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C166957645

Archaeology

https://doi.org/10.15468/14epds

study of human past through material culture

Vascular plant herbarium, The Arctic University Museum of Norway (TROM)

The vascular plant herbarium TROM at The Arctic University Museum of Norway (former Tromsø Museum) houses about 200 000 specimens. The collection is arranged in four parts: Nordic, Arctic, ‘Other foreign’ and Garden plants. TROM is particularly rich in accessions from the North of Norwegian mainland. Among the Nordic collections, 80-85 % originate from North Norway, Troms og Finnmark and Nordland counties. Herbarium also contains valuable collections from other Nordic countries as well as the circum-arctic areas. The Arctic herbarium contains over 10 000 specimens from Svalbard, Bjørnøya, Greenland, arctic Russia, arctic Canada and Alaska.

C166957645

Archaeology

https://doi.org/10.15468/8cxijb

study of human past through material culture

University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Division of Fishes

The collections of the Fish Division comprise 193,555 cataloged lots, with over 3.4 million total specimens. 406 fish families, 2,901 genera and approximately 8,000 nominal species are represented in the collections. In addition to formalin-fixed, alcohol-preserved specimens, the collections contain 10,176 dry skeletons and 10,458 cleared and stained glycerin preparations. Type material representing more than 1,500 nominal species includes 626 primary type specimens and 4,385 lots of paratypes. Geographic strengths of the collections include North American fresh and marine waters, Southeast Asia, South America, and Mexico, but all major aquatic habitats are represented. Digital images of field notes (> 5,000 records) and fish specimens (> 6,000 images), as well as catalog records and other collection documents, are available to researchers upon request.

C166957645

Archaeology

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511813016

study of human past through material culture

A History of Archaeological Thought

In its original edition, Bruce Trigger's book was the first ever to examine the history of archaeological thought from medieval times to the present in world-wide perspective. Now, in this new edition, he both updates the original work and introduces new archaeological perspectives and concerns. At once stimulating and even-handed, it places the development of archaeological thought and theory throughout within a broad social and intellectual framework. The successive but interacting trends apparent in archaeological thought are defined and the author seeks to determine the extent to which these trends were a reflection of the personal and collective interests of archaeologists as these relate - in the West at least - to the fluctuating fortunes of the middle classes. While subjective influences have been powerful, Professor Trigger argues that the gradual accumulation of archaeological data has exercised a growing constraint on interpretation. In turn, this has increased the objectivity of archaeological research and enhanced its value for understanding the entire span of human history and the human condition in general.

C166957645

Archaeology

https://doi.org/10.2307/505763

study of human past through material culture

<i>A History of Archaeological Thought</i>. By Bruce G. Trigger.

Previous articleNext article No AccessBook ReviewsA History of Archaeological Thought. By Bruce G. Trigger.David B. SmallDavid B. Small Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by American Journal of Archaeology Volume 96, Number 1January 1992 The journal of the Archaeological Institute of America Views: 2Total views on this site Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.2307/505763 Views: 2Total views on this site Copyright © 1992 by the Archaeological Institute of America. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n18-1202

study of human language

Deep Contextualized Word Representations

Matthew E. Peters, Mark Neumann, Mohit Iyyer, Matt Gardner, Christopher Clark, Kenton Lee, Luke Zettlemoyer. Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long Papers). 2018.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.34-1950

study of human language

Reading images: the grammar of visual design

Introduction 1. The Semiotic Landscape 2. Narrative Representations: Designing Social Action 3. Conceptual Representations: Designing Social Constructs 4. Representation and Interaction: Designing the Position of the Viewer 5. Morality: Designing Models of Reality 6. The Meaning of Composition 7. The Materiality of Meaning - Surface and Inscription 8. The Third Dimension

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.2307/3587792

study of human language

Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English

* Over 350 tables and graphs show the frequency of constructions in different contexts, from conversation to fiction to academic prose * Entirely corpus-based with 6000 authentic examples from the 40 million-word Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus * Suggests the reasons why we choose a particular structure in a particular context * Compares British and American spoken and written English Areas covered include basic grammar: description and distribution, key word classes and their phrases and complex structures. Each area is subdivided into more detailed content.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.21236/ada273556

study of human language

Building a Large Annotated Corpus of English: The Penn Treebank

Abstract : As a result of this grant, the researchers have now published oil CDROM a corpus of over 4 million words of running text annotated with part-of- speech (POS) tags, with over 3 million words of that material assigned skeletal grammatical structure. This material now includes a fully hand-parsed version of the classic Brown corpus. About one half of the papers at the ACL Workshop on Using Large Text Corpora this past summer were based on the materials generated by this grant.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173865.013

study of human language

The contemporary theory of metaphor

These famous lines by Thomas and Stevens are examples of what classical theorists, at least since Aristotle, have referred to as metaphor: instances of novel poetic language in which words like "mother," "go," and "night" are not used in their normal everyday sense. In classical theories of language, metaphor was seen as a matter of language, not thought. Metaphorical expressions were assumed to be mutually exclusive with the realm of ordinary everday language: everyday language had no metaphor, and metaphor used mechanisms outside the realm of everyday conventional language.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781912281732

study of human language

Course in General Linguistics

and neglects the living language.Moreover, it is concerned with little except Greek and Latin antiquity.The third stage began when scholars discovered that languages can be compared with one another.This discovery was the origin of "comparative philology."In 1816, in a work entitled tJher das Conjugationssijstem der Sanskritsprache, Franz Bopp compared Sanskrit with German, Greek, Latin, etc. Bopp was not the first to record their similarities and state that all these languages belong to a single family.That had been done before him, notably by the English orientalist W. Jones (died in 1794) ; but Jones' few isolated statements do not prove that the significance and importance of comparison had been generally understood before 1816.While Bopp cannot be credited with the discovery that Sanskrit is re- lated to certain languages of Europe and Asia, he did realize that the comparison of related languages could become the subject matter of an independent science.To illuminate one language by means of another, to explain the forms of one through the forms of the other, that is what no one had done before him.Whether Bopp could have created his science-so quickly at least-without the prior discovery of Sanskrit is doubtful.With Sanskrit as a third witness beside Latin and Greek, Bopp had a larger and firmer basis for his studies.Fortunately, Sanskrit was exceptionally well-fitted to the role of illuminating the comparison.For example, a comparison of the paradigms of Latin genus (genus, generis, genere, genera, generum, etc.) and Greek (genos, gineos, genei, genea, geneon, etc.) reveals nothing.But the picture changes as soon as we add the corresponding Sanskrit series (ganas, ganasas, ganasi, ganasu, ^anasdm, etc.).A glance reveals the simi- larity between the Greek forms and the Latin forms.If we accept tentatively the hypothesis that ^anas represents the primi- tive state-and this step facilitates explanation-then we conclude that s must have fallen in Greek forms wherever it occurred be- tween two vowels.Next we conclude that s became r in Latin under the same conditions.Grammatically, then, the Sanskrit paradigm exemplifies the concept of radical, a unit (ganas) that is quite definite and stable.Latin and Greek had the same forms as San- skrit only in their earlier stages.Here Sanskrit is instructive pre- cisely because it has preserved all the Indo-European s's.Of course A GLANCE AT THE HISTORY OF LINGUISTICS 5 proper place, owes its origin to the study of the Romance and Germanic languages.Romance studies, begun by Diez-his Gram- matik der romanischen Sprachen dates from 1836-38-were instrumental in bringing linguistics nearer to its true object.For Romance scholars enjoyed privileged conditions that were un- known to Indo-European scholars.They had direct access to Latin, the prototype of the Romance languages, and an abundance of texts allowed them to trace in detail the evolution of the different dialects; these two circumstances narrowed the field of conjecture and provided a remarkably solid frame for all their research.Germanic scholars were in a similar situation.Though they could not study the prototype directly, numerous texts enabled them to trace the history of the languages derived from Proto-Germanic through the course of many centuries.The Germanic scholars, coming to closer grips with reality than had the first Indo-Euro- pean scholars, reached different conclusions.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511611834

study of human language

Discourse Strategies

To understand the role of language in public life and the social process in general, we need first a closer understanding of how linguistic knowledge and social factors interact in discourse interpretation. This volume is a major advance towards that understanding. Professor Gumperz here synthesizes fundamental research on communication from a wide variety of disciplines - linguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropology and non-verbal communication - and develops an original and broadly based theory of conversational inference which shows how verbal communication can serve either between individuals of different social and ethnic backgrounds. The urgent need to overcome such barriers to effective communication is also a central concern of the book. Examples of conversational exchanges as well as of longer encounters, recorded in the urban United States, village Austria, South Asia and Britain, and analyzed to illustrate all aspects of the analytical approach, and to show how subconscious cultural presuppositions can damagingly affect interpretation of intent and judgement of interspeaker attitude. The volume will be of central interest to anyone concerned with communication, whether from a more academic viewpoint or as a professional working, for example, in the fields of interethnic or industrial relations.

