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ZUCCARELLI, FRANCESCO (1702-1788), Italian painter, was born at Pitigliano in Tuscany, and studied in Rome under Onesi, Morandi, and Nelli. At Rome, and later in Venice, he became famous as one of the best landscape painters of the classicizing 18th century. Having visited England on a previous occasion, he was induced by some patrons to return thither in 1752, remaining until 1773, when he settled in Florence, dying there in 1788. Zuccarelli, who was one of the foundation members of the Royal Academy, enjoyed the patronage of royalty and of many wealthy English collectors for whom he executed his principal works—generally landscapes with classic ruins and small figures. A large number of them are at Windsor Castle, and of the seven examples which formed part of the John Samuel collection two are now at the National Gallery. The royal palace in Venice contains as many as twenty-one, and the academy four. Others are at the Vienna Gallery and at the Louvre in Paris. His work was very unequal, but at his best he rivals the leading landscape painters of his time. His paintings often bear a mark representing a pumpkin, a pictorial representation of his name, which signifies “little pumpkin.” |
ZUCCARO, or Zucchero , [ 1 ] the name of two Italian painters. I. Taddeo Zuccaro (1529–1566), one of the most popular painters of the so called Roman mannerist school, was the son of Ottaviano Zuccaro, an almost unknown painter at St Angelo in Vado, where he was born in 1529. Taddeo found his way to Rome, and he succeeded at an early age in gaining a knowledge of painting and in finding patrons to employ him. When he was seventeen a pupil of Correggio, named Daniele da Parma, engaged him to assist in painting a series of frescoes in a chapel at Vitto near Sora, on the borders of the Abruzzi. Taddeo returned to Rome in 1548, and began his career as a fresco painter, by executing a series of scenes in monochrome from the life of Furius Camillus on the front of the palace of a wealthy Roman named Jacopo Mattei. From that time his success was assured, and he was largely employed by the popes Julius III. and Paul IV., by Della Rovere, duke of Urbino, and by other rich patrons. His best frescoes were a historical series painted on the walls of a new palace at Caprarola, built for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, for which Taddeo also designed a great quantity of rich decorations in stucco relief after the style of Giulio Romano and other pupils of Raphael. Nearly all his paintings were in fresco, very large in scale, and often in chiaroscuro or monochrome; they were more remarkable for rapidity of execution and a certain boldness of style than for any higher qualities. His work is mannered in style, artificial and pompous in conception, and lacks any close or accurate knowledge of the human form and its movements. He died in Rome in 1566, and was buried in the Pantheon, not far from Raphael. Taddeo's easel pictures are less common than his decorative frescoes. A small painting on copper of the Adoration of the Shepherds, formerly in the collection of James II., is now at Hampton Court; it is a work of very small merit. The Caprarola frescoes were engraved and published by Prenner, Illustri Fatti Farnesiani Coloriti nel Real Palazzo di Caprarola (Rome, 1748—50). II. Federigo Zuccaro (1543–1609) was in 1550 placed under his brother Taddeo's charge in Rome, and worked as his assistant; he completed the Caprarola frescoes. Federigo attained an eminence far beyond his very limited merits as a painter, and was perhaps the most popular artist of his generation. Probably no other painter has ever produced so many enormous frescoes crowded with figures on the most colossal scale, all executed under the unfortunate delusion that grandeur of effect could be attained merely by great size combined with extravagance of attitude and exaggeration of every kind. Federigo's first work of this sort was the completion of the painting of the dome of the cathedral at Florence; the work had been begun by the art-historian Vasari, who wrote in the most generous language about his more successful rival. Regardless of the injury to the apparent scale of the interior of the church, Federigo painted about 300 figures, each nearly 50 ft high, sprawling with violent contortions all over the surface. Happily age has so dimmed these pictures that their presence is now almost harmless. Federigo was recalled to Rome by Gregory XIII. to continue in the Pauline chapel of the Vatican the scheme of decoration begun by Michelangelo during his failing years, but a quarrel between the painter and members of the papal court led to his departure from Italy. He visited Brussels, and there made a series of cartoons for the tapestry-weavers. In 1574 he passed over to England, where he received commissions to paint the portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Mary, queen of Scots, Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir Francis Walsingham, Lord High Admiral Howard, and others. A curious full-length portrait of Elizabeth in fancy dress, now at Hampton Court, is attributed to this painter, though very doubtfully. Another picture in the same collection appears to be a replica of his painting of the “Allegory of Calumny,” as suggested by Lucian's description of a celebrated work by Apelles; the satire in the original painting, directed against some of his courtier enemies, was the immediate cause of Federigo's temporary exile from Rome. His success as a painter of portraits and other works in oil was more reasonable than the admiration expressed for his colossal frescoes. A portrait of a “Man with Two Dogs,” in the Pitti Palace at Florence, is a work of some real merit, as is also the “Dead Christ and Angels” in the Borghese Gallery in Rome. Federigo was soon recalled to Rome to finish his work on the vault of the Pauline chapel. In 1585 he accepted an offer by Philip II. of Spain to decorate the new Escorial at a yearly salary of 2000 crowns, and worked at the Escorial from January 1586 to the end of 1588, when he returned to Rome. He there founded in 1595, under a charter confirmed by Sixtus V., the Academy of St Luke, of which he was the first president. Its organization suggested to Sir Joshua Reynolds his scheme for founding the English Royal Academy. Like his contemporary Giorgio Vasari, Federigo aimed at being an art critic and historian, but with very different success. His chief book, L'Idea de' Pittori, Scultori, ed Architetti (Turin, 1607), is a senseless mass of the most turgid bombast. Little can be said in praise of his smaller works, consisting of two volumes printed at Bologna in 1608, describing his visit to Parma and a journey through central Italy. Federigo was raised to the rank of a cavaliere not long before his death, which took place at Ancona in 1609. For both Taddeo and Federigo Zuocaro see Vasari, pt. iii., and Lanzi, Storia Pittorica , Roman School, epoch iii. ( J. H. M. ) ↑ So spelt by Vasari. |
ZUG, LAKE OF, one of the minor Swiss lakes, on the outskirts of the Alps and N. of that of Lucerne. Probably at some former date it was connected by means of the Lake of Lowerz and the plain of Brunnen with the Lake of Lucerne. At present it is formed by the Aa, which descends from the Rigi and enters the southern extremity of the lake. The Lorze pours its waters into the lake at its northern extremity, but 1¼ m. further W. issues from the lake to pursue its course towards the Reuss. The Lake of Zug has an area of about 15 sq. m., is about 9 m. in length, 22 m. in breadth, and has a maximum depth of 650 ft., while its surface is 1368 ft. above sea-level. For the most part the lake is in the Canton of Zug, but the southern end is, to the extent of 3¾ sq. m., in that of Schwyz, while the Canton of Lucerne claims about ¾ sq. m., to the N. of Immensee. Toward the S.W. extremity of the lake the Rigi descends rather steeply to the water's edge, while part of its east shore forms a narrow level band at the foot of the Rossberg (5194 ft.) and the Zugerberg. At its northern end the shores are nearly level, while on the west shore the wooded promontory of Buonas (with its castles, old and new) projects picturesquely into the waters. The principal place on the lake is the town of Zug, whence a railway (formerly part of the St Gotthard main route) runs along its eastern shore past Walchwil to Arth at its south end, which is connected by a steam tramway with the Arth-Goldau station of the St Gotthard line. This line runs from Arth along the western shore to Immensee, where it bears S.W. to Lucerne, while from Immensee another railway leads (at first some way from the shore) to Cham, 3 m. W. of Zug. The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1852. Many fish (including pike and carp of considerable weights) are taken in the lake, which is especially famous by reason of a peculiar kind of trout ( Salmo salvelinus , locally called Rötheli ). ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ZUG (Fr. Zoug ), a canton of central Switzerland. It is the smallest undivided canton, both as regards area and as regards population. Its total area is but 92.3 sq. m., of which, however, no fewer than 75.1 sq. m. are reckoned as “productive,” forests covering 19.9 sq. m. Of the rest 10 sq. m. are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zug ( q.v. ), and 2 3 / 4 sq. m. by the lake of Aegeri, which is wholly within the canton. It includes the fertile strips on the eastern and western shores of the lower portion of the lake of Zug, together with the alluvial plain at its northern extremity. The lower range, culminating in the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), and Wildspitz (5194 ft.), the highest summit of the Rossberg, that rises east of the lake of Zug, separates it from the basin and lake of Aegeri, as well as from the hilly district of Menzingen. The Lorze issues from the lake of Aegeri, forces its way through moraine deposits in a deep gorge with fine stalactite caverns and falls into the lake of Zug, issuing from it very soon to flow into the Reuss. The Canton thus belongs to the hilly, not to the mountainous, Swiss cantons, but as it commands the entrance to the higher ground it has a certain strategical position. Railways connect it both with Lucerne and with Zürich, while lines running along either shore of the lake of Zug join at the Arth-Goldau station of the St Gotthard railway. On the eastern shore of the lake of Aegeri, and within the territory of the canton, is the true site of the famous battle of Morgarten ( q.v. ) won by the Swiss in 1315. Till 1814 Zug was in the diocese of Constance, but on the reconstruction of the diocese of Basel in 1828 it was assigned to it. In 1900 the population of the canton was 25,093, of whom 24,042 were German-speaking, 819 Italian-speaking, and 157 French-speaking, while 23,362 were Romanists, 1701 Protestants, and 19 Jews. Its capital is Zug, while the manufacturing village of Baar, 2 m. N., had 4484 inhabitants, and the village of Cham, 3 m. N.W., had 3025 inhabitants. In both cases the environs of the villages are included, and this is even more the case with the wide-spreading parishes of Unter Aegeri with 2593 inhabitants, of Menzingen with 2495 inhabitants, and the great school for girls and female teachers, founded in 1844 by Father Theodosius Florentini, and of Ober Aegeri with 1891 inhabitants In the higher regions of the canton the population is mainly engaged in pastoral pursuits and cattle-breeding. There are 61 “alps,” or high pastures in the canton. At Cham is a well-known factory of condensed milk, now united with that of Nestlé of Vevey. At Baar there are extensive cotton spinning mills and other factories. Round the town of Zug there are great numbers of fruit trees, and “ Kirschwasser ” (cherry water) and cider are largely manufactured. Agriculture too flourishes greatly. A number of factories have sprung up in the new quarter of the town, but the silk-weaving industry has all but disappeared. The canton forms a single administrative district, which comprises eleven communes. The legislature, or Kantonsrat , has one member to every 350 inhabitants, and the seven members of the executive, or Regierungsrat , are elected directly by popular vote, proportional representation obtaining in both cases if more than two members are to be elected in the same electoral district to posts in the same authority. The term of office in both cases is four years. Besides the “facultative Referendum” by which, in case of a demand by one-third of the members of the legislative assembly, or by 800 citizens, any law, and any resolution involving a capital expenditure of 40,000, or an annual one of 10,000 francs, must be submitted to a direct popular vote, and the “initiative” at the demand of 1000 citizens in case of amendments to the cantonal constitution; there is also an “initiative” in case of bills, to be exercised at the demand of 800 citizens. The two members of the Federal Ständerat , as well as the one member of the Federal Nationalrat , are also elected by a popular vote. The earlier history of the canton is practically identical with that of its capital Zug ( see below ). From 1728 to 1738 it was distracted by violent disputes about the distribution of the French pensions. In 1798 its inhabitants opposed the French, and the canton formed part of the Tellgau, and later of one of the districts of the huge canton of the Waldstatten in the Helvetic republic. In 1803 it regained its independence as a separate canton, and by the constitution of 1814 the “Landsgemeinde,” or assembly of all the citizens, which had existed for both districts since 1376, became a body of electors to choose a cantonal council. The reform movement of 1850 did not affect the canton, which in 1845 was a member of the Sonderbund and shared in the war of 1847. In 1848 the remaining functions of the Landsgemeinde were abolished. Both in 1848 and in 1874 the canton voted against the acceptance of the federal constitutions. The constitution of 1873–76 was amended in 1881, and was replaced by a new one in 1894. Authorities .—J. J. Blumer, Staats- and Rechtsgeschichte der schweiz. Demokratien , 3 vols. (St. Gall, 1850–9); Geschichtsfreund , from 1843; A. Lütolf, Sagen , Bräuche , Legenden aus den fünf Orten (Lucerne, 1862); Achille Renaud, Staats- and Rechtsgeschichte d. Kant. Zug (Pforzheim, 1847); H. Ryffel, Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden (Zürich, 1903); F. K. Stadlin, Die Topographie d. Kant. Zug , 4 parts (Lucerne, 1819–24); B. Staub, Der Kant. Zug , 2nd ed. (Zug, 1869); A. Strüby, Die Alp- and Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Zug (Soleure, 1901); and the Zugerisches Neujahrsblatt (Zug from 1882). ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ZUG, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, a picturesque little town at the N.E. corner of the lake of Zug, and at the foot of the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), which rises gradually, its lower slopes thickly covered with fruit trees. Pop. (1900) 6508, mainly German-speaking and Romanists. The lake shore has been embanked and forms a promenade, whence glorious views of the snowy peaks of the Bernese Oberland, as well as of the Rigi and Pilatus, are gained. Towards its northerly end a monument marks the spot where a part of the shore slipped into the lake in 1887. The older part of the town is rather crowded together, though only four of the wall towers and a small part of the town walls still survive. The most striking old building in the town is the parish church of St Oswald (late 15th century), dedicated to St Oswald, king of Northumbria (d. 642), one of whose arms was brought to Zug in 1485. The town hall, also a 15th-century building, now houses the Historical and Antiquarian Museum. There are some quaint old painted houses close by. A little way higher up the hill-side is a Capuchin convent in a striking position, close to the town wall and leaning against it. Still higher, and outside the old town, is the fine new parish church of St Michael, consecrated in 1902. The business quarter is on the rising ground north of the old town, near the railway station. Several fine modern buildings rise on or close to the shore in the town and to its south, whilst to the south-west is a convent of Capuchin nuns, who manage a large girls' school, and several other educational establishments. The town, first mentioned in, 1240, is called an “ oppidum ” in 1242, and a “ castrum ” in 1255. In 1273 it was bought by Rudolph of Habsburg from Anna, the heiress of Kyburg and wife of Eberhard, head of the cadet line of Habsburg, and in 1278 part of its territory, the valley of Aegeri, was pledged by Rudolph as security for a portion of the marriage gift he promised to Joanna, daughter of Edward I. of England, who was betrothed to his son Hartmann, whose death in 1281 prevented the marriage from taking place. The town of Zug was governed by a bailiff, appointed by the Habsburgs, and a council, and was much favoured by that family. Several country districts (Baar, Menzingen, and Aegeri) had each its own “Landsgemeinde” but were governed by one bailiff, also appointed by the Habsburgs; these were known as the “Aeusser Amt,” and were always favourably disposed to the Confederates. On the 27th of June 1352 both the town of Zug and the Aeusser Amt entered the Swiss Confederation, the latter being received on exactly the same terms as the town, and not, as was usual in the case of country districts, as a subject land; but in September 1352 Zug had to acknowledge its own lords again, and in 1355 to break off its connexion with the league. About 1364 the town and the Aeusser Amt were recovered for the league by the men of Schwyz, and from this time Zug took part as a full member in all the acts of the league. In 1379 the German king Wenceslaus exempted Zug from all external jurisdictions, and in 1389 the Habsburgs renounced their claims, reserving only an annual payment of twenty silver marks, and this came to an end in 1415. In 1400 Wenceslaus gave all criminal jurisdiction to the town only. The Aeusser Amt then, in 1404, claimed that the banner and seal of Zug should be kept in one of the country districts, and were supported in this claim by Schwyz. The matter was finally settled in 1414 by arbitration and the banner was to be kept in the town. Finally in 1415 the right of electing their “landammann” was given to Zug by the Confederates, and a share in the criminal jurisdiction was granted to the Aeusser Amt by the German king Sigismund. In 1385 Zug joined the league of the Swabian cities against Leopold of Habsburg and shared in the victory of Sempach, as well as in the various Argovian (1415) and Thurgovian (1460) conquests of the Confederates, and later in those in Italy (1512), having already taken part in the occupation of the Val d'Ossola. Between 1379 (Walchwil) and 1477 (Cham) Zug had acquired various districts in her own neighbourhood, principally to the north and the west, which were ruled till 1798 by the town alone as subject lands. At the time of the Reformation Zug clung to the old faith and was a member of the “Christliche Vereinigung” of 1529. In 1586 it became a member of the Golden League. ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ZUHAIR [Zuhair ibn Abī Sulmā Rabī’ a ul-Muzanī] (6th century), one of the six great Arabian pre-Islamic poets. Of his life practically nothing is known save that he belonged to a family of poetic power, his stepfather, Aus ibn Hajar, his sister, Khansā, and his son, Ka’b ibn Zuhair, were all poets of eminence. He is said to have lived long, and at the age of one hundred to have met Mahomet. His home was in the land of the Banī Ghatafān. His poems are characterized by their peaceful nature and a sententious moralizing. One of them is contained in the Moallakāt . As a whole his poems have been published by W. Ahlwardt in his The Dreams of the six Ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870); and with the commentary of al-A’lam (died 1083) by Count Landberg in the second part of his Primeurs arabes (Leiden, 1889). Some supplementary poems are contained in K. Dyroff’s Zur Geschichte der Überlieferung des Zuhairdiwans (Munich, 1892). ( G. W. T. ) |
