Alaric. At that time, Rome was no longer the capital of the Western Roman Empire, having been replaced in that position first by Mediolanum in 286 and then by Ravenna in 402. Nevertheless, the city of Rome retained a paramount position as \"the eternal city\" and a spiritual center of the Empire. The sack was a major shock to contemporaries, friends and foes of the Empire alike.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "676377", "title": "Sack of Rome (1527)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 331, "text": "The Sack of Rome on 6 May 1527 was a military event carried out in Rome (then part of the Papal States) by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. It marked a crucial imperial victory in the conflict between Charles and the League of Cognac (1526–1529)—the alliance of France, Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papacy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21967718", "title": "History of Rome", "section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.:Roman Empire.:Germanic invasions and collapse of the Western Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 800, "text": "This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to an enemy. The previous sack of Rome had been accomplished by the Gauls under their leader Brennus in 387 BC. The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that \"The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken.\" These sackings of the city astonished all the Roman world. In any case, the damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population already started to decline from the late 4th century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire, with a population of not less than 650,000 inhabitants. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3162376", "title": "Sack of Rome (410)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 394, "text": "This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy. The previous sack of Rome had been accomplished by the Gauls under their leader Brennus in 390 or 387/6 BC. The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote; \"the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57511894", "title": "Sack of Bostra", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 270, "text": "The sack of the city was shortly followed by the subjugation of Arabia and Judea, and later a full invasion of Egypt, and is the first in the string of events which ended in open rebellion against the Roman Empire and the declaration of an independent Palmyrene Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3162376", "title": "Sack of Rome (410)", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 580, "text": "The sack was a culmination of many terminal problems facing the Western Roman Empire. Domestic rebellions and usurpations weakened the Empire in the face of external invasions. These factors would permanently harm the stability of the Roman Empire in the west. The Roman army meanwhile became increasingly barbarian and disloyal to the Empire. A more severe sack of Rome by the Vandals followed in 455, and the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed in 476 when the Germanic Odovacer removed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and declared himself King of Italy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The heat relaxes your muscles. When you're sore your muscles are cramped, stiff and or sensitive. The heat counteracts those symptoms. Often you don't even realize that some of your muscles are cramped until you take a bath. \n\nI found this really nice article about it; [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2467826", "title": "Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis", "section": "Section::::Treatments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 563, "text": "Showers or compresses using hot (but not scalding) water can relieve itching for up to several hours, though this \"also taxes the skin's integrity, opening pores and generally making it more vulnerable\", and is only useful for secondary treatment (not for cleaning urushiol from the skin, which should be done with cold water). People who have had a prior systemic reaction may be able to prevent subsequent exposure from turning systemic by avoiding heat and excitation of the circulatory system and applying moderate cold to any infected skin with biting pain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3816564", "title": "Sitz bath", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 372, "text": "Warm baths are recommended for reducing the itching, pain and discomfort associated with conditions such as hemorrhoids and genital problems. An ordinary bathtub can be filled with of hot water (about ), and sat in for 15–20 minutes or until the water cools down. Alternatively, a large basin can be used, and there are specially built devices that fit into toilet bowls.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2134539", "title": "Aquagenic pruritus", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 494, "text": "Since the cause of the condition cannot be fully avoided in all cases, treatment is usually focused on topical itch management. This can be effected by the application of antipruritic lotions or creams, using phototherapy, or the application of hot or cold packs to the skin after water contact. Paradoxically, hot baths or showers help many patients, possibly because heat causes mast cells in the skin to release their supply of histamine and to remain depleted for up to 24 hours afterward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2006316", "title": "Dermatographic urticaria", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 374, "text": "Refraining from taking hot baths or showers may help if the condition is generalized (i.e. all over), as well as possibly for localized cases (i.e. in a specific area). If taking hot showers helps, it may be a condition called shower eczema. If it affects mainly the head, it may be psoriasis. In rare cases, allergy tests may uncover substances the patient is allergic to.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18068944", "title": "Ma'in Hot Springs", "section": "Section::::Medical Tourism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 567, "text": "Tourists frequent the hot springs, seeking treatment for chronic physical ailments such as skin and circulatory diseases, and bone, joint, back and muscular pains. The water in the springs contains elements with healing properties, including sodium, calcium, chloride, radon, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. The hot water treatment is also useful in cases of chronic rheumatism, muscle spasm, back pain, blood vessels, varicose veins, skin diseases, and overall body activation of nervous and psychological exhaustion, endocrine secretion and chronic sinusitis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3409503", "title": "Cave Bath", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 308, "text": "The thermal water (temperature: 30°C/86°F) is reputed to reduce joint pain, and since it has a lower salt content than most thermal waters (around 1000 mg/liter), people can bathe in it for much longer, practically an unlimited amount of time. The Cave Bath can be visited all year long, except for January.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40393797", "title": "Kanpu masatsu", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 552, "text": "Kanpu masatsu (乾布摩擦, literally \"dry towel friction\") is a Japanese custom where one rubs a dry towel along the body to create warmth and friction, particularly in cold weather, to promote good health or ward off disease. Although it physically resembles a vigorous sponge bath, kanpu masatsu is not a form of bathing as its goal is to warm the skin by friction and not to cleanse or wipe the body. Kanpu masatsu is often practiced in a group environment, particularly among children in schools where it is sometimes part of a morning exercise routine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because we have determined that they are not harmful enough to bother with banning them. Those other countries are being overly paranoid and controlling of their citizens in our opinion. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It has not been proven that they present a serious risk or serious harm. Other countries have different standards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52637128", "title": "EC Regulation 1223/2009 on cosmetics", "section": "Section::::Regulated aspects.:Restrictions for hazardous ingredients and animal testing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 263, "text": "Certain product ingredients are prohibited under Chapter IV of EC 1223/2009 based on their threat to human health. Annexes II through VI address what substances are prohibited and restricted, including ingredients such as colorants, preservatives and UV filters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10134723", "title": "Cosmetic Ingredient Review", "section": "Section::::Chemicals reviewed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 250, "text": "As of 2013, the European Union bans nearly 1,400 chemicals from personal care products because they are carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction. In the United States, CIR has found only eleven chemicals to be \"unsafe for use in cosmetics\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "610329", "title": "Clandestine chemistry", "section": "Section::::Precursor chemicals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 524, "text": "Because many legitimate industrial chemicals such as anhydrous ammonia and iodine are also necessary in the processing and synthesis of most illicitly produced drugs, preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacturing is a difficult job. Governments often place restrictions on the purchase of large quantities of chemicals that can be used in the production of illicit drugs, usually requiring licenses or permits to ensure that the purchaser has a legitimate need for them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4287527", "title": "Arlene Blum", "section": "Section::::Quotes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 399, "text": "BULLET::::- \"In America, foods, drugs and pesticides are regulated, you may say they are not well enough regulated, but you really have to provide information because those are the things that go into our mouths. Other chemicals like flame retardants are not regulated, there are not really health requirements but they go into our bodies the same way.\" -Arlene Blum, as interviewed in Stink! Movie\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9089493", "title": "Ingredients of cosmetics", "section": "Section::::Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 363, "text": "Legislation varies from country to country but most countries have some sort of formal legislation that either restrict or prohibit certain ingredients or products. There are two main sources for cosmetics safety: the EU Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EEC and the Canadian Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist. Regulation in the United States by the FDA is particularly weak.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38854584", "title": "Cosmetovigilance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 333, "text": "In the US, state regulation applies in addition to federal regulation. For example, California's governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed off fiercely contested toxics legislation that requires cosmetic producers to report use of ingredients classified as carcinogenic or toxic to reproduction, a measure primarily aimed at phthalates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3249951", "title": "Scarlet GN", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 433, "text": "In the United States, it is not permitted for use in food or ingested drugs and may only be used in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. An exception was added in 1965 to allow the coloring of maraschino cherries, which then were considered mainly decorative and not a foodstuff. This exception was repealed in 1976 due to mounting evidence over its safety concerns. In the European Union, it is not permitted as a food additive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I didn't know that happened. I do know that Standard Oil took a huge advantage in economies of scale and scope, that allowed it to drastically lower its cost compared to potential competitors. If Standard Oil did drop prices as you claim, then they valued market share over pricing in order to maximize revenue. If they continued to lower their prices, then competitors, who would have naturally higher costs, wouldn't be able to compete and would have to leave the market, allowing Standard Oil to occupy even larger market share. If the amount of petroleum they sold increased faster than the price drop (through increasing market share and generally increasing demand as the market for petroleum grew very quickly as Standard Oil developed), then Standard Oil would see its profits balloon, while competitors would face intractable barriers to entry.\n\nIn all, with a naturally growing market in petroleum and lower relative costs compared to competitors, Standard Oil preferred to maximize market share over optimal price setting in order to erect more barriers to entry for potential competitors by setting artificially low prices.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28931", "title": "Standard Oil", "section": "Section::::Legacy and criticism of breakup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 1314, "text": "Some economic historians have observed that Standard Oil was in the process of losing its monopoly at the time of its breakup in 1911. Although Standard had 90 percent of American refining capacity in 1880, by 1911 that had shrunk to between 60 and 65 percent, due to the expansion in capacity by competitors. Numerous regional competitors (such as Pure Oil in the East, Texaco and Gulf Oil in the Gulf Coast, Cities Service and Sun in the Midcontinent, Union in California, and Shell overseas) had organized themselves into competitive vertically integrated oil companies, the industry structure pioneered years earlier by Standard itself. In addition, demand for petroleum products was increasing more rapidly than the ability of Standard to expand. The result was that although in 1911 Standard still controlled most production in the older regions of the Appalachian Basin (78 percent share, down from 92 percent in 1880), Lima-Indiana (90 percent, down from 95 percent in 1906), and the Illinois Basin (83 percent, down from 100 percent in 1906), its share was much lower in the rapidly expanding new regions that would dominate U.S. oil production in the 20th century. In 1911 Standard controlled only 44 percent of production in the Midcontinent, 29 percent in California, and 10 percent on the Gulf Coast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28931", "title": "Standard Oil", "section": "Section::::Legacy and criticism of breakup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 750, "text": "Some economists believe that Standard Oil was not a monopoly, and also argue that the intense free market competition resulted in cheaper oil prices and more diverse petroleum products. Critics claimed that success in meeting consumer needs was driving other companies out of the market who were not as successful. An example of this thinking was given in 1890 when Rep. William Mason, arguing in favor of the Sherman Antitrust Act, said: \"trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the \"trusts\" which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business enterprise\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1854179", "title": "Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States", "section": "Section::::Facts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 537, "text": "By the 1880s, Standard Oil was using its large market share of refining capacity to begin integrating backward into oil exploration and crude oil distribution and forward into retail distribution of its refined products to stores and, eventually, service stations throughout the United States. Standard Oil allegedly used its size and clout to undercut competitors in a number of ways that were considered \"anti-competitive,\" including underpricing and threats to suppliers and distributors who did business with Standard's competitors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244180", "title": "1973 oil crisis", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Price controls and rationing.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 578, "text": "Price controls exacerbated the crisis in the US. The system limited the price of \"old oil\" (that which had already been discovered) while allowing newly discovered oil to be sold at a higher price to encourage investment. Predictably, old oil was withdrawn from the market, creating greater scarcity. The rule also discouraged development of alternative energies. The rule had been intended to promote oil exploration. Scarcity was addressed by rationing (as in many countries). Motorists faced long lines at gas stations beginning in summer 1972 and increasing by summer 1973.