C41895202

Linguistics

https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756171.ch1

study of human language

Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar

This chapter contains sections titled: Optimality Optimality in Grammar: Core Syllabication in Imdlawn Tashlhiyt Berber The Construction of Grammar in Optimality Theory

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527618156

branch of physics concerning light

Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles

BASIC THEORY. Electromagnetic Theory. Absorption and Scattering by an Arbitrary Particle. Absorption and Scattering by a Sphere. Particles Small Compared with the Wavelength. Rayleigh--Gans Theory. Geometrical Optics. A Potpourri of Particles. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER. Classical Theories of Optical Constants. Measured Optical Properties. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES. Extinction. Surface Modes in Small Particles. Angular Dependence of Scattering. A Miscellany of Applications. Appendices. References. Index.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.56.930

branch of physics concerning light

Atomic Force Microscope

The scanning tunneling microscope is proposed as a method to measure forces as small as ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}18}$ N. As one application for this concept, we introduce a new type of microscope capable of investigating surfaces of insulators on an atomic scale. The atomic force microscope is a combination of the principles of the scanning tunneling microscope and the stylus profilometer. It incorporates a probe that does not damage the surface. Our preliminary results in air demonstrate a lateral resolution of 30 \AA{}A and a vertical resolution less than 1 \AA{}.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1957169

branch of physics concerning light

Optical Coherence Tomography

A technique called optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been developed for noninvasive cross-sectional imaging in biological systems. OCT uses low-coherence interferometry to produce a two-dimensional image of optical scattering from internal tissue microstructures in a way that is analogous to ultrasonic pulse-echo imaging. OCT has longitudinal and lateral spatial resolutions of a few micrometers and can detect reflected signals as small as approximately 10(-10) of the incident optical power. Tomographic imaging is demonstrated in vitro in the peripapillary area of the retina and in the coronary artery, two clinically relevant examples that are representative of transparent and turbid media, respectively.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.85.3966

branch of physics concerning light

Negative Refraction Makes a Perfect Lens

With a conventional lens sharpness of the image is always limited by the wavelength of light. An unconventional alternative to a lens, a slab of negative refractive index material, has the power to focus all Fourier components of a 2D image, even those that do not propagate in a radiative manner. Such "superlenses" can be realized in the microwave band with current technology. Our simulations show that a version of the lens operating at the frequency of visible light can be realized in the form of a thin slab of silver. This optical version resolves objects only a few nanometers across.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.84.4184

branch of physics concerning light

Composite Medium with Simultaneously Negative Permeability and Permittivity

We demonstrate a composite medium, based on a periodic array of interspaced conducting nonmagnetic split ring resonators and continuous wires, that exhibits a frequency region in the microwave regime with simultaneously negative values of effective permeability &mgr;(eff)(omega) and permittivity varepsilon(eff)(omega). This structure forms a "left-handed" medium, for which it has been predicted that such phenomena as the Doppler effect, Cherenkov radiation, and even Snell's law are inverted. It is now possible through microwave experiments to test for these effects using this new metamaterial.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1210713

branch of physics concerning light

Light Propagation with Phase Discontinuities: Generalized Laws of Reflection and Refraction

Conventional optical components rely on gradual phase shifts accumulated during light propagation to shape light beams. New degrees of freedom are attained by introducing abrupt phase changes over the scale of the wavelength. A two-dimensional array of optical resonators with spatially varying phase response and subwavelength separation can imprint such phase discontinuities on propagating light as it traverses the interface between two media. Anomalous reflection and refraction phenomena are observed in this regime in optically thin arrays of metallic antennas on silicon with a linear phase variation along the interface, which are in excellent agreement with generalized laws derived from Fermat's principle. Phase discontinuities provide great flexibility in the design of light beams, as illustrated by the generation of optical vortices through use of planar designer metallic interfaces.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139644105

branch of physics concerning light

Optical Coherence and Quantum Optics

This book presents a systematic account of optical coherence theory within the framework of classical optics, as applied to such topics as radiation from sources of different states of coherence, foundations of radiometry, effects of source coherence on the spectra of radiated fields, coherence theory of laser modes, and scattering of partially coherent light by random media. The book starts with a full mathematical introduction to the subject area and each chapter concludes with a set of exercises. The authors are renowned scientists and have made substantial contributions to many of the topics treated in the book. Much of the book is based on courses given by them at universities, scientific meetings and laboratories throughout the world. This book will undoubtedly become an indispensable aid to scientists and engineers concerned with modern optics, as well as to teachers and graduate students of physics and engineering.

C120665830

Optics

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133628

branch of physics concerning light

Metamaterial Electromagnetic Cloak at Microwave Frequencies

A recently published theory has suggested that a cloak of invisibility is in principle possible, at least over a narrow frequency band. We describe here the first practical realization of such a cloak; in our demonstration, a copper cylinder was "hidden" inside a cloak constructed according to the previous theoretical prescription. The cloak was constructed with the use of artificially structured metamaterials, designed for operation over a band of microwave frequencies. The cloak decreased scattering from the hidden object while at the same time reducing its shadow, so that the cloak and object combined began to resemble empty space.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msy096

software that manages computer hardware resources

MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across Computing Platforms

The Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (Mega) software implements many analytical methods and tools for phylogenomics and phylomedicine. Here, we report a transformation of Mega to enable cross-platform use on Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems. Mega X does not require virtualization or emulation software and provides a uniform user experience across platforms. Mega X has additionally been upgraded to use multiple computing cores for many molecular evolutionary analyses. Mega X is available in two interfaces (graphical and command line) and can be downloaded from www.megasoftware.net free of charge.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btm404

software that manages computer hardware resources

Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0

Abstract Summary: The Clustal W and Clustal X multiple sequence alignment programs have been completely rewritten in C++. This will facilitate the further development of the alignment algorithms in the future and has allowed proper porting of the programs to the latest versions of Linux, Macintosh and Windows operating systems. Availability: The programs can be run on-line from the EBI web server: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/tools/clustalw2. The source code and executables for Windows, Linux and Macintosh computers are available from the EBI ftp site ftp://ftp.ebi.ac.uk/pub/software/clustalw2/ Contact: [email protected]

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btu031

software that manages computer hardware resources

InterProScan 5: genome-scale protein function classification

Motivation: Robust large-scale sequence analysis is a major challenge in modern genomic science, where biologists are frequently trying to characterize many millions of sequences. Here, we describe a new Java-based architecture for the widely used protein function prediction software package InterProScan. Developments include improvements and additions to the outputs of the software and the complete reimplementation of the software framework, resulting in a flexible and stable system that is able to use both multiprocessor machines and/or conventional clusters to achieve scalable distributed data analysis. InterProScan is freely available for download from the EMBl-EBI FTP site and the open source code is hosted at Google Code.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1145/1165389.945462

software that manages computer hardware resources

Xen and the art of virtualization

Numerous systems have been designed which use virtualization to subdivide the ample resources of a modern computer. Some require specialized hardware, or cannot support commodity operating systems. Some target 100% binary compatibility at the expense of performance. Others sacrifice security or functionality for speed. Few offer resource isolation or performance guarantees; most provide only best-effort provisioning, risking denial of service.This paper presents Xen, an x86 virtual machine monitor which allows multiple commodity operating systems to share conventional hardware in a safe and resource managed fashion, but without sacrificing either performance or functionality. This is achieved by providing an idealized virtual machine abstraction to which operating systems such as Linux, BSD and Windows XP, can be ported with minimal effort.Our design is targeted at hosting up to 100 virtual machine instances simultaneously on a modern server. The virtualization approach taken by Xen is extremely efficient: we allow operating systems such as Linux and Windows XP to be hosted simultaneously for a negligible performance overhead --- at most a few percent compared with the unvirtualized case. We considerably outperform competing commercial and freely available solutions in a range of microbenchmarks and system-wide tests.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/bth078

software that manages computer hardware resources

Open source clustering software

Abstract Summary: We have implemented k-means clustering, hierarchical clustering and self-organizing maps in a single multipurpose open-source library of C routines, callable from other C and C++ programs. Using this library, we have created an improved version of Michael Eisen's well-known Cluster program for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux/Unix. In addition, we generated a Python and a Perl interface to the C Clustering Library, thereby combining the flexibility of a scripting language with the speed of C. Availability: The C Clustering Library and the corresponding Python C extension module Pycluster were released under the Python License, while the Perl module Algorithm::Cluster was released under the Artistic License. The GUI code Cluster 3.0 for Windows, Macintosh and Linux/Unix, as well as the corresponding command-line program, were released under the same license as the original Cluster code. The complete source code is available at http://bonsai.ims.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~mdehoon/software/cluster. Alternatively, Algorithm::Cluster can be downloaded from CPAN, while Pycluster is also available as part of the Biopython distribution.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1086/428488

software that manages computer hardware resources

The Australia Telescope National Facility Pulsar Catalogue

We have compiled a new and complete catalog of the main properties of the 1509 pulsars for which published information currently exists. The catalog includes all spin-powered pulsars as well as anomalous X-ray pulsars and soft gamma-ray repeaters showing coherent pulsed emission, but excludes accretion-powered systems. References are given for all data listed. We have also developed a new web interface for accessing and displaying either tabular or plotted data with the option of selecting pulsars to be displayed via logical conditions on parameter expressions. The web interface has an ``expert'' mode giving access to a wider range of parameters and allowing the use of custom databases. For users with locally installed software and database on unix or linux systems, the catalog may be accessed from a command-line interface. C-language functions to access specified parameters are also available. The catalog is updated from time to time to include new information.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/18.3.502

software that manages computer hardware resources

TREE-PUZZLE: maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis using quartets and parallel computing

Abstract Summary: TREE-PUZZLE is a program package for quartet-based maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analysis (formerly PUZZLE, Strimmer and von Haeseler, Mol. Biol. Evol. , 13, 964–969, 1996) that provides methods for reconstruction, comparison, and testing of trees and models on DNA as well as protein sequences. To reduce waiting time for larger datasets the tree reconstruction part of the software has been parallelized using message passing that runs on clusters of workstations as well as parallel computers. Availability: http://www.tree-puzzle.de. The program is written in ANSI C. TREE-PUZZLE can be run on UNIX, Windows and Mac systems, including Mac OS X. To run the parallel version of PUZZLE, a Message Passing Interface (MPI) library has to be installed on the system. Free MPI implementations are available on the Web (cf. http://www.lam-mpi.org/mpi/implementations/). Contact: [email protected]; [email protected] * To whom correspondence should be addressed.