ZUIDER ZEE, or Zuyder Zee , a land-locked inlet on the coast of Holland, bounded N. by the chain of the Frisian Islands, and W., S., and E. by the provinces of North Holland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overysel, and Friesland. It is about 85 m. long N. to S., and from 10 to 45 m. broad, with an area of 2027 sq. m., and contains the islands of Marken, Schokland, Urk, Wieringen, and Griend. In the early centuries of the Christian era the Zuider ( i.e. Southern) Zee was a small inland lake situated in the southern part of the present gulf, and called Flevo by Tacitus, Pliny, and other early writers. It was separated from the sea by a belt of marsh and fen uniting Friesland and North Holland, the original coast-line being still indicated by the line of the Frisian Islands. Numerous streams, including the Vecht, Eem, and Ysel, discharged their waters into this lake and issued thence as the Vlie (Latin Flevus ), which reached the North Sea by the Vliegat between the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling. In the Lex Frisonum the Vlie (Fli, or Flehi) is accepted as the boundary between the territory of the East and West Frisians. In time, however, and especially during the 12th century, high tides and north-west storms swept away the western banks of the Vlie and submerged great tracts of land. In 1170 the land between Stavoren, Texel, and Medemblik was washed away, and a century later the Zuider Zee was formed. The open waterway between Stavoren and Enkhuizen, however, as it now exists, dates from 1400. In the south and east the destruction was arrested by the high sandy shores of Gooi, Veluwe, Voorst, and Gasterland in the provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland, Overysel, and Friesland respectively. The mean depth of the Zuider Zee is 11·48 ft.; depth in the southern basin of the former lake, 19 ft.; at Val van Urk (deep water to the west of the island of Urk), 14 1 / 2 ft. If a line be drawn from the island of Urk to Marken, and thence westwards to Hoorn (North Holland) and N.N.E. to Lemmer (Friesland), these lines will connect parts of the Zuider Zee having a uniform depth of 8 ft. The other parts on the coast are only 3 ft. deep or less. This shallowness of its waters served to protect the Zuider Zee from the invasion of large ships of war. It also explains how many once flourishing commercial towns, such as Stavoren, Medemblik, Enkhuizen, Hoorn, Monnikendam, declined to the rank of provincial trading and fishing ports. The fisheries of the Zuider Zee are of considerable importance. Eighty per cent. of the bottom consists of sea clay and the more recent silt of the Ysel; 20 per cent. of sand, partly in the north about Urk and Enkhuizen, partly in the south along the high shores of Gooi, Veluwe, &c. The shallowness of the sea and the character of its bottom, promising fertile soil, occasioned various projects of drainage. The scheme recommended by the Zuider Zee Vereeniging (1886) formed the subject of a report in 1894 by a state commission. The principal feature in the scheme was the building of a dike from the island of Wieringen to the coast of Friesland. The area south of this would be divided into four polders, with reservation, however, of a lake, Yselmeer, in the centre, whence branches would run to Ysel and the Zwolsche Diep, to Amsterdam, and, by sluices near Wieringen, to the northern part of the sea. The four polders with their areas of fertile soil would be:— (1) North-west polder, area 53,599 acres; fertile soil, 46,189 acres. (2) South-west „ „ 77,854 „ „ „ 68,715 „ (3) South-east „ „ 266,167 „ „ „ 222,275 „ (4) North-east „ „ 125,599 „ „ „ 120,783 „ The Lake Yselmeer would have an area of 560 sq. m. The gain would be the addition to the kingdom of a new and fertile province of the area of North Brabant, a saving of expenses on dikes, diminution of inundations, improvement of communication between the south and the north of the kingdom, protection of isles of the sea, &c. The costs were calculated as follows: (1) enclosing dike, sluices, and regulation of Zwolsche Diep, £1,760,000; (2) reclamation of four polders, £5,200,000; (3) defensive works, £400,000; (4) indemnity to fishermen, £180,000; total, £7,540,000. In 1901 the government introduced a bill in the States General, based on the recommendations of the commission, providing for enclosing the Zuider Zee by building a dike from the North Holland coast, through the Amsteldiep to Wieringen and from that island to the Friesland coast at Piaam; and further providing for the draining of two portions of the enclosed area, namely the N.W. and the S.W. polders shown in the table. The entire work was to be completed in 18 years at an estimated cost of £7,916,000. The bill failed to become law and in consequence of financial difficulties the project had not, up to 1910, advanced beyond the stage of consideration. With the exception of Griend and Schokland, the islands of the Zuider Zee are inhabited by small fishing communities, who retain some archaic customs and a picturesque dress. Urk is already mentioned as an island in 966. The inhabitants of Schokland were compelled to leave the island by order of the state in 1859, it being considered insecure from inundation. The island of Griend (or Grind) once boasted a walled town, which was destroyed by flood at the end of the 13th century. But the island continued for some centuries to serve as a pasturage for cattle, giving its name to a well-known description of cheese. Like some of the other islands, sheep are still brought to graze upon it in summer, and a large number of birds’ eggs are collected upon it in spring. Several of the islands were once the property of religious houses on the mainland. The British Foreign Office report, Draining of the Zuiderzee (1901), gives full particulars of the Dutch government’s scheme and a retrospect of all former proposals. See also De economische beteekens van de afsluiting en drooglegging der Zuiderzee vom Zuiderzee-Verein (2nd ed., 1901), and D. Bellet, “Le dessèchement du Zuiderzee,” Rev. Geog. (1902) and W. J. Tuyn, Oude Hollandsche Dorpen aan de Zuiderzee (Haarlem, 1900). |
ZULA, a small town near the head of Annesley Bay on the African coast of the Red Sea. It derives its chief interest from ruins in its vicinity which are generally supposed to mark the site of the ancient emporium of Adulis ( Ἄδουλὶς , Ἀδουλεί ), the port of Axum ( q.v. ) and chief outlet in the early centuries of the Christian era for the ivory, hides, slaves and other exports of the interior. Cosmas Indicopleustes saw here an inscription of Ptolemy Euergetes (247–222 B.C. ); and hence as the earliest mention of Adulis is found in the geographers of the first century A.D. , it is conjectured that the town must have previously existed under another name and may have been the Bererice Panchrysus of the Ptolemies. Described by a Greek merchant of the time of Vespasian as “a well arranged market,” the place has been for centuries buried under sand. The ruins visible include a temple, obelisks and numerous fragments of columns. In 1857 an agreement was entered into by Dejaj Negusye, a chief of Tigré, in revolt against the Negus Theodore of Abyssinia, to cede Zula to the French. Negusye was defeated by Theodore, and the commander of a French cruiser sent to Annesley Bay in 1859 found the country in a state of anarchy. No farther steps were taken by France to assert its sovereignty, and Zula with the neighbourlng coast passed, nominally, to Egypt in 1866. Zula was the place where the British expedition of 1867–68 against Theodore disembarked, Annesley Bay affording safe and ample anchorage for the largest ocean-going vessels. The road made by the British from Zula to Senafé on the Abyssinian plateau is still in use. The authority of Egypt having lapsed, an Italian protectorate over the district of Zula was proclaimed in 1888, and in 1890 it was incorporated in the colony of Eritrea ( q.v. ). See Eduard Rüppell, Reise in Abyssinien i. 266 (1838), G. Rohlfs in Zeitschr. d. Gesell. f. Erdkunde in Berlin , iii (1868), and, for further references, the editions of the Periplus by C. Müller ( Geog. Gr. Min. i. 259) and Fabricius (1883) Consult also Ethiopia , The Axumite Kingdom . |
ZULOAGA, IGNACIO (1870– ), Spanish painter, was born at Eibar, in the Basque country, the son of the metal-worker and damascener Placido Zuloaga, and grandson of the organizer and director of the royal armoury in Madrid. The career chosen for him by his father was that of an architect, and with this object in view he was sent to Rome, where he immediately followed the strong impulse that led him to painting. After only six months’ work he completed his first picture, which was exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1890. Continuing his studies in Paris, he was strongly influenced by Gauguin and Toulouse Lautrec. Only on his return to his native soil he found his true style, which is based on the national Spanish tradition embodied in the work of Velazquez, Zurbaran, El Greco, and Goya. His own country was slow in acknowledging the young artist whose strong, decorative rugged style was the very negation of the aims of such well-known modern Spanish artists as Fortuny, Madrazo, and Benlliure. It was first in Paris, and then in Brussels and other continental art centres, that Zuloaga was hailed by the reformers as the regenerator of Spanish national art and as the leader of a school. He is now represented in almost every great continental gallery. Two of his canvases are at the Luxembourg, one at the Brussels Museum (“Avant la Corrida”), and one (“The Poet Don Miguel”) at the Vienna Gallery. The Pau Museum owns an interesting portrait of a lady, the Barcelona Municipal Museum the important group “Amies,” the Venice Gallery, “Madame Louise”, the Berlin Gallery, “The Topers.” Other examples are in the Budapest, Stuttgart, Ghent and Posen galleries and in many important private collections. A fully illustrated account of the artist and his work, by M. Utrillo, was published in a special number of Forma (Barcelona, 1907). |
ZULULAND, a country of south east Africa, forming the N.E. part of the province of Natal in the Union of South Africa. The “Province of Zululand,” as it was officially styled from 1898 to 1910, lies between 26° 50′ and 29° 15′ S. and 30° 40′ and 33° E, and has an area of 10,450 sq. m. It includes in the north the country of the Ama Tonga, Zaambanland, and other small territories not part of the former Zulu kingdom and stretches north from the lower Tugela to the southern frontier of Portuguese East Africa. Bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean it has a coast line of 210 m. North and north west it is bounded by the Utrecht and Vryheid districts of Natal and by Swaziland. Its greatest length in a direct line is 185 m., its greatest breadth 105 m. (For map see South Africa .) Physical Features. —Zululand is part of the region of hills and plateaus which descend seaward from the Drakensberg—the great mountain chain which buttresses the vast tableland of inner South Africa. The coast, which curves to the N.E., is marked by a line of sandhills covered with thick bush and rising in places to a height of 500 ft. There are occasional outcrops of rock and low perpendicular cliffs. Behind the sandhills is a low-lying plain in which are a number of shallow lagoons. Of these St Lucia Lake and Kosi Lake are of considerable size and communicate with the sea by estuaries. St Lucia, the larger of the two, is some 35 m. long by 10 m. broad with a depth of 9 to 10 ft. It runs parallel to the ocean, from which it is separated by sandhills. The opening to the sea, St Lucia river is at the south end. Kosi Lake lies further north, in Tongaland. It is not more than half the size of St Lucia and its opening to the sea is northward. Between Kosi and St Lucia lakes lies Lake Sibayi, close to the coast but not communicating with the sea.. The coast plain extends inland from 5 to 30 m., increasing in width northward, the whole of Tongaland being low-lying. The rest of the country is occupied by ranges of hills and plateaus 2000 to 4000 ft. above sea level. Behind Eshowe, in the south, are the Entumeni Hills (3000 ft.), beyond which stretch the Nkandhla uplands (rising to 4500 ft.), densely wooded in parts and abounding in flat-topped hills with precipitous sides. Westward of the uplands are the Kyudeni Hills (5000 ft.), also densely wooded, situated near the junction of the Buffalo and Tugela rivers. Further north, along the S.W. frontier, are Isandhlwana and the Nqutu hills. To the N.W. the Lebombo Mts. (1800 to 2000 ft.) which separate the coast plains from the interior, mark the frontier between Swaziland and Zululand. On their eastern (Zululand) side the slope of the Lebombo mountains is gentle, but on the west they fall abruptly to the plain. The geological structure of the country is comparatively simple, consisting in the main of plateaus formed of sedimentary rocks, resting on a platform of granitic and metamorphic rocks (see Natal : Geology ). The country is well watered. Rising in the high tablelands or on the slopes of the Drakensberg or Lebombo mountains the rivers in their upper courses have a great slope and a high velocity. In the coast plains they become deep and sluggish. Their mouths are blocked by sand bars, which in the dry season check their flow and produce the lagoons and marshes which characterize the coast. After the rains the rivers usually clear the bars for a time. The following are the chief rivers in part or in whole traversing the country:—The Pongola, in its lower course, flows through Tongaland piercing the Lebombo Mts. through a deep, narrow gorge with precipitous sides. Its point of confluence with the Maputa (which empties into Delagoa Bay) marks the parallel along which the frontier between Zululand and Portuguese East Africa is drawn. The Umgavuma which rises in Swaziland and also pierces the Lebombo, joins the Pongola about ten miles above its confluence with the Maputa. The Umkuzi which rises in the Vryheid district of Natal forces its way through the Lebombo Mts. at their southern end and flows into the northern end of St Lucia Lake. The Umfolosi, with two main branches the Black and White Umfolosi, drains the central part of the country and reaches the ocean at St Lucia Bay. In the bed of the White Umfolosi are dangerous quicksands. Farther south the Umhlatuzi empties into a lagoon which communicates with the ocean by Richards Bay. For a considerable part of their course the Blood, Buffalo and Tugela rivers form the S.W. frontier of Zululand (see Tugela ). There are numerous other rivers—every valley has its stream for the most part unnavigable. Climate. —The climate of the coast belt is semi-tropical and malaria is prevalent, that of the highlands temperate. The summer is the rainy season, but in the higher country snow and sleet are not uncommon in the winter months of May, June and July. On the coast about 40 in. of rain fall in the summer months and about 7 in. in the winter months. A fresh S.E. wind is fairly constant in the inland regions during the middle of the day. A hot wind from the N.W. is occasionally experienced in the highlands. Flora and Fauna. —The coast plain (in large part), the river valleys, and the eastern sides of the lower hills are covered with mimosa and other thorn trees. This is generally known as thornbush and has little undergrowth. “Coast forests” grow in small patches along the lower courses of the rivers, at their mouths, and on the sandhills along the coast. They contain stunted timber trees, palms, mangroves and other tropical and sub-tropical plants and have an almost impenetrable undergrowth. The largest coast forest is that of Dukuduku, some 9 m. by 15 m. in extent, adjacent to St Lucia Bay. The upland regions are those of high timber forests, the trees including the yellow-wood and iron-wood. The most noteworthy timber forests are those of Nkandhla and Kyudeni and that near Ehshowe. Large areas of the plateau are covered with grass and occasional thorn trees. Orchids are among the common flowers. The fauna includes the lion and elephant, found in the neighbourhood of the Portuguese frontier (the lion was also found as late as 1895 in the Ndwandwe district), the white and the black rhinoceros, the leopard, panther, jackal, spotted hyena, aard-wolf, buffalo, zebra, gnu, impala, inyala, oribi, hartebeeste, kudu, springbok, waterbuck, eland, roan antelope, duiker, &c., hares and rabbits. Hippopotami are found on the coast, and alligators are common in the rivers and lagoons of the low country. Venomous snakes abound. The great kori bustard, the koorhan, turkey buzzards (known as insingisi ), wild duck, and paauw are among the game birds. The ostrich and secretary bird are also found. Of domestic animals the Zulus possess a dwarf breed of smooth-skinned humped cattle. Locusts are an occasional pest. Inhabitants .—The population in 1904 was estimated at 230,000. Of these only 5635 lived outside the area devoted to native locations. The white population numbered 1693. The vast majority of the natives are Zulu (see Kaffirs ), but there is a settlement of some 2000 Basutos in the Nqutu district. After the establishment of the Zulu military ascendancy early in the 19th century various Zulu hordes successively invaded and overran a great part of east-central Africa, as far as and even beyond the Lake Nyasa district. Throughout these regions they are variously known as Ma Zitu, Ma Ravi, Wa-Ngoni (Angoni), Matabele (Ama Ndebeli), Ma Viti, and Aba-Zanzi. Such was the terror insprred by these fierce warriors that many of the tribes, such as the Wa Nindi of Mozambique, adopted the name of their conquerors or oppressors. Hence the impression that the true Zulu are far more numerous north of the Limpopo than has ever been the case. In most places they have become extinct or absorbed in the surrounding populations owing to their habit of incorporating prisoners in the tribe. But they still hold their ground as the ruling element in the region between the Limpopo and the middle Zambezi, which from them takes the name of Matabeleland. The circumstances and history of the two chief migrations of Zulu peoples northward are well known, the Matabele were led by Mosilikatze (Umsiligazi), and the Angoni by Sungandaba, both chiefs of Chaka who revolted from him in the early 19th century. The Zulu possess an elaborate system of laws regulating the inheritance of personal property (which consists chiefly of cattle), the complexity arising from the practice of polygamy and the exchange of cattle made upon marriage. The giving of cattle in the latter case is generally referred to as a barter and sale of the bride from which indeed it is not easily distinguishable. But it is regarded in a different light by the natives. The kraal is under the immediate rule of its headman, who is a patriarch responsible for the good behaviour of all its members. Over the headman, whose authority may extend to more than one kraal, is the tribal chief, and above the tribal chief was the king, whose authority is now exercised by a British commissioner. By the custom of hlompa a woman carefully avoids meeting her husband’s parents or the utterance of any word which occurs in the names of the principal members of her husband’s family, e.g. if she have a brother-in-law named U’Nkomo, she would not use the Zulu for “cow,” inkomo , but would invent some other word for it. The husband observes the same custom with regard to his mother-in-law. The employment of “witch doctors” for “smelling out” criminals or abatagati (usually translated “wizards,” but meaning evildoers of any kind, such as poisoners) once common in Zululand as in neighbouring countries, was discouraged by Cetywayo, who established “kraals of refuge” for the reception of persons rescued by him from condemnation as abatagati . “Smelling out” was finally suppressed by the British in the early years of the 20th century. (For the Zulu speech see Bantu Languages .) Towns. —The Zulus live in kraals, circular enclosures with, generally, a ring fence inside forming a cattle pen. Between this fence and the outer fencing are the huts of the inhabitants. The royal kraal for a considerable period was at Ulundi, in the valley of the White Umfolosi. The last king to occupy it was Cetywayo. Dinizulu’s kraal was farther north near the Ndwandwe magistracy. The chief white settlements are Eshowe and Melmoth. Eshowe (pop. 1904, 1855 of whom 570 were whites) is about 95 m. N.E. of Durban, lies 15 m. inland and some 1800 ft. above the sea. Eshowe is 2 m. W. of the mission station of the same name in which Col. Pearson was besieged by the Zulus in 1879, and was laid out in 1883. It is picturesquely situated on a well-wooded plateau and has a bracing climate. Two hundred acres of forest land in the centre of the town have been reserved as a natural park. Melmoth, 25 m. N.N.E. of Eshowe, lies in the centre of a district