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57720434", "title": "Posted oil price", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 534, "text": "Before Standard Oil was broken up by the United States Supreme Court in 1911, they used to \"post\" the price they were willing to pay for crude oil. Until 1895, crude oil was sold on the exchange at Oil City, Pennsylvania, but in January 1935 the Seep Purchasing Company, which purchased 80% of Pennsylvania and Ohios crude oil production for Standard Oil, posted a notice that the price of oil would \"be as high as the market of the world will justify, but will not necessarily be the price bill on the exchange for certificate oil\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14712165", "title": "Nationalization of oil supplies", "section": "Section::::Reasons for nationalization.:Change in oil prices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 633, "text": "Oil-producing countries did not realize that the companies were adjusting oil prices until the cost of oil dropped in the late 1950s and companies started reducing posted prices very frequently. The main reason for the reduction in oil prices was the change in the world's energy situation after 1957 that led to competition between energy sources. Efforts to find markets led to price cuts. Price cutting was first achieved by shaving profit margins, but soon prices were reduced to levels far lower than posted prices as companies producing oil in the Middle East started to offer crude to independent and state-owned refineries. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38923108", "title": "History of oil in California through 1930", "section": "Section::::19th century.:Oil production and prices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 443, "text": "American oil companies including Union Oil Company became concerned with this development because oil prices had fallen too low for oil companies to maintain high profit margins. Union Oil Company and other oil companies lobbied local and federal governments to regulate the overproduction in the oil market. Their attempts, however, were futile and no regulation was passed. Oil prices remained around $1 through the end of the 19th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Do you have a specific question? \n\nIf not I would direct you to the overall pretty decent wikipedia article. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe short version is that the federal government had a sniper shoot people who were not threatening anyone and did not even know the feds were there, including a child and an unarmed woman. The federal government investigation into the incident concluded that the use of deadly force was completely inappropriate. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "501385", "title": "Ruby Ridge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1109, "text": "Ruby Ridge was the site of an 11-day siege near Naples, Idaho, U.S., beginning on August 21, 1992, when Randy Weaver, members of his immediate family, and family friend Kevin Harris resisted agents of the United States Marshals Service (USMS) and the Hostage Rescue Team of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI HRT). During a Marshals Service reconnoiter of the Weaver property pursuant to a bench warrant for Weaver after his failure to appear on firearms charges, an initial encounter between six US marshals and the Weavers resulted in a shootout and the deaths of Deputy US Marshal William Francis Degan, age 42, the Weavers' son Samuel (Sammy), age 14, and the Weavers' family dog (Striker). In the subsequent siege of the Weaver residence, led by the FBI, Weaver's 43-year-old wife Vicki was killed by FBI sniper fire. All casualties occurred on the first two days of the operation. The siege and stand-off were ultimately resolved by civilian negotiators, with the surrender and arrest of Kevin Harris on August 30, and the surrender of Randy Weaver and the surviving Weaver children the next day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "501385", "title": "Ruby Ridge", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 244, "text": "The Ruby Ridge incident was the subject of the first season of the narrative podcast series Slate Presents. The 4-episode season, titled \"Standoff: What Happened at Ruby Ridge?\" ran as a stand-alone miniseries hosted by journalist Ruth Graham.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38113510", "title": "The Siege at Ruby Ridge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 501, "text": "The Siege at Ruby Ridge is a 1996 docudrama television film directed by Roger Young and written by Lionel Chetwynd about the confrontation between the family of Randy Weaver and the US federal government at Ruby Ridge in 1992. It was based on the book \"Every Knee Shall Bow\" by reporter Jess Walter. It originally aired as a two-part CBS miniseries entitled \"Ruby Ridge: An American Tragedy\" on May 19 and May 21, 1996. The miniseries was edited together to become the film \"The Siege at Ruby Ridge\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "501385", "title": "Ruby Ridge", "section": "Section::::Aftermath: trials, acquittals, awards, investigations, perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 204, "text": "Randy and Sara Weaver wrote a 1998 paperback book, \"The Federal Siege at Ruby Ridge\", about the incident. (The appendix of the book is a reprint of the 1995 Report on the U.S. Senate Ruby Ridge Hearing.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "136882", "title": "Fort Lee, New Jersey", "section": "Section::::History.:George Washington Bridge lane closure scandal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 552, "text": "The Fort Lee lane closure scandal, also known as Bridgegate, was a political scandal concerning the actions taken by the staff of New Jersey Governor Chris Christie and his Port Authority appointees to create a traffic jam in Fort Lee when dedicated toll lanes for one of the Fort Lee entrances to the upper level on the George Washington Bridge were reduced from three to one from September 9, 2013, to September 13, 2013. Three members of the Christie administration were convicted on federal conspiracy charges for their roles in the lane closures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60420731", "title": "Warrenton Junction Raid", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 970, "text": "The Warrenton Junction Raid (May 3, 1863) was a surprise attack by Confederate guerrilla warriors on a Union cavalry detachment during the American Civil War. The raid took place near a railroad junction in Virginia's Fauquier County, less than from the town of Warrenton. Confederate Major (eventually Colonel) John S. Mosby led the attack against about 100 men from the Union's 1st (West) Virginia Cavalry. At first, the raid was very successful, as many of the Union soldiers surrendered to the rebels. The remaining portion of the surprised force was surrounded in a house, and two of their leaders were wounded. The house was set on fire, and the Union soldiers surrendered. As Mosby's men rounded up prisoners and horses, a detachment of the 5th New York Cavalry surprised the rebels and rescued most of the captured Union soldiers. After a short fight, more men from the 5th New York, and the 1st Vermont Cavalry, joined in the pursuit of Mosby's fleeing rebels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4107512", "title": "Battle of Rocky Face Ridge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 350, "text": "The Battle of Rocky Face Ridge was fought May 7–13, 1864, in Whitfield County, Georgia, during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War. The Union army was led by Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman and the Confederate army by Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. Confederates were forced to evacuate their strong position due to a Union flanking movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Searched](_URL_2_)\n\nRelevant [discussion](_URL_4_)\n\nOriginal question by [negativefps](_URL_1_)\n\n > What exactly detracts humans and other animals from cannibalism?\n\nRelevant comment courtesy [smalrebelion](_URL_0_)\n\n > This. Members of the same species share almost identical immune systems so a disease that is capable of surviving in the victim is more likely to find the cannibals immune system hospitable than a prey with a dissimilar immune system.