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Siva - Shanghai Institute Of Visual Art. Is a campus in Songjiang (in Songjiang university town there are 7 campus and many other private small school). From inside is quite nice. The district was built to be a small university town, so everything is made to fit the needs of students: quite comfortable. Overview and HistoryIn contrast to the long and deep history of most Chinese cities, the story of Shanghai is rather short and to the point. It began as a fishing village, got rich, and suddenly became the biggest city in China.Let's see what's at the bottom of it all. Archaeological digs around Shanghai show artifacts dating to the Neolithic Period six thousand years ago, giving evidence of hunters, fishermen and early farmers. During the period of warring states in ancient China, Shanghai was nothing more than a little fishing village. Around the year 200 AD, in the Han Dynasty, Shanghai developed industries of salt production, casting coins and other metallurgic processes.Over the next five centuries Shanghai grew and became a major food producer for southern China, gathering population and increasing its trading. After the nearby Wusong river filled with silt, Shanghai found a niche as a shipping port and attracted a much wider range of traffickers.The town of Shanghai was officially established in 1267 AD amidst a swarm of merchant ships doing business. It became one of only seven maritime shipping headquarters in the whole of China.Industrial development of cotton and textiles combined with the transportation capacity of the port to make Shanghai into the largest cotton producer in the country. International trade began along with the carriage trade along the Yangtze River.A Customs Office was established in 1685 to collect import taxes in response to the growing arrival of foreign ships. By the nineteenth century Shanghai was a paradise of international trade in textiles, porcelain and industrial raw materials with a large service economy of banking, printing, architecture and pharmaceuticals.This set the stage for the Opium Wars of the nineteenth Century. The British were doing a booming business taking opium from India and selling it in China, to offset their transportation costs of whatever they wanted to bring back from the "far east." They were annoyed at both the high Chinese import taxes and the prohibition of opium import in the middle of this "Adventurer's Paradise".Understandably, the Chinese didn't like drug-dealing foreigners turning all their people into addicts! Opium was first used in its medical capacity for stopping diarrhea, but the pharmacists of the day prescribed it everywhere in the world as a cure-all for almost any symptom. By the seventeenth century, thousands of Chinese opium addicts along with a serious smuggling trade had arrived in China's cities. This was the fundamental conflict that led to the Opium Wars of the 1840's and 50's.Bang! The British had the naval power, China had the ports and desirable location. In the end, a series of treaties left Britain with Hong Kong and China with limitations on how they could rule even their own territory! Other ports and borders were soon opened to international trade and the precedent for the next one hundred years was set. This period is referred to by the Chinese as the time of unequal treaties; their amazing economic growth in recent years is a testament to their long memory of it.The twentieth century found Shanghai still growing with modern industry and improved production techniques in its factories. The Republic of China was founded in 1912 and in 1927 Shanghai was proclaimed to be a special municipality. It had a Chinese Section, the International Settlement and the French Concession.Japanese airplanes bombed Shanghai in 1932 and occupied the city as of 1937. They stayed until 1945 when, at the close of WWII, the Communist Party of China regained control of Shanghai. When the Communist party took over in 1949 and closed the borders to foreign investment, the economic development of Shanghai slowed dramatically. Most foreign investors withdrew and moved their offices to Hong Kong. The People's Republic of China ended Shanghai's status as the most cosmopolitan city in China.Getting ThereFly into Shanghai at one of its two airports, Pudong or Hongqiao. The Pudong airport is connected to the city via the world's first maglev train -- that's a magnetic levitation system where the train doesn't have wheels. It covers the 30km distance in a matter of seven minutes, whooooosh!TransportationPublic transportation within Shanghai is extensive and well-developed. There are buses, trolleys, taxis and a growing metro system. Their version of a monthly pass is the Shanghai Public Transportation Card. It uses radio frequencies to communicate with the scanner without any physical contact! There's a little microchip in the card that does it as you walk through the entrance. It's an interesting technology which is adaptable to being implanted within humans, too.The bus system is the most extensive in the world with almost one thousand different lines. Use of the public transport is encouraged by a limited number of vehicle license plates and also gradual restrictions on bicycle riding.People and CultureShanghai's rapid growth has filled it with ambitious people at a high population density. It can feel crowded and competitive just as any other large city like New York or London. Shanghai's art and culture has the reputation of lagging behind its financial growth, however, artists are working to create world-class contributions to represent their city.Things to do, RecommendationsThe Bund is on top of the list of must-see Shanghai spots. It's got a great collection of 20th Century buildings from the time when Shanghai was the financial center of foreign investment.Stop in at the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum for a look at some of the more recent progress after the Bund.The Shanghai East arts center is an important symbolic and cultural center which, when seen from above, blooms out from its center like a flower with five petals. It's got the most advanced technical setup of any theater facility in the country and perhaps, the world.It's not all high-tech, don't worry. Shanghai has some beautiful gardens like this one, the Yuyuan Garden, where you can rest your eyes and refresh your spirits among the balance of nature.Here you go, the moment you've all been waiting for! It's the Oriental Pearl Broadcasting & TV Tower, second tallest in Asia and fourth tallest in the entire world, behind only the Eiffel Tower in annual visitor numbers! This is the place above all else from which to view Shanghai. Enjoy!Text by Steve Smith.

