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DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS 97 Plantae and Animalia are further divided into subdivisions on the basis of increasing complexity of body organisation. Plants are divided into five groups Thallophytes, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Animals are divided into ten groups Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Protochordata and Vertebrata. The binomial nomenclature makes for a uniform way of identification of the vast diversity of life around us. The binomial nomenclature is made up of two words a generic name and a specific name. Exercises 1. What are the advantages of classifying organisms? 2. How would you choose between two characteristics to be used for developing a hierarchy in classification? 3. Explain the basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms. 4. What are the major divisions in the Plantae? What is the basis for these divisions? 5. How are the criteria for deciding divisions in plants different from the criteria for deciding the subgroups among animals? 6. Explain how animals in Vertebrata are classified into further subgroups. 2019-2020 | [
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QUADRILATERALS 143 (i) DAC BCA and (ii) ABCD is a parallelogram. Solution (i) ABC is isosceles in which AB AC (Given) So, ABC ACB (Angles opposite to equal sides) Also, PAC ABC ACB (Exterior angle of a triangle) or, PAC 2 ACB (1) Now, AD bisects PAC. So, PAC 2 DAC (2) Therefore, 2 DAC 2 ACB From (1) and (2) or, DAC ACB (ii) Now, these equal angles form a pair of alternate angles when line segments BC and AD are intersected by a transversal AC. So, BC AD Also, BA CD (Given) Now, both pairs of opposite sides of quadrilateral ABCD are parallel. So, ABCD is a parallelogram. Example 4 Two parallel lines l and m are intersected by a transversal p (see Fig. 8.15). Show that the quadrilateral formed by the bisectors of interior angles is a rectangle. Solution It is given that PS QR and transversal p intersects them at points A and C respectively. The bisectors of PAC and ACQ intersect at B and bisectors of ACR and SAC intersect at D. We are to show that quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle. Now, PAC ACR (Alternate angles as l m and p is a transversal) So, 1 2 PAC 1 2 ACR i.e., BAC ACD Fig. 8.14 Fig. 8.15 2019-2020 | [
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From the above discussion, we can see that there continues to be considerable underemployment in agriculture. There are also people who are not employed at all. In what ways can one increase employment for people? Let us look at some of them. Take the case of Laxmi with her two-hectare plot of unirrigated land. The government can spend some money or banks can provide a loan, to construct a well for her family to irrigate the land. Laxmi will then be able to irrigate her land and take a second crop, wheat, during the rabi season. Let us suppose that one hectare of wheat can provide employment to two people for 50 days (including sowing, watering, fertiliser LETS WORK THESE OUT TABLE 2.2 SHARE OF PRIMARY SECTOR IN GDP AND EMPLOYMENT Share in GDP Share in employment 1. Complete the table using the data given in Graphs 2 and 3 and answer the question that follows. Ignore if data are not available for some years. What are the changes that you observe in the primary sector over a span of forty years? 2. Choose the correct answer Underemployment occurs when people (i) do not want to work (ii) are working in a lazy manner (iii) are working less than what they are capable of doing (iv) are not paid for their work 3. Compare and contrast the changes in India with the pattern that was observed for developed countries. What kind of changes between sectors were desired but did not happen in India? 4. Why should we be worried about underemployment? 1972-73 1973-74 2011-12 2013-14 2019-20 | [
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52 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS GLOSSARY Code of Conduct A set of norms and guidelines to be followed by political parties and contesting candidates during election time. Constituency Voters in a geographical area who elect a representative to the legislative bodies. Incumbent The current holder of a political office. Usually the choice for the voters in elections is between the incumbent party or candidate and those who oppose them. Level playing field Condition in which all parties and candidates contesting in an election have equal opportunities to appeal for votes and to carry out election campaign. Rigging Fraud and malpractices indulged by a party or candidate to increase its votes. It includes stuffing ballot boxes by a few persons using the votes of others recording multiple votes by the same person and bribing or coercing polling officers to favour a candidate. Turnout The percentage of eligible voters who cast their votes in an election. 1 Which of the following statements about the reasons for conducting elections are false? a Elections enable people to judge the performance of the government. b People select the representative of their choice in an election. c Elections enable people to evaluate the performance of the judiciary. d People can indicate which policies they prefer. 