Datasets:
ChristophSchuhmann
/
wikipedia-en-nov22-1-sentence-level

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
sentences
stringlengths
1
39.3k
Indoor climbing, sport climbing and bouldering are also considered mountaineering by some.Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely-applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies when climbing mountains.Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities.
A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing.Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory.The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps.
However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts.Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary.The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux () in one of his "epistolae familiares", claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo.
For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes.A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille () by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré.The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains.
In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France.He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard.The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport.
By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain.
This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857.One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths.By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies.
In the early years of the "golden age", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall.In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps, and by the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour.
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece.It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens.
Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King Pandion II, of whom Nisos was the ruler of Megara.Megara was also a trade port, its people using their ships and wealth as a way to gain leverage on armies of neighboring poleis.Megara specialized in the exportation of wool and other animal products including livestock such as horses.
It possessed two harbors, Pagae to the west on the Corinthian Gulf, and Nisaea to the east on the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea.It is part of Athens metropolitan area.According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the citadel called 'Caria' and the temples of Demeter called Megara, from which the place derived its name.
In historical times, Megara was an early dependency of Corinth, in which capacity colonists from Megara founded Megara Hyblaea, a small "polis" north of Syracuse in Sicily.Megara then fought a war of independence with Corinth, and afterwards founded Chalcedon in 685 BC, as well as Byzantium (c. 667 BC).Megara is known to have early ties with Miletos, in the region of Caria in Asia Minor.
According to some scholars, they had built up a "colonisation alliance".In the 7th/6th century BCE these two cities acted in concordance with each other.Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle.
Megara cooperated with that of Delphi.Miletos had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma.Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.
In the late 7th century BC Theagenes established himself as tyrant of Megara by slaughtering the cattle of the rich to win over the poor.During the second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) Megara fought alongside the Spartans and Athenians at crucial battles such as Salamis and Plataea.Megara defected from the Spartan-dominated Peloponnesian League (c. 460 BC) to the Delian league due to border disputes with its neighbour Corinth; this defection was one of the causes of the First Peloponnesian War (460 – c. 445 BC).
By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace of 446–445 BC Megara was forced to return to the Peloponnesian League.In the (second) Peloponnesian War (c. 431 – 404 BC), Megara was an ally of Sparta.The Megarian decree is considered to be one of several contributing "causes" of the Peloponnesian War.
Athens issued the Megarian decree, which banned Megarian merchants from territory controlled by Athens; its aim was to constrict the Megarian economy.The Athenians claimed that they were responding to the Megarians' desecration of the "Hiera Orgas", a sacred precinct in the border region between the two states.Arguably the most famous citizen of Megara in antiquity was Byzas, the legendary founder of Byzantium in the 7th century BC.
The 6th century BC poet Theognis also came from Megara.In the early 4th century BC, Euclid of Megara founded the Megarian school of philosophy which flourished for about a century, famous for the use of logic and dialectic.During the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, Megara sent a force of 400 peltasts to Thermopylae.
During the Chremonidean War, in 266 BC, the Megarians were besieged by the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas and managed to defeat his elephants employing burning pigs.Despite this success, the Megarians had to submit to the Macedonians.In 243 BC, exhorted by Aratus of Sicyon, Megara expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined the Achaean League, but when the Achaeans lost control of the Isthmus in 223 BC the Megarians left them and joined the Boeotian League.
Not more than thirty years later, however, the Megarians grew tired of the Boeotian decline and returned their allegiance to Achaea.The Achaean strategos Philopoemen fought off the Boeotian intervention force and secured Megara's return, either in 203 or in 193 BC.The Megarians were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples.
Saint Jerome reports "There is a common saying about the Megarians [...
The first was between 427, when there was a democratic uprising, and 424, when a narrow oligarchy was installed (Thuc.3.68.3; 4.66-8, 73-4).The second was in the 370s, when we hear that the people of Megara expelled some anti-democratic conspirators (Diod.
15.40.4).By the 350s, though, Isocrates is referring to Megara in terms that suggests that it was an oligarchy again (Isoc.8.117-19).
One of the first actions of the new oligarchy in 424 was to compel the people to vote openly, which suggests that the democracy had made use of the secret ballot.Megarian democracy also made use of ostracism.Other key institutions of the democracy included a popular Assembly and Council, and a board of five (or six) generals.