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Arts and crafts give children a hands-on learning approach to daily concepts such as Bible stories, counting, animals, opposites, seasons, holidays, and more. This activity book contains 40 projects designed to reinforce lessons taught throughout the year in the Homeschool Preschool Lesson Plans, or it can be used independently. For extra fun, six of the projects are based on enjoyable children’s songs. Use the art projects while singing the songs from the Fun Songs for Little Ones and Little Ones Sing unto the Lord CDs (sold separately). Homeschool Preschool Lesson Plans

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|June 23, 2004| Embargoed: 11:30 AM (AEST) New Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander statistics The results of the second national social survey of Indigenous people were released today by the Australian Bureau of Statistics and point to some changes since the groundbreaking original survey in 1994. The proportion of Indigenous people (aged 15 and over) with a non-school qualification (e.g. from university, TAFE, etc.) has more than doubled between 1994 and 2002 - from one in eight (12%) to one in four (26%). The proportion of Indigenous people with a certificate or diploma doubled (from 11% to 22%), while those with a Bachelor degree or higher qualification rose from 1% to 3%. Excluding those who had a non-school qualification, the proportion of Indigenous people who had completed Year 12 rose (from 7% in 1994 to 10% in 2002). Despite these improvements, in 2002 Indigenous people were still less likely than non-Indigenous people to have a non-school qualification (29% compared with 50% respectively). The unemployment rate for Indigenous people (aged 15 and over), fell from 38% in 1994 to 23% in 2002. This change parallels the decline in the national unemployment rate (from 10% in June 1994 to 6% in December 2002). The share of unemployed Indigenous people who had been out of work for one year or more declined (from 49% in 1994 to 25% in 2002). While the Community Development Employment Projects scheme (CDEP) contributed to Indigenous employment growth over this period, the proportion of Indigenous people employed in mainstream jobs also rose (from 28% to 34%). The gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples' incomes remains. In 2002, Indigenous people (aged 18 and over) earned 59% of the income of non-Indigenous people ($394 per week compared to $665 per week after adjusting for household size and composition). There was a decline in the proportion of Indigenous people who received government pensions and allowances as their main source of income (from 55% in 1994 to 50% in 2002). After adjusting for the different age structures of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Indigenous people were: - twice as likely as non-Indigenous people to report their health as "fair" or "poor" - a little more than half as likely to report "excellent" or "very good" health - almost one and a half times more likely to have a disability or long-term health condition than non-Indigenous people. Over the eight years since 1994, evidence highlights stability on selected cultural indicators. In 2002: Family and community: - more than two-thirds of Indigenous people reported attending Indigenous cultural events in the previous 12 months. - over half of Indigenous people surveyed identified with a clan, tribal or language group. - one in eight Indigenous people reported using an Indigenous language as their main language spoken at home. Indigenous people in 2002 were almost one and a half times more likely to experience at least one life stressor (e.g. "death of family member or close friend", "serious illness or disability", or "inability to get a job") than non-Indigenous people (83% compared with 57% respectively). Similar to the non-Indigenous community, the overwhelming majority of Indigenous people received support from someone outside the household (91% for Indigenous people compared with 94% for non-Indigenous people). The same proportion of Indigenous people (aged 15 or over) reported they had been taken away from their natural family as recorded in 1994 (both 8%). Law and justice: There was a decline in the proportion of Indigenous people who reported having been arrested in the previous five years (from 20% in 1994 to 16% in 2002). Compared to 1994, Indigenous people in 2002 were nearly twice as likely to report that they had been a victim of physical or threatened violence in the previous 12 months (25% in 2002, up from 13% in 1994). These victimisation rates were high among unemployed people (38%) and younger people (33% of those aged 15-24). Over one-quarter (27%) of Indigenous people were living in dwellings either owned or being purchased in 2002 (up from 22% in 1994). In remote areas in 2002, the majority of Indigenous people (64%) were living in rented dwellings provided by Indigenous Housing Organisations, or in other community housing. More details are available in National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey, 2002 (cat. no. 4714.0). State/territory comparisons for selected indicators are available in Table 2 of the publication. Additional state and territory data cube tables are available off the publication's main features page on the ABS web site or upon request.

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November 9th is the twentieth anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall, and even if news stations like CNN and ABC do not, other people worldwide will be celebrating this defeat of communism. November 9th marked “the effective death of the Cold War,” Dr. Lee Edwards said at the Heritage Foundation Bloggers’ Briefing earlier this week. The Cold War was “a war which America participated in for forty-six years—it’s the reason why we fought in Korea, the reason we fought in Vietnam: fighting and opposing communism,” he explained, noting that most bloggers present were likely not old enough to remember the days of the Cold War. “What is communism?” Dr. Edwards asked. “If you pick up Webster’s Dictionary, you’ll see that it is defined as a social system, and there’s no mention there of the gulag, or of tyrants like Lenin and Stalin and Mao… Communism is still with us,” he said. Indeed, there are currently five communist countries: Cuba, China, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. This means that over 1.4 billion people are living under communism today—over twenty percent of the total population of the world. Dr. Edwards explained that this is “not by their choice,” stating that “if [the people living under communism] were given a choice, it would be going in a different direction.” Dr. Edwards argued that most Americans do not have a strong understanding of what communism was or is. To educate Americans, Dr. Edwards launched an online Global Museum on Communism in June. The online museum features country exhibits, a hall of heroes, a hall of infamy, and more, taking extra care to explain who Karl Marx is, his theories, and how they have impacted humanity. Unfortunately, Marx has impacted humanity in a big way—to the tune of almost 100,000,000 civilian deaths. “Between eighty-five and one hundred million people died under communism,” Dr. Edwards said. “I’m not talking here about soldiers; I’m not talking about those who were fighting in wars—I’m talking about men, women, and children who died in forced famines, who died in purges, who died in the gulag archipelago because they resisted communism.” We still face the problems of communism in America today; the philosophy that has killed a hundred million people has not truly been stopped. Even now, there are thirty million adult Americans “who come from ex-communist or communist countries,” Dr. Edwards noted. This is a huge number. “It is not likely that you’re going to have communism as we knew it in the past come back, like Marxism and Leninism and all that,” Dr. Edwards said. “But there are some people who are using political power and using communist principles, and we need to keep watching to make sure that communism doesn’t come back… We should make sure that this doesn’t come around again.”