2 Which of these is not a good reason to say that Indian elections are democratic? a India has the largest number of voters in the world. b Indias Election Commission is very powerful. c In India, everyone above the age of 18 has a right to vote. d In India, the losing parties accept the electoral verdict. 3 Match the following a It is necessary to keep the voters list up to date because b Some constituencies are reserved for SCs and STs so that c Everyone has one and only one vote so that d Party in power is not allowed to use government vehicles because exercises i there is a fair representation of all sections of our society ii everyone has equal opportunity to elect their representative iii all candidates must have a fair chance of competing in elections iv some people may have moved away from the area where they voted last 2019-20 | [
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88 MATHEMATICS 3. Find the roots of the following equations (i) 1 3, 0 x x x (ii) 1 1 11 4 7 30 x x , x 4, 7 4. The sum of the reciprocals of Rehmans ages, (in years) 3 years ago and 5 years from now is 1. 3 Find his present age. 5. In a class test, the sum of Shefalis marks in Mathematics and English is 30. Had she got 2 marks more in Mathematics and 3 marks less in English, the product of their marks would have been 210. Find her marks in the two subjects. 6. The diagonal of a rectangular field is 60 metres more than the shorter side. If the longer side is 30 metres more than the shorter side, find the sides of the field. 7. The difference of squares of two numbers is 180. The square of the smaller number is 8 times the larger number. Find the two numbers. 8. A train travels 360 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 5 kmh more, it would have taken 1 hour less for the same journey. Find the speed of the train. 9. Two water taps together can fill a tank in 3 9 8 hours. The tap of larger diameter takes 10 hours less than the smaller one to fill the tank separately. Find the time in which each tap can separately fill the tank. 10. An express train takes 1 hour less than a passenger train to travel 132 km between Mysore and Bangalore (without taking into consideration the time they stop at intermediate stations). If the average speed of the express train is 11kmh more than that of the passenger train, find the average speed of the two trains. 11. Sum of the areas of two squares is 468 m2. If the difference of their perimeters is 24 m, find the sides of the two squares. 4.5 Nature of Roots In the previous section, you have seen that the roots of the equation ax2 bx c 0 are given by x 2 4 2 b b ac a If b2 4ac 0, we get two distinct real roots 2 4 2 2 b ac b a a and 2 4 2 2 b ac b a a . 2019-20 | [
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126 MATHEMATICS Fig. 6.13 Theorem 6.2 If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side. This theorem can be proved by taking a line DE such that AD AE DB EC and assuming that DE is not parallel to BC (see Fig. 6.12). If DE is not parallel to BC, draw a line DE parallel to BC. So, AD DB AE E C (Why ?) Therefore, AE EC AE E C (Why ?) Adding 1 to both sides of above, you can see that E and E must coincide. (Why ?) Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of the above theorems. Example 1 If a line intersects sides AB and AC of a ABC at D and E respectively and is parallel to BC, prove that AD AB AE AC (see Fig. 6.13). Solution DE BC (Given) So, AD DB AE EC (Theorem 6.1) or, DB AD EC AE or, DB 1 AD EC 1 AE or, AB AD AC AE So, AD AB AE AC Fig. 6.12 2019-20 | [
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344 MATHEMATICS (ii) The data appears to be taken in the rainy season as the relative humidity is high. (iii) Range 99.2 84.9 14.3 4. (i) Heights (in cm) Frequency 150 - 155 12 155 - 160 9 160 - 165 14 165 - 170 10 170 - 175 5 Total 50 (ii) One conclusion that we can draw from the above table is that more than 50 of students are shorter than 165 cm. 5. (i) Concentration of Frequency Sulphur dioxide (in ppm) 0.00 - 0.04 4 0.04 - 0.08 9 0.08 - 0.12 9 0.12 - 0.16 2 0.16 - 0.20 4 0.20 - 0.24 2 Total 30 (ii) The concentration of sulphur dioxide was more than 0.11 ppm for 8 days. 6. Number of heads Frequency 0 6 1 10 2 9 3 5 Total 30 2019-2020 | [
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66 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS No minister can openly criticise any decision of the government, even if it is about another Ministry or Department. Every ministry has secretaries, who are civil servants. The secretaries provide the necessary background information to the ministers to take decisions. The Cabinet as a team is assisted by the Cabinet Secretariat. This includes many senior civil servants who try to coordinate the working of different ministries. A C T I V I T Y List the names of five Cabinet Ministers and their ministries each at the Union level and in your state. Meet the Mayor or Municipal Chairperson of your town or the President of Zilla Parishad of your district and ask him or her about how the city, town or district is administered. PPPPPooooowwwwwers of the ers of the ers of the ers of the ers of the PPPPPrrrrrime M ime M ime M ime M ime Minist inist inist inist inistererererer The Constitution does not say very much about the powers of the Prime Minister or the ministers or their relationship with each other. But as head of