C111919701

Operating system

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btr088

software that manages computer hardware resources

ProtTest 3: fast selection of best-fit models of protein evolution

Abstract Summary: We have implemented a high-performance computing (HPC) version of ProtTest that can be executed in parallel in multicore desktops and clusters. This version, called ProtTest 3, includes new features and extended capabilities. Availability: ProtTest 3 source code and binaries are freely available under GNU license for download from http://darwin.uvigo.es/software/prottest3, linked to a Mercurial repository at Bitbucket (https://bitbucket.org/). Contact: [email protected] Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-192-2:365

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Primer3 on the WWW for General Users and for Biologist Programmers

Designing PCR and sequencing primers are essential activities for molecular biologists around the world. This chapter assumes acquaintance with the principles and practice of PCR, as outlined in, for example, refs. 1–4.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid

Research Article| February 01 1956 A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid K. Burton K. Burton 1Medical Research Council, Cell Metabolism Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Author and article information Publisher: Portland Press Ltd © 1956 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS1956 Biochem J (1956) 62 (2): 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Cite Icon Cite Get Permissions Citation K. Burton; A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid. Biochem J 1 February 1956; 62 (2): 315–323. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll JournalsBiochemical Journal Search Advanced Search This content is only available as a PDF. © 1956 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS1956 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/bti610

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Blast2GO: a universal tool for annotation, visualization and analysis in functional genomics research

We present here Blast2GO (B2G), a research tool designed with the main purpose of enabling Gene Ontology (GO) based data mining on sequence data for which no GO annotation is yet available. B2G joints in one application GO annotation based on similarity searches with statistical analysis and highlighted visualization on directed acyclic graphs. This tool offers a suitable platform for functional genomics research in non-model species. B2G is an intuitive and interactive desktop application that allows monitoring and comprehension of the whole annotation and analysis process.Blast2GO is freely available via Java Web Start at http://www.blast2go.de.http://www.blast2go.de -> Evaluation.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511809071

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Class-tested and coherent, this textbook teaches classical and web information retrieval, including web search and the related areas of text classification and text clustering from basic concepts. It gives an up-to-date treatment of all aspects of the design and implementation of systems for gathering, indexing, and searching documents; methods for evaluating systems; and an introduction to the use of machine learning methods on text collections. All the important ideas are explained using examples and figures, making it perfect for introductory courses in information retrieval for advanced undergraduates and graduate students in computer science. Based on feedback from extensive classroom experience, the book has been carefully structured in order to make teaching more natural and effective. Slides and additional exercises (with solutions for lecturers) are also available through the book's supporting website to help course instructors prepare their lectures.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btp033

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Jalview Version 2—a multiple sequence alignment editor and analysis workbench

Abstract Summary: Jalview Version 2 is a system for interactive WYSIWYG editing, analysis and annotation of multiple sequence alignments. Core features include keyboard and mouse-based editing, multiple views and alignment overviews, and linked structure display with Jmol. Jalview 2 is available in two forms: a lightweight Java applet for use in web applications, and a powerful desktop application that employs web services for sequence alignment, secondary structure prediction and the retrieval of alignments, sequences, annotation and structures from public databases and any DAS 1.53 compliant sequence or annotation server. Availability: The Jalview 2 Desktop application and JalviewLite applet are made freely available under the GPL, and can be downloaded from www.jalview.org Contact: [email protected]

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1145/324133.324140

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Authoritative sources in a hyperlinked environment

The network structure of a hyperlinked environment can be a rich source of information about the content of the environment, provided we have effective means for understanding it. We develop a set of algorithmic tools for extracting information from the link structures of such environments, and report on experiments that demonstrate their effectiveness in a variety of context on the World Wide Web. The central issue we address within our framework is the distillation of broad search topics, through the discovery of “authorative” information sources on such topics. We propose and test an algorithmic formulation of the notion of authority, based on the relationship between a set of relevant authoritative pages and the set of “hub pages” that join them together in the link structure. Our formulation has connections to the eigenvectors of certain matrices associated with the link graph; these connections in turn motivate additional heuristrics for link-based analysis.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gks1193

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

NCBI GEO: archive for functional genomics data sets—update

The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/) is an international public repository for high-throughput microarray and next-generation sequence functional genomic data sets submitted by the research community. The resource supports archiving of raw data, processed data and metadata which are indexed, cross-linked and searchable. All data are freely available for download in a variety of formats. GEO also provides several web-based tools and strategies to assist users to query, analyse and visualize data. This article reports current status and recent database developments, including the release of GEO2R, an R-based web application that helps users analyse GEO data.

C136764020

World Wide Web

https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-2946-3-33

system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet

Open Babel: An open chemical toolbox

A frequent problem in computational modeling is the interconversion of chemical structures between different formats. While standard interchange formats exist (for example, Chemical Markup Language) and de facto standards have arisen (for example, SMILES format), the need to interconvert formats is a continuing problem due to the multitude of different application areas for chemistry data, differences in the data stored by different formats (0D versus 3D, for example), and competition between software along with a lack of vendor-neutral formats.We discuss, for the first time, Open Babel, an open-source chemical toolbox that speaks the many languages of chemical data. Open Babel version 2.3 interconverts over 110 formats. The need to represent such a wide variety of chemical and molecular data requires a library that implements a wide range of cheminformatics algorithms, from partial charge assignment and aromaticity detection, to bond order perception and canonicalization. We detail the implementation of Open Babel, describe key advances in the 2.3 release, and outline a variety of uses both in terms of software products and scientific research, including applications far beyond simple format interconversion.Open Babel presents a solution to the proliferation of multiple chemical file formats. In addition, it provides a variety of useful utilities from conformer searching and 2D depiction, to filtering, batch conversion, and substructure and similarity searching. For developers, it can be used as a programming library to handle chemical data in areas such as organic chemistry, drug design, materials science, and computational chemistry. It is freely available under an open-source license from http://openbabel.org.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199108153250701

medical specialty

Beneficial Effect of Carotid Endarterectomy in Symptomatic Patients with High-Grade Carotid Stenosis

Without strong evidence of benefit, the use of carotid endarterectomy for prophylaxis against stroke rose dramatically until the mid-1980s, then declined. Our investigation sought to determine whether carotid endarterectomy reduces the risk of stroke among patients with a recent adverse cerebrovascular event and ipsilateral carotid stenosis.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1008232

medical specialty

Transcatheter Aortic-Valve Implantation for Aortic Stenosis in Patients Who Cannot Undergo Surgery

Many patients with severe aortic stenosis and coexisting conditions are not candidates for surgical replacement of the aortic valve. Recently, transcatheter aortic-valve implantation (TAVI) has been suggested as a less invasive treatment for high-risk patients with aortic stenosis.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1411587

medical specialty

A Randomized Trial of Intraarterial Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke

In patients with acute ischemic stroke caused by a proximal intracranial arterial occlusion, intraarterial treatment is highly effective for emergency revascularization. However, proof of a beneficial effect on functional outcome is lacking.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa022152

medical specialty

Twenty-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Trial Comparing Total Mastectomy, Lumpectomy, and Lumpectomy plus Irradiation for the Treatment of Invasive Breast Cancer

In 1976, we initiated a randomized trial to determine whether lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy was as effective as total mastectomy for the treatment of invasive breast cancer.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1103510

medical specialty

Transcatheter versus Surgical Aortic-Valve Replacement in High-Risk Patients

The use of transcatheter aortic-valve replacement has been shown to reduce mortality among high-risk patients with aortic stenosis who are not candidates for surgical replacement. However, the two procedures have not been compared in a randomized trial involving high-risk patients who are still candidates for surgical replacement.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa040694

medical specialty

Preoperative versus Postoperative Chemoradiotherapy for Rectal Cancer

Postoperative chemoradiotherapy is the recommended standard therapy for patients with locally advanced rectal cancer. In recent years, encouraging results with preoperative radiotherapy have been reported. We compared preoperative chemoradiotherapy with postoperative chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer.We randomly assigned patients with clinical stage T3 or T4 or node-positive disease to receive either preoperative or postoperative chemoradiotherapy. The preoperative treatment consisted of 5040 cGy delivered in fractions of 180 cGy per day, five days per week, and fluorouracil, given in a 120-hour continuous intravenous infusion at a dose of 1000 mg per square meter of body-surface area per day during the first and fifth weeks of radiotherapy. Surgery was performed six weeks after the completion of chemoradiotherapy. One month after surgery, four five-day cycles of fluorouracil (500 mg per square meter per day) were given. Chemoradiotherapy was identical in the postoperative-treatment group, except for the delivery of a boost of 540 cGy. The primary end point was overall survival.Four hundred twenty-one patients were randomly assigned to receive preoperative chemoradiotherapy and 402 patients to receive postoperative chemoradiotherapy. The overall five-year survival rates were 76 percent and 74 percent, respectively (P=0.80). The five-year cumulative incidence of local relapse was 6 percent for patients assigned to preoperative chemoradiotherapy and 13 percent in the postoperative-treatment group (P=0.006). Grade 3 or 4 acute toxic effects occurred in 27 percent of the patients in the preoperative-treatment group, as compared with 40 percent of the patients in the postoperative-treatment group (P=0.001); the corresponding rates of long-term toxic effects were 14 percent and 24 percent, respectively (P=0.01).Preoperative chemoradiotherapy, as compared with postoperative chemoradiotherapy, improved local control and was associated with reduced toxicity but did not improve overall survival.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa055531

medical specialty

Perioperative Chemotherapy versus Surgery Alone for Resectable Gastroesophageal Cancer

A regimen of epirubicin, cisplatin, and infused fluorouracil (ECF) improves survival among patients with incurable locally advanced or metastatic gastric adenocarcinoma. We assessed whether the addition of a perioperative regimen of ECF to surgery improves outcomes among patients with potentially curable gastric cancer.

C141071460

Surgery

https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1414905

medical specialty

Randomized Assessment of Rapid Endovascular Treatment of Ischemic Stroke

Among patients with a proximal vessel occlusion in the anterior circulation, 60 to 80% of patients die within 90 days after stroke onset or do not regain functional independence despite alteplase treatment. We evaluated rapid endovascular treatment in addition to standard care in patients with acute ischemic stroke with a small infarct core, a proximal intracranial arterial occlusion, and moderate-to-good collateral circulation.We randomly assigned participants to receive standard care (control group) or standard care plus endovascular treatment with the use of available thrombectomy devices (intervention group). Patients with a proximal intracranial occlusion in the anterior circulation were included up to 12 hours after symptom onset. Patients with a large infarct core or poor collateral circulation on computed tomography (CT) and CT angiography were excluded. Workflow times were measured against predetermined targets. The primary outcome was the score on the modified Rankin scale (range, 0 [no symptoms] to 6 [death]) at 90 days. A proportional odds model was used to calculate the common odds ratio as a measure of the likelihood that the intervention would lead to lower scores on the modified Rankin scale than would control care (shift analysis).The trial was stopped early because of efficacy. At 22 centers worldwide, 316 participants were enrolled, of whom 238 received intravenous alteplase (120 in the intervention group and 118 in the control group). In the intervention group, the median time from study CT of the head to first reperfusion was 84 minutes. The rate of functional independence (90-day modified Rankin score of 0 to 2) was increased with the intervention (53.0%, vs. 29.3% in the control group; P<0.001). The primary outcome favored the intervention (common odds ratio, 2.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.7 to 3.8; P<0.001), and the intervention was associated with reduced mortality (10.4%, vs. 19.0% in the control group; P=0.04). Symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage occurred in 3.6% of participants in intervention group and 2.7% of participants in control group (P=0.75).Among patients with acute ischemic stroke with a proximal vessel occlusion, a small infarct core, and moderate-to-good collateral circulation, rapid endovascular treatment improved functional outcomes and reduced mortality. (Funded by Covidien and others; ESCAPE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01778335.).