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• Green Belts are unsustainable. Urban containment policies push up rents and house prices and generally increase the cost of living, force households into ever smaller homes and more cramped transport, and are harmful to the environment. This hugely depresses people’s quality of life. • In The Green Noose we recommended a policy of “Abolish and Protect”, whereby substantial parts of the existing Green Belt would be re-designated under other land-use classifications, while the remainder would be available for development. This would allow markets to operate and so ensure that welfare-maximising solutions emerged. • However, debates about Green Belt policy always descend into demands to know where development will take place, or claims that every hectare of declassified land would be concreted over. While the former misunderstands the role of planning policy, and the latter is disingenuous, such arguments are almost impossible to avoid. • This paper seeks to provide examples of where development could take place. As it is location-specific, we have chosen to focus on one Green Belt – the Metropolitan Green Belt around London. In doing so we (artificially) distinguish between the Metropolitan Green Belt and “London Green Belt” (i.e. those parts of the Metropolitan Green Belt within the boundaries of Greater London). • Our aim is not to prescribe sites for development, but to demonstrate that there is ample land within the Metropolitan Green Belt that would be suitable for development and could be built upon without undermining the overall purpose of Green Belt policy (as defined by the NPPF). • We look at six scenarios: 1. Declassify Metropolitan Green Belt land within walking distance of a rail way station 2. Declassify Green Belt land in London within cycling distance of a railway station 3. Allow development of Green Belt golf courses 4. Infill areas of Green Belt that do not support Green Belt Policy 5. Remove agricultural land from the Green Belt 6. Declassify and re-use of already developed Green Belt land. • Each of these would make a dramatic contribution to meeting housing need in London and the South East; in three cases, a single measure would more than meet all additional housing need until 2030. Read this report.

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Low-density parity-check code - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaLow-density parity-check code - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: "In information theory, a low-density parity-check (LDPC) code is a linear error correcting code, a method of transmitting a message over a noisy transmission channel, and is constructed using a sparse bipartite graph. LDPC codes are capacity-approaching codes, which means that practical constructions exist that allow the noise threshold to be set very close (or even arbitrarily close on the BEC) to the theoretical maximum (the Shannon limit) for a symmetric memory-less channel. The noise threshold defines an upper bound for the channel noise, up to which the probability of lost information can be made as small as desired. Using iterative belief propagation techniques, LDPC codes can be decoded in time linear to their block length." 'via Blog this'

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UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA - AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER A regional resource providing in-depth analysis of food security around the 'Greater Horn'. SCF-UK is proposing to establish a Regional Food Security Information Unit (RFSIU) covering the 'Greater Horn'. As a regional resource the RFSIU would aim to meet the information needs of various implementing agencies, seeking to work closely with WFP, UNHCR & FAO in particular. The unit would be based in Nairobi, with three field officers assigned to:- - the Great Lakes (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania & Zaire); - Somalia, Somaliland and Eastern Ethiopia; - Highland Ethiopia and Sudan. The main objectives of the unit would be:- * to generate high quality information and analysis of potential, developing and actual food security crises around the region, using SCF-UK's 'household food economy' methodology, * to assist agencies in preparing timely and appropriate interventions to address acute food insecurity in the region. The RFSIU would also offer orientation, and, following an initial pilot phase, technical support and training to organisations wishing to learn more about and/or implement the 'household food economy' methodology themselves. Using SCF-UK's 'household food economy' approach. Household food economy analysis is a method for identifying areas or population groups vulnerable to food insecurity. It has been developed in recognition of the need to go beyond questions of crop production and food supply to examine the question of households' access to food. The analysis is based upon an understanding of how people obtain food and cash income and how those sources of income might change at times of crisis - because of crop or grazing failure, or due to war, civil conflict, insecurity or displacement. Among the advantages of the approach are its transparency (a logical link is built between problem definition and recommended response) and its modest requirements in terms of field data, met using relatively inexpensive 'key informant' techniques. The methodology can be used to answer the following questions:- * Is food aid needed now? Under what circumstances might it be needed in future? How much food aid? For whom, where, when and for how long? * What can be done by outside agencies to support people's own strategies for gaining access to food at times of crisis? The method has recently been used with considerable success in South Sudan, where the work of Tanya Boudreau (seconded from SCF-UK to WFP/OLS) is widely recognized as having enhanced the rationale for identifying potential food shortages and prioritizing agency responses within South Sudan. Relevance to refugees, returnees and the internally displaced. Household food economy analysis has little role to play once people are cut-off from their usual means of production and income generation, as typically occurs with large scale displacement and the formation of emergency camps. Often, however, people move to areas with which they have economic and/or social ties. And in camp situations, a distinct camp economy can be expected to develop, with links to the surrounding economy. Household food economy analysis can then be useful in terms of, for example, assessing the capacity of the host population to provide support, assessing vulnerability to a temporary shortfall in rations, or looking at additional forms of support besides food aid. Initial activities of the unit. The following is for discussion with potential users, and subject to their priorities and needs. * Preparedness: Developing scenarios for countries 'at-risk'. Objective: To assist in preparing for potential crises, by providing analyses of possible scenarios and their impact on food security. * Countries (giving cause for concern over next 12 months): - Burundi, Somalia, Somaliland * Issues: - Effects of civil conflict on food security - Food security analysis of areas that may receive an influx of displaced or refugees * Emergency assessments. Objective: To provide decision-makers with a timely analysis of the immediate consequences for household food security of a particular event or events, and the scale of both immediate and longer term relief needs. * Countries (giving cause for concern now): - Uganda * Issues: - Influx of S.Sudanese refugees: their economic status, coping strategies and need for outside support. * Review: Rationalizing existing relief and rehabilitation activities. Objective: To assist decision-makers in reviewing existing activities, based on an analysis of the household food economy of the assisted population and the roles of existing support and other strategies that the population are or could be pursuing. Refugees & returnees: * Countries: - Tanzania & Zaire (Rwandan refugees) - Rwanda (returnees) * Issues: * Food security analysis of established refugee populations: their economic status, coping strategies and temporary integration into local economies. * Impact of refugees or returnees on local food security. Drought-affected populations: * Countries: - Ethiopia, Sudan (Darfur) * Issues: - Review of food aid needs and options to reduce dependence on outside assistance. For more information... Contact Mark Lawrence, SCF-UK Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Lower Kabete Road (opp. Ngecha Rd), P.O.Box 39664, Nairobi. Tel: +254 2 582484/580626 Fax:580629/580376. E-Mail: [email protected] From: [email protected] (Ben Parker) Date: 22 Nov 95 16:46:52 +0300 Subject: Save the Children UK Regional Food Security Information Unit Message-Id: [email protected]