farmed by Boers. Somkele is the headquarters of the St Lucia coal fields district. Nkandhla is a small settlement in the south-west of the country. Communications. —Notwithstanding its 210 m. of coast-line Zululand possesses no harbours. Thirty-six miles N.E. of the mouth of the Tugela there is, however, fairly safe anchorage, except in S.S.W. or W. winds, about 1500 yds. from the shore. The landing-place is on the open sandy beach, where a small stream enters the sea. This landing-place is dignified with the name of Port Durnford. It was used to land stores in the war of 1879. Well-made roads connect all the magistracies. The Tugela is crossed by well-known drifts, to which roads from Natal and Zululand converge. Two, the Lower Tugela and Bond’s Drift, are both near the mouth of the river. The Middle Drift is 36 m. in a direct line above the mouth of the Tugela. Rorke’s Drift, 48 m., also in a direct line above the Middle Drift, is a crossing of the Buffalo river a little above the Tugela confluence. A railway, completed in 1904, which begins at Durban and crosses into Zululand by a bridge over the Tugela near the Lower Drift, runs along the coast belt over nearly level country to the St Lucia coal-fields in Hlabisa magistracy—167 m. from Durban of which 98 are in Zululand. There is telegraphic communication between the magistracies and townships and with Natal. Industries. —The Zulu gives little attention to the cultivation of the soil. Their main wealth consists in their herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. They raise, however, crops of maize, millet, sweet potatoes and tobacco. Sugar, tea and coffee are grown in the coast belt by whites. Anthracite is mined in the St Lucia Bay district, and bituminous coal is found in the Nqutu and Kyudeni hills. Gold, iron, copper and other minerals have also been found, but the mineral wealth of the country is undeveloped. There is a considerable trade with the natives in cotton goods &c. and numbers of Zulu seek service in Natal. (Trade statistics are included in those of Natal.) Administration. —Zululand for provincial purposes is governed by the provnncial council of Natal, otherwise it is subject to the Union parliament, to which it returns one member of the House of Assembly. It was formerly represented in the Natal legislature by three members, one member sitting in the Legislative Council and two being elected to the Legislative Assembly, one each for the districts of Eshowe and Melmoth. Their selection and election were governed by the same laws as in Natal proper, and on the establishment of the Union the franchise qualifications—which practically exclude natives—remained unaltered. The parliamentary voters in 1910 numbered 1442. The executive power is in the hands of a civil commissioner whose residence is at Eshowe. Zululand is divided into eleven magistracies and the district of Tongaland (also called Mputa or Amaputaland). In the magistracies the authority of the chiefs and indumas (headmen) is exercised under the control of resident magistrates. The Ama-Tonga enjoy a larger measure of home rule, but are under the general supervision of the civil commissioner. The Ingwavuma magistracy, like Tongaland, formed no part of the dominions of the Zulu kings, but was ruled by independent chiefs until its annexation by Great Britain in 1895. With the exception of the townships and a district of Emtonjaneni magistracy known as “Proviso B,” [ 1 ] mainly occupied by Boer farmers, all the land was vested in the crown and very little has been parted with to Europeans. The crown lands are, in effect, native reserves. A hut tax of 14s. per annum is levied on all natives. The tax has to be paid for each wife a Zulu may possess, whether or not each wife has a separate hut. Since 1906 a poll tax of £1 a head is also levied on all males over eighteen, European or native. History. —At what period the Zulu (one of a number of closely allied septs) first reached the country to which they have given their name is uncertain, they were probably settled in the valley of the White Umfolosi river at the beginning of the 17th century, and they take their name from a chief who flourished about that time. The earliest record of contact between Europeans and the Zulu race is believed to be the account of the wreck of the “Doddington” in 1756. The survivors met with hospitable treatment at the hands of the natives of Natal, and afterwards proceeded up the coast to St Lucia Bay. They describe the natives as “very proud and haughty, and not so accommodating as those lately left.” They differed from the other natives in the superior neatness of their method of preparing their food, and were more cleanly in their persons, bathing every morning, apparently as an act of devotion. Their chief pride seemed to be to keep their hair in order. It is added that they watched strictly over their women. At the close of the 18th century the Zulu were an unimportant tribe numbering a few thousands only. At that time the most powerful of the neighbouring tribes was the Umtetwe (mTetwa or Aba-Tetwa) which dwelt in the country north-east of the Tugela. The ruler of the Umtetwa was a chief who had had in early life an adventurous career and was known as Dingiswayo (the Wanderer). Rise of the Zulu nation. He had lived in Cape Colony, and there, as is supposed, had observed the manner in which the whites formed their soldiers into disciplined regiments. He too divided the young men of his tribe into impis (regiments), and the Umtetwa became a formidable military power. Dingiswayo also encouraged trade and opened relations with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay, bartering ivory and oxen for brass and beads. In 1805 he was joined by Chaka, otherwise Tshaka (born c. 1783), the son of the Zulu chief Senzangakona, on the latter’s death in 1810 Chaka, through the influence of Dingiswayo, was chosen as ruler of the Ama-Zulu, though not the rightful heir. Chaka joined in his patron’s raids, and in 1812 the Umtetwa and Zulu drove the Amangwana across the Buffalo river. About this time Dingiswayo was captured and put to death by Zwide, chief of the Undwandwe clan, with whom he had waged constant war. The Umtetwa army then placed themselves under Chaka, who not long afterwards conquered the Undwandwe. By the incorporation of these tribes Chaka made of the Zulu a powerful nation. Chaka. He strengthened the regimental system adopted by Dingiswayo and perfected the discipline of his army. A new order of battle was adopted—the troops being massed in crescent formation, with a reserve in the shape of a parallelogram ready to strengthen the weakest point. [ 2 ] Probably Chaka’s greatest innovation was the introduction of the stabbing assegai. The breaking short of the shaft of the assegai when the weapon was used at close quarters was already a common practice among the Ama-Zulu, but Chaka had the shaft of the assegais made short, and their blades longer and heavier, so that they could be used for cutting or piercing. At the same time the size of the shield was increased, the more completely to cover the body of the warrior. Military kraals were formed in which the warriors were kept apart. Members of a regiment were of much the same age, and the young warriors were forbidden to marry until they had distinguished themselves in battle. Chaka had but two ways of dealing with the tribes with whom he came in contact, either they received permission to be incorporated in the Zulu nation or they were practically exterminated. In the latter case the only persons spared were young girls and growing lads who could serve as carriers for the army. No tribe against which he waged war was able successfully to oppose the Zulu arms. At first Chaka turned his attention northward. Those who could fled before him, the first of importance so to do being a chief named Swangendaba (Sungandaba), whose tribe, of the same stock as the Zulu, was known as Angoni. He was followed by another tribe, which under Manikusa for many years ravaged the district around and north of Delagoa Bay (see Gazaland ). Chaka next attacked the tribes on his southern border, and by 1820 had made himself master of Natal, which he swept almost clear of inhabitants. It was about 1820 that Mosilikatze (properly Umsilikazi), a general in the Zulu army, having incurred Chaka’s wrath by keeping back part of the booty taken in an expedition, fled with a large following across the Drakensberg and began to lay waste a great part of the country between the Vaal and Limpopo rivers. Mosilikatze was not of the Zulu tribe proper, and he and his followers styled themselves Abaka Zulu. Chaka’s own dominions, despite his conquests, were not very extensive. He ruled from the Pongolo river on the north to the Umkomanzi river on the south, and inland his power extended to the foot of the Drakensberg, thus his territory coincided almost exactly with the limits of Zululand and Natal as constituted in 1903. His influence, however, extended from the Limpopo to the borders of Cape Colony, and through the ravages of Swangendaba and Mosilikatze the terror of the Zulu arms was carried far and wide into the interior of the continent. Chaka seems to have first come into contact with Europeans in 1824. In that year (see Natal ) he was visited by F. G. Farewell and a few companions, and to them he made a grant of the district of Port Natal. Farewell found the king at Umgungindhlovu, the royal kraal on the Arrival of the British. White Umfolosi, “surrounded by a large number of chiefs and about 8000 or 9000 armed men, observing a state and ceremony in our introduction little expected.” At this time an attempt was made to murder Chaka, but the wound he received was cured by one of Farewell’s companions, a circumstance which made the king very friendly to Europeans. Anxious to open a political connexion with the Cape and British governments, Chaka entrusted early in 1828 one of his principal chiefs, Sotobi, and a companion to the care of J. S. King, one of the Natal settlers, to be conducted on an embassage to Cape Town, Sotobi being commissioned to proceed to the king of England. But they were not allowed to proceed beyond Port Elizabeth, and three months later were sent back to Zululand. In July of the same year Chaka sent an army westward which laid waste the Pondo country. The Zulu force did not come into contact with the British troops guardrng the Cape frontier, but much alarm was caused by the invasion. In November envoys from Chaka reached Cape Town, and it was determined to send a British officer to Zululand to confer with him. Before this embassy started, news came that Chaka had been murdered (23rd of September 1828) at a military kraal on the Umvote about fifty miles from Port Natal. Chaka was a victim to a conspiracy by his half brothers Dingaan and Umthlangana, while a short time afterwards Dingaan murdered Umthlangana, overcame the opposition of a third brother, and made himself king of the Zulu. Bloodstained as had been Chaka’s rule, that of Dingaan appears to have exceeded it in wanton cruelty, as is attested by several trustworthy European travellers and merchants who now with some frequency visited Zululand. The British settlers at Port Natal were alternately Dingaan. terrorized and conciliated. In 1835 Dingaan gave permission to the British settlers at Port Natal to establish missionary stations in the country, in return for a promise made by the settlers not to harbour fugitives from his dominions. In 1836 American missionaries were also allowed to open stations, in 1837 he permitted the Rev F. Owen, of the Church Missionary Society, to reside at his great kraal, and Owen was with the king when in November 1837, he received Pieter Retief, the leader of the first party of Boer immigrants to enter Natal. Coming over the Drakensberg in considerable numbers during 1837, the Boers found the land stretching south from the mountains almost deserted, and Retief went to Dingaan to obtain a formal cession of the country west of the Tugela, which river the Zulu recognized Arrival of the Boers. as the boundary of Zululand proper. After agreeing to Retief’s request Dingaan caused the Boer leader and his companions to be murdered (6th of February 1838), following up his treachery by slaying as many as possible of the other Boers who had entered Natal. After two unsuccessful attempts to avenge their slain, in which the Boers were aided by the British settlers at Port Natal, Dingaan’s army was totally defeated on the 16th of December 1838, by a Boer force under Andries Pretorius. Operating in open country, mounted on horseback, and with rifles in their hands, the Boer farmers were able to inflict fearful losses on their enemy, while their own casualties were few. On “Dingaan’s day” the Boer force received the attack of the Zulu while in laager, the enemy charged in dense masses, being met both by cannon shot and rifle fire, and were presently attacked in the rear by mounted Boers. After the defeat Dingaan set fire to the royal kraal (Umgungindhlovu) and for a time took refuge in the bush, on the Boers recrossing the Tugela he established himself at Ulundi at a little distance from his former capital. His power was greatly weakened and a year later was overthrown, the Boers in Natal (January 1840) supporting his brother Mpande (usually called Panda) in rebellion against him. The movement was completely successful, several of Dingaan’s regiments going over to Panda. Dingaan passed into Swaziland in advance of his retreating forces, and was there murdered, while Panda was crowned king of Zululand by the Boers. When in 1843 the British succeeded the Boers as masters of Natal they entered into a treaty with Panda, who gave up to the British the country between the upper Tugela and the Buffalo rivers, and also the district of St Lucia Bay. (The bay was not then occupied by the British, Panda. whose object in obtaining the cession was to prevent its acquisition by the Boers. Long afterwards the treaty with Panda was successfully invoked to prevent a German occupation of the bay.) No sooner had the British become possessed of Natal than there was a large immigration into it of Zulu fleeing from the misgovernment of Panda. That chief was not, however, as warlike as his brothers Chaka and Dingaan, and he remained throughout his reign at peace with the government of Natal. [ 3 ] With the Boers who had settled in the Transvaal, however, he was involved in various frontier disputes. He had wars with the Swazis, who in 1855 ceded to the Boers of Lydenburg a tract of land on the north side of the Pongolo in order to place Europeans between themselves and the Zulu. In 1856 a civil war broke out between two of Panda’s sons, Cetywayo and Umbulazi, who were rival claimants for the succession. A battle was fought between them on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856, in which Umbulazi and many of his followers were slain. The Zulu country continued, however, excited and disturbed until the government of Natal in 1861 obtained the formal nomination of a successor to Panda, and Cetywayo was appointed. The agent chosen to preside at the nomination ceremony was Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus Shepstone, who was in charge of native affairs in Natal and had won in a remarkable degree the respect and liking of the Zulu. Panda died in October 1872, but practically the government of Zululand had been in Cetywayo’s hands since the victory of 1856, owing both to political circumstances and the failing health of his father. In 1873 the Zulu nation appealed to the Natal government to preside over the installation of Cetywayo as king, and this request was acceded to, Shepstone being again chosen as British representative. During the whole of Panda’s reign the condition of Zululand showed little improvement. Bishop Colenso visited him in 1857 and obtained a grant of land for a mission station, which was opened in 1860, by the Rev. R. Robertson, who laboured in the country for many years gaining the confidence both of Panda and Cetywayo. German, Norwegian and other missions were also founded. The number of converts was few, but the missionaries exercised a very wholesome influence and to them in measure was due the comparative mildness of Panda’s later years. The frontier disputes between the Zulu and the Transvaal Boers ultimately involved the British government and were one of the causes of the war which broke out in 1879. They concerned, chiefly, territory which in 1854 was proclaimed the republic of Utrecht, the Boers who had settled there having in that year Disputes with the Transvaal. obtained a deed of cession from Panda. In 1860 a Boer commission was appointed to beacon the boundary, and to obtain, if possible, from the Zulu a road to the sea at St Lucia Bay. The commission, however, effected nothing. In 1861 Umtonga, a brother of Cetywayo, fled to the Utrecht district, and Cetywayo assembled an army on that frontier. According to evidence brought forward later by the Boers, Cetywayo offered the farmers a strip of land along the border if they would surrender his brother. This they did on the condition that Umtonga’s life was spared, and in 1861 Panda signed a deed making over the land to the Boers. The southern boundary of the strip added to Utrecht ran from Rorke’s Drift on the Buffalo to a point on the Pongolo. The boundary was beaconed in 1864, but when in 1865 Umtonga fled from Zululand to Natal, Cetywayo, seeing that he had lost his part of the bargain (for he feared that Umtonga [ 4 ] might be used to supplant him as Panda had been used to supplant Dingaan), caused the beacon to be removed, the Zulu claiming also the land ceded by the Swazis to Lydenburg. The Zulu asserted that the Swazis were their vassals and denied their right to part with the territory. During the year a Boer commando under Paul Kruger and an army under Cetywayo were posted along the Utrecht border. Hostilities were avoided, but the Zulu occupied the land north of the Pongolo. Questions were also raised as to the validity of the documents signed by the Zulu concerning the Utrecht strip. In 1869 the services of the lieut.-governor of Natal were accepted by both parties as arbitrator, but the attempt then made to settle the difficulty proved unsuccessful. Such was the position when by his father’s death Cetywayo ( q.v. ) became absolute ruler of the Zulu. As far as possible he revived the military methods of his uncle Chaka, and even succeeded in equipping his regiments with firearms. It is believed that he instigated the Kaffirs in the Transkei to revolt, and he aided Cetywayo king. Sikukuni in his struggle with the Transvaal. His rule over his own people was tyrannous. By Bishop Schreuder he was described as “an able man, but for cold, selfish pride, cruelty and untruthfulness worse than any of his predecessors.” In September 1876 the massacre of a large number of girls (who had married men of their own age instead of the men of an older regiment, for whom Cetywayo had designed them) provoked a strong remonstrance from the government of Natal, inclined as that government was to look leniently on the doings of the Zulu. The tension between Cetywayo and the Transvaal over border disputes continued, and when in 1877 Britain annexed the Transvaal the dispute was transferred to the new owners of the country. A commission was appointed by the lieut.