the government, the Prime Minister has wide ranging powers. He chairs Cabinet meetings. He coordinates the work of different Departments. His decisions are final in case disagreements arise between Departments. He exercises general supervision of different ministries. All ministers work under his leadership. The Prime Minister distributes and redistributes work to the ministers. He also has the power to dismiss ministers. When the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits. Thus, if the Cabinet is the most powerful institution in India, within the Cabinet it is the Prime Minister who is the most powerful. The powers of the Prime Minister in all parliamentary democracies of the world have increased so much in recent decades that parliamentary democracies are some times seen as Prime Ministerial form of government. As political parties have come to play a major role in politics, the Prime Minister controls the Cabinet and Parliament through the party. The media also contributes to this trend by making politics and elections as a competition between top leaders of parties. In India too we have seen such a tendency towards the concentration of powers in the hands of the Prime Minister. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, exercised enormous authority because he had great influence over the public. Indira Gandhi was also a very powerful leader compared to her colleagues in the Cabinet. Of course, the extent of power wielded by a Prime Minister also depends on the personality of the person holding that position. However, in recent years the rise of coalition politics has imposed certain constraints on the power of the Prime Minister. The Prime This cartoon depicts a cabinet meeting chaired by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in early 1970s, at the peak of her popularity. Do you think similar cartoons could be drawn about other prime ministers who followed her? rrrrreeeeeaaaaaddddd ttttthe hehe hehe cccccaaaaarrrrrtttttoon oon oon oon oon R.K. Laxman, The Times of India 2019-20 | [
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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current conductor in a magnetic field (see Fig. 13.13). We find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards while the force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards. Thus the coil and the axle O, mounted free to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise. At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X and P with brush Y. Therefore the current in the coil gets reversed and flows along the path DCBA. A device that reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator. In electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator. The reversal of current also reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms AB and CD. Thus the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now pushed up and the arm CD previously pushed up is now pushed down. Therefore the coil and the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction. The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous rotation of the coil and to the axle. The commercial motors use (i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet (ii) large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current- carrying coil and (iii) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound. The soft iron core, on which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This enhances the power of the motor. 1. State Flemings left-hand rule. 2. What is the principle of an electric motor? 3. What is the role of the split ring in an electric motor? We have studied that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field such that the direction of current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force causes the conductor to move. Now let us imagine a situation in which a conductor is moving inside a magnetic field or a magnetic field is changing around a fixed conductor. What will happen? This was first studied by English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1831, Faraday made an important breakthrough by discovering how a moving magnet can be used to generate electric currents. To observe this effect, let us perform the following activity. Take a coil of wire AB having a large number of turns. Connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer as shown in Fig. 13.16. Take a strong bar magnet and move its north pole towards the end B of the coil. Do you find any change in the galvanometer needle? 2019-20 | [
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] |