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A mass die-off of honeybees in April in Ohio was not due to pesticides, according to the Ohio Department of Agriculture. Although the manner in which the bees died suggested that they had been poisoned by pesticides, the results did not agree. The department tested samples of dead bees and ran the results against a database of 300 pesticides. However, no pesticides were detected in the samples, according to Brett Gates, an agency spokesman. The results have left officials scratching their heads because no known cause was found. John George, vice president of the Ohio State Beekeepers Association, was surprised by the findings. “Something affected these bees,” he told Dispatch.com. One of the reasons officials suspected pesticides was because in January, Purdue University published the results of its study that found “extremely high levels” of a neonicotinoid in talc.

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Race, Ethnicity, and Language Data: Standardization for Health Care Quality Improvement E. Subcommittee Template: Developing a National Standard Set of Granular Ethnicity Categories and a Rollup Scheme The Subcommittee on Standardized Collection of Race/Ethnicity Data for Healthcare Quality Improvement recommends using the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) race and Hispanic ethnicity categories (Asian, Black or African American, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, White, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Hispanic or Latino) and using a national standard set of granular ethnicity categories based on ancestry. Not all entities collecting data will include the comprehensive list of granular ethnicity categories in their databases or on their data collection instruments as the categories most important for collection by a health plan in Boston might differ from the categories important for collection by a health system in rural Missouri. These entities can select whatever number of locally relevant categories from the national standard set to present as pre-specified categories for check-off of responses; local lists should also be capable of identifying other ethnicities for all who wish to self-identify by including an open-ended choice of "Other, please specify: __." The subcommittee believes it is important to supplement the OMB categories by collecting granular ethnicity data and to retain these in data systems so that more detailed analysis and reporting is possible than with the current OMB categories. The number of categories any entity finds necessary for analysis will vary according to the composition of the population being served or studied, whether the size of subgroups is sufficiently large to make statistically reliable comparisons, and whether the pattern of differences experienced by subgroups identifies distinct needs that are not already revealed by data aggregated into broader categories. The national standard set must be comprehensive of the nation's population to ensure the capture of even small, geographically isolated population groups that would potentially be important in specific locales for analyses and the provision of culturally and linguistically appropriate care. Furthermore, the set must be responsive to changing demographic trends and thus must be regularly updated. The subcommittee did not identify a single existing category list believed to be comprehensive enough to serve as a national, standard set. For example, as discussed in Chapter 3, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/Health Level 7 (HL7) Race and Ethnicity Code Set 1.0 does not include all relevant granular ethnicities. It does not, for instance, include Somali or Russian. The Massachusetts Superset was developed partially because of these noted absences in the CDC/HL7 Code Set and includes granular ethnicities that are locally relevant to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Demographic distributions confirm that there may be ethnic groups present across the country that may not have a large presence in Massachusetts (e.g., Navajo, which may be of importance in Arizona). Thus, the subcommittee concluded that the Massachusetts Superset provides an ample, but not complete, set of granular ethnicity categories. Similarly, the Kaiser Permanente Granular Ethnicity Code Set was determined to be representative of many, but perhaps not all, granular ethnicities. To capture all of the granular ethnicities represented in the United States, the subcommittee reviewed the Census Bureau's Ancestry Code List. The Census Ancestry Code List is compiled from responses to the Census' open-ended ancestry question, which allows respondents to write in their lineage or ancestry.1 Thus, the list includes a myriad of granular ethnicity categories, ranging from Hausa, an ethnic group in northern Nigeria, to more general responses of European and American. The CDC/HL7 Code Set, Massachusetts Superset, Census Ancestry Code List, and Kaiser Permanente Granular Ethnicity Code Set interchangeably use country or place names to indicate ethnicities (i.e., Singapore to represent Singaporean). The subcommittee revised the list to represent categories with ethnicities as opposed to places, whenever possible; this is reflected in the subcommittee's template (Table E-1). The CDC/HL7 Code Set includes an extensive list of American Indian or Alaska Native categories and codes. Thus, the CDC/HL7 Code Set may serve as the template from which entities can choose locally relevant tribal categories and codes. The Census Ancestry Code list does not include American Indian or Alaska Native tribes. The Massachusetts Superset and the Kaiser Permanente Granular Ethnicity Code Set both include limited lists of locally relevant tribes. Adaption of the Template to a National Standard List The subcommittee presents a cumulative list of granular ethnicity categories from different sources (Table E-1) that may serve as a template from which the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) should develop a national standard list of granular ethnicity categories with accompanying unique codes (Recommendation 6-1a). Some of these granular ethnicities have already been assigned permanent five-digit unique numerical codes by CDC/HL7. The remaining granular ethnicities included in the subcommittee template also need permanent five-digit unique numerical codes. To indicate which categories and codes may be similar, the Public Use Microdata Sample File (PUMS) considers some Census ancestry codes to have "corresponding detailed ancestry codes" (i.e., Hausa may be said to correspond with Nigeria).2 The subcommittee concluded that because of the large number of very specific ethnicities included on the Census Ancestry Code List, some ethnicities would be best presented as corresponding with others. Corresponding ethnicities are indicated in Table E-1 using indents. When HHS is developing codes for the granular ethnicity categories included in this template (per Recommendation 6-1a), corresponding ethnicities may have the same codes (i.e., one or more granular ethnicity categories may have the same code). Rollup to the OMB Race and Hispanic Ethnicity Categories Locally tailored quality improvement activities may target granular ethnicity groups without needing to relate those groups to a single OMB race category. Collecting race, Hispanic ethnicity, and granular ethnicity data