-governor of Natal in February 1878 to report on the boundary question. The commission reported in July, and found almost entirely in favour of the contention of the Zulu. Sir Bartle Frere, then High Commissioner, who thought the award “one sided and unfair to the Boers” (Martineau, Life of Frere , ii. xix.), stipulated that, on the land being given to the Zulu, the Boers living on it should be compensated if they left, or protected if they remained. Cetywayo (who now found no defender in Natal save Bishop Colenso) was in a defiant humour, and permitted outrages by Zulu both on the Transvaal and Natal borders. Frere’s ultimatum. The war of 1879. Frere was convinced that the peace of South Africa could be preserved only if the power of Cetywayo was curtailed. Therefore in forwarding his award on the boundary dispute the High Commissioner demanded that the military system should be remodelled. The youths were to be allowed to marry as they came to man’s estate, and the regiments were not to be called up except with the consent of the council of the nation and also of the British government. Moreover, the missionaries were to be unmolested and a British resident was to be accepted. These demands were made to Zulu deputies on the 11th of December 1878, a definite reply being required by the 31st of that month. Cetywayo returned no answer, and in January 1879 a British force under General Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford) invaded Zululand. Lord Chelmsford had under him a force of 5000 Europeans and 8200 natives, 3000 of the latter were employed in guarding the frontier of Natal; another force of 1400 Europeans and 400 natives were stationed in the Utrecht district. Three columns were to invade Zululand from the Lower Tugela, Rorke’s Drift, and Utrecht respectively, their objective being Ulundi, the royal kraal. Cetywayo’s army numbered fully 40,000 men. The entry of all three columns was unopposed. Isandhlwana. On the 22nd of January the centre column (1600 Europeans, 2500 natives), which had advanced from Rorke’s Drift, was encamped near Isandhlwana; on the morning of that day Lord Chelmsford moved out with a small force to support a reconnoitring party. After he had left, the camp, in charge of Col. Durnford, was surprised by a Zulu army nearly 10,000 strong. The British were overwhelmed and almost every man killed, the casualties being 806 Europeans (more than half belonging to the 24th regiment) and 471 natives. All the transport was also lost. Lord Chelmsford and the reconnoitring party returned to find the camp deserted, next day they retreated to Rorke’s Drift, which had been the scene of an heroic and successful defence. Rorke’s Drift. After the victory at Isandhlwana several impis of the Zulu army had mowed to the Drift. The garrison stationed there, under Lieuts. Chard and Bromhead, numbered about 80 men of the 24th regiment, and they had in hospital 30 and 40 men. Late in the afternoon they were attacked by about 4000 Zulu. On six occasions, the Zulu got within the entrenchments, to be driven back each time at the bayonet’s point. At dawn the Zulu withdrew, leaving 350 dead. The British loss was 17 killed and 10 wounded. In the meantime the right column under Colonel Pearson had reached Eshowe from the Tugela, on receipt of the news of Isandhlwana most of the mounted men and the native troops were sent back to the Natal, leaving at Eshowe a garrison of 1300 Europeans and 65 natives. This force was hemmed in by the enemy. The left column under Colonel (afterwards Sir) Evelyn Wood, which had done excellent work, found itself obliged to act on the defensive after the disaster to the centre column. [ 5 ] For a time an invasion of Natal was feared. The Zulu, however, made no attempt to enter Natal, while Lord Chelmsford awaited reinforcements before resuming his advance. During this time (March the 12th) an escort of stores marching to Luneberg, the headquarters of the Utrecht force, was attacked when encamped on both sides of the Intombe river. The camp was surprised, 62 out of 106 men were killed, and all the stores were lost. News of Isandhlwana reached England on the 11th of February, and on the same day about 10,000 men were ordered out to South Africa. The first troops arrived at Durban on the 17th of March. On the 29th a column, under Lord Chelmsford, consisting of 3400 Europeans and 2300 natives, marched to the relief of Eshowe, entrenched camps being formed each night. On the 2nd of April the camp was attacked at Ginginhlovo, the Zulu being repulsed. Their loss was estimated at 1200 while the British had only two killed and 52 wounded. The next day Eshowe was relieved. Wood, who had been given leave to make a diversion in northern Zululand, on the 28th of March occupied Hlobane (Inhlobane) mountain. The force was, however, compelled to retreat owing to the unexpected appearance of the main Zulu army, which nearly outflanked the British. Besides the loss of the native contingent (those not killed deserted) there were 100 casualties among the 400 Europeans engaged. [ 6 ] At mid day next day the Zulu army made a desperate attack, lasting over four hours, on Wood’s camp at Kambula, the enemy—over 20,000 strong—was driven off, losing fully 1000 men, while the British casualties were 18 killed and 65 wounded. By the middle of April nearly all the reinforcements had reached Natal, and Lord Chelmsford reorganized his forces. The 1st division, under major general Crealock, advanced along the coast belt and was destined to act as a support to the 2nd division, under major general Newdigate, which with Wood’s flying column, an independent unit, was to march on Ulundi from Rorke’s Drift and Kambula. Owing to difficulties of transport it was the beginning of June before Newdigate was ready to advance. On the 1st of that month the prince imperial of France (Louis Napoleon), who had been allowed to accompany the British troops, was killed while out with a reconnoitring party. On the 1st of July Newdigate and Wood had reached the White Umfolosi, in the heart of the enemy’s country. Ulundi. During their advance messengers were sent by Cetywayo to treat for peace, but he did not accept the terms offered. Meantime Sir Garnet (afterwards Lord) Wolseley had been sent out to supersede Lord Chelmsford, and on the 7th of July he reached Crealock’s headquarters at Port Durnford. But by that time the campaign was practically over. The 2nd division (with which was Lord Chelmsford) and Wood’s column crossed the White Umfolosi on the 4th of July—the force numbering 4200 Europeans and 1000 natives. Within a mile of Ulundi the British force, formed in a hollow square, was attacked by a Zulu army numbering 12,000 to 15,0O0. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the British, whose losses were about 100, while of the Zulu some 1500 men were killed (see Ulundi ). Wolseley’s settlement. After this battle the Zulu army dispersed, most of the leading chiefs tendered their submission, and Cetywayo became a fugitive. On the 27th of August the king was captured and sent to Cape Town. His depositron was formally announced to the Zulu, and Wolseley drew up a new scheme for the government of the country. The Chaka dynasty was deposed, and the Zulu country portioned among eleven Zulu chreis, John Dunn, [ 7 ] a white adventurer, and Hlubi, a Basuto chief who had done good service in the war. A Resident was appointed who was to be the channel of communication between the chiefs and the British government. This arrangement was productive of much bloodshed and disturbance, and in 1882 the British government determined to restore Cetywayo to power. In the meantime, however, blood feuds had been engendered between the chiefs Usibepu (Zibebu) and Hamu [ 8 ] on the one side and the tribes who supported the ex-king and his family on the other. Cetywayo’s party (who now became known as Usutus) suffered severely at the hands of the two cheifs who were aided by a band of white freebooters. When Cetywayo was restored Usibepu was left in possession of his territory, while Dunn’s land and that of the Basuto chief (the country between the Tugela and the Umhlatuzi, i.e. adjoining Natal) was constituted a reserve, in which locations were to be provided for Zulu unwilling to serve the restored king. This new arrangement proved as futile as had Wolseley’s. Usibepu having created a formidable force of well-armed and trained warriors, and being left in independence on the borders of Cetywayo’s territory, viewed with displeasure the re-installation of his former king, and Cetywayo was desirous of humbling his relative. A collision very soon took place, Usibepu’s forces were victorious, and on the 22nd of July 1883, led by a troop of mounted whites, he made a sudden descent upon Cetywayo’s kraal at Ulundi, which he destroyed, massacring such of the inmates of both sexes as could not save themselves by flight. The king escaped, though wounded, into the Reserve, there he died in February 1884. Cetywayo left a son, Dinizulu, who sought the assistance of some of the Transvaal Boers against Usibepu, whom he defeated and drove into the Reserve. These Boers, led by Lukas Meyer (1846–1902), claimed as a stipulated reward for their services the cession of the greater and more valuable part of central Zululand. The New Republic. On the 21st of May the Boer adventurers had proclaimed Dinizulu king of Zululand, in August following they founded the “New Republic,” carved out of Zululand, and sought its recognition by the British government. The Usutu party now repented of their bad bargain, for by the end of 1885 they found the Boers claiming some three-fourths of their country. The British government intervened, took formal possession of St Lucia Bay (to which Germany as well as the Transvaal advanced claims), caused the Boers to reduce their demands, and within boundaries agreed to recognize the New Republic—whose territory was in 1888 incorporated in the Transvaal and has since 1903 formed the Vryheid division of Natal. Zululand annexed by Great Britain. Seeing that peace could be maintained between the Zulu chiefs only by the direct exercise of authority, the British government annexed Zululand (minus the New Republic) in 1887, and placed it under a commissioner responsible to the governor of Natal. In the following year Dinizulu, who continued his feud with Usibepu, rebelled against the British. After a sharp campaign (June to August 1888), the Usutu losing 300 killed in one encounter. Dinizulu fled into the Transvaal. He surrendered himself to the British in November, in April 1889 he and two of his uncles (under whose influence he chiefly acted) were found guilty of high treason and were exiled to St Helena. Under the wise administration of Sir Melmoth Osborn, the commissioner, whose headquarters were at Eshowe, and the district magistrates, the Zulu became reconciled to British rule, especially as European settlers were excluded from the greater part of the country. Large numbers of natives sought employment in Natal and at the Rand gold mines, and Zululand enjoyed a period of prosperity hitherto unknown. Order was maintained by a mounted native police force. The Boer road to the sea blocked. At the end of 1888 and at the beginning of 1890 some small tracts of territory lying between Zululand and Tongaland, under the rule of petty semi-independent chiefs, were added to Zululand, and in 1895 the territories of the chiefs Zambaan (Sambana) and Umtegiza, 688 sq. m. in extent, lying between the Portuguese territories, Swaziland, Zululand and Tongaland, were also added. In the same year a British protectorate was declared over Tongaland. The coast line was thus secured for Great Britain up to the boundary of the Portuguese territory at Delagoa Bay. At that time the Transvaal government—which had been the first to reap the benefit of Great Britain’s defeat of the Zulu by acquiring the “New Republic”—was endeavouring to obtain the territories of Zambaan and Umtegiza, hoping also to secure a route through Tongaland to Kosi Bay. President Kruger protested in vain against this annexation, Great Britain being determined to prevent another Power establishing itself on the south-east African seaboard. In 1893 Sir M. Osborn was succeeded as resident commissioner by Sir Marshal Clarke [ 9 ] who gained the confidence and good will of the Zulu. Zululand made part of Natal. At the close of 1897 Zululand, in which Tongaland had been incorporated, was handed over by the Imperial government to Natal, and Sir (then Mr) C. J. R. Saunders was appointed civil commissioner of the province, with whose government he had been associated since 1887. In 1898 Dinizulu was allowed to return and was made a “government induna.” Officially one of several chiefs subject to the control of the resident magistrate, he was, in fact, regarded by most of the Zulu as the head of their nation. His influence appeared to be in the main exercised on the side of order. During the war of 1899–1902 there was some fighting between the Zulu and the Boers, provoked by the Boers entering Zulu territory. A Zulu kraal having been raided, the Zulu retaliated and, surrounding a small Boer commando, succeeded in killing every member of it. Boer raids. In September 1901 Louis Botha made an attempt to invade Natal by way of Zululand, but the stubborn defence made by the small posts at Itala and Prospect Hill, both within the Zulu border, caused him to give up the project. Throughout the war the Zulu showed marked partiality for the British side. At the close of the war the Natal government decided to allow white settlers in certain districts of Zululand, and a Lands Delimitation Commission was appointed. The commission, however, reported (1905) that four-fifths of Zululand was unfit for European habitation, and the remaining fifth already densely populated. The commissioners urged that the tribal system should be maintained. Meantime the coal mines near St. Lucia Bay were opened up and connected with Durban by railway. At this time rumours were current of disaffection among the Zulu, but this was regarded as the effervescence natural after the war. The Revolt of 1906. Dinizulu’s trial. In 1905 a poll tax of £1 on all adult males was imposed by the Natal legislature, this tax was the ostensible cause of a revolt in 1906 among the natives of Natal, who were largely of Zulu origin. Bambaata, the leader of the revolt, fled to Zululand. He took refuge in the dense bush in the Nkandhla highlands, where Cetywayo’s grave became the rallying point of the rebels, who in April were joined by an aged chief named Sigananda and his tribe. After an arduous campaign, the Natal force (about 5000 strong) being commanded by Col. Sir Duncan McKenzie, the rebellion was crushed by July 1906, without the aid of imperial troops. Bambaata was killed in battle (June 10th), his head was cut off for purposes of identification, but afterwards buried with the body. Sigananda surrendered. In all some 3500 Zulus were killed and about 3000 taken prisoners, the majority of the prisoners being released in 1907 (see further Natal : History ). Zululand remained, however, in a disturbed condition, and a number of white traders and officials were murdered. Dinizulu had been accused of harbouring Bambaata, and in December 1907 the Natal government felt justified in charging him with high treason, murder and other crimes. A military force entered Zululand, and Dinizulu surrendered without opposition. He was brought to trial in November 1908, and in March 1909 was found guilty of harbouring rebels. The more serious charges against him were not proved. He was sentenced to four years’ imprisonment and deprived of his position as a government induna. Other Zulu chiefs were convicted of various offences and sentenced to imprisonment. At his trial Dinizulu was defended by W. P. Schreiner, ex-premier of Cape Colony, while Miss H. E. Colenso (a daughter of Bishop Colenso) constituted herself his champion in the press of Natal and Great Britain. On the day that the Union of South Africa was established (31st of May 1910), the Botha ministry released Dinizulu from prison. He was subsequently settled on a farm in the Transvaal and given a pension of £500 a year. Bibliography. —British War Office, Precis of information concerning Zululand (1894) and Precis … concerning Tongaland and North Zululand (1905), Report on the Forests of Zululand (Col. Off., 1891), J. S. Lister, Report on Forestry in Natal and Zululand (Maritzburg, 1902), Zululand Lands Delimitation Commission 1902–4, Reports (Maritzburg, 1905), A. T. Bryant, A Zulu-English Dictionary with … a concise history of the Zulu People from the most Ancient Times (1905), G. McC. Theal, History of South Africa since 1795 , 5 vols. (1908) vols. i and iv are specially valuable for Zululand, J. Y. Gibson, The Story of the Zulus (Maritzburg, 1908), J. A. Farrer, Zululand and the Zulus: their History, Beliefs, Customs, Military System, &c. (4th ed., 1879). For more detailed study consult Sax Bannister, Humane Policy (1830) and authorities collected in Appendix, A. Delegorgue, Voyage de l'Afrique Australe (Paris, 1847), A. F. Gardiner, Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu Country (1836), N. Isaacs, Travels … descriptive of the Zoolus, their Manners, Customs, &c. (2 vols., 1836), Zululand under Dingaan: Account of Mr Owen's Visit in 1837 (Cape Town, 1880), Rev. B. Shaw, Memorials of South Africa (1841), Rev. G. H. Mason, Life with the Zulus of Natal (1852) and Zululand: a Mission Tour (1862), D. Leshe, Among the Zulus and Amatongas (2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1875), Bishop Colenso, Langalibalele and the Amahlubi Tribe (1874), Zulu Boundary Commission (Books i–iv, 1878, MSS in Colonial Office Library, London), C. Vijn (trans. from the Dutch by Bishop Colenso) Cetshwayo’s Dutchman (1880), British official Narrative of … the Zulu War of 1879 (1881), A. Septans, Les Expeditions anglaises en Afrique Zulu, 1879 (Paris, 1896), Frances F. Colenso and Col. D. Durnford, History of the Zulu War and its Origin (2nd ed., 1881), F. E. Colenso, The Ruin of Zululand (2 vols., 1884–85), Capt. H. H. Parr, A Sketch of the Kaffir and Zulu Wars (1880), “Cetywayo’s Story of the Zulu Nation,” Macmillan’s Magazine (1880), H. Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his White Neighbours (1882), B. Mitford, Through the Zulu Country (1883), J. Tyler, Forty Years among the Zulus (Boston, 1891), British official Military Report on Zululand (1906), W. Bosman, The Natal Rebellion of 1906 (1907), Rosamond Southey, Storm and Sunshine in South Africa (1910). See also the Lives of Sir Bartle Frere, Bishop Colenso, Sir G. Pomeroy Colley and Sir J. C. Molteno, and the authorities cited under Natal. ( F. R. C. ) ↑ The Boers obtained the right to settle in this district in virtue of Proviso B of an agreement made, on the 22nd of October 1886, between the settlers in the “New Republic” and Sir A. E. Havelock, governor of Natal. ↑ Dr G. McCall Theal states that the ancestors of the tribes living in what is now Natal and Zululand were acquainted with the regimental system and the method of attack in crescent shape formation in the 17th century. Memories of these customs lingered even if the practice had died out. Among the Ama Xosa section of Kaffirs they appear to have been quite unknown. ↑ Bishop Schreuder, a Norwegian missionary long resident in Zululand, gave Sir Bartle Frere the following estimate of the three brothers who successively reigned over the Zulu—“Chaka was a really great man, cruel and unscrupulous, but with many great qualities. Dingaan was simply a beast on two legs. Panda was a weaker and less able man, but kindly and really grateful, a very rare quality among Zulus. He used to kill sometimes, but never wantonly or continuously.” ↑ Umtonga had been originally designated by Panda as his successor. He afterwards served in the Zulu war with Wood’s column. ↑ With the column were 40 Boers, the Uys clan, under Piet Uis, whose father had been killed in 1838 in the wars with Dingaan. ↑ For his action on this occasion Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Redvers Buller, who was Wood’s principal assistant, received the VC. Piet Uys was among the slain. ↑ Dunn was a son of one of the early settlers in Natal and had largely identified himself with the Zulu. In 1856 he fought for Umbulazi against Cetywayo, but was high in that monarch’s favour at the time of his coronation in 1873. When Frere’s ultimatum was delivered to Cetywayo, Dunn, with 2000 followers, crossed the Tugela into Natal (10th of January 1879). In 1888 he fought against Dinizulu. ↑ Both these chiefs were members of the royal family. ↑ Lieut. Col. Sir Marshal James Clarke, R.A. (1841–1909) was A.D.C. to Sir Theophilus Shepstone when the Transvaal was annexed in 1877. He served in the Boer war of 1880–81, was resident commissioner of Basutoland from 1884 to 1893, and after leaving Zululand became resident commissioner in Southern Rhodesia (1898). He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1886. |