Megara is located in the westernmost part of Attica, near the Megara Gulf, a bay of the Saronic Gulf.The coastal plain around Megara is referred to as Megaris, which is also the name of the ancient city state centered on Megara.Megara is 8 km west of Nea Peramos, 18 km west of Eleusis, 19 km east of Agioi Theodoroi, 34 km west of Athens and 37 km east of Corinth.
The Motorway 8 connects it with Athens and Corinth.The Megara railway station is served by Proastiakos suburban trains to Athens and Kiato.There is a small military airfield south of the town, ICAO code LGMG.
The main town Megara had 23,456 inhabitants at the 2011 census.The largest other settlements in the municipal unit are Vlychada (pop.1,462), Kineta (1,446), Pachi (542) and Lakka Kalogirou (517).
Martin of Tours Martin of Tours (; 316 – 8 November 397) was the third bishop of Tours.He has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Christian saints in Western tradition.
A native of Pannonia, he converted to Christianity at a young age.He served in the Roman cavalry in Gaul, but left military service at some point prior to 361, when he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers, establishing the monastery at Ligugé.He was consecrated as Bishop of Caesarodunum (Tours) in 371.
As bishop, he was active in the suppression of the remnants of Gallo-Roman religion, but he opposed the violent persecution of the Priscillianist sect of ascetics.His life was recorded by a contemporary hagiographer, Sulpicius Severus.Some of the accounts of his travels may have been interpolated into his "vita" to validate early sites of his cult.
He is best known for the account of his using his military sword to cut his cloak in two, to give half to a beggar clad only in rags in the depth of winter.His shrine in Tours became a famous stopping-point for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela in Spain.His cult was revived in French nationalism during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1, and as a consequence he was seen as a patron saint of France during the French Third Republic.
Martin was born in AD 316 or 336 in Savaria in the Diocese of Pannonia (now Szombathely, Hungary).His father was a senior officer (tribune) in the Roman army.A few years after Martin's birth his father was given veteran status and was allocated land on which to retire at Ticinum (now Pavia), in northern Italy, where Martin grew up.
At the age of ten he attended the Christian church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen.Christianity had been made a legal religion (in 313) in the Roman Empire.It had many more adherents in the Eastern Empire, whence it had sprung, and was concentrated in cities, brought along the trade routes by converted Jews and Greeks (the term 'pagan' literally means 'country-dweller').
Christianity was far from accepted amongst the higher echelons of society; among members of the army the worship of Mithras would have been stronger.Although the conversion of the Emperor Constantine and the subsequent programme of church-building gave a greater impetus to the spread of the religion, it was still a minority faith.As the son of a veteran officer, Martin at fifteen was required to join a cavalry "ala." At the age of 18 around 334 or 354, he was stationed at "Ambianensium civitas" or Samarobriva in Gaul (now Amiens, France).
It is likely that he joined the "Equites catafractarii Ambianenses", a heavy cavalry unit listed in the "Notitia Dignitatum".As the unit was stationed at Milan and is also recorded at Trier, it is likely to have been part of the elite cavalry bodyguard of the Emperor, which accompanied him on his travels around the Empire.According to his biographer, Sulpicius Severus, he served in the military for only another two years, though it has been argued that these two years, "are in fact not nearly enough to bring the account to the time when he would leave, that is, during his encounter with Caesar Julian (the one who has gone down in history as Julian the Apostate) Martin would have been 45 years old when Julian acceded to the throne, and at the usual end of a military contract.
Jacques Fontaine thinks that the biographer was somewhat embarrassed about referring to [Martin's] long stint in the army, [because of the perennially tenuous relation between the Christian conscience and war].
"Richard A. Fletcher says that Martin served for five years before obtaining a discharge, two of them after his baptism in 354.Regardless of whether or not he remained in the army, Sulpicius Severus reports that just before a battle in the Gallic provinces at Borbetomagus (now Worms, Germany), Martin determined that his switch of allegiance to a new commanding officer (away from antichristian Julian and unto Christ), along with reluctance to receive Julian's pay just as Martin was retiring, prohibited his taking the money and continuing to submit to the authority of the former now, telling him, "I am the soldier of Christ
He was charged with cowardice and jailed, but in response to the charge, he volunteered to go unarmed to the front of the troops.His superiors planned to take him up on the offer, but before they could, the invaders sued for peace, the battle never occurred, and Martin was released from military service.Martin declared his vocation, and made his way to the city of Caesarodunum (now Tours), where he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers Christian orthodoxy.