separately, as the subcommittee recommends, allows reporting of the OMB categories when necessary without requiring rollup of the granular ethnicities, provided that individuals respond to all the questions asked. Nonetheless, the subcommittee recognizes that data collected under some circumstances (e.g., a reporting request for OMB-level data where only granular ethnicity is collected) cannot be used or compared with data collected using the OMB race and Hispanic ethnicity categories without the use of a rollup scheme to link granular ethnicities to the OMB categories. To examine both the feasibility and limitations of such schemes, the subcommittee mapped in Table E-1 granular ethnicity responses collected from the ancestry question on Census 2000 to the OMB race and Hispanic ethnicity categories. Table E-1 uses the existing CDC/HL7 rollup scheme as a basis; the subcommittee tested the assumptions of those OMB category assignments with responses to the Census race and Hispanic ethnicity questions to determine if 90 percent of respondents giving a specific ancestry response identified with the category to which the CDC/HL7 rollup scheme assigns them. For most granular ethnicity categories, 90 percent or more of respondents to Census 2000 did self-identify with the OMB category to which the CDC/HL7 rollup would assign them. However, Appendix F identifies a number of granular categories that do not meet the 90 percent threshold, and thus would have "no determinate OMB race classification" if this threshold was adopted. An analyst wanting to roll up the categories in Appendix F to an OMB race group or Hispanic origin would have to defer to existing OMB and Census definitions based on geographic ancestry (go to Table 1-1 in Chapter 1 of the report). While many granular ethnicities can be mapped to the OMB Hispanic ethnicity category based on the existing CDC/HL7 roll-up, none of the granular ethnicities associated with the Hispanic ethnicity category can be assigned to an OMB race category with greater than 90 percent certainty. In addition, high percentages of persons who report an American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry have been known to identify as White, multiracial, or "Some Other Race" (see discussion of American Indian or Alaska Natives in Chapter 2). Similarly, substantial portions of respondents who report a Pacific Islander ancestry identify with a race besides with the Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander race category. The tribal groups and Pacific Islander groups have been left by the subcommittee in the American Indian or Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander race categories, respectively rather than move them to a "no determinate OMB race classification." There was insufficient data to apply the 90 percent rule to all the individual subcategories under those headings. Analysts should understand that making an assignment using a 90 percent (or any other percent) threshold or an assignment based solely on geography incurs a higher probability that the rollup assignment misclassifies individuals based upon how they would self-identify their race when asked directly about their race. The rates of misclassification, even for granular ethnicities meeting a 90 percent threshold, underscores the fact that rollup schemes only provide probabilistic assignments useful for analysis at the group or population level, and should never be used to assign an actual race to an individual's medical record. Entities may, in some instances, want to aggregate granular ethnicity categories into broader ethnicity categories for analysis or to meet reporting requirements (e.g., aggregating all western European granular ethnicities into a broad "Western European" category). However, the granular ethnicity data should be retained in data systems when the data are shared and for use in future analysis, reporting, and service provision. The subcommittee notes that the Census ancestry code list groups ethnicities partially by geography (e.g., Western European [sans Spanish], South Asian, Sub-Saharan African) and partially by Hispanic ethnicity (e.g., Spanish, Central and South American, and West Indian).3 The Massachusetts Superset includes 31 broader ethnicity categories and 140 sub-ethnicity categories. The sub-ethnicity categories can be aggregated to the broader ethnicity categories as needed for reporting and analysis. The subcommittee concluded though that these mid-level groups should not necessarily collapse into the OMB race categories. The list of granular ethnicities presented below provides a baseline template for a national standard set of granular ethnicity categories. An entity can decide, based on local circumstances, whether to use 10 or 100 categories from the template for collection and/or analysis. If the entity sees an increase in the use of the "Other, please specify: __" option, it may consider adding categories to its local list. If an organization chooses not to have a preset list of categories, it will need to compile responses according to the template to ensure comparability with data collected by other entities. 1 The CDC/HL7 Code Set was developed using write-in responses to the Census questions on race and Hispanic ethnicity, not responses to the Census ancestry question. The Census ancestry list is more comprehensive than the list used to develop the CDC/HL7 Code Set. 2 U.S. Census Bureau. 2007. ACS 1-year PUMS code lists: Ancestry codes. http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/PUMS/C2SS/CodeList/2007/Ancestry.html (accessed June 23, 2009). 3 U.S. Census Bureau. 2001. Ancestry code list. http://factfinder.census.gov/metadoc/ancestry.pdf (accessed June 18, 2009).

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What is HIV? And what is AIDS? Find answers to some common questions in this section. How is HIV transmitted - and how is it not transmitted? Find out the answers in this section. Worried you might have HIV? Have an HIV test - it's the only way to know for sure. HIV treatment is not a cure, but it is keeping millions of people well. Start learning about it in this section. In this section we have answered some of the questions you might have if you have just found out you have HIV. Find healthcare services and support. An introduction to key issues about HIV treatment and living with HIV, presented as a series of illustrated leaflets. Our award-winning series of booklets, with each title providing a comprehensive overview of one aspect of living with HIV. A range of interactive tools to support people living with HIV to get involved in decisions about their treatment and care. A one-page reference guide to the anti-HIV drugs licensed for use in the European Union, with information on formulation, dosing, key side-effects and food restrictions. Find contact details for over 900 key organisations in more than 189 countries An instant guide to HIV & AIDS in countries and regions around the world The most comprehensive listing of HIV-related services in the UK Two online PrEP surveys - can you help? 15 June 2016Two international surveys with a focus on PrEP (pre-exposure prophylaxis)... NAM is an official media partner for the 21st International AIDS Conference 18 March 2016This week, the International AIDS Society announced its media partnerships... Coming soon: news from CROI 2016 18 February 2016The annual Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI) is being...