Zumalacárregui, Thomas (1788–1835), Spanish Carlist general, was born at Ormaiztegui in Navarre on the 29th of December 1788. His father, Francisco Antonio Zumalacárregui, was a lawyer who possessed some property, and the son was articled to a solicitor. When the French invasion took place in 1808 he enlisted at Saragossa. He served in the first siege, at the battle of Tudela, and during the second siege until he was taken prisoner in a sortie. He succeeded in escaping and in reaching his family in Navarre. For a short time he served with Gaspar de Jauregim, known as “The Shepherd” ( El Pastor ), one of the minor guerillero leaders. But Zumalacárregui, who was noted for his grave and silent disposition and his strong religous principles, disliked the disorderly life of the guerrillas, and when regular forces were organized in the north he entered the 1st battalon of Guipuzcoa as an officer. During the remainder of the war he served in the regular army. In 1812 he was sent with despatches to the Regency at Cadiz and received his commission as captain. In that rank he was present at the battle of San Marciál (31st of August 1813). After the restoration of Ferdinand VII. he continued in the army and is said to have mad a careful study of the theory of war. Zumalacárregui had no sympathy with the liberal principles which were spreading in Spain, and became noted as what was called a Servil or strong Royalist. He attracted no attention at headquarters, and was still a captain when the revolution of 1820 broke out. His brother officers, whose leanings were liberal, denounced him to the revolutionary government, and asked that he be removed. The recommendation was not acted upon, but Zumalacárregui knew of it, and laid up the offence in his mind. Finding that he was suspected (probably with truth) of an intention to bring the soldiers over to the royalist side, he escaped to France. In 1823 he returned as an officer in one of the royalist regiments which had been organized on French soil by the consent of the government. He was now known as a thoroughly trustworthy servant of the despotic royalty, but he was too proud to be a courtier. For some years he was employed in bringing regiments which the government distrusted to order. He became lieutenant-colonel in 1825 and colonel in 1829. In 1832 he was named military governor of Ferrol. Before Ferdinand VII. died in 1833, Zumalacárregui was marked out as a natural supporter of the absolutist party which favoured the king's brother, Don Carlos. The proclamation of the king's daughter Isabella as heiress was almost the occasion of an armed conflict between him and the naval authorities at Ferrol, who were partisans of the constitutional cause. He was put on half pay by the new authorities and ordered to live under police observation at Pamplona. When the Carlist rising began on the death of Ferdinand he is said to have held back because he knew that the first leaders would be politicians and talkers. He did not take the field till the Carlist cause appeared to be at a very low ebb, and until he had received a commission from Don Carlos as commander-in-chief in Navarre. The whole force under his orders when he escaped from Pamplona on the night of the 29th of October 1833, and took the command next day in the Val de Araquil, was a few hundred ill-armed and dispirited guerrilleros. In a few months Zumalacárregui had organized the Carlist forces into a regular army. The difficulty he found in obtaining supplies was very great, for the coast towns and notably Bilbao were constitutional in politics. It was mainly by captures from the government troops that he equipped his forces. He gradually obtained full possession of Navarre and the Basque provinces, outside of the fortresses, which he had not the means to besiege. Whether as a guerrillero leader, or as a general conducting regular war in the mountains, he proved unconquerable. By July 1834 he had made it safe for Don Carlos to join his headquarters. The pretender was, however, a narrow-minded, bigoted man, who regarded Zumalacárregui with suspicion, and was afraid of his immense personal influence with the soldiers. Zumalacárregui had therefore to drag behind him the whole weight of the distrust and intrigues of the court. Yet by the beginning of June 1835 he had made the Carlist cause triumphant to the north of the Ebro, and had formed an army of more than 30,000 men, of much better quality than the constitutional forces. If Zumalacárregui had been allowed to follow his own plans, which were to concentrate his forces and march on Madrid, he might well have put Don Carlos in possession of the capital. But the court was eager to obtain command of a seaport, and Zumalacárregui was ordered to besiege Bilbao. He obeyed reluctantly, and on the 14th of June 1835 was wounded by a musket bullet in the calf of the leg. The wound was trifling and would probably have been cured with ease if he had been allowed to employ an English doctor whom he trusted. But Don Carlos insisted on sending his own physicians, and in their hands the general died on the 24th of June 1835 not without suspicion of poison. Zumalacárregui was a fine type of the old royalist and religious principles of his people. The ferocity with which he conducted the war was forced on him by the government generals, who refused quarter. An engaging account of Zumalacárregui will be found in The Most Striking Events of a Twelvemonth Campaign with Zumalacárregui in Navarre and the Basque Provinces , by C. F. Henningsen (London, 1836). A chap-book called Vida politico y militar de Don Tomas Zumalacárregui , which gives the facts of his life with fair accuracy, is still very popular in Spain. ( D. H. ) |
ZUMPT, The name of two German classical scholars. Karl Gottlob Zumpt (1792-1894), who was educated at Heidelberg and Berlin, was from 1812 to 1827 a schoolmaster in Berlin, and in 1827 became professor of Latin literature at the university. His chief work was his Lateinische Grammatik (1818), which stood as a standard work until superseded by Madvig's in 1844. He edited Quintilian's Institutio oratoria (1831), Cicero's Verrines and De officiis (1837), and Curtius. Otherwise he devoted himself mainly to Roman history, publishing Annales veterum regnorum et populorum (3rd ed. 1862), a work in chronology down to A.D. 476, and other antiquarian studies. His nephew, August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815-1877), studied in Berlin, and in 1851 became professor in the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium. He is known chiefly in connexion with Latin epigraphy, his papers on which (collected in Commentationes epigraphicae , 2 vols., 1850-54) brought him into conflict with Mommsen in connexion with the preparation of the Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum , a scheme for which, drawn up by Mommsen, was approved in 1847. His works include Monumentum Ancyranum (with Franck, 1847) and De monumento Ancyrano supplendo (1869); Studia Romana (1859); Das Kriminalrecht der rom. Republik (1865-69); Der Kriminalprozess der rom. Republik (1871); editions of Namatianus (1840), Cicero's Pro Murena (1859) and De lege agraria (1861). Ihne incorporated materials left by him in the 7th and 8th vols. of his Romische Geschichte (1840). |
ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794-1886), Jewish scholar, was born at Detmold in 1794, and died in Berlin in 1886. He was the founder of what has been termed the "science of Judaism," the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and ritual. Early in the 19th century he was associated with Gans Moser and Heine in an association which the last named called "Young Palestine." The ideals of this Verein were not destined to bear religious fruit, but the "science of Judaism" survived. Zunz took no large share in Jewish reform, but never lost faith in the regenerating power of "science" as applied to the traditions and literary legacies of the ages. He had thoughts of becoming a preacher, but found the career uncongenial. He influenced Judaism from the study rather than from the pulpit. In 1832 appeared what E. H. Hirsch rightly terms "the most important Jewish book published in the 19th century." This was Zunz's Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden , i.e. a history of the Sermon. It lays down principles for the investigation of the Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash, q.v. ) and of the prayer-book of the synagogue. This book raised Zunz to the supreme position among Jewish scholars. In 1840 he was appointed director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which relieved him from pecuniary troubles. In 1845 appeared his Zur Geschichte und Literatur , in which he threw light on the literary and social history of the Jews. Zunz was always interested in politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings. In 1850 he resigned his headship of the Teachers' Seminary, and was awarded a pension. He had visited the British Museum in Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters (1855). It was from this book that George Eliot translated the following opening of a chapter of Daniel Deronda : "If there are ranks in suffering, Israel takes precedence of all the nations" . . . &c. After its publication Zunz again visited England, and in 1859 issued his Ritus . In this he gives a masterly survey of synagogal rites. His last great book was his Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie (1865). A supplement appeared in 1867. Besides these works, Zunz published a new edition of the Bible, and wrote many essays which were afterwards collected as Gesammelte Schriften . Throughout his early and married life he was the champion of Jewish rights, and he did not withdraw from public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelhei Beermann, whom he had married in 1822. See Emil G. Hirsch, in Jewish Encyclopedia , xii. 699-704. ( I. A. ) |
ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO (1598-1662), Spanish painter, was born at Fuente de Cantos in Estremadura on the 7th of November 1598. His father was Luis Zurbaran, a country labourer, his mother Isabel Marquet. In childhood he set about imitating objects with charcoal; and his father sent him, still young, to the school of Juan de Roelas in Seville. Francisco soon became the best pupil in the studio of Roelas, surpassing the master himself; and before leaving him he had achieved a solid reputation, full though Seville then was of able painters. He may have had here the opportunity of copying some of the paintings of Michelangelo da Caravaggio; at any rate he gained the name of "the Spanish Caravaggio," owing to the forcible realistic style in which he excelled. He constantly painted direct from nature, following but occasionally improving on his model; and he made great use of the lay-figure in the study of draperies, in which he was peculiarly proficient. He had a special gift for white draperies; and, as a consequence, Carthusian houses are abundant in his paintings. To these rigid methods Zurbaran is said to have adhered throughout his career, which was prosperous, wholly confined to Spain, and varied by few incidents beyond those of his daily labour. His subjects were mostly of a severe and ascetic kind—religious vigils, the flesh chastised into subjection to the spirit—the compositions seldom thronged, and often reduced to a single figure. The style is more reserved and chastened than Caravaggio's, the tone of colour often bluish to excess. Exceptional effects are attained by the precise finish of foregrounds, largely massed out in light and shade. Zurbaran married in Seville Leonor de Jordera, by whom he had several children. Towards 1630 he was appointed painter to Philip IV.; and there is a story that on one occasion the sovereign laid his hand on the artist's shoulder, saying, "Painter to the king, king of painters." It was only late in life that Zurbaran made a prolonged stay in Madrid, Seville being the chief scene of his operations. He died, probably in 1662, in Madrid. In 1627 he painted the great altarpiece of St Thomas Aquinas, now in the Seville museum; it was executed for the church of the college of that saint there. This is Zurbaran's largest composition, containing figures of Christ and the Madonna, various saints, Charles V. with knights, and Archbishop Deza (founder of the college) with monks and servitors, all the principal personages being beyond the size of life. It had been preceded by the numerous pictures of the screen of St Peter Nolasco in the cathedral. In the church of Guadalupe he painted various large pictures, eight of which relate to the history of St Jerome, and in the church of St Paul, Seville, a famous figure of the Crucified Saviour, in grisaille, presenting an illusive effect of marble. In 1633 he finished the paintings of the high altar of the Carthusians in Jerez. In the palace of Buenretiro, Madrid, are four large canvases representing the Labours of Hercules, an unusual instance of non-Christian subjects from the hand of Zurbaran. A fine specimen is in the National Gallery, London, a whole-length, life-sized figure of a kneeling Franciscan holding a skull. It seems probable that another picture in the same gallery, the "Dead Roland," which used to be ascribed to Velasquez, is really by Zurbaran. His principal scholars, whose style has as much affinity to that of Ribera as to Caravaggio's, were Bernabe de Ayala and the brothers Polanco. ( W. M. R. ) |
ZURITA Y CASTRO, JERONIMO (1512-1580), Spanish historian, was born at Saragossa, and studied at Alcalá de Henares under the celebrated Hellenist, Hernán Nuñez. Through the influence of his father, Miguel de Zurita, physician to Charles V., he entered the public service as magistrate at Barbastro, and in 1537 was appointed assistant-secretary of the Inquisition. In 1548 Zurita was nominated official chronicler of the kingdom of Aragon, and in 1566 Philip II. attached him as secretary to the council of the Inquisition, delegating to him the conduct of all matters sufficiently important to require the king's signature. Zurita resigned these posts on the 21st of January 1571, obtained a sinecure at Saragossa, and dedicated himself wholly to the composition of his Anales de la corona de Aragón , the first part of which had appeared in 1562; he lived to see the last volume printed at Saragossa on the 22nd of April 1580, and died on the 3rd of November following. Zurita's style is somewhat crabbed and dry, but his authority is unquestionable; he displayed a new conception of an historian's duties, and, not content with the ample materials stored in the archives of Aragon, continued his researches in the libraries of Rome, Naples and Sicily; he founded the school of historical scholarship in Spain. |
ZUTPHEN , or Zutfen , a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Ysel at the influx of the Berkel, and a junction station 18 m. by rail N.N.E. of Arnhem. Pop. 19,000. It is a picturesque old town with several brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most important building is the Groote Kerk, of St Walpurgis, which dates from the 12th century and contains monuments of the former counts of Zutphen, a 13th-century candelabrum, an elaborate copper font (1527), and a fine modern monument to the van Heeckeren family. The chapter-house contains a pre-Reformation library which includes some valuable MSS. and incunabula . There are some remains of the old town walls. The place has an active trade, especially in grain and in the timber floated down from the Black Forest by the Rhine and the Ysel; the industries include tanning, weaving, and oil and paper manufactures. Not far from Zutphen on the west at Monnikhuizen once stood the Carthusian convent founded by Reinald III., duke of Gelderland, in 1342 and dissolved in 1572. About 3 m. to the north of Zutphen is the agricultural colony of Nederlandsch-Mettray, founded by a private benefactor for the education of poor friendless boys in 1851, and since that date largely extended. In the middle ages Zutphen was the seat of a line of counts, which became extinct in the 12th century. Having been fortified the town stood several sieges, specially during the wars of freedom waged by the Dutch, the most celebrated fight under its walls being the one in September 1586 when Sir Philip Sidney was mortally wounded. Taken by the Spaniards in 1587 Zutphen was recovered by Maurice, prince of Orange, in 1591, and except for two short periods, one in 1672 and the other during the French Revolutionary Wars, it has since then remained a part of the United Netherlands. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1874. |
ZWEIBRÜCKEN, a town of Germany, in the Palatinate, on the Schwarzbach, and on the railway between Germersheim and Saarbrucken Pop (1905) 14,711. The town was the capital of the former duchy of Zweibrucken and the Alexander kirche contains the tombs of the dukes The ducal castle is now occupied by the chief court of the Palatinate. There is a fine Gothic Catholic church. Weaving and brewing and the manufacture of machinery, chicory, cigars, malt, boots, furniture and soap are the chief industries. Zweibrücken ("two bridges") is the Latin Bipontinum ; it appears in early documents also as Geminus Pons , and was called by the French Deux-Ponts . The independent territory was at first a countship, the counts being descended from Henry I., youngest son of Simon I., count of Saarbrücken (d. 1180). This line became extinct on the death of Count Eberhard (1393), who in 1385 had sold half his territory to the count palatine of the Rhine, and held the other half as his feudatory. Louis (d. 1489), son of Stephen, count palatine of Zimmern-Veldenz, founded the line of the dukes of Zweibrücken, which became extinct in 1731, when the duchy passed to the Birkenfeld branch, whence it came under the sway of Bavaria in 1799. At the peace of Lunéville Zweibrücken was ceded to France; on its reunion with Germany in 1814 the greater part of the territory was given to Bavaria, the remainder to Oldenburg and Prussia. At the ducal printing office at Zweibrücken the fine edition of the classics known as the Bipontine Editions was published (1799 sqq.). See Lehmann, Geschichte des Herzogtums Zweibrücken (Munich, 1867). |
ZWICKAU , a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a pleasant valley at the foot of the Erzgebirge, on the left bank of the Zwickauer Mulde, 41 m. S. of Leipzig and 20 m. S.W. of Chemnitz on the main line of railway Dresden-Hof and at the junction of several other lines. Pop. (1834) 6701; (1880) 35,005; (1890) 44,198; (1905) 68,502. Among the nine churches, the fine Gothic church of St Mary (1451-1536 and restored 1885-91), with a spire 285 ft. high and a bell weighing 5½ tons, is remarkable. The church contains an altar with wood-carving and eight pictures by Michael Wohlgemuth and a remarkable Pietà in carved and painted wood, probably by Veit Stoss. The late Gothic church of St Catharine (restored 1893-94) has an altarpiece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the Elder, and is memorable for the pastorate (1520-22) of Thomas Münzer. Of the secular buildings the most noteworthy are the town-hall of 1581, with the municipal archives, including documents dating back to the 13th century and an autograph MS. of the works of Hans Sachs, and the late Gothic Gewandhaus (cloth merchants' hall), built 1522-24 and now in part converted into a theatre. The manufactures of Zwickau include spinning and weaving, machinery, motor-cars, chemicals, porcelain, paper, glass, dyestuffs, wire goods, tinware, stockings, and curtains. There are also steam saw-mills, diamond and glass polishing works, iron-foundries, and breweries. Though no longer relatively so important as when it lay on the chief trade route from Saxony to Bohemia and the Danube, Zwickau carries on considerable commerce in grain, linen, and coal. The mainstay of the industrial prosperity of the town is the adjacent coalfield, which in 1908 employed 13,000 hands, and yields 2½ million tons of coal annually. The mines are mentioned as early as 1348; but they have only been actively worked since 1823, during which time the population has increased more than tenfold. Zwickau is of Slavonic origin, and is mentioned in 1118 as a trading place. The name is fancifully derived from the Latin cygnea , from a tradition that placed a "swan lake" here which had the property of renewing the youth of those who bathed in it. Zwickau was an imperial possession, but was pledged to Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen (d. 1288). The German king Charles VI. conferred it as a fief in 1348 on the margraves of Meissen, and it thus passed to their successors the electors of Saxony. The discovery of silver in the Schneeberg in 1470 brought it much wealth. The Anabaptist movement of 1525 began at Zwickau under the inspiration of the "Zwickau prophets" Robert Schumann (1810-1856), the musical composer, was born here in a house which still stands in the market-place. See Herzog, Chronik der Kreisstadt Zwickau (2 vols., Zwickau, 1839-45), Geschichte des Zwickauer Steinkohlenbaues (Dresden, 1852); Hansch, Das Zwickau-Chemnitzer Kohlengebiet (Meissen, 1908). |