He opposed the Arianism of the Imperial Court.When Hilary was forced into exile from Pictavium (now Poitiers), Martin returned to Italy.According to Sulpicius Severus, he converted an Alpine brigand on the way, and confronted the Devil himself.
Having heard in a dream a summons to revisit his home, Martin crossed the Alps, and from Milan went over to Pannonia.There he converted his mother and some other persons; his father he could not win.While in Illyricum he took sides against the Arians with so much zeal that he was publicly scourged and forced to leave.
Returning from Illyria, he was confronted by the Arian archbishop of Milan Auxentius, who expelled him from the city.According to the early sources, Martin decided to seek shelter on the island then called Gallinaria, now Isola d'Albenga, in the Ligurian Sea, where he lived the solitary life of a hermit.Not entirely alone, since the chronicles indicate that he would have been in the company of a "priest, a man of great virtues", and for a period with Hilary of Poitiers; on this island, where the wild hens lived.
Martin lived on a diet of herbs and wild roots.It is alleged he ate hellebore, a plant that he did not know was poisonous.A legend tells that being on the verge of death for having eaten this herb, he prayed and was miraculously cured.
With the return of Hilary to his see in 361, Martin joined him and established a hermitage nearby, which soon attracted converts and followers.The crypt under the parish church (not the current Abbey Chapel) reveals traces of a Roman villa, probably part of the bath complex, which had been abandoned before Martin established himself there.This site was developed into the Benedictine Ligugé Abbey, the oldest monastery known in Europe.
It became a centre for the evangelisation of the country districts.He travelled and preached through western Gaul
He had been drawn to Tours by a ruse — he was urged to come to minister to someone sick — and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop.According to one version, he was so unwilling to be made bishop that he hid in a barn full of geese, but their cackling at his intrusion gave him away to the crowd; that may account for complaints by a few that his appearance was too disheveled to be commensurate with a bishopric, but the critics were hugely outnumbered.As bishop, Martin set to enthusiastically ordering the destruction of pagan temples, altars and sculptures
Sulpicius affirms that Martin withdrew from the city to live in Marmoutier ("Majus Monasterium"), the monastery he founded, which faces Tours from the opposite shore of the Loire.Recent excavations under the abbey church have revealed the traces of a Roman posting station, beside the main Roman road along the north bank of the Loire, which seems to have been the original dwelling for the community; the "caves" on the site are post-Roman and are probably the result of quarrying the coteau for the Romanesque abbey buildings.
"Here Martin and some of the monks who followed him built cells of wood; others lived in caves dug out of the rock" (Sulpicius Severus).
Martin introduced a rudimentary parish system.Once a year the bishop visited each of his parishes, traveling on foot, or by donkey or boat.He continued to set up monastic communities, and extended the bounds of his episcopate from Touraine to such distant points as Chartres, Paris, Autun, and Vienne.
In one instance, the pagans agreed to fell their sacred fir tree, if Martin would stand directly in its path.He did so, and it miraculously missed him.Sulpicius, a classically educated aristocrat, related this anecdote with dramatic details, as a set piece.
Sulpicius could not have failed to know the incident the Roman poet Horace recalls in several "Odes", of his narrow escape from a falling tree.Martin was so dedicated to the freeing of prisoners that when authorities, even emperors, heard he was coming, they refused to see him because they knew he would request mercy for someone and they would be unable to refuse.The churches of other parts of Gaul and in Spain were being disturbed by the Priscillianists, an ascetic sect, named after its leader, Priscillian.
The First Council of Saragossa had forbidden several of Priscillian's practices (albeit without mentioning Priscillian by name), but Priscillian was elected bishop of Avila shortly thereafter.Ithacius of Ossonoba appealed to the emperor Gratian, who issued a rescript against Priscillian and his followers.After failing to obtain the support of Ambrose of Milan and Pope Damasus I, Priscillian appealed to Magnus Maximus, who had usurped the throne from Gratian.
Although greatly opposed to the Priscillianists, Martin traveled to the Imperial court of Trier to remove them from the secular jurisdiction of the emperor.With Ambrose, Martin rejected Bishop Ithacius's principle of putting heretics to death—as well as the intrusion of the emperor into such matters.He prevailed upon the emperor to spare the life of the heretic Priscillian.