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en

AUSTIN, Texas — The nation’s commuters are adapting to increasing traffic congestion by building delays into their schedules, but at a cost of $121 billion in wasted time and fuel, according to an annual study of national driving patterns released Tuesday. The new report from the Texas A&M Transportation Institute found that Americans wasted an average of $818 each sitting in traffic in 2011. That also meant more carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. The worst commute in the country? Washington. Commuters in the nation’s capital needed almost three hours for a trip that should take 30 minutes without traffic, according to the report. That compares to the least congested city – Pensacola, Fla. – where commuters needed only nine extra minutes. On average, Americans allowed for an hour of driving time for a trip that would take 20 minutes without traffic. The total nationwide added up to 5.5 billion additional hours that Americans spent in their cars during 2011. The institute, part of Texas A&M University, uses 30 years of traffic data, and its annual reports are one of the key tools used by experts to solve traffic problems. Researchers study how commuters adapt their travel plans when they have urgent appointments in highly congested areas based on data gathered from state transportation agencies, private companies and academic entities that monitor traffic issues. When all costs are totaled, the cost of traffic congestion to Americans was up $1 billion over 2010 for a total of $121 billion. For commercial truck drivers alone, wasted time and diesel fuel amounted to $27 billion. The latest study also found that after Washington, the most congested cities in 2011 were Los Angeles, San Francisco-Oakland, New York-Newark, Boston, Houston, Atlanta, Chicago, Philadelphia and Seattle. New to the report this year is the amount of additional carbon dioxide that gets released into the atmosphere because of clogged roads. In 2011, that total was 56 billion pounds of additional carbon dioxide, or the equivalent of 380 pounds per commuter. The statistic “points to the importance of implementing transportation improvements to reduce congestion,” researcher and co-author David Schrank said. The study also determined that Americans burned 2.9 billion gallons of gasoline while sitting in congestion, a slight improvement over the peak in 2005 when commuters wasted 3.2 billion gallons. Researchers said 2005 remains the worst year recording for traffic congestion, but warn that recent improvement may be directly related to the recession. As the economy picks up again, the study’s authors warn, so might road congestion. The institute notes that every community is unique and requires different, multi-faceted approaches to solving congestion.

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en

LOS ANGELES — Scientists said they have fresh evidence that all the gold on Earth was forged from ancient collisions of dead stars. Telescopes recently detected a strange glow in a distant galaxy. Researchers said the glow came from the collision of dead stars. Astronomers have long known that lighter elements such as carbon and oxygen are created within a star. But that can’t produce heavier elements like gold. It was thought that gold was created in a supernova explosion. But the new research points to a different stellar process involving the collisions of dead or neutron stars that occurred long before the solar system existed. The new work was led by Harvard-affiliated researchers and will appear in a future issue of the Astrophysical Journal Letters.

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en

Erosion Doubles Along Part of Alaska’s Arctic Coast: Cultural and Historical Sites Lost Coastal erosion has more than doubled in Alaska - up to 45 feet per year - in a 5-year period between 2002 and 2007 along a 40-mile stretch of the Beaufort Sea. The U.S. Geological Survey-led study reveals that average annual erosion rates along this part of the Beaufort Sea climbed from historical levels of about 20 feet per year between the mid-1950s and late-1970s, to 28 feet per year between the late-1970s and early 2000s, to a rate of 45 feet per year between 2002 and 2007. The study was published in the current issue of Geophysical Research Letters, a publication of the American Geophysical Union. USGS scientist and lead author Benjamin Jones cautioned that it is possible that the recent patterns documented in their study may represent a short-term episode of enhanced erosion. However, they may well represent the future pattern of coastline erosion in the Arctic. "Erosion of coastlines is a natural process, and this segment of coastline has historically eroded at some of the highest rates in the circum-Arctic, so the changes occurring on this open-ocean coast might not be occurring in other Arctic coastal settings," said Jones. The authors proposed that these recent shifts in the rate and pattern of land loss along this coastline segment are potentially a result of changing arctic conditions, including declining sea ice extent, increasing summertime sea-surface temperature, rising sea level, and increases in storm power and corresponding wave action. "Taken together, these factors may be leading to a new era in ocean-land interactions that seem to be repositioning and reshaping the Arctic coastline," wrote Jones and his colleagues. "And any increases in the current rates of coastal retreat will have further ramifications on Arctic landscapes - including losses in freshwater and terrestrial wildlife habitats, and in disappearing cultural sites, as well as adversely impacting coastal villages and towns. In addition, oil test wells are threatened." In fact, in another recent study along the same stretch of the Beaufort Sea, Jones and his co-authors verified "disappearing" cultural and historical sites, including Esook, a turn-of-the-century trading post now part of the Alaskan seafloor and Kolovik (Qalluvik), an abandoned Inupiaq village site that may soon be lost. At another site, near Lonely, Alaska, Jones snapped a picture of a wooden whaling boat that had rested on a bluff overhanging the ocean for nearly a century. A few months later the boat had washed away to sea. This study was published in the journal Arctic. Understanding contemporary erosion rates is important because Arctic climate change is leading to rapid and complex environmental responses in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems in ways that will almost certainly affect the rate and pattern of coastline erosion in the Arctic, the authors wrote. "For example," said Jones, "the recent trends toward warming sea-surface temperatures and rising sea-level may act to weaken the permafrost-dominated coastline by 'helping' more quickly thaw ice-rich coastal bluffs and may potentially explain the disproportionate increase in erosion along ice-rich coastal bluffs relative to ice-poor coastal bluffs that we documented in our study." The authors also documented sections of coastline that eroded more than 80 feet during 2007. Interestingly, there were no westerly storm events during the summer of 2007, traditionally believed to be the drivers of coastal erosion in this region the Arctic. However, 2007 did boast the minimum arctic sea-ice extent on record and relatively warm ocean temperatures. The authors emphasized that monitoring of coastal erosion should continue to better understand the causes for these heightened erosion rates, particularly as Arctic regions are being targeted for additional hydrocarbon development. The paper, Increase in the rate and uniformity of coastline erosion in arctic Alaska, was authored by B.M. Jones (USGS), C.D. Arp (USGS), M.T. Jorgenson (ABR. Inc.), K.M. Hinkel (University of Cincinnati), J.A. Schmutz (USGS), and P.L. Flint (USGS). It was published in the Feb. 14 issue of Geophysical Research Letters; the full article can be viewed at http://www.agu.org/journals/gl/gl0903/2008GL036205/. To read more about erosion and the loss of cultural and historical sites, see the December 2008 edition of Arctic. The paper, Modern erosion rates and loss of coastal features and sites, Beaufort Sea coast, Alaska, was authored by B.M. Jones (USGS), K.M. Hinkel (University of Cincinnati), C.D. Arp (USGS), W.R. Eisner (University of Cincinnati). USGS researcher Benjamin Jones measures erosion along a part of Alaska''s Arctic coast. On the right side of the photo is an example of a collapsed block of ice-rich permafrost. Courtesy of Christopher Arp, USGS Recent erosion along Alaska''s Arctic coast; note the collapsed block of ice-rich permafrost. Courtesy of Benjamin Jones, USGS A USGS researcher took a picture of this nearly century-old whaling boat in July 2007 along the Beaufort Sea coast near Lonely, Alaska. The boat washed away to sea just a few months later. Courtesy of Benjamin Jones, USGS A cabin along the Arctic Alaska coastline was recently washed into the ocean because the bluff it was sitting on top of was eroded away. Courtesy of Benjamin Jones, USGS