SCIENCE 148 done on an object when a force of 1 N displaces it by 1 m along the line of action of the force. Look at Eq. (11.1) carefully. What is the work done when the force on the object is zero? What would be the work done when the displacement of the object is zero? Refer to the conditions that are to be satisfied to say that work is done. Example 11.1 A force of 5 N is acting on an object. The object is displaced through 2 m in the direction of the force (Fig. 11.2). If the force acts on the object all through the displacement, then work done is 5 N 2 m 10 N m or 10 J. Fig. 11.4 Consider a situation in which an object is moving with a uniform velocity along a particular direction. Now a retarding force, F, is applied in the opposite direction. That is, the angle between the two directions is 180. Let the object stop after a displacement s. In such a situation, the work done by the force, F is taken as negative and denoted by the minus sign. The work done by the force is F (s) or (F s). It is clear from the above discussion that the work done by a force can be either positive or negative. To understand this, let us do the following activity Activity 11.4 Lift an object up. Work is done by the force exerted by you on the object. The object moves upwards. The force you exerted is in the direction of displacement. However, there is the force of gravity acting on the object. Which one of these forces is doing positive work? Which one is doing negative work? Give reasons. Work done is negative when the force acts opposite to the direction of displacement. Work done is positive when the force is in the direction of displacement. Example 11.2 A porter lifts a luggage of 15 kg from the ground and puts it on his head 1.5 m above the ground. Calculate the work done by him on the luggage. Solution Mass of luggage, m 15 kg and displacement, s 1.5 m. Fig. 11.2 uestion 1. A force of 7 N acts on an object. The displacement is, say 8 m, in the direction of the force (Fig. 11.3). Let us take it that the force acts on the object through the displacement. What is the work done in this case? Fig. 11.3 Consider another situation in which the force and the displacement are in the same direction a baby pulling a toy car parallel to the ground, as shown in Fig. 11.4. The baby has exerted a force in the direction of displacement of the car. In this situation, the work done will be equal to the product of the force and displacement. In such situations, the work done by the force is taken as positive. Q 2019-2020 | [
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268 MATHEMATICS Table 14.7 Percentage of Number of xi di xi 50 50 10 i i x u fixi fidi fiui female statesU.T. teachers ( fi) 15 - 25 6 20 30 3 120 180 18 25 - 35 11 30 20 2 330 220 22 35 - 45 7 40 10 1 280 70 7 45 - 55 4 50 0 0 200 0 0 55 - 65 4 60 10 1 240 40 4 65 - 75 2 70 20 2 140 40 4 75 - 85 1 80 30 3 80 30 3 Total 35 1390 360 36 From the table above, we obtain fi 35, fixi 1390, fidi 360, fiui 36. Using the direct method, 1390 39.71 35 i i i f x x f Using the assumed mean method, x i i i f d a f ( 360) 50 39.71 35 Using the step-deviation method, x 36 50 10 39.71 35 i i i f u a h f Therefore, the mean percentage of female teachers in the primary schools of rural areas is 39.71. Remark The result obtained by all the three methods is the same. So the choice of method to be used depends on the numerical values of xi and fi. If xi and fi are sufficiently small, then the direct method is an appropriate choice. If xi and fi are numerically large numbers, then we can go for the assumed mean method or step-deviation method. If the class sizes are unequal, and xi are large numerically, we can still apply the step-deviation method by taking h to be a suitable divisor of all the dis. 2019-20 | [
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54 MATHEMATICS All the other streets of the city run parallel to these roads and are 200 m apart. There are 5 streets in each direction. Using 1cm 200 m, draw a model of the city on your notebook. Represent the roadsstreets by single lines. There are many cross- streets in your model. A particular cross-street is made by two streets, one running in the North - South direction and another in the East - West direction. Each cross street is referred to in the following manner If the 2nd street running in the North - South direction and 5th in the East - West direction meet at some crossing, then we will call this cross-street (2, 5). Using this convention, find (i) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (4, 3). (ii) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (3, 4). 3.2 Cartesian System You have studied the number line in the chapter on Number System. On the number line, distances from a fixed point are marked in equal units positively in one direction and negatively in the other. The point from which the distances are marked is called the origin. We use the number line to represent the numbers by marking points on a line at equal distances. If one unit distance represents the number 1, then 3 units distance represents the number 3, 0 being at the origin. The point in the positive direction at a distance r from the origin represents the number r. The point in the negative direction at a distance r from the origin represents the number r. Locations of different numbers on the number line are shown in Fig. 3.5. Fig. 3.5 Descartes invented the idea of placing two such lines perpendicular to each other on a plane, and locating points on the plane by referring them to these lines. The perpendicular lines may be in any direction such as in Fig.3.6. But, when we choose Fig. 3.6 2019-2020 | [