At first, Maximus acceded to his entreaty, but, when Martin had departed, yielded to Ithacius and ordered Priscillian and his followers to be beheaded (385).Martin then pleaded for a cessation of the persecution of Priscillian's followers in Spain.Deeply grieved, Martin refused to communicate with Ithacius, until pressured by the Emperor.
Martin died in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul (central France) in 397.The Abbey of Marmoutier was a monastery just outside today's city of Tours in Indre-et-Loire, France established by Martin around 372.Martin founded the monastery to escape attention and live life as a monastic.
The Abbey at Tours was one of the most prominent and influential establishments in medieval France.Charlemagne awarded the position of Abbot to his friend and adviser Alcuin.At this time the abbot could travel between Tours and the court at Trier in Germany and always stay overnight at one of his own properties.
It was at Tours that Alcuin's scriptorium (a room in monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic scribes) developed Caroline minuscule, the clear round hand that made manuscripts far more legible.In later times the abbey was destroyed by fire on several occasions and ransacked by Norman Vikings in 853 and in 903.It burned again in 994, and was rebuilt by Hervé de Buzançais, treasurer of Saint Martin, an effort that took 20 years to complete.
Expanded to accommodate the crowds of pilgrims and to attract them, the shrine of St. Martin of Tours became a major stopping-point on pilgrimages.In 1453 the remains of Saint Martin were transferred to a magnificent new reliquary donated by Charles VII of France and Agnes Sorel.During the French Wars of Religion, the basilica was sacked by the Protestant Huguenots in 1562.
It was disestablished during the French Revolution.It was deconsecrated, used as a stable, then utterly demolished.Its dressed stones were sold in 1802 after two streets were built across the site, to ensure the abbey would not be reconstructed.
While Martin was a soldier in the Roman army and stationed in Gaul (modern-day France), he experienced a vision, which became the most-repeated story about his life.One day as he was approaching the gates of the city of Amiens, he met a scantily clad beggar.He impulsively cut his military cloak in half to share with the man.
That night, Martin dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak he had given away.He heard Jesus say to the angels
In another version, when Martin woke, he found his cloak restored to wholeness.The dream confirmed Martin in his piety, and he was baptised at the age of 18.The part kept by himself became the famous relic preserved in the oratory of the Merovingian kings of the Franks at the Marmoutier Abbey near Tours.
During the Middle Ages, the supposed relic of St. Martin's miraculous cloak, ("cappa Sancti Martini") was carried by the king even into battle, and used as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn.The cloak is first attested in the royal treasury in 679, when it was conserved at the "palatium" of Luzarches, a royal villa that was later ceded to the monks of Saint-Denis by Charlemagne, in 798/99.The priest who cared for the cloak in its reliquary was called a "cappellanu", and ultimately all priests who served the military were called "cappellani".
The French translation is "chapelains", from which the English word "chaplain" is derived.A similar linguistic development took place for the term referring to the small temporary churches built for the relic.People called them a "capella", the word for a little cloak.
Eventually, such small churches lost their association with the cloak, and all small churches began to be referred to as "chapels".The early life of Martin was written by Sulpicius Severus, who knew him personally.It expresses the immediacy the 4th-century Christian felt with the Devil in all his disguises, and has many accounts of miracles.
Some follow familiar conventions— casting out devils, raising the paralytic and the dead.Others are more unusual
Venantius Fortunatus had earlier declared, "Wherever Christ is known, Martin is honored.
"When Bishop Perpetuus took office at Tours in 461, the little chapel over Martin's grave, built in the previous century by Martin's immediate successor, Bricius, was no longer sufficient for the crowd of pilgrims it was already drawing.Perpetuus built a larger basilica, 38 m long and 18 m wide, with 120 columns.
Martin's body was taken from the simple chapel at his hermitage at Candes-St-Martin to Tours and his sarcophagus was reburied behind the high altar of the new basilica.A large block of marble above the tomb, the gift of bishop Euphronius of Autun (472-475), rendered it visible to the faithful gathered behind the high altar.Werner Jacobsen suggests it may also have been visible to pilgrims encamped in the atrium of the basilica.
Contrary to the usual arrangement, the atrium was situated behind the church, close to the tomb in the apse, which may have been visible through a "fenestrella" in the apse wall.St.