\n\nRelevant follow-up courtesy [libertasmens](_URL_3_)\n\n > In addition to what others have said, you can look at it like this:\n\n > It is more beneficial to a community to increase its population than decrease it. More members means more work, more food, and more protection. Cannibalism would decrease population, not to mention it would limit trust, which is generally essential to a community.\n\n > Now, when it comes to humans, we have laws which protect our right to life. Unless some factor such as religion supersedes law, cannibalism is out of the question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6173994", "title": "Cannibalism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 489, "text": "Cannibalism is prevalent in aquatic ecosystems, in which up to approximately 90% of the organisms engage in cannibalistic activity at some point in their life-cycle. Cannibalism is not restricted to carnivorous species: it also occurs in herbivores and in detritivores. Sexual cannibalism normally involves the consumption of the male by the female individual before, during or after copulation. Other forms of cannibalism include size-structured cannibalism and intrauterine cannibalism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6173994", "title": "Cannibalism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well-documented, both in ancient and in recent times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33918309", "title": "Filial cannibalism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 522, "text": "Filial cannibalism occurs when an adult individual of a species consumes all or part of the young of its own species or immediate offspring. Filial cannibalism occurs in many animal species ranging from mammals to insects, and is especially prevalent in various species of fish. Although not much is known regarding the exact purposes of filial cannibalism, it is understood that it may have important evolutionary and ecological implications for some species, and is an important source of mortality for various species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6173994", "title": "Cannibalism", "section": "Section::::Size-structured cannibalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 209, "text": "Size-structured cannibalism has commonly been observed in the wild for a variety of taxa. Vertebrate examples include chimpanzees, where groups of adult males have been observed to attack and consume infants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26977166", "title": "Mantis", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Sexual cannibalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 676, "text": "Sexual cannibalism is common among most predatory species of mantises in captivity. It has sometimes been observed in natural populations, where about a quarter of male-female encounters result in the male being eaten by the female. Around 90% of the predatory species of mantises exhibit sexual cannibalism. Adult males typically outnumber females at first, but their numbers may be fairly equivalent later in the adult stage, possibly because females selectively eat the smaller males. In \"Tenodera sinensis\", 83% of males escape cannibalism after an encounter with a female, but since multiple matings occur, the probability of a male's being eaten increases cumulatively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18517162", "title": "Eunectes", "section": "Section::::Mating System.:Sexual cannibalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 514, "text": "Cannibalism is quite easy in anacondas since females are so much larger than males, but sexual cannibalism has only been confirmed in \"E. murinus\". Females gain the direct benefit of a post-copulatory high-protein meal when they consume their mates along with the indirect benefit of additional resources to use for the formation of offspring; cannibalism in general (outside of the breeding season) has been confirmed in all but \"E. deschauenseei\", although it is likely that it occurs in all \"Eunectes\" species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2721791", "title": "Green and golden bell frog", "section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Diet and predators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 458, "text": "The voracious adults have very broad diets, including insects such as crickets, larvae, mosquito wrigglers, dragonflies, earthworms, cockroaches, flies, and grasshoppers. They are also known to eat freshwater crayfish and slugs, and other frogs, even of the same species. They have a strong tendency for cannibalism, and frequently these in the same enclosure devour each other. Studies and trials in the wild have shown cannibalism also occurs in the wild.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oswald denied ever shooting Kennedy, so he obviously never gave an explanation. It's likely though that it could have been politically motivated, he was pretty militant about Communism. It's also possible that a major factor was him just wanting attention. He defected to the USSR at one point but got bored and came back.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are dozens of possible explanations and theories behind the murder of JFK. Lee Harvey Oswald could have been working for the USSR is a pretty broad one for starters. Sadly, and I say that loosely, Oswald was murdered before they could interrogate him which adds an extremely wicked variable into the mix since no information was gained from his capture. Also, the Kennedy's had some crooked ties to the mafia and it is believed that it was exacting revenge for something that occurred with Ted Kennedy. Also, there is the theory that there were two shooters, since the bullet would have had a weird flight path if it was shot from the location known to be Oswald's perch. It has not been fully explained to the public yet and so we cannot determine the true reason behind JFK's assassination.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To put it simply, we don't know! There are a multitude of theories out there, some with more evidence than others, but there is no definitive answer to that question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We don't even really know who was responsible for the assassination, let alone the motive. It's pretty well accepted that Lee Harvey Oswald was involved, however there has been substantially evidence to support he didn't act alone. Oswald bounced around dealing with a number of undesirables of the time, he defected to the Soviet Union for a few years, he had contact with anti-Castro organizations (which in turn dealt directly with the CIA), but was more than anything an egotistical and idealistic young man looking to make a mark on history. He could have received help from or acted under orders from a number of individuals or organizations that would want President Kennedy killed. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (1976-78) found that there was a strong possibility of a conspiracy between multiple people rather than Oswald acting alone, and even accused the CIA of obstruction of justice in the initial investigations. These conclusions directly conflicted the Warren Commission (1963), the commission which investigated the assassination initially, that stated Oswald as a \"lone gunman.\" Lee Harvey Oswald was assassinated by Jack Ruby before Oswald could be seriously interrogated, as Oswald refused to be represented by anyone outside the ACLU or Communist Party USA. It remains to this day one of America's greatest mysteries.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If this were a mystery, which it is, it is particularly confounding because there are multiple motives.\nHe wanted to end the Federal Reserve and go back to the gold standard\nHe wanted to end the CIA\nMany blamed him for the failure to overthrow Cuba\nMany anticipated him ending the incursion in Vietnam, which would hurt military defense contractors.\nHe also had pissed off the mob, which helped him rig a few districts in the presidential election and then he publicly prosecuted them.\nJohnson also wanted to be president very badly, and owned bell helicopter, which would profit greatly from the Vietnam war.\n\nSo...could of been the CIA, agents of the Federal Reserve (which could also be CIA, or other assassins), the mob, Cubans or communist sympathizers, or Johnson, which also could have used the CIA.\n\nTop culprit? The CIA. The most people had the most to gain by collaborating and using the CIA to get rid of him. The CIA gets to still exist, the military contractors get their war, the Federal Reserve keeps its monopoly on the currency, and Johnson gets to make a mint and be president. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's impossible to know the mind of a man now nearly 50 years dead. On the surface of it, Oswald seems to be an unlikely antagonist for President Kennedy having an apparent admiration for Kennedy -- particularly Kennedy's progressive policies regarding race relations. \n\nCounter to that, Oswald was an avid supporter of Cuba who he saw as a more perfect Communist society (having become disillusioned with America long ago and equally disgusted with the USSR after having lived there).\n\nSix months before the assassination Oswald attempted to assassinate another man -- General Walker -- a right-wing figure who denounced Cuba in aggressive terms. In response to this, Oswald attempted to kill Walker. Kennedy was also staunchly anti-Cuba from the Bay of Pigs to the Cuban Missile Crisis to ongoing CIA efforts to assassinate Castro Kennedy clearly wanted Castro gone. Oswald may have seen this as justification enough to assassinate Kennedy given that he saw it as justification enough to shoot Walker (though in that former attempt he was unsuccessful and police never found the shooter until evidence surfaced after the Kennedy assassination).\n\nHe was man at the end of his rope, unable to hold down a job, estranged from his wife, the family fled from Dallas after the Walker attempt and went to New Orleans out of fear that Oswald would be discovered. While in New Orleans Oswald attempted to build his pro-Castro credentials through various protests but when he went to Mexico City to try and get a visa to Cuba (much like he had defected to the USSR years before) they denied him. His last dream of a better life for himself crushed he may have felt he had nothing to lose. It is telling that the evening before the assassination he attempted to reconcile with his wife but she, having been physically abused after many such earlier reconciliations, refused. It may have been the final straw.\n\nMost of the other commenters in this thread will disagree, but there is plenty of reading out there if you choose to avail yourself of it. Just make sure you read from both sides of the issue -- it's easy to draw false conclusions when working from only part of the data (no matter which side you're talking about).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well let's review what we do know:\n\n1. The magic bullet theory is complete nonsense\n2. There were multiple gunmen\n3. The investigation was compromised\n\nSo, while we cannot say definitively why, we *can* say that the government was involved. As such, the blame almost surely rests on the international banking cartel that has controlled our government for many years. Whether they did it because Kennedy was turning against their agenda, or some other reason, is not clear.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "286369", "title": "Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "section": "Section::::Official investigations.:JFK Act and Assassination Records Review Board.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 561, "text": "In 1992, the popular but controversial movie \"JFK\" had renewed public interest in the assassination and particularly in the still-classified documents referenced in the film's postscript. Largely in response to the film, Congress passed the JFK Act, or \"President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992\". The goal of the legislation was to collect at the National Archives and make publicly available all of the assassination-related records held by federal and state government agencies, private citizens and various other organizations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39311", "title": "JFK (film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 525, "text": "JFK is a 1991 American political thriller film directed by Oliver Stone. It examines the events leading to the assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy and alleged cover-up through the eyes of former New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner). Garrison filed charges against New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones) for his alleged participation in a conspiracy to assassinate the President, for which Lee Harvey Oswald (Gary Oldman) was found responsible by the Warren Commission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29413852", "title": "Blood Feud (1983 film)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 282, "text": "The assassination of JFK on November 22, 1963 is a horror to most Americans, but not to Hoffa, who acts as if nothing matters to him other than union business. The new president, Lyndon B. Johnson, surprises and disappoints Hoffa by retaining Bobby Kennedy as his attorney general.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5119376", "title": "John F. Kennedy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 790, "text": "On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Vice President Lyndon Johnson upon Kennedy's death. Marxist Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the state crime, but he was shot to death by Jack Ruby two days later. The FBI and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone in the assassination, but various groups contested the Warren Report and believed that Kennedy was the victim of a conspiracy. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has also been the focus of considerable interest, following revelations of his chronic health ailments and extra-marital affairs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1187339", "title": "Valerian Zorin", "section": "Section::::Life and career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 386, "text": "Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, Zorin released a controversial statement on the potential causes of the president's murder, dismissing beliefs that Kennedy had been killed by a leftist fanatic, Lee Harvey Oswald, and instead speculated that it might have been a result of Kennedy's progressive views concerning civil rights and the \"scum\" of the American South.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1193731", "title": "Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination", "section": "Section::::Official investigations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 332, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 332, "end_character": 430, "text": "In 1979, The House Select Committee on Assassinations investigated the assassination of JFK and found that president Kennedy was \"probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy\". The Committee found that Carlos Marcello and Santos Trafficante had the means, motive, and opportunity to assassinate president Kennedy, stating \"Trafficante, like Marcello, had the motive, means, and opportunity to assassinate President Kennedy.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13736278", "title": "President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 419, "text": "The final report of the Act's Assassination Records Review Board (ARRB) partially credited the conclusions in Oliver Stone's 1991 film \"JFK\" with the passage of the Act. The ARRB stated that the film \"popularized a version of President Kennedy's assassination that featured U.S. government agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the military as conspirators.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No one knows for sure, but it is likely to do with the photochemical production of chemical compounds that absorb visible light inside the spot. \n\nA kind of similar phenomenon occurs on Earth inside the polar vortex, in OClO is produced in high quantities (normally not really present measurably in the atmosphere) If you could see in ultraviolet, a large enough enhancement in OClO would give the polar vortex a more reddish color.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The spot actually changes color. Ranging from dark red, to white, to blending in with the clouds around it. \n\nThe spot is a stable vortex caused by opposing currents of hydrogen and other gases that make up Jupiters atmosphere. \n\nThe reason for it's color is not known precisely but has something to do with the chemical composition which differs from that of the surrounding gases due to the nature of the disturbtion of gases caused by the vortex. The color difference could also have to do with the altitude difference between the gases in the vortex and the surrounding area which again would change it's chemical composition altering the wavelength of the subsequent light reflection.