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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 165 Therefore, the point ( 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A( 6, 10) and B(3, 8) in the ratio 2 7. Alternatively The ratio m1 m2 can also be written as 1 2 1, m m or k 1. Let ( 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio k 1. Using the section formula, we get ( 4, 6) 3 6 8 10 , 1 1 k k k k (2) So, 4 3 6 1 k k i.e., 4k 4 3k 6 i.e., 7k 2 i.e., k 1 2 7 You can check for the y-coordinate also. So, the point ( 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A( 6, 10) and B(3, 8) in the ratio 2 7. Note You can also find this ratio by calculating the distances PA and PB and taking their ratios provided you know that A, P and B are collinear. Example 8 Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (i.e., points dividing in three equal parts) of the line segment joining the points A(2, 2) and B( 7, 4). Solution Let P and Q be the points of trisection of AB i.e., AP PQ QB (see Fig. 7.11). Therefore, P divides AB internally in the ratio 1 2. Therefore, the coordinates of P, by applying the section formula, are 1( 7) 2(2) 1(4) 2( 2) , 1 2 1 2 , i.e., (1, 0) Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2 1. So, the coordinates of Q are 2( 7) 1(2) 2(4) 1( 2) , 2 1 2 1 , i.e., ( 4, 2) Fig. 7.11 2019-20 | [
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HERONS FORMULA 201 Example 1 Find the area of a triangle, two sides of which are 8 cm and 11 cm and the perimeter is 32 cm (see Fig. 12.6). Solution Here we have perimeter of the triangle 32 cm, a 8 cm and b 11 cm. Third side c 32 cm (8 11) cm 13 cm So, 2s 32, i.e., s 16 cm, s a (16 8) cm 8 cm, s b (16 11) cm 5 cm, s c (16 13) cm 3 cm. Therefore, area of the triangle ( ) ( ) ( ) s s a s b s c 2 2 16 8 5 3cm 8 30 cm Example 2 A triangular park ABC has sides 120m, 80m and 50m (see Fig. 12.7). A gardener Dhania has to put a fence all around it and also plant grass inside. How much area does she need to plant? Find the cost of fencing it with barbed wire at the rate of 20 per metre leaving a space 3m wide for a gate on one side. Solution For finding area of the park, we have 2s 50 m 80 m 120 m 250 m. i.e., s 125 m Now, s a (125 120) m 5 m, s b (125 80) m 45 m, s c (125 50) m 75 m. Therefore, area of the park ( ) ( ) ( ) s s a s b s c 125 5 45 75 m2 2 375 15 m Also, perimeter of the park AB BC CA 250 m Therefore, length of the wire needed for fencing 250 m 3 m (to be left for gate) 247 m And so the cost of fencing 20 247 4940 Fig. 12.6 Fig. 12.7 2019-2020 | [
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52 Economics As per the NSSO report No. 558 in rural India, the per person per month has declined from 6.38 Kg. in 2004-05 to 5.98 Kg in 2011-12. In urban India, the per person per month consumption of rice, too has declined from 4.71 Kg in 2004-05 to 4.19 Kg in 2011-12. Per Capita consumption of PDS rice has doubled in rural India and increased by 66 in urban India since 2004-05. The per Capita consumption of PDS wheat has doubled since 2004-05 in both rural and urban India. PDS dealers are sometimes found resorting to malpractices like diverting the grains to open market to get better margin, selling poor quality grains at ration shops, irregular opening of the shops, etc. It is common to find that ration shops regularly have unsold stocks of poor quality grains left. This has proved to be a big problem. When ration shops are unable to sell, a massive stock of foodgrains piles up with the FCI. In recent years, there is another factor that has led to the decline of the PDS. Earlier every family, poor and non-poor had a ration card with a fixed quota of items such as rice, wheat, sugar etc. These were sold at the same low price to every family. The three types of cards and the range of prices that you see today did not exist. A large number of families could buy foodgrains from the ration shops subject to a fixed quota. These included low income families whose incomes were marginally higher than the below poverty line families. Now, with TPDS of three different prices, any family above the poverty line gets very little discount at the ration shop. The price for APL family is almost as high as open market price, so there is little incentive for them to buy these items from the ration shop. Role of cooperatives in food security The cooperatives are also playing an important role in food security in India especially in the southern and western parts of the country. The cooperative societies set up shops to sell low priced goods to poor people. For example, out of all fair price shops running in Tamil Nadu, around 94 per cent are being run by the cooperatives. In Delhi, Mother Dairy is making strides in provision of milk and vegetables to the consumers at controlled rate decided by Government of Delhi. Amul is another success story of cooperatives in milk and milk products from Gujarat. It has brought about the White Revolution in the country. These are a few examples of many more cooperatives running in different parts of the country ensuring food security of different sections of society. Similarly, in Maharashtra, Academy of Development Science (ADS) has facilitated a network of NGOs for setting up grain banks in different regions. ADS organises training and capacity building programmes on food security for NGOs. Grain Banks are now slowly taking shape in different parts of Maharashtra. ADS efforts to set up Grain Banks, to facilitate replication through other NGOs and to influence the Governments policy on food security are thus paying rich dividends. The ADS Grain Bank programme is acknowledged as a successful and innovative food security intervention. 2019-2020 | [
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