Martin's popularity can be partially attributed to his adoption by successive royal houses of France.Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, one of many warring tribes in sixth-century France, promised his Christian wife Clotilda that he would be baptised if he was victorious over the Alemanni.
He credited the intervention of St Martin with his success, and with several following triumphs, including the defeat of Alaric II.The popular devotion to St Martin continued to be closely identified with the Merovingian monarchy
Martin's "cultus" survived the passage of power to the Merovingians' successors, the Carolingian dynasty.In 1860 excavations by Leo Dupont (1797–1876) established the dimensions of the former abbey and recovered some fragments of architecture.The tomb of St. Martin was rediscovered on December 14, 1860, which aided in the nineteenth-century revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin.
After the radical Paris Commune of 1871, there was a resurgence of conservative Catholic piety, and the church decided to build a basilica to St. Martin.They selected Victor Laloux as architect.He eschewed Gothic for a mix of Romanesque and Byzantine, sometimes defined as neo-Byzantine.
The new Basilique Saint-Martin was erected on a portion of its former site, which was purchased from the owners.Started in 1886, the church was consecrated 4 July 1925.Martin's renewed popularity in France was related to his promotion as a military saint during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871.
During the military and political crisis of the Franco-Prussian war, Napoleon III's Second Empire collapsed.After the surrender of Napoleon to the Prussians after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870, a provisional government of national defense was established, and France's Third Republic was proclaimed.Paris was evacuated due to the advancing enemy and for a brief time, Tours (September–December 1870) became the effective capital of France.
St Martin was promoted by the clerical right as the protector of the nation against the German threat.Conservatives associated the dramatic collapse of Napoleon III's regime as a sign of divine retribution on the irreligious emperor.Priests interpreted it as punishment for a nation led astray due to years of anti-clericalism.
They preached repentance and a return to religion for political stability.The ruined towers of the old royal basilica of St. Martin at Tours came to symbolize the decline of traditional Catholic France.With the government's relocation to Tours during the Franco-Prussian War, 1870, numerous pilgrims were attracted to St. Martin's tomb.
It was covered by a temporary chapel built by archbishop Guibert.The popular devotion to St. Martin was also associated with the nationalistic devotion to the Sacred Heart.The flag of Sacre-Coeur, borne by Ultramontane Catholic Pontifical Zouaves who fought at Patay, had been placed overnight in St. Martin's tomb before being taken into battle on October 9, 1870.
The banner read "Heart of Jesus Save France" and on the reverse side Carmelite nuns of Tours embroidered "Saint Martin Protect France".As the French army was victorious in Patay, many among the faithful took the victory to be the result of divine favor.Popular hymns of the 1870s developed the theme of national protection under the cover of Martin's cloak, the "first flag of France".During the nineteenth-century Frenchmen, influenced by secularism, agnosticism, and anti-clericalism, deserted the church in great numbers.
As Martin was a man's saint, the devotion to him was an exception to this trend.For men serving in the military, Martin of Tours was presented by the Catholic Right as the masculine model of principled behavior.He was a brave fighter, knew his obligation to the poor, shared his goods, performed his required military service, followed legitimate orders, and respected secular authority.
During the 1870s, the procession to St. Martin's tomb at Tours became a display of ecclesiastical and military cooperation.Army officers in full uniform acted as military escorts, symbolically protecting the clergy and clearing the path for them.Anti-clerics viewed the staging of public religious processions as a violation of civic space.
In 1878, M. Rivière, the provisional mayor of Tours, with anticlerical support banned the November procession in honor of St. Martin.President Patrice de Mac-Mahon was succeeded by the Republican Jules Grévy, who created a new national anticlerical offensive.Bishop Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie of Poitiers united conservatives and devised a massive demonstration for the November 1879 procession.
Pie's ultimate hope was that St Martin would stop the “chariot” of modern society, and lead to the creation of a France where the religious and secular sectors merged.The struggle between the two men was reflective of that between conservatives and anti-clerics over the church's power in the army.From 1874, military chaplains were allowed in the army in times of peace, but anti-clerics viewed the chaplains as sinister monarchists and counter-revolutionaries.
Conservatives responded by creating the short-lived Legion de Saint Maurice in 1878 and the society, Notre Dame de Soldats, to provide unpaid voluntary chaplains with financial support.The legislature passed the anticlerical Duvaux Bill of 1880, which reduced the number of chaplains in the French army.Anticlerical legislators wanted commanders, not chaplains, to provide troops with moral support and to supervise their formation in the established faith of "patriotic Republicanism."