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1080/14786440109462720

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

LIII. <i>On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space</i>

(1901). LIII. On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science: Vol. 2, No. 11, pp. 559-572.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1145/361237.361242

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

Use of the Hough transformation to detect lines and curves in pictures

Hough has proposed an interesting and computationally efficient procedure for detecting lines in pictures. This paper points out that the use of angle-radius rather than slope-intercept parameters simplifies the computation further. It also shows how the method can be used for more general curve fitting, and gives alternative interpretations that explain the source of its efficiency.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1980.tb02601.x

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

The least-squares line and plane and the analysis of palaeomagnetic data

The classic, multivariate technique of principal component analysis can be used to find and estimate the directions of lines and planes of best least-squares fit along the demagnetization path of a palaeomagnetic specimen, thereby replacing vector subtraction, remagnetization circles and difference vector paths with one procedure. Eigenvalues from the analysis are the variance of the data along each principal axis, and provide a relative measure of collinearity or coplanarity which may be used to define a general palaeomagnetic precision index. Demagnetization planes found with principal component analysis may be used in place of difference vector paths for locating Hoffman—Day directions, avoiding unnecessary vector subtraction and intensity truncation steps. Two methods are discussed for jointly estimating an average remanence direction from demagnetization lines and planes.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118658222

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

Stochastic Geometry and its Applications

Mathematical Foundation. Point Processes I--The Poisson Point Process. Random Closed Sets I--The Boolean Model. Point Processes II--General Theory. Point Processes III--Construction of Models. Random Closed Sets II--The General Case. Random Measures. Random Processes of Geometrical Objects. Fibre and Surface Processes. Random Tessellations. Stereology. References. Indexes.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.3133/pp252

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

The hydraulic geometry of stream channels and some physiographic implications

Some hydraulic characteristics of stream channels - depth, width, velocity, and suspended load - are measured quantitatively and vary with discharge as simple power functions at a given river cross section. Similar variations in relation to discharge exist among the cross sections along the length of a river under the condition that discharge at all points is equal in frequency of occurrence. The functions derived for a given cross section and among various cross sections along the river differ only in numerical values of coefficients and exponents.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.4171/owr/2009/41

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

Noncommutative Geometry

Many of the different aspects of Noncommutative Geometry were represented in the talks. The list of topics that were covered includes in particular new insight into the geometry of a noncommutative torus, local index formulae in various situations, C*-algebras and dynamical systems associated with number theoretic structures, new methods in K-theory for noncommutative algebras as well as new progress in quantum field theory using concepts from noncommutative geometry.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1145/15886.15903

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

Free-form deformation of solid geometric models

A technique is presented for deforming solid geometric models in a free-form manner. The technique can be used with any solid modeling system, such as CSG or B-rep. It can deform surface primitives of any type or degree: planes, quadrics, parametric surface patches, or implicitly defined surfaces, for example. The deformation can be applied either globally or locally. Local deformations can be imposed with any desired degree of derivative continuity. It is also possible to deform a solid model in such a way that its volume is preserved.The scheme is based on trivariate Bernstein polynomials, and provides the designer with an intuitive appreciation for its effects.

C2524010

Geometry

https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4010553

branch of mathematics regarding geometric figures and properties of space

Stress Singularities Resulting From Various Boundary Conditions in Angular Corners of Plates in Extension

Abstract As an analog to the bending case published in an earlier paper, the stress singularities in plates subjected to extension in their plane are discussed. Three sets of boundary conditions on the radial edges are investigated: free-free, clamped-clamped, and clamped-free. Providing the vertex angle is less than 180 degrees, it is found that unbounded stresses occur at the vertex only in the case of the mixed boundary condition with the strength of the singularity being somewhat stronger than for the similar bending case. For vertex angles between 180 and 360 degrees, all the cases considered may have stress singularities. In amplification of some work of Southwell, it is shown that there are certain analogies between the characteristic equations governing the stresses in extension and bending, respectively, if ν, Poisson’s ratio, is replaced by −ν. Finally, the free-free extensional plate behaves locally at the origin exactly the same as a clamped-clamped plate in bending, independent of Poisson’s ratio. In conclusion, it is noted that the free-free case analysis may be applied to stress concentrations in V-shaped notches.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20107

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Global cancer statistics

Statistics are given for global patterns of cancer incidence and mortality for males and females in 23 regions of the world.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test

<h3>Abstract</h3> <b>Objective:</b> Funnel plots (plots of effect estimates against sample size) may be useful to detect bias in meta-analyses that were later contradicted by large trials. We examined whether a simple test of asymmetry of funnel plots predicts discordance of results when meta-analyses are compared to large trials, and we assessed the prevalence of bias in published meta-analyses. <b>Design:</b> Medline search to identify pairs consisting of a meta-analysis and a single large trial (concordance of results was assumed if effects were in the same direction and the meta-analytic estimate was within 30% of the trial); analysis of funnel plots from 37 meta-analyses identified from a hand search of four leading general medicine journals 1993-6 and 38 meta-analyses from the second 1996 issue of the <i>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</i>. <b>Main outcome measure:</b> Degree of funnel plot asymmetry as measured by the intercept from regression of standard normal deviates against precision. <b>Results:</b> In the eight pairs of meta-analysis and large trial that were identified (five from cardiovascular medicine, one from diabetic medicine, one from geriatric medicine, one from perinatal medicine) there were four concordant and four discordant pairs. In all cases discordance was due to meta-analyses showing larger effects. Funnel plot asymmetry was present in three out of four discordant pairs but in none of concordant pairs. In 14 (38%) journal meta-analyses and 5 (13%) Cochrane reviews, funnel plot asymmetry indicated that there was bias. <b>Conclusions:</b> A simple analysis of funnel plots provides a useful test for the likely presence of bias in meta-analyses, but as the capacity to detect bias will be limited when meta-analyses are based on a limited number of small trials the results from such analyses should be treated with considerable caution. <h3>Key messages</h3> Systematic reviews of randomised trials are the best strategy for appraising evidence; however, the findings of some meta-analyses were later contradicted by large trials Funnel plots, plots of the trials9 effect estimates against sample size, are skewed and asymmetrical in the presence of publication bias and other biases Funnel plot asymmetry, measured by regression analysis, predicts discordance of results when meta-analyses are compared with single large trials Funnel plot asymmetry was found in 38% of meta-analyses published in leading general medicine journals and in 13% of reviews from the <i>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</i> Critical examination of systematic reviews for publication and related biases should be considered a routine procedure

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.1109/tac.1974.1100705

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

A new look at the statistical model identification

The history of the development of statistical hypothesis testing in time series analysis is reviewed briefly and it is pointed out that the hypothesis testing procedure is not adequately defined as the procedure for statistical model identification. The classical maximum likelihood estimation procedure is reviewed and a new estimate minimum information theoretical criterion (AIC) estimate (MAICE) which is designed for the purpose of statistical identification is introduced. When there are several competing models the MAICE is defined by the model and the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters which give the minimum of AIC defined by AIC = (-2)log-(maximum likelihood) + 2(number of independently adjusted parameters within the model). MAICE provides a versatile procedure for statistical model identification which is free from the ambiguities inherent in the application of conventional hypothesis testing procedure. The practical utility of MAICE in time series analysis is demonstrated with some numerical examples.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344136

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Estimating the Dimension of a Model

The problem of selecting one of a number of models of different dimensions is treated by finding its Bayes solution, and evaluating the leading terms of its asymptotic expansion. These terms are a valid large-sample criterion beyond the Bayesian context, since they do not depend on the a priori distribution.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.27-3338

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Applied logistic regression

From the reviews of the First Edition. An interesting, useful, and well-written book on logistic regression models... Hosmer and Lemeshow have used very little mathematics, have presented difficult concepts heuristically and through illustrative examples, and have included references.- Choice Well written, clearly organized, and comprehensive... the authors carefully walk the reader through the estimation of interpretation of coefficients from a wide variety of logistic regression models . . . their careful explication of the quantitative re-expression of coefficients from these various models is excellent. - Contemporary Sociology An extremely well-written book that will certainly prove an invaluable acquisition to the practicing statistician who finds other literature on analysis of discrete data hard to follow or heavily theoretical.-The Statistician In this revised and updated edition of their popular book, David Hosmer and Stanley Lemeshow continue to provide an amazingly accessible introduction to the logistic regression model while incorporating advances of the last decade, including a variety of software packages for the analysis of data sets. Hosmer and Lemeshow extend the discussion from biostatistics and epidemiology to cutting-edge applications in data mining and machine learning, guiding readers step-by-step through the use of modeling techniques for dichotomous data in diverse fields. Ample new topics and expanded discussions of existing material are accompanied by a wealth of real-world examples-with extensive data sets available over the Internet.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1972.tb00899.x

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Regression Models and Life-Tables

Summary The analysis of censored failure times is considered. It is assumed that on each individual are available values of one or more explanatory variables. The hazard function (age-specific failure rate) is taken to be a function of the explanatory variables and unknown regression coefficients multiplied by an arbitrary and unknown function of time. A conditional likelihood is obtained, leading to inferences about the unknown regression coefficients. Some generalizations are outlined.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects

The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Both large and small sample theory show that adjustment for the scalar propensity score is sufficient to remove bias due to all observed covariates. Applications include: (i) matched sampling on the univariate propensity score, which is a generalization of discriminant matching, (ii) multivariate adjustment by subclassification on the propensity score where the same subclasses are used to estimate treatment effects for all outcome variables and in all subpopulations, and (iii) visual representation of multivariate covariance adjustment by a two- dimensional plot.