ZWIEDINECK VON SÜDENHORST, HANS (1845-1906), German historian, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main on the 14th of April 1845. He studied at the university of Gratz, where he became a professor in 1885, and died at Gratz on the 22nd of November 1906. Südenhorst's principal writings are Dorfleben im 18 Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1877); Hans Ulrich, Fürst von Eggenberg (Vienna, 1880); Die Politik der Republic Venedig während des dreissigjährigen Krieges (Stuttgart, 1882-85); Venedig els Weltmacht und Weltstadt (Bielefeld, 1899 and 1906); Kriegsbilder aus der Zeit der Landsknechte (Stuttgart, 1883); Die öffentliche Meinung in Deutschland im Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV. 1650-1700 (Stuttgart, 1888); Erzherzog Johann im Feldzuge von 1809 (Gratz, 1892); and Maria Theresia (Bielefeld, 1905). He edited the Bibliothek deutscher Geschichte , writing for this series, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gründung des preussischen Königtums (Stuttgart, 1887-94); and Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflösung des alten bis zur Gründung des neuen Reiches (Stuttgart, 1897-1905). He completed A. Wolf's Oesterreich unter Maria Theresia, Josef II. und Leopold II. (Berlin, 1882-84), and edited the Zeitschrift für allgemeine Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1884-88). |
ZWINGLI, HULDREICH (1484-1531), Swiss reformer, was born on the 1st of January 1484, at Wildhaus in the Toggenburg valley, in the canton of St Gall, Switzerland. He came of a free peasant stock, his father being amtmann of the village; his mother, Margaret Meili, was the sister of the abbot of Fischingen in Thurgau. His uncle, Bartholomew Zwingli, afterwards dekan or superintendent of Wesen, had been elected parish priest of Wildhaus. As he was keen at his books and fond of music he was destined for the Church, and when eight years old was sent to school at Wesen, where he lived with his uncle, the dean. Two years later he was sent to a school in Basel, where he remained three years, passing thence to the high school at Bern, where his master, Heinrich Wölflin, inspired him with an enthusiasm for the classics. After some two years there the boy took up his abode in the Dominican monastery. But his father had no thoughts of letting him become a monk, and in 1500 he was sent to the university of Vienna, where he remained for another two years and “included in his studies all that philosophy embraces.” He then returned to Basel, where he graduated in the university and became a teacher of the classics in the school of St Martin's church. The circumstances and surroundings of Zwingli's early life were thus dissimilar from those of his contemporary, Martin Luther. Zwingli, moreover, never knew anything of those spiritual experiences which drove Luther into a cloister and goaded him to a feverish "searching of the Scriptures" in the hope of finding spiritual peace. Zwingli was a humanist, a type abhorred of Luther; and he was far more ready for the polite Erasmian society of Basel than for a monastery. Luther never quite shook off scholasticism, whereas Zwingli had early learnt from Dr Thomas Wyttenbach that the time was at hand when scholastic theology must give place to the purer and more rational theology of the early Fathers and to a fearless study of the New Testament. He heard from this same teacher bold criticisms of Romish teaching concerning the sacraments, monastic vows and papal indulgences, and unconsciously he was thus trained for the great remonstrance of his maturer life. At the age of twenty-two Zwingli was ordained by the bishop of Constance (1506), preached his first sermon at Rapperswyl, and said his first mass among his own people at Wildhaus. In the same year he was elected parish priest of Glarus, in spite of the pope's nomination of Heinrich Goldli, an influential pluralist of Zürich, whom Zwingli found it necessary to buy off at an expense of more than a hundred gulden. The Holy See, much dependent at that time on its Swiss mercenaries in the pursuit of its secular ends, expressed no resentment on this occasion. Zwingli indeed seemed still to be devoted to the pope, whom he styled "beatissimus Christi vicarius," and he publicly proclaimed the mercenary aid given by the Swiss to the papal cause to be its dutiful support of the Holy See. The Curia, following its accustomed policy, rewarded his zeal with a pension of 50 gulden. The ten years which Zwingli spent at Glarus laid the foundations of his work as a reformer. He there began the study of Greek that he might "learn the teaching of Christ from the original sources," and gave some attention to Hebrew. He read also the older Church Fathers and soon won for himself fame as a student, whilst his skill in the classics led his friends to hail him as "the undoubted Cicero of our age." He had an unbounded admiration for Erasmus, with whom he entered into correspondence, and from whom he received a somewhat chilling patronage; whilst the brilliant humanist, Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), taught him to criticize, in a rationalizing way, the medieval doctrines of Rome. His first publications, which appeared as rhymed allegories, were political rather than religious, being aimed at what he deemed the degrading Swiss practice of hiring out mercenaries in the European wars. His convictions on this matter were so much intensified by his later experiences as army chaplain that in 1521 he prevailed upon the authorities of the canton of Zürich to renounce the practice altogether. Especially did he oppose alliances with France; but the French party in Glarus was strong, and it retaliated so fiercely that in 1516 Zwingli was glad to accept the post of people's priest at Einsiedeln. He always in later days dated his arrival at evangelical truth from the three years (1516-19) which he spent in this place. There he studied the New Testament in the editions of Erasmus and began to found his preaching on "the Gospel," which he declared to be simple and easy to understand. He held that the Bible was the sufficient revelation of the will of God, and he threw away the philosophy and theology of the later Roman Church, whereas he declared that the early Church Fathers were helpful, though still fallible, interpreters of the Word. In his definite recognition of the theological place of Scripture he showed, says Dr T. M. Lindsay ( History of the Reformation ), clearer insight than the Lutherans, and Zwingli rather than Luther was in this matter Calvin's guide, and the guide of the reformed churches of Switzerland, France, England and the Netherlands. All these set forth in their symbolical books the supreme place of Scripture, accepting the position which Zwingli laid down in 1536 in The First Helvetic Confession , namely, that "Canonic Scripture, the Word of God, given by the Holy Spirit and set forth to the world by the Prophets and Apostles, the most perfect and ancient of all philosophies, alone contains perfectly all piety and the whole rule of life." Zwingli began to preach "the Gospel" in 1516, but a contemporary says that he did it so cunningly ( listiglich ) that none could suspect his drift. He still, to use his own words, hung his new exposition on to "the old doctrines, however much they at times pained me, rather than on to the purer and clearer"; for he hoped that the reformation of the Church would proceed quietly and from within. The papal curia had no wish to bring things to a quarrel with him. The Swiss, who furnished them with troops, were to be treated with consideration; and the pope sought to silence the reformer by offers of promotion, which he refused. He held himself, as did the Swiss in general, very free of papal control. They had long been used, in their orderly democratic life, to manage their own ecclesiastical affairs. Church property paid its share of the communal taxes, and religious houses were subject to civil inspection. Zwingli looked rather to the City Fathers than to the pope, and as long as he had them with him he moved confidently and laboured for reforms which were as much political and moral in character as religious. He had none of Luther's distrust of "the common man" and fear of popular government, and this fact won for his teaching the favour of the towns of South Germany not less than of Switzerland. As yet he had preached his Gospel without saying much about corruptions in the Roman Church, and it was his political denunciation of the fratricidal wars into which the pope, not less than others, was drawing his fellow-countrymen, that first led to rupture with the papal see. Three visits which he had paid to Italy in his capacity of army chaplain had done much to open his eyes to the worldly character of the papal rule, and it was not long before he began to attack at Einsiedeln the superstitions which attended the great pilgrimages made to that place. Zwingli denounced the publication of plenary indulgence to all visitors to the shrine, and his sermons in the Swiss vernacular drew great crowds and attracted the attention of Rome. His quarrel was turned more immediately against the pope himself when in August 1518 the Franciscan monk Bernardin Samson, a pardon-seller like Johann Tetzel, made his appearance in Switzerland as the papally commissioned seller of indulgences. Zwingli prevailed on the council to forbid his entrance into Zürich; and even then the pope argued that, so long as the preacher was still receiving a papal pension, he could not be a formidable adversary, and he gave him a further sop in the form of an acolyte chaplaincy. Zwingli had never meant to remain at Einsiedeln long, and he now threw himself into a competition for the place of people's priest at the Great Minster of Zürich, and obtained it (1518) after some opposition. He stipulated that his liberty to preach the truth should be respected. In the beginning of 1519 he began a series of discourses on St Matthew's Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pauline epistles; and with these it may be said that the Reformation was fairly begun in Zürich. He had made a copy of St Paul's epistles and committed them to memory, and from this arsenal of Scripture he attacked the unrighteousness of the state no less than the superstition of the Church. His correspondence of this year shows him jealous of the growing influence of Luther. It was his claim that he had discovered the Gospel before ever Luther was heard of in Switzerland, and he was as anxious as Erasmus to make it clear that he was not Luther's disciple. Towards the end of September he fell a victim to the plague which was ravaging the land, and his illness sobered his spirit and brought into his message a deeper note than that merely moral and common-sense one with which, as a polite humanist, he had hitherto been content. He began to preach against fasting, saint worship and the celibacy of priests; and some of his hearers began to put his teachings into practice. The monasteries raised an outcry when people were found eating flesh in Lent, and the bishop of Constance accused them before the council of Zürich. Zwingli was heard in their defence and the accusation was abandoned. His first Reformation tract, April 1522, dealt with this subject: "Von Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen." The matter of the celibacy of the clergy was more serious. Zwingli had joined in an address to the bishop of Constance calling on him no longer to endure the scandal of harlotry, but to allow the priests to marry wives, or, at least, to wink at their marriages. He and his co-signatories confessed that they had lived unchastely, but argued that priests could not be expected to do otherwise, seeing that God had not seen fit to give the gift of continence. Pope Adrian VI. interfered and asked the Zürichers to abandon Zwingli, but the reformer persuaded the council to allow a public disputation (1523), when he produced sixty-seven theses [ 1 ] and vindicated his position so strongly that the council decided to uphold their preacher and to separate the canton from the bishopric of Constance. Thus legal sanction was given in Zürich to the Reformation. In 1522 Zwingli produced his first considerable writing, the Architeles , "the beginning and the end," in which he sought by a single blow to win his spiritual freedom from the control of the bishops, and in a sermon of that year he contended that only the Holy Spirit is requisite to make the Word intelligible, and that there is no need of Church, council, or pope in the matter. The progress of the Reformation attracted the attention of all Switzerland, but there was a strong opposition to it, especially in the five Forest Cantons: Lucerne, Zug, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden; and the Zürichers felt it necessary to form a league in its defence. They were especially anxious to gain Bern, and Zwingli challenged the Romanists to a public disputation in that city. No less than 350 ecclesiastics came to Bern from the various cantons to hear the pleadings, which began on the 2nd of January 1523 and lasted nineteen days. Zwingli and his companions undertook to defend the following propositions:— (1) That the Holy Christian Church, of which Christ is the only Head, is born of the Word of God, abides therein, and does not listen to the voice of a stranger; (2) that this Church imposes no laws on the conscience of people without the sanction of the Word of God, and that the laws of the Church are binding only in so far as they agree with the Word; (3) that Christ alone is our righteousness and our salvation, and that to trust to any other merit or satisfaction is to deny Him; (4) that it cannot be proved from the Holy Scripture that the body and blood of Christ are corporeally present in the bread and in the wine of the Lord's supper; (5) that the mass, in which Christ is offered to God the Father for the sins of the living and of the dead, is contrary to Scripture and a gross affront to the sacrifice and death of the Saviour; (6) that we should not pray to dead mediators and intercessors, but to Jesus Christ alone; (7) that there is no trace of purgatory in Scripture; (8) that to set up pictures and to adore them is also contrary to Scripture, and that images and pictures ought to be destroyed where there is danger of giving them adoration; (9) that marriage is lawful to all, to the clergy as well as to the laity; (10) that shameful living is more disgraceful among the clergy than among the laity. The result of the discussion was that Bern was won over to the side of the reformer, who apprehended the whole struggle of Protestantism as turning directly on the political decisions of the various units of the Confederation. He had enunciated in his theses the far-reaching new principle that the congregation, and not the hierarchy, was the representative of the Church; and he sought henceforward to reorganize the Swiss constitution on the principles of representative democracy so as to reduce the wholly disproportionate voting power which, till then, the Forest Cantons had exercised. He argued that the administration of the Church belongs, like all administration, to the state authorities, and that if these go wrong it then lies with Christian people to depose them. On the 2nd of April 1524 the marriage of Zwingli with Anna Reinhard was publicly celebrated in the cathedral, though for some two years already he had had her to wife. Many of his colleagues followed his example and openly made profession of marriage. In the August of that year Zwingli printed a pamphlet in which he set forth his views of the Lord's Supper. They proved the occasion of a conflict with Luther which was never settled, but in the meantime more attention was attracted by Zwingli's denunciation of the worship of images and of the Roman doctrine of the mass. These points were discussed at a fresh congress where about 900 persons were present, and where Vadian (Joachim von Watt, the reformer of St Gall) presided. It was decided that images are forbidden by Scripture and that the mass is not a sacrifice. Shortly afterwards the images were removed from the churches, and many ceremonies and festivals were abolished. When a solemn embassy of rebuke was sent to Zürich from a diet held at Lucerne, on the 26th of January 1524, the city replied that in matters relating to the Word of God and the salvation of souls she would brook no interference. When a new embassy threatened Zürich with exclusion from the union she began to make preparations for war. It was at this moment that the controversy between Luther and Zwingli took on a deeper significance. In March 1525 the latter brought out his long Commentary on the True and False Religion , in which he goes over all the topics of practical theology. Like others of the Reformers he had been led independently to preach justification by faith and to declare that Jesus Christ was the one and only Mediator between sinful man and God; but his construction rested upon what he regarded as biblical conceptions of the nature of God and man rather than upon such private personal experiences as those which Luther had made basal. In this Commentary there appear the mature views of Zwingli on the subject of the Elements of the Lord's Supper. He was quite as clear as Luther in repudiating the medieval doctrine of transubstantiation, but he declined to accept Luther's teaching that Christ's words of institution required the belief that the real flesh and blood of Christ co-exist in and with the natural elements. He declared that Luther was in a fog, and that Christ had warned His disciples against all such notions, and had proclaimed that by faith alone could His presence be received in a feast which He designed to be commemorative and symbolical. Efforts to reach agreement failed. The landgrave of Hesse brought the two Reformers together in vain at Marburg in October 1529, and the whole Protestant movement broke into two camps, with the result that the attempt made at Schmalkalden in 1530 to form a comprehensive league of defence against all foes of the Reformation was frustrated. But the close of Zwingli's life was brought about by trouble nearer home. The long-felt strain between opposing cantons led at last to civil war. In February 1531 Zwingli himself urged the Evangelical Swiss to attack the Five Cantons, and on the 10th of October there was fought at Kappel a battle, disastrous to the Protestant cause and fatal to its leader. Zwingli, who as chaplain was carrying the banner, was struck to the ground, and was later despatched in cold blood. His corpse, after suffering every indignity, was quartered by the public hangman, and burnt with dung by the Romanist soldiers. A great boulder, roughly squared, standing a little way off the road, marks the place where Zwingli fell. It is inscribed, " 'They may kill the body but not the soul', so spoke on this spot Ulrich Zwingli, who for truth and the freedom of the Christian Church died a hero's death, Oct. 11, 1531." Zwingli's theological views are expressed succinctly in the sixty-seven theses published at Zürich in 1523, and at greater length in the First Helvetic Confession , compiled in 1536 by a number of his disciples. [ 2 ] They contain the elements of Reformed as distinguished from Lutheran doctrine. As opposed to Luther, Zwingli insisted more firmly on the supreme authority of Scripture, and broke more thoroughly and radically with the medieval Church. Luther was content with changes in one or two fundamental doctrines; Zwingli aimed at a reformation of government and discipline as well as of theology. Zwingli never faltered in his trust in the people, and was earnest to show that no class of men ought to be called spiritual simply because they were selected to perform certain functions. He thoroughly believed also that it was the duty of all in authority to rule in Christ's name and to obey His laws. He was led from these ideas to think that there should be no government in the Church separate from the civil government which ruled the commonwealth. All rules and regulations about the public worship, doctrines and Discipline of the Church were made in Zwingli's time, and with his consent, by the council of Zürich, which was the supreme civil authority in the state. This was the ground of his quarrel with the Swiss Anabaptists, for the main idea in the minds of these greatly maligned men was the modern thought of a free Church in a free state. Like all the Reformers, he was strictly Augustinian in theology, but he dwelt chiefly on the positive side of predestination—the election to salvation—and he insisted upon the salvation of infants and of the pious heathen. His most distinctive doctrine is perhaps his theory of the sacrament, which involved him and his followers in a long and, on Luther's part, an acrimonious dispute with the German Protestants. His main idea was that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not the repetition of the sacrifice of Christ, but the faithful remembrance that that sacrifice had been made once for all; and his deeper idea of faith, which included in the act of faith a real union and communion of the faithful soul with Christ, really preserved what was also most valuable in the distinctively Lutheran doctrine. His peculiar theological opinions were set aside in Switzerland for the somewhat profounder views of Calvin. The publication of the Zürich Consensus ( Consensus Tigurinus ) in 1549 marks the adherence of the Swiss to Calvinist theology. Zwingli's most important writings are— Von Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen (April 1522); De Canone Missae Epichiresis (September 1523); Commentarius de Vera et Falsa Religione (1525); Vom Touf. vom Wiedertouf, und vom Kindertouf (1525); Ein klare Unterrichtung vom Nachtmal Christi (1526); De Providentia Dei (1530); and Christianae Fidei Expositio (1531). For a full bibliography see G. Finsler, Zwingli-Bibliographie (Zürich, 1897). Works .—Collected editions, 4 vols. (Zurich, 1545, 1581); by M. Schuler and Joh. Schulthess, 8 vols. (Zurich, 1828-42, with “supplementorum fasciculus,“ 1861); by E. Egli and G. Finsler in “Corpus Reformatorum“ (Berlin, 1905 sqq.). Lives .—O. Myconius (1532); H. Bullinger's Reformationsgeschichte (ed. Hottinger and Voegli, 1838); J. M. Schuler (1818); R. Christoffel (1857, Eng. tr. by J. Cochran, Edinburgh, 1858); J. C. Moriköfer, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1867-69); R. Stähelin, 2 vols. (Basel, 1895-97): S. M. Jackson in Heroes of the Reformation (New York and London, 1901); Prof. Egli's articles in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklopädie für prot. Theologie u. Kirche , and Zwingliana , published twice a year since 1897 at Zürich, S. M. Jackson's book gives a chapter on Zwingli's Theology by Prof. F. H. Foster, and full details of further information on the subject together with a list of modern English translations of Zwingli's works. ( E. Ar.* ) ↑ Cf. P. Schaff, Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches , p. 197. ↑ P. Schaff, Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches , p. 211. |