St. Martin has long been associated with France's royal heritage.Monsignor René François Renou (Archbishop of Tours, 1896–1913) worked to associate St. Martin as a specifically "republican" patron.Renou had served as a chaplain to the 88e Régiment des mobils d'Indre-et-Loire during the Franco-Prussian war and was known as the "army bishop."
Renou was a strong supporter of St. Martin and believed that the national destiny of France and all its victories were attributed to him.He linked the military to the cloak of St. Martin, which was the "first flag of France" to the French tricolor, "the symbol of the union of the old and new.
"This flag symbolism connected the devotion to St. Martin with the Third Republic.
But, the tensions of the Dreyfus Affair renewed anti-clericalism in France and drove a wedge between the Church and the Republic.By 1905, the influence of Rene Waldeck-Rousseau and Emile Combes, combined with deteriorating relations with the Vatican, led to the separation of church and state.St.
Martin's popularity was renewed during the First World War.
Anticlericalism declined, and priests served in the French forces as chaplains.More than 5,000 of them died in the war.In 1916, Assumptionists organized a national pilgrimage to Tours that attracted people from all of France.
The devotion to St. Martin was amplified in the dioceses of France, where special prayers were offered to the patron saint.When the armistice was signed on Saint Martin's Day, 11 November 1918, the French people saw it was a sign of his intercession in the affairs of France.He is the patron saint of beggars (because of his sharing his cloak), wool-weavers and tailors (also because of his cloak), he is also the patron saint of the US Army Quartermaster Corps even though he detested violence (also because of sharing his cloak), geese (some say because they gave his hiding place away when he tried to avoid being chosen as bishop, others because their migration coincides with his feast), vintners and innkeepers (because his feast falls just after the late grape harvest), and France.
Beyond his patronage of the French Third Republic, Saint Martin more recently has also been described in terms of "a spiritual bridge across Europe" due to his "international" background, being a native of Pannonia who spent his adult life in Gaul.Martin is most generally portrayed on horseback dividing his cloak with the beggar.His emblem in English art is often that of a goose, whose annual migration is about late Autumn.
The Museum Catharijneconvent in Utrecht has a relic in its collection which is called "the hammer of St. Martin of Tours" (Latin
The grip contains a Latin text saying ""Ydola vanurunt Martini cesa securi nemo deos credat qui sic fuerant ruicuri"" ("the pagan statues fall down, hit by St. Martin's axe.Let nobody believe that those are gods, who so easily fall down").Legend says that the axe belonged to St. Martin, and was used to hit the devil and to destroy the heathen temples and statues.
By the early 9th century, respect for Saint Martin was well-established in Ireland.His monastery at Marmoûtiers became the training ground for many Celtic missions and missionaries.Some believe that St. Patrick was his nephew and that Patrick was one of many Celtic notables who lived for a time at Marmoûtiers.
St. Ninian definitely studied at Marmoûtiers and was profoundly influenced by Martin, carrying a deep love and respect for his teacher and his methods back to Scotland.Ninian was in the process of building a church when news reached him of Martin's death.Ninian dedicated that church to Martin.
The Book of Armagh contains three distinct groups of material
In the "Life of Columba", Adamnan mentions in passing that St Martin was commemorated during Mass at Iona.In his "Ireland and Her Neighbours in the Seventh Century", Michael Richter attributes this to the mission of Palladius seen within the wider context of the mission of Germanus of Auxerre to Britain around 429.Thus, this could be the context in which the Life of St Martin was brought from Gaul to Ireland at an early date, and could explain how Columbanus was familiar with it before he ever left Ireland.
Founded by Martin of Tours in 360, Ligugé Abbey is one of the earliest monastic foundations in France.The reputation of the founder attracted a large number of disciples to the new monastery; the disciples initially living in locaciacum or small huts, this name later evolved to Ligugé.Its reputation was soon eclipsed by Martin's later foundation at Marmoutier.
As of 2013, the Benedictine community at Ligugé numbered twenty-five.From the late 4th century to the late Middle Ages, much of Western Europe, including Great Britain, engaged in a period of fasting beginning on the day after St. Martin's Day, November 11.This fast period lasted 40 days, and was, therefore, called "Quadragesima Sancti Martini", which means in Latin "the forty days of St.