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From my understanding you can think of the red spot as a giant gas cloud that is mostly white/gray except for the top which is being chemically broken down by intense radiation. Over many decades these molecules are breaking down, splitting, and forming other compounds which show as red to the naked eye. I don't believe it's fully understood yet and I'm not sure what complex compounds are being formed. I believe the storm/cloud is mostly made up of ammonia/ammonium if I recall correctly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The generally held theory used to be that the great red spot is red from exposure of ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in a layer below the whitish grey clouds of higher atmospheric layers in Jupiter's atmosphere; however this has come into doubt recently. Some recent reading suggested that the red spot actually towers over the surrounding cloud layers rather than being an exposed deeper layer. There are also a number of different chemical reactions/species from elements detected in Jupiter's atmosphere that can be turned red from photochemical reactions. Bottomline, we're still not sure, but it is probably some kind of ammonia compound.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The only proper answer here is \"we don't know, but we have some good guesses.\"\n\nThe reds seen in Jupiter's Great Red Spot (GRS) are also occasionally seen in other big vortices here and there. As of right now, we can't say for certain what makes the GRS red - this is generally known as the \"Jovian chromophore problem\" - but there's something about a vortex being big that causes it to show up. \n\nAlthough we've taken plenty of spectra of the GRS (I've taken some myself), it doesn't perfectly match anything we've measured in the lab. It's not that the coloring molecule is some exotic unobtainium, rather that it's extremely difficult to mimic the conditions of Jupiter's upper atmosphere in the lab, so only a few compounds have actually been carefully measured in those conditions.\n\nSince this color is only seen in very large vortices, it's believed to be caused by some mixture of compounds already present on the planet getting pushed very high in the atmosphere by these vortices. In three dimensions, the Great Red Spot is essentially shaped like a wedding cake, so the cloud-tops at the center of the spot are at very high altitudes where there's a lot more ultraviolet light. You can end up producing all kinds of odd substances through UV photochemistry of trace substances in the atmosphere, and the working hypothesis at this point is that it's some kind of [imine or azine](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8644994", "title": "Extraterrestrial vortex", "section": "Section::::Jupiter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 439, "text": " The Great Red Spot on Jupiter is, by far, the largest extraterrestrial anticyclone (or cyclone) known. It is so large that about 2 to 3 Earths could fit inside it. The Great Red Spot has existed on Jupiter for at least 340 years. In the image at the left, the Great Red Spot can be seen near the top center. The Great Red Spot has turned dull pink, to bright red, but has not yet dissipated and is not likely to do so in the near future.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67405", "title": "Great Red Spot", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 401, "text": "The Great Red Spot is a persistent high-pressure region in the atmosphere of Jupiter, producing an anticyclonic storm, the largest in the Solar System, 22 degrees south of Jupiter's equator. It has been continuously observed since 1830. Earlier observations from 1665 to 1713 are believed to be of the same storm; if this is correct, it has existed for at least ((2020 - 1665)/10 round 0) * 10 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38930", "title": "Jupiter", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Great Red Spot and other vortices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 601, "text": "The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth, located 22° south of the equator. It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831, and possibly since 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two \"red spots\" adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about above the surrounding cloudtops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30873277", "title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter", "section": "Section::::Discrete features.:Vortices.:Oval BA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 578, "text": "Why Oval BA turned red is not understood. According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez-Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country, the most likely mechanism is \"an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA.\" Some believe that small storms (and their corresponding white spots) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47242", "title": "Amalthea (moon)", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 683, "text": "The surface of Amalthea is very red. The reddish color may be due to sulfur originating from Io or some other non-ice material. Bright patches of less red tint appear on the major slopes of Amalthea, but the nature of this color is currently unknown. The surface of Amalthea is slightly brighter than surfaces of other inner satellites of Jupiter. There is also a substantial asymmetry between leading and trailing hemispheres: the leading hemisphere is 1.3 times brighter than the trailing one. The asymmetry is probably caused by the higher velocity and frequency of impacts on the leading hemisphere, which excavate a bright material—presumably ice—from the interior of the moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67405", "title": "Great Red Spot", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 288, "text": "Jupiter's Great Red Spot rotates counter-clockwise, with a period of about six Earth days or fourteen Jovian days. Measuring in width as of 3 April 2017, Jupiter's Great Red Spot is 1.3 times the diameter of Earth. The cloud-tops of this storm are about above the surrounding cloud-tops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67405", "title": "Great Red Spot", "section": "Section::::Mechanical dynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1150, "text": "There is no definitive theory as to what causes the formation or color of the Great Red Spot. Laboratory studies are examining the effects that cosmic rays or UV Light from the Sun have on the chemical composition of the clouds of Jupiter. One question is whether the Sun's radiation reacts with ammonium hydrosulfide in the planet's outer atmosphere to create the deep red color. Research suggests that the storm produces extreme amounts of gravity waves and acoustic waves, owing to the turbulence of the storm. The acoustic waves travel vertically upwards to a height of above the storm where they break in the upper atmosphere, converting wave energy into heat. This creates a region of upper atmosphere that is —several hundred Kelvin warmer than the rest of the planet at this altitude. The effect is described as being like \"crashing [..] ocean waves on a beach\". The reason the storm has continued to exist for centuries is that there is no planetary surface to provide friction (only a liquid core of hydrogen); circulating gas eddies persist for a very long time in the atmosphere because there is nothing to oppose their angular momentum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No, liquids and solids have almost* constant [heat capacities](_URL_0_). It takes almost exactly the same amount of energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would take more energy to heat from 80, all else being equal, because the rate it heat loss to the environment (room temp of 18-20C) would be greater as the difference is much more than hearing to 20.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very, very close. As others have mentioned, the quantity you're looking for is \"(specific) heat capacity\". For water, there's a nice table at _URL_0_\n\nFor 10°C to 20°C it varies from 4.193 down to 4.184 kJ / (kg K), while for 80°C to 90°C it varies from 4.198 up to 4.208 kJ / (kg K), so it does take a bit more energy, but it's a very small difference. Far more relevant would be it losing heat faster to the outside environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No, in fact the opposite is true (in a very small way). It takes slightly more energy to raise water from 80-90 than from 10-20.\n\nThis is because the specific heat of water rises as temperature increases. The specific heat is the amount of energy needed to raise a given amount of material by a given change in temperature. The average value of specific heat for water between 80-90 deg is 4.203 kJ/kg-K; as opposed to 4.186 for the 10-20 deg range.