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en

The Common Nighthawk The Common Nighthawk can be found in North and South America. In winter, he makes his home in the warmer climates of South America. He migrates North for the breeding season from March through August. . The Common Nighthawk can be found in North and South America. In winter, he makes his home in the warmer climates of South America. He migrates North for the breeding season from March through August. You can find him in the forest, in open areas. This bird likes his space, for feeding and breeding. This forest camouflaged bird uses his dull brown and yellow plumage to blend in to its home area. This protects him from predators while resting during the day on a branch or on the grassy ground. This nighthawk hunts in early morning and at dusk. He flies in a zigzag motion, catching insects with it’s mouth and in his feathers as he flies. He will fly for a short period then land; he then eats what he has caught in his mouth. He then begins picking out insects from his feathers. If young are involved he will go back to his nest and feed the chicks first. The common nighthawk can usually be found alone or in pairs. During breeding season he can be found in flocks. After, the nighthawk has made its journey from South America to North America; their breeding season begins. The male will do a mating ritual flight that excites the female. The female will then lay two eggs in a ground laid nest. She incubates the eggs for two to two and half weeks. During this time the male hunts food for the female and himself. After, the eggs hatch the male and female take responsibility in feeding the chicks. It will be about a month after the chicks’ hatch before they are able to feed themselves. The Common Nighthawk is thought to be able to live up to five years. The Common Nighthawk recently has had population reductions. This turn of events is being researched for causes.