C105795698

Statistics

https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21262

study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

Global cancer statistics, 2012

Abstract Cancer constitutes an enormous burden on society in more and less economically developed countries alike. The occurrence of cancer is increasing because of the growth and aging of the population, as well as an increasing prevalence of established risk factors such as smoking, overweight, physical inactivity, and changing reproductive patterns associated with urbanization and economic development. Based on GLOBOCAN estimates, about 14.1 million new cancer cases and 8.2 million deaths occurred in 2012 worldwide. Over the years, the burden has shifted to less developed countries, which currently account for about 57% of cases and 65% of cancer deaths worldwide. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among males in both more and less developed countries, and has surpassed breast cancer as the leading cause of cancer death among females in more developed countries; breast cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death among females in less developed countries. Other leading causes of cancer death in more developed countries include colorectal cancer among males and females and prostate cancer among males. In less developed countries, liver and stomach cancer among males and cervical cancer among females are also leading causes of cancer death. Although incidence rates for all cancers combined are nearly twice as high in more developed than in less developed countries in both males and females, mortality rates are only 8% to 15% higher in more developed countries. This disparity reflects regional differences in the mix of cancers, which is affected by risk factors and detection practices, and/or the availability of treatment. Risk factors associated with the leading causes of cancer death include tobacco use (lung, colorectal, stomach, and liver cancer), overweight/obesity and physical inactivity (breast and colorectal cancer), and infection (liver, stomach, and cervical cancer). A substantial portion of cancer cases and deaths could be prevented by broadly applying effective prevention measures, such as tobacco control, vaccination, and the use of early detection tests. CA Cancer J Clin 2015;65: 87–108. © 2015 American Cancer Society.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x018001032

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning

Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, &amp; Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800405284363

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research

This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x033007014

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come

The purposes of this article are to position mixed methods research ( mixed research is a synonym) as the natural complement to traditional qualitative and quantitative research, to present pragmatism as offering an attractive philosophical partner for mixed methods research, and to provide a framework for designing and conducting mixed methods research. In doing this, we briefly review the paradigm “wars” and incompatibility thesis, we show some commonalities between quantitative and qualitative research, we explain the tenets of pragmatism, we explain the fundamental principle of mixed research and how to apply it, we provide specific sets of designs for the two major types of mixed methods research ( mixed-model designs and mixed-method designs), and, finally, we explain mixed methods research as following (recursively) an eight-step process. A key feature of mixed methods research is its methodological pluralism or eclecticism, which frequently results in superior research (compared to monomethod research). Mixed methods research will be successful as more investigators study and help advance its concepts and as they regularly practice it.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.1086/651257

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis

Journal Article Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis Get access Xinshu Zhao, Xinshu Zhao Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar John G. Lynch, Jr., John G. Lynch, Jr. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Qimei Chen Qimei Chen Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 37, Issue 2, August 2010, Pages 197–206, https://doi.org/10.1086/651257 Published: 15 February 2010

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

The Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work

This paper presents a critical appraisal of resilience, a construct connoting the maintenance of positive adaptation by individuals despite experiences of significant adversity. As empirical research on resilience has burgeoned in recent years, criticisms have been levied at work in this area. These critiques have generally focused on ambiguities in definitions and central terminology; heterogeneity in risks experienced and competence achieved by individuals viewed as resilient; instability of the phenomenon of resilience; and concerns regarding the usefulness of resilience as a theoretical construct. We address each identified criticism in turn, proposing solutions for those we view as legitimate and clarifying misunderstandings surrounding those we believe to be less valid. We conclude that work on resilience possesses substantial potential for augmenting the understanding of processes affecting at‐risk individuals. Realization of the potential embodied by this construct, however, will remain constrained without continued scientific attention to some of the serious conceptual and methodological pitfalls that have been noted by skeptics and proponents alike.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.2307/3119338

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy

In this work the distinguished physical chemist and philosopher, Michael Polanyi, demonstrates that the scientist's personal participation in his knowledge, in both its discovery and its validation, is an indispensable part of science itself. Even in the exact sciences, knowing is an art, of which the skill of the knower, guided by his personal committment and his passionate sense of increasing contact with reality, is a logically necessary part. In the biological and social sciences this becomes even more evident.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.32-1461

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Difference and repetition

Since its publication in 1968, Difference and Repetition, an exposition of the critique of identity, has come to be considered a contemporary classic in philosophy and one of Deleuze's most important works. The text follows the development of two central concepts, those of pure difference and complex repetition. It shows how the two concepts are related, difference implying divergence and decentring, repetition being associated with displacement and disguising. The work moves deftly between Hegel, Kierkegaard, Freud, Althusser and Nietzsche to establish a fundamental critique of Western metaphysics, and has been a central text in initiating the shift in French thought - away from Hegel and Marx, towards Nietzsche and Freud.

C111472728

Epistemology

https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175

branch of philosophy studying the nature and scope of knowledge

Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises

Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand. The author reviews evidence of such a bias in a variety of guises and gives examples of its operation in several practical contexts. Possible explanations are considered, and the question of its utility or disutility is discussed.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020<0130:dnf>2.0.co;2

branch of mathematics

Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow

Finite systems of deterministic ordinary nonlinear differential equations may be designed to represent forced dissipative hydrodynamic flow. Solutions of these equations can be identified with trajectories in phase space. For those systems with bounded solutions, it is found that nonperiodic solutions are ordinarily unstable with respect to small modifications, so that slightly differing initial states can evolve into considerably different states. Systems with bounded solutions are shown to possess bounded numerical solutions. A simple system representing cellular convection is solved numerically. All of the solutions are found to be unstable, and almost all of them are nonperiodic. The feasibility of very-long-range weather prediction is examined in the light of these results.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1957.0133

branch of mathematics

The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion, and related problems

It is supposed that a region within an isotropic elastic solid undergoes a spontaneous change of form which, if the surrounding material were absent, would be some prescribed homogeneous deformation. Because of the presence of the surrounding material stresses will be present both inside and outside the region. The resulting elastic field may be found very simply with the help of a sequence of imaginary cutting, straining and welding operations. In particular, if the region is an ellipsoid the strain inside it is uniform and may be expressed in terms of tabu­lated elliptic integrals. In this case a further problem may be solved. An ellipsoidal region in an infinite medium has elastic constants different from those of the rest of the material; how does the presence of this inhomogeneity disturb an applied stress-field uniform at large distances? It is shown that to answer several questions of physical or engineering interest it is necessary to know only the relatively simple elastic field inside the ellipsoid.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevb.12.3060

branch of mathematics

Linear methods in band theory

Two approximate methods for solving the band-structure problem in an efficient and physically transparent way are presented and discussed in detail. The variational principle for the one-electron Hamiltonian is used in both schemes, and the trial functions are linear combinations of energy-independent augmented plane waves (APW) and muffin-tin orbitals (MTO), respectively. The secular equations are therefore eigenvalue equations, linear in energy. The trial functions are defined with respect to a muffin-tin (MT) potential and the energy bands depend on the potential in the spheres through potential parameters which describe the energy dependence of the logarithmic derivatives. Inside the spheres, the energy-independent APW is that linear combination of an exact solution, at the arbitrary but fixed energy ${E}_{\ensuremath{\nu}}$, and its energy derivative which matches continuously and differentiably onto the plane-wave part in the interstitial region. The energies obtained with the linear-APW method for the MT potential have errors of order ${(E\ensuremath{-}{E}_{v})}^{4}$. Similarly, the energy-independent MTO is that linear combination which matches onto that solution of the Laplace equation in the interstitial region which is regular at infinity. The energies obtained with the linear-MTO method have additional errors of order ${(E\ensuremath{-}{V}_{\mathrm{mtz}})}^{2}$, arising from the interstitial region where the potential is ${V}_{\mathrm{mtz}}$. The linear-APW (LAPW) method combines desirable features of the APW and OPW methods; it can treat $d$ bands, the energy dependence of its pseudopotential is linear and, owing to the smoothness of the energy-independent APW at the spheres, non-MT contributions to the potential are included principally through their Fourier components. The linear-MTO (LMTO) method is particularly suited for closely packed structures and it combines desirable features of Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker, linear-combination-of-atomic-orbitals, and cellular methods; the secular matrix is linear in energy, the overlap integrals factorize as potential parameters and structure constants, the latter are canonical in the sense that they neither depend on the energy nor the cell volume and they specify the boundary conditions on a single MT or atomic sphere in the most convenient way. This method is very well suited for self-consistent calculations. The empty-lattice test is applied to the linear-MTO method and the free-electron energy bands are accurately reproduced. Finally, it is shown how relativistic effects may be included in both the LAPW and LMTO methods.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1090/s0025-5718-1968-0242392-2

branch of mathematics

Numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations

A finite-difference method for solving the time-dependent NavierStokes equations for an incompressible fluid is introduced. This method uses the primitive variables, i.e. the velocities and the pressure, and is equally applicable to problems in two and three space dimensions. Test problems are solved, and an application to a three-dimensional convection problem is presented.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1992-00266-5

branch of mathematics

User’s guide to viscosity solutions of second order partial differential equations

The notion of viscosity solutions of scalar fully nonlinear partial differential equations of second order provides a framework in which startling comparison and uniqueness theorems, existence theorems, and theorems about continuous dependence may now be proved by very efficient and striking arguments. The range of important applications of these results is enormous. This article is a self-contained exposition of the basic theory of viscosity solutions.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1137/s0363012997321358

branch of mathematics

Finite-Time Stability of Continuous Autonomous Systems

Finite-time stability is defined for equilibria of continuous but non-Lipschitzian autonomous systems. Continuity, Lipschitz continuity, and Hölder continuity of the settling-time function are studied and illustrated with several examples. Lyapunov and converse Lyapunov results involving scalar differential inequalities are given for finite-time stability. It is shown that the regularity properties of the Lyapunov function and those of the settling-time function are related. Consequently, converse Lyapunov results can only assure the existence of continuous Lyapunov functions. Finally, the sensitivity of finite-time-stable systems to perturbations is investigated.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1143/ptp.33.423

branch of mathematics

Transport, Collective Motion, and Brownian Motion

A theory of many-particle systems is developed to formulate transport, collective motion, and Brownian motion from a unified, statistical-mechanical point of view. This is done by, first, rewriting the equation of motion in a generalized form of the Langevin equation in the stochastic theory of Brownian motion and then, either studying the average evolution of a non-equilibrium system or calculating the linear response function to a mechanical perturbation. (1) An expression is obtained for the damping function φ(t), the real part of whose Laplace transform gives the damping constnat of collective motion. (2) A general equation of motion for a set of dynamical variables At) is derived, which takes the form where is a frequency matrix determining the collective oscillation of A(t). The quantity f(t) consists of those terms which are either non-linear in A(s), t ≧s ≧0, or dependent on the other degrees-of-freedom explicitly, and its time-correlation function is connected with the damping function φ(t) by (f(t1), f(t2)*) = φ(t1 − t2)·(A, A*). (3) An expression is obtained for the linear after-effect function to thermal disturbances such as temperature gradient and strain tensor. Both the conjugate fluxes and the time dependence differ from those of the mechanical response function. The conjugate fluxes are random parts of the fluxes of the state variables, thus depending on temperature. (4) The difference in the time dependence arises from a special property of the time evolution of f(t) and ensures that the damping function and the thermal after-effect function are determined by the microscopic processes in strong contrast to the mechanical response function. The difficulty of the plateau value problem in the previous theories of Brownian motion and transport coefficients is thus removed. (5) The theory is illustrated by dealing with the motion of inhomogeneous magnetization in ferromagnets and the Brownian motion of the collective coordinates of fluids. (6) Explicit expressions are derived for the thermal after-effect functions and the transport coefficients of multi-component systems.