ZWOLLE , the capital of the province of Overysel, Holland, on the Zwarte Water, and a junction station 24 1 / 2 m. N. E. of Harderwyk. Pop. (1905) 23,773. It is the centre of the whole northern and eastern canal systems, and by means of the short canal the Willemsvaart, which joins the Zwarte Water and the Ysel, has regular steamboat communication with Kampen and Amsterdam. The Groote Kerk, of St Michael (first half of the 15th century) occupies the site of an earlier church of which an interesting 11th-century bas relief remains. The church contains a richly carved pulpit, the work of Adam Straes van Weilborch about 1620, and there is besides some good carving and a fine organ (1721). The Roman Catholic church, also dedicated to St Michael, dates from the end of the 14th century. The modernized town hall was originally built in 1448. Mention should also be made of the Sassen Poort, one of the old city gates; a gild-house (1571); the provincial government offices, containing the archives and a museum of antiquities and cultural history. Three miles from Zwolle, on a slight eminence called the Agnietenberg, or hill of St Agnes, once stood the Augustinian convent in which Thomas à Kempis spent the greatest part of his life and died in 1471. Zwolle has a considerable trade by river, a large fish market, and the most important cattle market in Holland after Rotterdam. The more important industries comprise cotton manufactures, iron works, boat-building, dyeing and bleaching, tanning, rope-making and salt-making. |
ZYMOTIC DISEASES (Gr. ζύμη , ferment), a term in medicine, formerly applied to the class of acute infectious maladies. As originally employed by Dr W. Farr of the British Registrar-General's department, the term included the diseases which were "epidemic, endemic and contagious," and were regarded as owing their origin to the presence of a morbid principle in the system acting in a manner analogous to, although not identical with, the process of fermentation. A large number of diseases were accordingly included under this designation. The term, however, came to be restricted in medical nomenclature to the chief fevers and contagious diseases ( e.g. typhus and typhoid fevers, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, erysipelas, cholera, whooping-cough, diphtheria, &c). The science of bacteriology has displaced the old fermentation theory, and the term has practically dropped out of use. |
ZÖLLNER, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1834–1882), German astronomer and physicist, was born at Berlin on the 8th of November 1834. From 1872 he held the chair of astrophysics at Leipzig University. He wrote numerous papers on photometry and spectrum analysis in Poggendorff’s Annalen and Berichte der k. sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften , two works on celestial photometry ( Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Photometrie des Himmels , Berlin, 1861, 4to, and Photometrische Untersuchungen , Leipzig, 1865, 8vo), and a curious book, Ueber die Natur der Cometen (Leipzig, 1872, 3rd ed. 1883). He died at Leipzig on the 25th of April 1882. |
ZÜRICH. LAKE OF , A Swiss lake, extending S.E. of the town of Zurich. It is formed by the river Linth, which, rising in the glaciers of the Todi range in Glarus, was diverted by the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the Walensee, whence, by means of the Linth canal (completed in 1816), its waters are carried to the east end of the lake of Zurich. This river issues from the lake at its north-west end, passing through the town of Zurich, but is then called the Limmat. No streams of importance flow into the lake. Its area is about 34 sq. m., its extreme length 25 m., its greatest breadth 21 m., and its greatest depth 469 ft., while its surface is 1342 ft. above sea-level. It is included, or the greater portion, in the Canton of Zurich, but at its east end 84 sq. m. towards the southern shore are in that of Schwyz, and 4 sq. m. towards the northern shore in that of St Gall. The great dam of masonry, carrying the railway line and carriage road from Rapperswil to Pfaffikon, which cuts off the extreme eastern part of the lake from the rest, is passed only by small boats; steamers (of which the first was placed on the lake in 1835) do not go beyond the dam, as the eastern portion of the lake is shallow and choked by weeds. West of this dam is the small island of Ufenau, where in 1523 Ulrich von Hutten took refuge and died. Both shores are well cultivated and fertile. There are many villas, particularly near Zurich, and elsewhere numerous factories in the various flourishing villages. Zurich, at the north end of the lake, is the principal place on it. On the west shore (which gradually becomes the south shore) are Thalwil, Horgen, Wadenswil, Richterswil, Pfaffikon, and Lachen. On the opposite shore are Meilen (near which the first lake dwellings were discovered in 1853-54), Stafa, and the quaint town of Rapperswil, the castle of which shelters a Polish museum, wherein is the heart of Kosciuszko. Schmerikon is close to the east end of the lake, and a little beyond is the more important town of Uznach. ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich ; Ital. Zurigo ), one of the cantons of north-eastern Switzerland, ranking officially as the first in the Confederation. Its total area is 665.7 sq. m., of which 625.2 sq. m. are reckoned as "productive" (forests covering 180.8 sq. m., and vineyards 16.9 sq. m., the most extensive Swiss wine district save in Vaud and in Ticino). Of the rest, 21 sq. m. are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zürich, while wholly within the canton are the smaller lakes of Greifen (3¼ sq. m.) and Pfäffikon (1½ sq. m.). The canton is of irregular shape, consisting simply of the acquisitions made in the course of years by the town. Of these the more important were the whole of the lower part of the lake (1362), Küssnacht (1384), Thalwil (1385), Erlenbach (1400), Greifensee (1402), Horgen (1406), Grüningen and Stäfa (1408), Bülach and Regensberg (1409), Wald (1425), Kyburg (1452), Winterthur (1467), Eglisau (1496), Konau (1512), and Wädenswil (1549) — Stein was held from 1484 to 1798, while in 1798 the lower part of the Stammheim glen, and finally in 1803 Rheinau, were added to the canton. In 1798 the town ruled nineteen “inner” bailiwicks and nine rural bailiwicks, besides the towns of Stein and of Winterthur. The canton at present extends from the left bank of the Rhine (including also Eglisau on the right bank) to the region west of the lake of Zürich. It is bounded on the E. and W. by low hills that divide it respectively from the valleys of the Thur, and from those of the Reuss and of the Aar. In itself the canton consists of four shallow river valleys, separated by low ranges, all running from S.E. to N.W. The most important of these is that of the Linth ( q.v. ), which forms the lake of Zürich. To the east are the valleys of the Glatt (forming lake Greifen) and of the Töss (forming lake Pfäffikon), both sending their streams direct to the Rhine. The highest point in the canton is the Albishorn (3012 ft.) in the Albis range, which limits the Sihl valley to the west. All the valleys named are traversed by railway lines, while many lines branch off in every direction from the town of Zürich. The first railway line opened (1847) in Switzerland was that from Zürich to Baden in Aargau (14 m.). From the town of Zürich mountain railways lead S.W. to near the summit of the Uetliberg (2864 ft.) and N.E. towards the Zürichberg (2284 ft.). In 1900 the population was 431,036, of whom 413,141 were German-speaking, 11,192 Italian speaking, 3894 French-speaking, and 610 Romonsch-speaking, while there were 345,446 Protestants, 80,752 Catholics (Roman or "Old"), and 2933 Jews. The capital of the canton is Zürich ( q.v. ), but Winterthur ( q.v. ) is the only other considerable town, Uster (7623 inhabitants), and Horgen (6883 inhabitants) being rather large manufacturing villages. The land in the canton is highly cultivated and much subdivided. But the canton is above all a great manufacturing district, especially of machinery and railway rolling-stock, while both silk weaving and cotton weaving are widely spread. It is divided into 11 administrative districts, which comprise 189 communes. In 1869 the cantonal constitution was revised in a democratic sense, and with the exception of a few changes made later, it is the existing constitution. There is an executive or Regierungsrat of seven members and a legislature or Kantonsrat (one member to every 1500 resident Swiss citizens or a fraction over 750), each holding office for three years and elected at the same time directly by the vote of the people. The referendum exists in both forms, compulsory and optional: all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000 frcs. or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular vote, the people meeting for that purpose at least twice in each year, while the executive may submit to a popular vote any other matter, though it fall within its powers as defined bylaw. One-third of the members of the legislature or 5000 legally qualified voters can force the government to submit to the people any matter whatsoever (initiative). Both members of the Federal Ständerat and the 22 members of the Federal Nationalrat are elected simultaneously by a popular vote and hold office for three years. The constitution provides for the imposition of a graduated and progressive income tax. In 1885 the penalty of death was abolished in the canton. ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich ; Ital. Zurigo ), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is the most populous, the most important, and on the whole the finest town in Switzerland, and till 1848 was practically the capital of the Swiss Confederation. It is built on both banks of the Limmat (higher up called Linth) as it issues from the lake of Zürich, and also of its tributary, the Sihl, that joins it just below the town. That portion of the town which lies on the right bank of the Limmat is called the "Grosse Stadt" and that on the left bank the "Kleine Stadt." Till 1893 the central portion of the town on either bank of the Limmat formed the "city" and ruled the outlying communes or townships that had sprung up around it. But at that time the eleven outer districts (including Aussersihl, the workmen's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl) or suburbs were incorporated with the town, which is now governed by a town council of 125 members (one to every 1200 inhabitants), and an executive of 9 members, both chosen direct by a popular vote. Much land has been rescued from the lake, and is the site of fine quays, stately public buildings, and splendid private villas. The older quarters are still crowded. But the newer quarters stretch up the slope of the Zürichberg (above the right bank of the Limmat) while the fine Bahnhofstrasse (extending from the railway station to the lake) has the best shops and is in the neighbourhood of the more important public buildings. Zürich has always been wealthy and prosperous. It has increased enormously, as is shown by the following figures. Its population in 1900 (including the eleven suburbs above named) was 150,703, while (without these) in 1888 it was 94,129; in 1880, 78,345; in 1870, 58,657; in 1860, 44,978; and in 1850 only 35,483. Of the inhabitants in 1900 no fewer than 43,761 (as against 20,928 in 1888 and 3155 in 1850) were not Swiss citizens, Germans numbering 31,125, Italians 5350, Austrians 4210, Russians 683, French 652, British subjects 157, and citizens of the United States 232. In 1900 there were in the town 140,803 German-speaking persons, 5100 Italian-speaking, 2586 French-speaking, ana 415 Romonsch-speaking. In 1888 the corresponding figures were 90,500, 1135, 1320, and 148. In 1900 the town numbered 102,794 Protestants, 43,655 “Catholics” (Roman or “Old”) and 2713 Jews. In 1888 the religious figures were 70,970, 20,571 and 1221 respectively, while in 1850 the numbers were 32,763, 2664 and 56. The international character of the town has thus become much more marked. This is partly due to the immigration of many foreign workmen, and partly to the arrival of Russian and Polish exiles. Both have added a turbulent cosmopolitan element to the town, in which the Socialist party is strong, and is increasing in power and influence, even in matters concerned with civic government. Of the old buildings the finest and most important is the Gross Münster (or Propstei), on the right bank of the Limmat. This was originally the church of the king's tenants, and in one of the chapels the bodies of Felix, Regula and Exuperantius, the patron saints of the city, were buried, the town treasury being formerly kept above this chapel. The present building was erected at two periods ( c . 1090-1150 and c . 1225-1300), the high altar having been consecrated in 1278. The towers were first raised above the roof at the end of the 15th century and took their present form in 1779. The chapter consisted of twenty-four secular canons; it was reorganized at the Reformation (1526), and suppressed in 1832. On the site of the canons' houses stands a girls' school (opened 1853), but the fine Romanesque cloisters (12th and 13th centuries) still remain. There is a curious figure of Charlemagne in a niche on one of the towers; to him is attributed the founding or reform of the chapter. On the left bank of the Limmat stands the other great church of Zürich, the Frau Münster (or Abtei), founded for nuns in 853, by Louis the German. The high altar was consecrated in 1170; but the greater part of the buildings are of the 13th and 14th centuries. It was in this church that the relics of the three patron saints of the town were preserved till the Reformation, and it was here that the burgomaster Waldmann was buried in 1489. There were only twelve nuns of noble family, comparatively free from the severer monastic vows; the convent was suppressed in 1524. Of the other old churches may be mentioned St Peter's, the oldest parish church, though the present buildings date in part from the 13th century only (much altered in the early 18th century), and formerly the meeting-place of the citizens; the Dominican church (13th century), in the choir of which the cantonal library of 80,000 volumes has been stored since 1873; the church of the Austin friars (14th century), now used by the Old Catholics, and the Wasserkirche. The last-named church is on the site of a pagan holy place, where the patron saints of the city were martyred; since 1631 it has housed the Town Library, the largest in Switzerland, which contains 170,000 printed volumes and 4500 MSS. (among these being letters of Zwingli, Bullinger and Lady Jane Grey), as well as a splendid collection of objects from the lake dwellings of Switzerland. The building itself was erected from 1479 to 1484, and near it is a statue of Zwingli, erected in 1885. The existing town-hall dates from 1698, while the gild houses were mostly rebuilt in the 18th century. One of the most magnificent of the newer buildings is the Swiss National Museum, behind the railway station. This museum, which was opened in 1898, contains a wonderful collection of Swiss antiquities (especially medieval) and art treasures of all kinds, some of which are placed in rooms of the actual date, removed from various ancient buildings. There are some fine old fountains (the oldest dating back to 1568). There are several good bridges, Roman traces being seen in the case of the Niederbrücke (now called the Rathausbrücke). The mound of the Lindenhof was formerly crowned by the king's house, which disappeared in the 13th century, and the hillock was planted with limes as early as 1422. The town is noted for its numerous clubs and societies, and is the intellectual capital of German-speaking Switzerland. Cotton-spinning and the manufacture of machinery are two leading industries, but by far the most important is the silk-weaving industry. This flourished in Zürich in the 12th and 13th centuries, but disappeared about 1420; it was revived by the Protestant exiles (such as the Muralti and Orelli families) from Locarno (1555) and by the Huguenot refugees from France (1682 and 1685). The value of the silk annually exported (mainly to France, the United States and England) is estimated at over three millions sterling. Zürich is the banking centre of Switzerland. Besides the excellent primary and secondary schools, there are the Cantonal School, including a gymnasium and a technical side (opened 1842), and a high school for girls (opened 1875). The Cantonal University and the Federal Polytechnic School are housed in the same building, but have no other connexion. The university was opened in 1833, no doubt as a successor to the ancient chapter school at the Gross Münster, said to date back to Charlemagne's time — hence its name the Carolinum — reorganized at the Reformation, and suppressed in 1832. The Polytechnic School, opened in 1855, includes seven main sections (industrial chemistry, industrial mechanics, engineering, training of scientific and mathematical teachers, architecture, forestry and agriculture, and the military sciences), besides a general philosophical and political science department. The Polytechnic School has good collections of botanical specimens and of engravings. Near it is the observatory (1542 ft.). There are also in Zürich many institutions for special branches of education — e.g. veterinary surgery, music, industrial art, silk-weaving, &c. The earliest inhabitants of the future site of Zürich were the lake dwellers. The Celtic Helvetians had a settlement on the Lindenhof when they were succeeded by the Romans, who established a custom station here for goods going to and coming from Italy; during their rule Christianity was introduced early in the 3rd century by Felix and Regula, with whom Exuperantius was afterwards associated. The district was later occupied by the Alamanni, who were conquered by the Franks. The name Zürich is possibly derived from the Celtic dur (water). It is first mentioned in 807 under the form “Turigus,” then in 853 as “Turegus.” The true Latinized form is Turicum , but the false form Tigurum was given currency by Glareanus and held its ground from 1512 to 1748. It is not till the 9th century that we find the beginnings of the Teutonic town of Zürich, which arose from the union of four elements: (1) the royal house and castle on the Lindenhof, with the king's tenants around, (2) the Gross Münster, (3) the Frau Münster, (4) the community of “free men” (of Alamannian origin) on the Zürichberg. Similarly we can distinguish four stages in the constitutional development of the town: (i.) the gradual replacing ( c . 