\n\nTherefore it takes a little more energy at the higher temperature. For the most part this difference can be ignored and the amount of energy can be said to be equal.\n\n[Source of data](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Similar question: If you put something in the microwave for 30 seconds, is it the same as putting it on for 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No, liquids and solids have almost* constant [heat capacities](_URL_0_). It takes almost exactly the same amount of energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would take more energy to heat from 80, all else being equal, because the rate it heat loss to the environment (room temp of 18-20C) would be greater as the difference is much more than hearing to 20.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very, very close. As others have mentioned, the quantity you're looking for is \"(specific) heat capacity\". For water, there's a nice table at _URL_0_\n\nFor 10°C to 20°C it varies from 4.193 down to 4.184 kJ / (kg K), while for 80°C to 90°C it varies from 4.198 up to 4.208 kJ / (kg K), so it does take a bit more energy, but it's a very small difference. Far more relevant would be it losing heat faster to the outside environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No, in fact the opposite is true (in a very small way). It takes slightly more energy to raise water from 80-90 than from 10-20.\n\nThis is because the specific heat of water rises as temperature increases. The specific heat is the amount of energy needed to raise a given amount of material by a given change in temperature. The average value of specific heat for water between 80-90 deg is 4.203 kJ/kg-K; as opposed to 4.186 for the 10-20 deg range.\n\nTherefore it takes a little more energy at the higher temperature. For the most part this difference can be ignored and the amount of energy can be said to be equal.\n\n[Source of data](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Similar question: If you put something in the microwave for 30 seconds, is it the same as putting it on for 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds, then 5 seconds?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15604362", "title": "Superheated water", "section": "Section::::Change of properties with temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 247, "text": "All materials change with temperature, but superheated water exhibits greater changes than would be expected from temperature considerations alone. Viscosity and surface tension of water drop and diffusivity increases with increasing temperature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45270798", "title": "Hopper cooling", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 409, "text": "As the heat of vaporisation (energy needed to vaporise water) is much larger than the specific heat capacity (energy to raise the temperature of water by one degree), relatively little water is required to replace that lost by evaporation. The heat needed to boil water is equivalent to a 540 °C rise in temperature, or about 7 times that needed to raise the temperature of the water from ambient to boiling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24027000", "title": "Properties of water", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 544, "text": "Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10581795", "title": "Chilled beam", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 422, "text": "Water can carry significantly more energy than air. Although of air has a capacity to hold heat of 37 joules per kelvin (JK), the same volume of water has a heat capacity of 20,050 JK. A metal pipe of water just in diameter can carry as much energy as an metal duct of air. This means that chilled beam HVAC systems require much less energy to provide the same heating and cooling effect as a traditional air HVAC system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4495", "title": "British thermal unit", "section": "Section::::Associated units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 268, "text": "The centigrade heat unit (CHU) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Celsius. It is equal to 1.8 BTU or 1899 joules. This unit was sometimes used in the United Kingdom as an alternative to BTU but is now obsolete.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15604362", "title": "Superheated water", "section": "Section::::Change of properties with temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 522, "text": "Self-ionization of water increases with temperature, and the pKw of water at 250 °C is closer to 11 than the more familiar 14 at 25 °C. This means the concentration of hydronium ion () and the concentration of hydroxide () are increased while the pH remains neutral. Specific heat capacity at constant pressure also increases with temperature, from 4.187 kJ/kg at 25 °C to 8.138 kJ/kg at 350 °C. A significant effect on the behaviour of water at high temperatures is decreased dielectric constant (relative permittivity).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53820576", "title": "Layered charge storage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 319, "text": "Heating is therefore only necessary later, since warm water can be taken from above for longer, as opposed to mixed storage. In addition, water can be drawn with almost the same temperature very quickly after filling with hot water, since not all of the storage tank has to be heated. This optimises energy efficiency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) – I don't have an account to read the full article, but the preview suggests that navigation is mainly done by physical landmarks. For coarse positioning and direction, you'd use the angle from the rover to larger hills and craters that you can match to satellite photos of the area. On the scale of one day's drive (a few hundred meters at most), it's also possible to use smaller features that aren't clear in the satellite photos, but that the rover has seen from multiple positions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35285791", "title": "Rosalind Franklin (rover)", "section": "Section::::Navigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 644, "text": "Since the rover communicates with the ground controllers via the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), and the orbiter only passes over the rover approximately twice per sol, the ground controllers will not be able to actively guide the rover across the surface. The \"Rosalind Franklin\" rover is therefore designed to navigate autonomously across the Martian surface. Two stereo camera pairs (NavCam and LocCam) allow the rover to build up a 3D map of the terrain, which the navigation software then uses to assess the terrain around the rover so that it avoids obstacles and finds an efficient route to the ground controller specified destination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "421366", "title": "Mars rover", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 389, "text": "A Mars rover is a motor vehicle that travels across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "252908", "title": "Mars Exploration Rover", "section": "Section::::Spacecraft design.:Lander.:Uprighting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 310, "text": "The rover contains accelerometers to detect which way is down (toward the surface of Mars) by measuring the pull of gravity. The rover computer then commanded the correct lander petal to open to place the rover upright. Once the base petal was down and the rover was upright, the other two petals were opened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "101448", "title": "Mars 3", "section": "Section::::Lander.:Lander spacecraft system.:Prop-M Rover.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 412, "text": "The Mars 3 lander had a small 4.5 kg (9.9 Lb) 'Mars rover' on board, which was planned to move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical cable. Two small metal rods were used for autonomous obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control. The rover carried a dynamic penetrometer and a radiation densitometer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "101447", "title": "Mars 2", "section": "Section::::Lander.:Lander spacecraft system.:Prop-M Rover.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 382, "text": "Mars 2 lander had a small 4.5 kg Mars rover on board, which would move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical. Two small metal rods were used for autonomous obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control. The rover carried a dynamic penetrometer and a radiation densitometer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37615833", "title": "2013 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:August.