C134306372

Mathematical analysis

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1967.tb02303.x

branch of mathematics

Linear Models of Dissipation whose Q is almost Frequency Independent--II

Laboratory experiments and field observations indicate that the Q of many non-ferromagnetic inorganic solids is almost frequency independent in the range 10−2–107 c/s, although no single substance has been investigated over the entire frequency spectrum. One of the purposes of this investigation is to find the analytic expression for a linear dissipative mechanism whose Q is almost frequency independent over large frequency ranges. This will be obtained by introducing fractional derivatives in the stress-strain relation. Since the aim of this research is also to contribute to elucidating the dissipating mechanism in the Earth free modes, we shall treat the dissipation in the free, purely torsional, modes of a shell. The dissipation in a plane wave will also be treated. The theory is checked with the new values determined for the Q of spheroidal free modes of the Earth in the range between 10 and 5 min integrated with the Q of Rayleigh waves in the range between 5 and 0·6 min. Another check of the theory is made with the experimental values of the Q of the longitudinal waves in an aluminium rod in the range between 10−5 and 10−3 s. In both checks the theory represents the observed phenomena very satisfactorily. The time derivative which enters the stress-strain relation in both cases is of order 0·15. The present paper is a generalized version of another (Caputo 1966b) in which an elementary definition of some differential operators was used. In this paper we give also a rigorous proof of the formulae to be used in obtaining the analytic expression of Q; moreover, we present two checks of the theory with experimental data.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1158899

engineering discipline

Cooling, Heating, Generating Power, and Recovering Waste Heat with Thermoelectric Systems

Thermoelectric materials are solid-state energy converters whose combination of thermal, electrical, and semiconducting properties allows them to be used to convert waste heat into electricity or electrical power directly into cooling and heating. These materials can be competitive with fluid-based systems, such as two-phase air-conditioning compressors or heat pumps, or used in smaller-scale applications such as in automobile seats, night-vision systems, and electrical-enclosure cooling. More widespread use of thermoelectrics requires not only improving the intrinsic energy-conversion efficiency of the materials but also implementing recent advancements in system architecture. These principles are illustrated with several proven and potential applications of thermoelectrics.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-1098(94)90209-7

engineering discipline

A survey of models, analysis tools and compensation methods for the control of machines with friction

While considerable progress has been made in friction compensation, this is, apparently, the first survey on the topic. In particular, it is the first to bring to the attention of the controls community the important contributions from the tribology, lubrication and physics literatures. By uniting these results with those of the controls community, a set of models and tools for friction compensation is provided which will be of value to both research and application engineers. The successful design and analysis of friction compensators depends heavily upon the quality of the friction model used, and the suitability of the analysis technique employed. Consequently, this survey first describes models of machine friction, followed by a discussion of relevant analysis techniques and concludes with a survey of friction compensation methods reported in the literature. An overview of techniques used by practising engineers and a bibliography of 280 papers is included.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201707035

engineering discipline

Soft Robotic Grippers

Abstract Advances in soft robotics, materials science, and stretchable electronics have enabled rapid progress in soft grippers. Here, a critical overview of soft robotic grippers is presented, covering different material sets, physical principles, and device architectures. Soft gripping can be categorized into three technologies, enabling grasping by: a) actuation, b) controlled stiffness, and c) controlled adhesion. A comprehensive review of each type is presented. Compared to rigid grippers, end‐effectors fabricated from flexible and soft components can often grasp or manipulate a larger variety of objects. Such grippers are an example of morphological computation, where control complexity is greatly reduced by material softness and mechanical compliance. Advanced materials and soft components, in particular silicone elastomers, shape memory materials, and active polymers and gels, are increasingly investigated for the design of lighter, simpler, and more universal grippers, using the inherent functionality of the materials. Embedding stretchable distributed sensors in or on soft grippers greatly enhances the ways in which the grippers interact with objects. Challenges for soft grippers include miniaturization, robustness, speed, integration of sensing, and control. Improved materials, processing methods, and sensing play an important role in future research.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1523360

engineering discipline

Introduction to Tribology

1R19. Introduction to Tribology. - B Bhushan (Nanotribology Lab for Info Storage and MEMS/NEMS (NLIM), Ohio State Univ, Columbus OH 43210). Wiley, New York. 2002. 732 pp. ISBN 0-471-15893-3. $120.00.Reviewed by Pak Lim Ko (Integrated Manuf Tech Inst, W Lab, NRC, 3250 E Mall, Vancouver BC, V6T 1W5, Canada).In the Preface, the author states that this book is intended as a broad-based textbook for post-graduate students. Judging by its contents and the comprehensiveness in discussion, this book has succeeded amply in fulfilling the author's claim. It can be used as a stand-alone reference book for both researchers and practicing engineers. Despite its title, which seems to suggest that this book is an introductory text, the scope of the topics that are covered is, indeed, very broad. With the exception of one significant omission, topics that are directly or indirectly concerned with the engineering and science of tribology, from friction, wear, and lubrication to surface characterization, contacting surfaces, test methods and applications, are dealt with comprehensively. The contemporary topic of micro/nanotribology is also given a prominent position in this book. The author also describes the book as a condensed version of his other comprehensive book titled Principles and Applications of Tribology. With a few minor differences, such as the omission of an important topic on coatings and surface treatments, the present version is in every aspect just as excellent a reference volume as the earlier version and a worthy alternative.The book is well organized with a very descriptive table of contents. Each chapter contains an introduction, a closure, and a comprehensive list of references and suggested reading. The author has provided many examples to illustrate the application of some of the equations and principles in the text. The book has 12 chapters spanning 720 pages. The graphs and figures are clearly presented, and the reproduction of photo-micrographs is reasonably good. The book starts with a chapter that briefly describes the history and industrial significance of tribology. This first chapter also reviews and describes the significance of the emerging field of micro/nanotribology. The second and third chapters provide a detailed discussion on topics involving solid surfaces and their contacts, such as, physico-chemical characteristics of surface layers, the analyses and measurement techniques for surface roughness, and elastic and plastic contacts. Several illustrative examples are presented to help the reader better comprehend the analyses involved. Chapter 4 describes the adhesion mechanisms of solid-solid and liquid-mediated contacts. The following chapter on friction, like the one on adhesion, is also divided into solid-solid and liquid-mediated contacts. There is also a short discussion on static friction and stick-slip. Unfortunately, it would require a more in-depth discussion for frictional vibration and the associated friction characteristics to be properly explained. The section on friction of materials describes the friction characteristics of a broad range of materials and their combinations. The interface temperature rise due to frictional heating is discussed in Chapter 6. The analysis, which follows the fundamental heat conduction solutions and takes into consideration the partition of heat, is divided into frictional contacts that are subjected to high stress conditions or low stress conditions. Although there are two numerical examples to help illustrate the application of the derived equations, some readers may find it difficult to comprehend the concept of heat partition and the development of the temperature rise equations between two bodies in relative motion for the two stress conditions. This would be particularly true for practicing engineers who may not be familiar with this topic. Chapter 7 provides a general description of several types of commonly known wear mechanisms and types of wear particles that are the consequence of different wear mechanisms and wear processes. The section on wear of materials helps to further illustrate the wear processes and wear mechanisms involved. Chapters 8 and 9 are devoted to fluid film and boundary lubrication. The various regimes of lubrication, the theories of hydrostatic, hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic lubrication, as well as bearing designs are reviewed in Chapter 8, whereas in Chapter 9, the mechanisms of boundary lubrication, various liquid lubricants and additives, and greases are presented. The surface force apparatus (SFA), the scanning tunneling microscopes (STM), and the atomic force and friction force microscopes (AFM and FFM) are relatively modern devices developed in the last 40 years. They are widely used for studies of interfacial phenomena on a small scale, such as those in magnetic storage systems and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). Chapter 10 provides a comprehensive description of these devices and their applications in tribology. Chapter 11 discusses some friction and wear test methods. The last chapter describes a number of tribological components, such as, bearings, seals and gears; and microcomponents, such as MEMS, as well as tools used in material processing operations. In summary, Introduction to Tribology is a broad-based reference book which covers nearly every aspect of tribology from the fundamentals of friction, wear, lubrication, and surface contacts to the emerging field of micro/nanotribology. It is, as the author intended, an excellent text for post-graduate and senior-level undergraduate courses, and a useful reference for researchers and practicing engineers who are involved in tribology related studies or projects.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.30.1.579

engineering discipline

MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL-SYSTEMS (MEMS) AND FLUID FLOWS