1250) of the power of the abbess by that (real, though not nominal) of the patricians, (ii.) the admittance of the craft gilds (1336) to a share with the patricians in the government of the town, (iii.) the granting of equal political rights (1831) to the country districts, hitherto ruled as subject lands by the burghers, and (iv.) the reception as burghers of the numerous immigrants who had settled in the town (town schools opened in 1860, full incorporation in 1893). The Frankish kings had special rights over their tenants, were the protectors of the two churches, and had jurisdiction over the free community. In 870 the sovereign placed his powers over all four in the hands of a single official (the Reichsvogt), and the union was still further strengthened by the wall built round the four settlements in the 10th century as a safeguard against Saracen marauders and feudal barons. The “Reichsvogtei” passed to the counts of Lenzburg (1063-1173), and then to the dukes of Zähringen (extinct 1218). Meanwhile the abbess of the Benedictine Frau Münster had been acquiring extensive rights and privileges over all the inhabitants, though she never obtained the criminal jurisdiction. The town flourished greatly in the 12th and 13th centuries, the silk trade being introduced from Italy. In 1218 the “Reichsvogtei” passed back into the hands of the king, who appointed one of the burghers as his deputy, the town thus becoming a free imperial city under the nominal rule of a distant sovereign. The abbess in 1234 became a princess of the empire, but power rapidly passed from her to the council which she had originally named to look after police, &c., but which came to be elected by the burghers, though the abbess was still “the lady of Zürich.” This council (all powerful since 1304) was made up of the representatives of certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the “patricians”), who excluded the craftsmen from all share in the government, though it was to these last that the town was largely indebted for its rising wealth and importance. In October 1291 the town made an alliance with Uri and Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt to seize the Habsburg town of Winterthur. After that Zürich began to display strong Austrian leanings, which characterize much of its later history. In 1315 the men of Zürich fought against the Swiss Confederates at Morgarten. The year 1336 marks the admission of the craftsmen to a share in the town government, which was brought about by Rudolf Brun, a patrician. Under the new constitution (the main features of which lasted till 1798) the Little Council was made up of the burgomaster and thirteen members from the “ Constafel ” (which included the old patricians and the wealthiest burghers) and the thirteen masters of the craft gilds, each of the twenty-six holding office for six months. The Great Council of 200 (really 212) members consisted of the Little Council, plus 78 representatives each of the Constafel and of the gilds, besides 3 members named by the burgomaster. The office of burgomaster was created and given to Brun for life. Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of the branches of the Habsburg family, in consequence of which Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Zürich with the Swiss Confederation (1st May 1351). The double position of Zürich as a free imperial city and as a member of the Everlasting League was soon found to be embarrassing to both parties (see Switzerland ). In 1373 and again in 1393 the powers of the Constafel were limited and the majority in the executive secured to the craftsmen, who could then aspire to the burgomastership. Meanwhile the town had been extending its rule far beyond its walls — a process which began in the 14th, and attained its height in the 15th century (1362-1467). This thirst for territorial aggrandizement brought about the first civil war in the Confederation (the “Old Zürich War,” 1436-50), in which, at the fight of St Jacob on the Sihl (1443), under the walls of Zürich, the men of Zürich were completely beaten and their burgomaster Stüssi slain. The purchase of the town of Winterthur from the Habsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the territorial power of the city. It was to the men of Zürich and their leader Hans Waldmann that the victory of Morat (1476) was due in the Burgundian war; and Zürich took a leading part in the Italian campaign of 1512-15, the burgomaster Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512). No doubt her trade connexions with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy, traces of which are seen as early as 1331 in an attack on the Val Leventina and in 1478, when Zürich men were in the van at the fight or Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over 12,000 Milanese troops. In 1400 the town obtained from the Emperor Wenceslaus the Reichsvogtei, which carried with it complete immunity from the empire and the right of criminal jurisdiction. As early as 1393 the chief power had practically fallen into the hands of the Great Council, and in 1498 this change was formally recognized. This transfer of all power to the gilds had been one of the aims of the burgomaster Hans Waldmann (1483-89), who wished to make Zürich a great commercial centre. He also introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated the interests of the country districts to those of the town. He practically ruled the Confederation, and under him Zürich became the real capital of the League. But such great changes excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed. His main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498. by which the patricians became the first of the gilds, and which remained in force till 1798; some special rights were also given to the subjects in country districts. It was the prominent part taken by Zürich in adopting and propagating (against the strenuous opposition of the Constafel ) the principles of the Reformation (the Frau Münster being suppressed in 1524) which finally secured for it the lead in the Confederation (see Switzerland and Zwingli ). The environs of Zürich are famous in military history on account of the two battles of 1799. In the first battle (4th June) the French under Masséna on the defensive, were attacked by the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, Masséna retiring behind the Limmat before the engagement had reached a decisive stage. The second and far more important battle took place on the 25th and 26th of September. Masséna, having forced the passage of the Limmat, attacked and totally defeated the Russians and their Austrian allies under Korsakov's command. (See French Revolutionary Wars .) In the 17th and 18th centuries a distinct tendency becomes observable in the town government to limit power to the actual holders. Thus the country districts were consulted for the last time in 1620 and 1640; and a similar breach of the charters of 1489 and 1531 (by which the consent of these districts was required for the conclusion of important alliances, war and peace, and might be asked for as to other matters) occasioned disturbances in 1777. The council of 200 came to be largely chosen by a small committee of the members of the gilds actually sitting in the council—by the constitution of 1713 it consisted of 50 members of the Little Council (named for a fixed term by the Great Council), 18 members named by the Constafel , and 144 selected by the 12 gilds, these 162 (forming the majority) being co-opted for life by those members of the two councils who belonged to the gild to which the deceased member himself had belonged. Early in the 18th century a determined effort was made to crush by means of heavy duties the flourishing rival silk trade in Winterthur. It was reckoned that about 1650 the number of privileged burghers was 9000, while their rule extended over 170,000 persons. The first symptoms of active discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the lake, who founded in 1794 a club at Stäfa and claimed the restoration of the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down by force of arms in 1795. The old system of government perished in Zürich, as elsewhere in Switzerland, in February 1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts obtained political liberty. The cantonal constitution was rather complicated, and under it the patrician party obtained a small working majority. That constitution was meant to favour the town as against the country districts. But under the cantonal constitution of 1814 matters were worse still, for the town (10,000 inhab.) had 130 representatives in the Great Council, while the country districts (200,000 inhab.) had only 82. A great meeting at Uster on the 22nd of November 1830 demanded that two-thirds of the members in the Great Council should be chosen by the country districts; and in 1831 a new constitution was drawn up on these lines, the town getting 71 representatives as against 141 allotted to the country districts, though it was not till 1837-38 that the town finally lost the last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as compared with the country districts. From 1803 to 1814 Zürich was one of the six "directorial cantons," its chief magistrate becoming for a year the chief magistrate of the Confederation, while in 1815 it was one of the three cantons, the government of which acted for two years as the Federal government when the diet was not sitting. In 1833 Zürich tried hard to secure a revision of the Federal constitution and a strong central government. The town was the Federal capital for 1830-40, and consequently the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 (due to indignation at the nomination by the Radical government to a theological chair in the university of D. F. Strauss, the author of the famous Life of Jesus ) caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845-46, that town took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. It of course voted in favour of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and of 1874, while the cantonal constitution of 1869 was remarkably advanced for the time. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the "thirties" onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership, while in 1893 the eleven outlying districts (largely peopled by working folk) were incorporated with the town proper. The town and canton continued to be on the Liberal, or Radical, or even Socialistic side, while from 1848 to 1907 they claimed 7 of the 37 members of the Federal executive or Bundesrat , these 7 having filled the presidential chair of the Confederation in twelve years, no canton surpassing this record. Frem 1833 onwards the walls and fortifications of Zürich were little by little pulled down, thus affording scope for the extension and beautification of the town. Authorities .— J. Amiet, Die Grundungs-Sage der Schwesterstädte Solothurn, Zürich, und Trier (Soleure, 1890); F. Becker, Die erste Schlacht bei Zürich, Juni, 1799 (Zürich, 1899); J. C. Bluntschli, Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt und Landschaft Zürich (2nd ed., Zürich, 1856); A. Bürkli-Meyer, Geschichte d. zürch. Seidenindustrie vom Schlusse d. 13ten Jahrhunderts an bis in die neuere Zeit (Zürich, 1884); K. Dändliker, Hans Waldmann und die Zürcher Revolution von 1489 (Zürich, 1889); E. Egli, Actensammlung z. Geschichte d. Zürcher Reformation, 1519-1533 (Zürich, 1897-99), Die Schlacht von Kappel, 1531 (Zürich, 1873) and Zwinglis Tod nach seiner Bedeutung fur Kirche und Vaterland (Zürich, 1893); Festschrift zur Feier des 50jährigen Bestehens des eidgenoss. Polytechnicums , 2 vols. (one by W. Oechsli as to the history of the institution, and the other by various hands as to the general development of the town) (Frauenfeld, 1905); G. Finsler, Zürich in der zweiten Hälfte d. 18ten Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1884); G. Heer, Die Zürcher-Heiligen, St Felix u. Regula (Zürich, 1889); Max Huber, "Das Staatsrecht d. Republik Zürich vor dem Jahr 1798" (article in vol. i. of the Schweiz. Geschlechterbuch , Basel, 1905); W. Meyer, Die zweite Schlacht bei Zürich, Sept. 1799 (Zürich, 1899); G. Meyer von Knonau, Der Kanton Zürich (2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1834 and 1846); Mittheilungen d. antiquarisch. Gesellschaft in Zürich (from 1837); E. Müller, Eine reindemokratische Republik. Der Kanton Zürich zu Anfang des 20 Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1908); R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworoff's durch die Schweiz in 1799 (Stans, 1895); K. Ritter, Die Politik Zürichs in der zweiten Hälfte d. 14ten Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1886); P. Rütsche, Der Kanton Zürich zur Zeit. d. Helvetik (1798-1803) (Zürich, 1900); Stadtbücher, Zürcher (1314-1515), edited by H. Zeller-Werdmüller and Hans Nabholz, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1899-1906); H. Strauli, Die Verfassung von Zürich von 1869 (Winterthur, 1902); J. J. Treichler, Politische Wandlungen d. Stadt Zürich (Berlin, 1886); Turicensia—Beiträge z. zürch. Geschichte (Zürich, 1891); Urkundenbuch d. Stadt u. Landschaft Zürich , edited by H. Escher and P. Schweizer, in course of publication since 1888 (vol. vii. reaches 1301)—an appendix is the Siegelbildungen (2 parts, Zürich, 1891-93), edited by P. Schweizer and H. Zeller-Werdmüller; S. Vögelin, Das alte Zürich , 2 vols. (Zürich, 1878 and 1890); W. Wettstein, Die Regeneration d. Kant. Zürich (1830-39) (Zürich. 1907); G. H. Wunderli, Hans Waldmann und seine Zeit (Zürich, 1889); F. von Wyss, “Die Reichsvogtei Zürich” (reprinted in his Abhandlungen zur Geschichte d. schweiz. öffentlich. Rechts (Zürich, 1892); G. von Wyss, “Geschichte d. Abtei Zürich” (in vol. viii. of the Mittheil. d. antiq. Gesellschaft in Zürich , 1851-58), and Zürich am Ausgange d. 13ten Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1876); Zürcher Taschenbuch (from 1878). For the present state of the town see Nos. 126-29 of Illustrated Europe (Zürich), and Nos. 101-2 of Städtebilder und Landschaften aus aller Welt (Zürich). Many of the recent general works on Swiss history, e.g. those of Dändliker, Oechsli, Orelli, Schollenberger, Schweizer, Strickler, are by Zürich men and pay special attention to Zürich matters. See also Zwingli . ( W. A. B. C. ) |
ŽIŽKA, JOHN ( c. 1376–1424), Bohemian general and Hussite leader, was born at Trocnov in Bohemia, of a family which belonged to the gentry. He took part in the civil wars in Bohemia in the reign of Wenceslaus IV. , during which he lost one eye in a skirmish. He was from his youth connected with the court, and held the office of chamberlain to Queen Sophia. Žižka’s name first became prominent when the Hussite movement began. When in 1419 a Hussite procession was stoned at Prague from the town hall, Žižka headed those who threw the town councillors from its windows. When a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund and the citizens of Prague, Žižka marched to Plzeň (Pilsen) with his followers, but soon left that city, and, after defeating at Sudomer the partisans of Sigismund, arrived at Tabor, the newly founded stronghold of the advanced Hussites. Žižka took a large part in the organization of the new military community and became one of the four captains of the people ( hejtmane ) who were at its head. Meanwhile Sigismund, king of the Germans and king of Hungary, invaded Bohemia, claiming the crown as the heir of his brother Wenceslaus. Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the Taborites for assistance. Led by Žižka and their other captains, the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital. At Prague Žižka and his men took up a strong position on the hill then known as the Vitkov, on the spot where Žižkoz, a suburb of Prague, now stands. At the end of June (1420) the siege of the city began, and on the 14th of July the armies of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German force assaulted the position on the Vítkov which secured the Hussite communications with the open country. Mainly through the heroism of Žižka, the attack was repulsed, and the forces of Sigismund abandoned the siege. Shortly afterwards (August 22, 1420) the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tabor. Žižka was now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Ulrich of Rosenberg. By this struggle, in which Žižka was invariably successful, the Hussites obtained possession of the greatest part of Bohemia, which Sigismund now left for a time. It was proposed to elect a Polish prince to the throne; but meanwhile the estates of Bohemia and Moravia, who met at Časlav on the 1st of June 1421, decided to appoint a provisional government, consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political and religious parties of the country. Žižka, who took part in the deliberations at Čáslav, being elected as one of the two representatives of Tabor. He summarily suppressed some disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites. He continued his campaigns against the Romanists and adherents of Sigismund; and having captured a small castle near Litoměřice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it—the only reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the biblical name of “Chalice” to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the signature of “Žižka of the Chalice.” Later, in 1421, he was severely wounded while besieging the castle of Rábí, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tabor. At the end of 1421 Sigismund, again attempting to subdue Bohemia, obtained possession of the important town of Kutna Hora (Kuttenberg). Žižka, who was at the head of the united armies of Tabor and Prague, at first retreated to Kolin; but after having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated Sigismund’s army at the village of Nebovid between Kolin and Kutna Hora (January 6, 1422). Sigismund lost 12,000 men and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund’s forces made a last stand at Německy Brod (Deutschbrod) on the 10th of January, but the city was stormed by the Bohemians, and, contrary to Žižka’s orders, its defenders were put to the sword. Early in 1423 internal dissensions among the Hussites led to civil war. Žižka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Hǒric on the 27th of April; but shortly afterwards the news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared, induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopist on the 24th of June 1423. As soon, however, as the so-called crusaders had dispersed without even attempting to enter Bohemia, the internal dissensions broke out afresh. During his temporary rule over Bohemia Prince Sigismund Korybutovič of Poland had appointed as governor of the city of Králové Hradec (Königgrätz) Borek, lord of Miletinek, who belonged to the moderate Hussite, the so-called Utraquist, party. After the departure of the Polish prince the city of Králové Hradec, in which the democratic party now obtained the upper hand, refused to recognize Borek as its ruler, and called Žižka to its aid. He acceded to the demand, and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Králové Hradec (August 4, 1423). Žižka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Žižka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Žižka decisively defeated the Praguers and Utraquist nobles at Skalic on the 6th of January, and at Malesov on the 7th of June. In September he marched on Prague, but on the 14th of that month peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycan, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which country was still held by Sigismund’s partisans, and that Žižka should be the leader in this campaign. But he died of the plague at Pribyslav (October 11, 1424) before reaching the Moravian frontier. See Count Lutzow, Bohemia: an Historical Sketch (London, 1896); Louis Léger, Jean Žižka in “ Nouvelles, etudes Slaves, ” deuxième série (Paris, 1886), the best account of Žižka’s career for those unacquainted with the Bohemian language; Tomek, Jan Žižka , and Dějepis Mesta Prahy ; Palacky , History of Bohemia . Žižka is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirasek . ( L. ) |
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