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 548, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 548, "end_character": 219, "text": "BULLET::::- NASA reports that the Mars \"Curiosity\" rover used an Autonomous Navigation System (or \"\"autonav\"\" - the ability of the rover to decide for itself how to drive safely) over unknown ground for the first time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "453544", "title": "Mars Science Laboratory", "section": "Section::::Entry, descent and landing (EDL).:EDL event–August 6, 2012.:Guided entry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 1134, "text": "The rover was folded up within an aeroshell that protected it during the travel through space and during the atmospheric entry at Mars. Ten minutes before atmospheric entry the aeroshell separated from the cruise stage that provided power, communications and propulsion during the long flight to Mars. One minute after separation from the cruise stage thrusters on the aeroshell fired to cancel out the spacecraft's 2-rpm rotation and achieved an orientation with the heat shield facing Mars in preparation for Atmospheric entry. The heat shield is made of phenolic impregnated carbon ablator (PICA). The diameter heat shield, which is the largest heat shield ever flown in space, reduced the velocity of the spacecraft by ablation against the Martian atmosphere, from the atmospheric interface velocity of approximately down to approximately , where parachute deployment was possible about four minutes later. One minute and 15 seconds after entry the heat shield experienced peak temperatures of up to as atmospheric pressure converted kinetic energy into heat. Ten seconds after peak heating, that deceleration peaked out at 15 g.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some mail would have been in use. Much would have already shifted to plate harnesses. Since you didn't specify, I'm going to cover basics, using manuscript illustrations for reference, [sourced from here](_URL_1_)\n\n[BL Yates Thompson 35 La chanson de Bertrand du Guesclin, dated 1380-1392](_URL_0_)\n\nLooking at this particular illustration, we see multiple figures, from various social classes. On the side of the defenders, we see first a crossbowman, with a simple kettle hat and what may be mail on his arms and torso. Note that he has no gauntlets nor any indication of plate armor defenses. \n\nNext we see members of a higher class, one holding a shield and spear, the other a boulder. They're wearing more extensive defenses. They have houndskull bascinets, plate arm harnesses, breast plates and mail defenses around the neck. They are also equipped with gauntlets on their hands.\n\nOn the side of the attackers, the higher class members are wearing defenses almost identical to that of their class counterparts on the defending side. Take note of their weaponry. The carry weapons such as two handed axes and spears, with swords in reserve. \n\nNext on the attacking side, we see three bowmen. One is wearing a kettle helm, the second an open face bacsinet (with mail defenses at the neck) and the third a closed face bascinet (which is very unusual for this time, it may be a mistake in drawing or in my interpretation). They may be wearing some sort of torso protection underneath an arming garment, but they are certainly not wearing an defenses (past possibly an aketon or gamebson) on their arms. \n\nBehind them, there are foot soldiers, equipped with spears, most likely swords as well, and leg harnesses (and no doubt arm harnesses as well). Though we cannot see to be certain, their helms may have visors. They certainly do have mail protection at the neck. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59008001", "title": "Crécy campaign", "section": "Section::::Campaign in France.:Devastating the Cotentin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1169, "text": "The English army was estimated to be between 7,000 and 10,000 strong and consisted of both English and Welsh soldiers combined with specialists and officials. It is considered to have been unusually well equipped for a medieval army and included miners, blacksmiths and Welsh to English interpreters. It included several Norman barons who were unhappy with French rule, including Geoffroy de Harcourt, Viscount of Saint-Sauveur. The region where they landed, the Cotentin Peninsula, was virtually undefended and the English were able to disembark on the long sandy beaches. They spent six days unloading, organising themselves, plundering the countryside and baking bread. This pause was mostly to rest the horses, who would have needed at least this long to recover from being cooped up onboard ship for two weeks. The army included a sizeable supply train carrying ammunition, stores, gunpowder weapons and food; the latter could be replaced from local sources to maintain a reserve for when the army needed to concentrate and was unable to forage. Over 50 men were dubbed knights, including Edward's eldest son, in an act of ceremonial preparation for the campaign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1418828", "title": "Chevauchée", "section": "Section::::Early uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 348, "text": "The English used the chevauchée in lieu of a larger standing army, and it was carried out primarily by small groups of mounted soldiers, rarely more than a few thousand men. This was the characteristic English strategy in the 1340s and 1350s after first being used by the forces of Edward III of England in the Second War of Scottish Independence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "73374", "title": "Mercenary", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:17th and 18th centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 361, "text": "During the 17th and 18th century extensive use was made of foreign recruits in the now regimented and highly drilled armies of Europe, beginning in a systematized way with the Thirty Years' War. Historian Geoffrey Parker notes that 40,000 Scotsmen (about fifteen percent of the adult male population) served as soldiers in Continental Europe from 1618 to 1640.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "969337", "title": "England in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Warfare.:Armies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 972, "text": "In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the \"familia regis\" to become a small standing army, forming the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers carried the longbow, a potentially devastating weapon. Cannons were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late 15th century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15378788", "title": "England in the Late Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Warfare.:Armies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 1152, "text": "In the late thirteenth century Edward I expanded the \"familia regis\", the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. to become a small standing army. It formed the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers carried the longbow, a potentially devastating weapon. Cannon were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late fifteenth century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4503", "title": "Battle of Poitiers", "section": "Section::::Battle.:Preparations.:English army.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 301, "text": "The English army was led by Edward, the Black Prince and composed primarily of English and Welsh troops, though there was a large contingent of Gascon and Breton soldiers with the army. Edward's army consisted of approximately 2,000 longbowmen, 3,000 men-at-arms and a force of 1,000 Gascon infantry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35980126", "title": "Cotiote War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 544, "text": "English had 6,000 men in the beginning which was increased to 8,000 in 1800 and to 14,000 in 1804 - Arthur Wellesley was in charge of operations between 1800 and 1804. Cotiote army manpower is not exactly known - estimates vary between 2,000 and 6,000. Cotiote army was well equipped with fire-locks but ran short of musket ammunition after 1799 and so used bows and swords widely. 10 years of war had caused 80 percent loss in British ranks - both European officers and Sepoys. But no estimate is available about death roll in Cotiote armies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]