▪ Abstract The micromachining technology that emerged in the late 1980s can provide micron-sized sensors and actuators. These micro transducers are able to be integrated with signal conditioning and processing circuitry to form micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) that can perform real-time distributed control. This capability opens up a new territory for flow control research. On the other hand, surface effects dominate the fluid flowing through these miniature mechanical devices because of the large surface-to-volume ratio in micron-scale configurations. We need to reexamine the surface forces in the momentum equation. Owing to their smallness, gas flows experience large Knudsen numbers, and therefore boundary conditions need to be modified. Besides being an enabling technology, MEMS also provide many challenges for fundamental flow-science research.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5330.1237

engineering discipline

Computational Design of Hierarchically Structured Materials

A systems approach that integrates processing, structure, property, and performance relations has been used in the conceptual design of multilevel-structured materials. For high-performance alloy steels, numerical implementation of materials science principles provides a hierarchy of computational models defining subsystem design parameters that are integrated, through computational thermodynamics, in the comprehensive design of materials as interactive systems. Designed properties combine strength, toughness, and resistance to impurity embrittlement. The methods have also been applied to nonferrous metals, ceramics, and polymers.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.001

engineering discipline

Reducing porosity in AlSi10Mg parts processed by selective laser melting

Selective laser melting (SLM) is widely gaining popularity as an alternative manufacturing technique for complex and customized parts. SLM is a near net shape process with minimal post processing machining required dependent upon final application. The fact that SLM produces little waste and enables more optimal designs also raises opportunities for environmental advantages. The use of aluminium (Al) alloys in SLM is still quite limited due to difficulties in processing that result in parts with high degrees of porosity. However, Al alloys are favoured in many high-end applications for their exceptional strength and stiffness to weight ratio meaning that they are extensively used in the automotive and aerospace industries. This study investigates the windows of parameters required to produce high density parts from AlSi10Mg alloy using selective laser melting. A compromise between the different parameters and scan strategies was achieved and used to produce parts achieving a density of 99.8%.

C78519656

Mechanical engineering

https://doi.org/10.1089/soro.2014.0008

engineering discipline

A Resilient, Untethered Soft Robot

A pneumatically powered, fully untethered mobile soft robot is described. Composites consisting of silicone elastomer, polyaramid fabric, and hollow glass microspheres were used to fabricate a sufficiently large soft robot to carry the miniature air compressors, battery, valves, and controller needed for autonomous operation. Fabrication techniques were developed to mold a 0.65-meter-long soft body with modified Pneu-Net actuators capable of operating at the elevated pressures (up to 138 kPa) required to actuate the legs of the robot and hold payloads of up to 8 kg. The soft robot is safe to interact with during operation, and its silicone body is innately resilient to a variety of adverse environmental conditions including snow, puddles of water, direct (albeit limited) exposure to flames, and the crushing force of being run over by an automobile.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1029/2004pa001071

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

A Pliocene‐Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ¹⁸O records

We present a 5.3‐Myr stack (the “LR04” stack) of benthic δ 18 O records from 57 globally distributed sites aligned by an automated graphic correlation algorithm. This is the first benthic δ 18 O stack composed of more than three records to extend beyond 850 ka, and we use its improved signal quality to identify 24 new marine isotope stages in the early Pliocene. We also present a new LR04 age model for the Pliocene‐Pleistocene derived from tuning the δ 18 O stack to a simple ice model based on 21 June insolation at 65°N. Stacked sedimentation rates provide additional age model constraints to prevent overtuning. Despite a conservative tuning strategy, the LR04 benthic stack exhibits significant coherency with insolation in the obliquity band throughout the entire 5.3 Myr and in the precession band for more than half of the record. The LR04 stack contains significantly more variance in benthic δ 18 O than previously published stacks of the late Pleistocene as the result of higher‐resolution records, a better alignment technique, and a greater percentage of records from the Atlantic. Finally, the relative phases of the stack's 41‐ and 23‐kyr components suggest that the precession component of δ 18 O from 2.7–1.6 Ma is primarily a deep‐water temperature signal and that the phase of δ 18 O precession response changed suddenly at 1.6 Ma.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1029/94jb03098

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic

Recently reported radioisotopic dates and magnetic anomaly spacings have made it evident that modification is required for the age calibrations for the geomagnetic polarity timescale of Cande and Kent (1992) at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary and in the Pliocene. An adjusted geomagnetic reversal chronology for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic is presented that is consistent with astrochronology in the Pleistocene and Pliocene and with a new timescale for the Mesozoic.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200032999

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

Intcal04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0–26 Cal Kyr BP

A new calibration curve for the conversion of radiocarbon ages to calibrated (cal) ages has been constructed and internationally ratified to replace IntCal98, which extended from 0–24 cal kyr BP (Before Present, 0 cal BP = AD 1950). The new calibration data set for terrestrial samples extends from 0–26 cal kyr BP, but with much higher resolution beyond 11.4 cal kyr BP than IntCal98. Dendrochronologically-dated tree-ring samples cover the period from 0–12.4 cal kyr BP. Beyond the end of the tree rings, data from marine records (corals and foraminifera) are converted to the atmospheric equivalent with a site-specific marine reservoir correction to provide terrestrial calibration from 12.4–26.0 cal kyr B P. A substantial enhancement relative to IntCal98 is the introduction of a coherent statistical approach based on a random walk model, which takes into account the uncertainty in both the calendar age and the 14 C age to calculate the underlying calibration curve (Buck and Blackwell, this issue). The tree-ring data sets, sources of uncertainty, and regional offsets are discussed here. The marine data sets and calibration curve for marine samples from the surface mixed layer (Marine04) are discussed in brief, but details are presented in Hughen et al. (this issue a). We do not make a recommendation for calibration beyond 26 cal kyr BP at this time; however, potential calibration data sets are compared in another paper (van der Plicht et al., this issue).

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(87)90046-9

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

Age Dating and the Orbital Theory of the Ice Ages: Development of a High-Resolution 0 to 300,000-Year Chronostratigraphy

Abstract Using the concept of “orbital tuning”, a continuous, high-resolution deep-sea chronostratigraphy has been developed spanning the last 300,000 yr. The chronology is developed using a stacked oxygen-isotope stratigraphy and four different orbital tuning approaches, each of which is based upon a different assumption concerning the response of the orbital signal recorded in the data. Each approach yields a separate chronology. The error measured by the standard deviation about the average of these four results (which represents the “best” chronology) has an average magnitude of only 2500 yr. This small value indicates that the chronology produced is insensitive to the specific orbital tuning technique used. Excellent convergence between chronologies developed using each of five different paleoclimatological indicators (from a single core) is also obtained. The resultant chronology is also insensitive to the specific indicator used. The error associated with each tuning approach is estimated independently and propagated through to the average result. The resulting error estimate is independent of that associated with the degree of convergence and has an average magnitude of 3500 yr, in excellent agreement with the 2500-yr estimate. Transfer of the final chronology to the stacked record leads to an estimated error of ±1500 yr. Thus the final chronology has an average error of ±5000 yr.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-022

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

Tectonic models for accretion of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt ( c . 1000–250 Ma) formed by accretion of island arcs, ophiolites, oceanic islands, seamounts, accretionary wedges, oceanic plateaux and microcontinents in a manner comparable with that of circum-Pacific Mesozoic–Cenozoic accretionary orogens. Palaeomagnetic and palaeofloral data indicate that early accretion (Vendian–Ordovician) took place when Baltica and Siberia were separated by a wide ocean. Island arcs and Precambrian microcontinents accreted to the active margins of the two continents or amalgamated in an oceanic setting (as in Kazakhstan) by roll-back and collision, forming a huge accretionary collage. The Palaeo-Asian Ocean closed in the Permian with formation of the Solonker suture. We evaluate contrasting tectonic models for the evolution of the orogenic belt. Current information provides little support for the main tenets of the one- or three-arc Kipchak model; current data suggest that an archipelago-type (Indonesian) model is more viable. Some diagnostic features of ridge–trench interaction are present in the Central Asian orogen (e.g. granites, adakites, boninites, near-trench magmatism, Alaskan-type mafic–ultramafic complexes, high-temperature metamorphic belts that prograde rapidly from low-grade belts, rhyolitic ash-fall tuffs). They offer a promising perspective for future investigations.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1972.tb02351.x

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

Active Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region

Examination of more than 100 fault plane solutions for earthquakes within the Alpide belt between the Mid-Atlantic ridge and Eastern Iran shows that the deformation at present occurring is the result of small continental plates moving away from Eastern Turkey and Western Iran. This pattern of movement avoids thickening the continental crust over much of Turkey by consuming the Eastern Mediterranean sea floor instead. The rates of relative motion of two of the small plates involved, the Aegean and the Turkish plates, are estimated, but are only within perhaps 50 per cent of the true values. These estimates are then used to reconstruct the geometry of the Mediterranean 10 million years ago. The principal difference from the present geometry is the smooth curved coast which then formed the southern coast of Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey. This coast has since been distorted by the motion of the two small plates. Similar complications have probably been common in older mountain belts, and therefore local geological features may not have been formed by the motion between major plates.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.15468/bxpyo3

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

University of California Museum of Paleontology

The mission of the University of California Museum of Paleontology is to investigate and promote the understanding of the history of life and the diversity of the Earth's biota through research and education.

C151730666

Paleontology

https://doi.org/10.5382/rev.07.01

scientific study of the past of life on Earth through fossils

U-Th-Pb Geochronology by Ion Microprobe

There would be few geological studies in which, at some stage, there did not arise a question of timing. The answer is often to be found through direct observation; the principles of superposition and crosscutting relationships apply in determining the order of events on all scales from the microscopic to the macroscopic, from crystallization history to continental assembly. By augmenting those principles with the means to establish sequence and correlation provided by palaeontology, the geologist has the capability, through observation and logical reasoning alone, to determine the relative ages of a great range of geological processes. However, while these techniques make it possible to place geological events in time order, they do not provide an absolute measure of time itself.The measurement of absolute time in geology— geochronology—requires a quantifiable physical process that takes place continuously at a known rate from the time of the event to be dated to the present day. Some cyclic processes, such as the passage of the seasons, leave their imprint in parts of the geological record and can provide detailed, accurate measurements of elapsed time intervals, but they do not permit the measurement of absolute time (age) unless the record is unbroken to the present day or the age of one of the cycles is known by some independent means. The number of annual growth bands in a fossil coral, for example, tells how long that coral once lived, but not when. To measure absolute geologic time, one needs a process that is continuous and unidirectional. The most widely utilized of such processes is natural radioactivity.The concept behind radioisotope geochronology is quite simple. Some of the elements in rocks and minerals have isotopes (atoms of the same atomic number but different mass numbers) that are naturally radioactive-the nuclei of those isotopes are unstable, and liable to break down spontaneously (decay) to an isotope of a different element. If the newly-formed isotope is also unstable, the process continues until a stable nucleus forms.Radioactive decay occurs at rates characteristic of each element and isotope. As far as is known, those rates are independent of any chemical or physical parameters (e.g., pressure, temperature, chemical state etc. ) . The probability that a given nucleus of a given isotope will decay in any given time period is a constant, so the number of decays occurring per unit time is proportional to the number of atoms of that

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/58.5.1085

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

Methods of Enzymatic Analysis

Journal Article Methods of Enzymatic Analysis Get access Methods of Enzymatic Analysis. Vols. 1, 2, 3, and 4. H. U. Bergmeyer(ed.). Verlag Chemie Weinheim, Academic Press Inc., New York and London, 1974. Vol. 1, 565 pp. Vol. 2, 555 pp. Vol. 3, 497 pp. Vol. 4, 677 pp. Price $56.00 per volume. Journal of Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Volume 58, Issue 5, 1 September 1975, Page 1085, https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/58.5.1085 Published: 29 January 2020

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid

Research Article| February 01 1956 A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid K. Burton K. Burton 1Medical Research Council, Cell Metabolism Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Author and article information Publisher: Portland Press Ltd © 1956 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS1956 Biochem J (1956) 62 (2): 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Cite Icon Cite Get Permissions Citation K. Burton; A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid. Biochem J 1 February 1956; 62 (2): 315–323. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0620315 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll JournalsBiochemical Journal Search Advanced Search This content is only available as a PDF. © 1956 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS1956 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7322.1192

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

Book: Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century

Institute of Medicine National Academy Press, $44.95, pp 364 ISBN 0 309 07280 8 See http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10027.html for ordering details Rating: ![Graphic][1]</img> ![Graphic][2]</img> ![Graphic][3]</img> ![Graphic][4]</img> Even with catchy titles, committee reports are unlikely bestsellers. This one has the background and intention to be different. The committee members, who were appointed by the US National Academy of Science for their creative thinking and knowledge of medicine, healthcare, and commerce, provide excellently researched evidence for the failure of the US healthcare system. They justify radical change and establish six aims and 10 simple rules for a completely different … [1]: /embed/inline-graphic-1.gif [2]: /embed/inline-graphic-2.gif [3]: /embed/inline-graphic-3.gif [4]: /embed/inline-graphic-4.gif

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780400928

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

Updating the American college of rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus

Arthritis & RheumatismVolume 40, Issue 9 p. 1725-1725 LetterFree to Read Updating the American college of rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus Marc C. Hochberg MD, MPH, Marc C. Hochberg MD, MPH Diagnostic and Therapeutic Criteria Committee of the American College of RheumatologySearch for more papers by this author Marc C. Hochberg MD, MPH, Marc C. Hochberg MD, MPH Diagnostic and Therapeutic Criteria Committee of the American College of RheumatologySearch for more papers by this author First published: 12 December 2005 https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780400928Citations: 7,510AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume40, Issue9September 1997Pages 1725-1725 RelatedInformation

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(1950)3:1<32::aid-cncr2820030106>3.0.co;2-3

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

Index for rating diagnostic tests

CancerVolume 3, Issue 1 p. 32-35 ArticleFree Access Index for rating diagnostic tests W. J. Youden Ph.D., W. J. Youden Ph.D. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.Search for more papers by this author W. J. Youden Ph.D., W. J. Youden Ph.D. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.Search for more papers by this author First published: 1950 https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(1950)3:1<32::AID-CNCR2820030106>3.0.CO;2-3Citations: 6,707AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Citing Literature Volume3, Issue11950Pages 32-35 RelatedInformation

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1021/cr1002326

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

Solar Water Splitting Cells

ADVERTISEMENT RETURN TO ISSUEPREVReviewNEXTADDITION / CORRECTIONThis article has been corrected. View the notice.Solar Water Splitting CellsMichael G. Walter, Emily L. Warren, James R. McKone, Shannon W. Boettcher†, Qixi Mi, Elizabeth A. Santori, and Nathan S. Lewis*View Author Information Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, 210 Noyes Laboratory, 127-72 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125* Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]†Current address: Department of Chemistry, University of Oregon, Eugene OR 97403.Cite this: Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 11, 6446–6473Publication Date (Web):November 10, 2010Publication History Received23 July 2010Published online10 November 2010Published inissue 10 November 2010https://doi.org/10.1021/cr1002326Copyright © 2010 American Chemical SocietyRIGHTS & PERMISSIONSACS AuthorChoiceArticle Views108224Altmetric-Citations7461LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICSArticle Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated. Share Add toView InAdd Full Text with ReferenceAdd Description ExportRISCitationCitation and abstractCitation and referencesMore Options Share onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InReddit PDF (2 MB) Get e-AlertsSUBJECTS:Catalysts,Electrical conductivity,Electrodes,Photonics,Semiconductors Get e-Alerts

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1231/1/011001

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering

International Nuclear Science, Technology and Engineering Conference 2021 (iNuSTEC2021) “Nuclear Science and Technology for Socio-economic Development” Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Skudai, Johor, Malaysia 10-12 October 2021 Editors Nahrul Khair Alang Md Rashid, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Khaidzir Hamzah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Mohsin Mohd Sies, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Jasman Zainal, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Muhammad Arif Sazali, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Muhammad Syahir Sarkawi, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Nur Syazwani Mohd Ali, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Khairulnadzmi Jamaluddin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Abdul Aziz Mohamed, Malaysian Nuclear Society Faridah Mohamad Idris, Malaysian Nuclear Agency Julie Andrianny Murshidi, Malaysian Nuclear Agency Faizal K P Kunchi Mohamed, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Hassan Mohamed, Universiti Tenaga Nasional Abu Hassan Husin, Universiti Teknologi MARA All papers have been peer-reviewed List of Supporting/Sponsoring Organisations, Preface, Contents, iNuSTEC2021 Organising Committee, Inustec 2021 Awards And Recognition, Acknowledgement and Images are available in this pdf

C161191863

Library science

https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20290

the application of practices, methods, technologies, tools of management, education, training, perspectives, and related areas, to the organized collection and the systematic classification of information in libraries

The Amber biomolecular simulation programs

Journal of Computational ChemistryVolume 26, Issue 16 p. 1668-1688 The Amber biomolecular simulation programs David A. Case, Corresponding Author David A. Case [email protected] Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Search for more papers by this authorThomas E. Cheatham III, Thomas E. Cheatham III Departments of Medicinal Chemistry, Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and Bioengineering, 2000 East, 30 South, Skaggs Hall 201, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112Search for more papers by this authorTom Darden, Tom Darden National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Laboratory of Structural Biology, Mail Drop F3-02, PO Box 12233 Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709Search for more papers by this authorHolger Gohlke, Holger Gohlke Fachbereich Biologie und Informatik, J.W. Goethe-Universität, Marie-Curie-Str. 9, 60439 Frankfurt/Main, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorRay Luo, Ray Luo Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, 5.3206 Natural Science I, Irvine, California 92697Search for more papers by this authorKenneth M. Merz Jr., Kenneth M. Merz Jr. Department of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802Search for more papers by this authorAlexey Onufriev, Alexey Onufriev Department of Computer Science, Virgina Tech, 600 McBryde (MC 0106) Blacksburg, Virginia 24061Search for more papers by this authorCarlos Simmerling, Carlos Simmerling Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794Search for more papers by this authorBing Wang, Bing Wang Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Search for more papers by this authorRobert J. Woods, Robert J. Woods Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Rd., Athens, Georgia 30602Search for more papers by this author David A. Case, Corresponding Author David A. Case [email protected] Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Search for more papers by this authorThomas E. Cheatham III, Thomas E. Cheatham III Departments of Medicinal Chemistry, Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and Bioengineering, 2000 East, 30 South, Skaggs Hall 201, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112Search for more papers by this authorTom Darden, Tom Darden National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Laboratory of Structural Biology, Mail Drop F3-02, PO Box 12233 Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709Search for more papers by this authorHolger Gohlke, Holger Gohlke Fachbereich Biologie und Informatik, J.W. Goethe-Universität, Marie-Curie-Str. 9, 60439 Frankfurt/Main, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorRay Luo, Ray Luo Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, 5.3206 Natural Science I, Irvine, California 92697Search for more papers by this authorKenneth M. Merz Jr., Kenneth M. Merz Jr. Department of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802Search for more papers by this authorAlexey Onufriev, Alexey Onufriev Department of Computer Science, Virgina Tech, 600 McBryde (MC 0106) Blacksburg, Virginia 24061Search for more papers by this authorCarlos Simmerling, Carlos Simmerling Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794Search for more papers by this authorBing Wang, Bing Wang Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Raod, TPC15, La Jolla, California 92037Search for more papers by this authorRobert J. Woods, Robert J. Woods Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Rd., Athens, Georgia 30602Search for more papers by this author First published: 30 September 2005 https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20290Citations: 6,634Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Abstract We describe the development, current features, and some directions for future development of the Amber package of computer programs. This package evolved from a program that was constructed in the late 1970s to do Assisted Model Building with Energy Refinement, and now contains a group of programs embodying a number of powerful tools of modern computational chemistry, focused on molecular dynamics and free energy calculations of proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comput Chem 26: 1668–1688, 2005 References 1 Weiner, P.; Kollman, P. J Comput Chem 1981, 2, 287. 2 Pearlman, D.; Case, D.; Caldwell, J.; Ross, W.; Cheatham, T., III; DeBolt, S.; Ferguson, D.; Seibel, G.; Kollman, P. Comp Phys Commun 1995, 91, 1. 3 Allen, M.; Tildesley, D. Computer Simulation of Liquids; Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1987. 4 Frenkel, D.; Smit, B. Understanding Molecular Simulation: From Algorithms to Applications; Academic Press: San Diego, 1996. 5 Becker, O.; MacKerell, A.; Roux, B.; Watanabe, M. Computational Biochemistry and Biophysics; Marcel Dekker: New York, 2001. 6 Cramer, C. 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