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en

|Search||Hot Links||What's New!| Please let me remind all of you--this material is copyrighted. Though partially funded by NASA, it is still a private site. Therefore, before using our materials in any form, electronic or otherwise, you need to ask permission. There are two ways to browse the site: (1) use the search button above to find specific materials using keywords; or, (2) go to specific headings like history, principles or careers at specific levels above and click on the button. Teachers may go directly to the Teachers' Guide from the For Teachers button above or site browse as in (1) and (2). Maritime Arctic (mA) and Maritime Polar (mP): These are cold air masses which form over the Arctic and acquire moisture as they move south over the cold waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. The Maritime Polar air mass is air, which has moved farther out and over the ocean and, through contact with the ocean surface, has become more warm and moist than Maritime Arctic air. Maritime Tropical (mT): Because the continent of North America narrows down towards its southern extremity, most of the tropical air in the southern latitudes is in contact with the warm ocean surface and becomes hot and moist. Source regions for Maritime Tropical air are: The Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Tropic of Cancer regions of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. In winter, the most common air masses that form over North America are Maritime Polar, Maritime Arctic and Continental Arctic Continental Polar seldom appears over this continent. In most cases, Maritime Arctic and Maritime Polar air masses found over the continent have entered from the west. Maritime air masses found over the Atlantic Ocean affect only the East Coast. The air mass in the southern portion of the continent is Maritime Tropical. In summer, snow and ice melt, leaving numerous small lakes in the northern reaches of Canada and Alaska. These lakes provide moisture that affects the forming air masses. In summer, therefore. Maritime Arctic is the principal air mass and Continental Arctic rarely appears. Maritime Polar which enters from the Pacific Ocean and Maritime Tropical are the other common summer air masses. WEATHER IN AN AIR MASS There are three main factors that determine the weather in an air mass moisture content, the cooling process and the stability of the air. Some air masses are very dry and little cloud develops. Maritime air has a high moisture content and cloud, precipitation and fog can be expected. Even if the air is moist, condensation and cloud formation occur only if the temperature is lowered. The cooling processes that contribute to condensation and the formation of clouds are (1) contact with a surface cooling by radiation, (2) advection over a colder surface and (3) expansion brought about by rifling. It follows, therefore, that cloud formation within an air mass is not uniform. Clouds may form, for example, in an area where the air is undergoing orographic lift even though the rest of the air mass is clear. Stability of the air is of prime importance. In stable air, layer cloud and poor visibility are common. Good visibility and cumulus cloud are common in unstable air. MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES Although the characteristics of an air mass are determined by the area over which it forms, as an air mass moves away from its source area, it is modified by conditions over which it passes. If the modification is extensive both horizontally and vertically' the air mass is given a new name. Continental Arctic air, for example, by moving out over the oceans, becomes moist and may be renamed Maritime Polar or Maritime Arctic. Temperatures may vary considerably within an air mass as the air is warmed while passing over relatively warm surfaces and cooled while passing over relatively cool surfaces. Moisture content may also vary. The air mass will pick up moisture as it passes over lakes, wet ground or melting snow. Moist air passing over a mountain range may lose a great deal of moisture as precipitation as it ascends the western slope of the range. The air will be much drier when it reaches the prairies. Stability characteristics also may vary considerably. Air warming from below by radiation becomes unstable as convective currents develop. Air that is cooled from below becomes more stable as vertical motion is blocked. Changes in stability alter weather conditions quite considerably. These variations in the properties of a particular air mass during its life are not unusual. As a result, it is impossible to say that a certain weather pattern will always occur in an air mass that is classified, for example, as Continental Arctic. Nevertheless, it is possible to define in broad terms some typical characteristics of the particular air masses. Continental Arctic (cA) forms over a region that is covered with ice and snow. Moisture content is low. The troposphere is made up of air masses. The transition zone between two air masses is called a front. The interaction of these air masses, along their frontal zones, is responsible for weather changes. The present day theory, which explains the formation of depressions, or lows, was developed by the Norwegians, and is known as the Polar Front Theory. It is based on the fact that the polar regions are covered by a mass of cold air and the equatorial regions by a mass of warm air. In the temperate zone, the two air masses meet. As it moves south, it is gradually heated. Strong winds set up turbulence and, if it acquires moisture, stratocumulus clouds with light snow will develop. If it moves over open water, such as the Great Lakes, it will be heated and acquire moisture. A steep lapse rate and accompanying instability give rise to cumulus clouds and snow showers. Eddying, gusty winds cause restricted visibility in blowing snow. This usually follows a path from the polar regions across the prairies and into the eastern pan of the continent. It rarely affects the British Columbia coast. Maritime Arctic (mA) forms over Siberia or Alaska and travels across the North Pacific where it becomes moist and unstable. Precipitation occurs in the form of snow showers. Snow and rain loses most of its moisture as precipitation on the western slopes of the Rockies and is dry when it reaches the prairies. Maritime Arctic (mA) that develops over the North Atlantic affects only the East Coast of North America. In summer, mA develops in polar regions and moves south over the lakes of the northern pan of the continent. Daytime heating makes the air unstable. Maritime Polar (mP) reaches the Pacific Coast after a long journey over the ocean. It is more extensively modified than mA and the air mass is somewhat more stable. Orographic lift along the mountains produces extensive cloud formation and considerable rain. It is, therefore, drier when it reaches the prairies. Maritime Tropical (mT) forms over oceans and water bodies of the Tropics. Very warm and moist, it rarely penetrates north of the Great Lakes in winter. Although it does frequently appear aloft, unstable when it is rifled at a front, giving snow, freezing rain, rain, severe icing and turbulence. Extensive fog often occurs, especially on the East Coast. Air masses do not usually mix. The transition zone between the two masses is therefore narrow and is called a polar front. From the discussion of air masses, it is evident that the cold air dome covering the polar region, in fact, encloses two other domes and that frontal systems will be found along the zones separating them. Continental Arctic air makes up the smallest and most northerly dome and its edge, the Continental Arctic front, is the most northerly frontal system to be found on the weather map. A dome of Maritime Arctic air overlies the (cA) air and its edge lies somewhere between the Continental Arctic front and the polar front. The fronts are named for the colder air mass involved in the system. The sloping surface of each dome acts as a lifting surface for the warmer air mass associated with it. A front, correctly defined, is the transition zone between two air masses as it appears on the surface. The sloping side of the cold air is called a frontal surface. The discussion below deals with the development of frontal waves and depressions along the polar front. Similar frontal waves and depressions occur along the Continental Arctic and the Maritime Arctic fronts. DEVELOPMENT OF A FRONTAL DEPRESSION The area contained within the bulge of the polar front is the warm sector and contains the warm or tropical air, while the rest of the area is composed of the polar air. The pressure at the peak of the frontal wave falls and the low-pressure area deepens. The surface winds become stronger and the fronts begin to move. Both fronts are curved in the direction toward which they are moving. The peak of the wave is called the crest. At the cold front, the cold flow of air from the northwest is undercutting the warm southwesterly flow. At the warm front, the southwesterly flow of warm air is overrunning the retreating flow of cold air. The air on the northern side (considering the Northern hemisphere) of this surface of separation is termed arctic and polar air. It is nominally cold, and dry. The air on the southern side is termed tropical air. It is normally warm and moist. Due to the difference in the properties of these two air masses, the polar front is known as a surface of discontinuity. Depressions form along this surface of discontinuity (the polar front) and are the means whereby interchange takes place between the warm and cold air masses. Along the polar front, the cold polar air flows from the northeast towards the southwest on the north side, while the warm air flows from southwest towards the northeast on the south side. The arrangement is not a stable one but is subject to continual disturbances due to the warm air bulging north and cold air bulging southward. This northward bulge, once having started, continues to develop, the cold air on the northward side swinging round at the back, setting up a counterclockwise circulation and emphasizing the bulge. This bulge is the new depression (low-pressure area) just born. It normally travels northeastward along the polar front. The polar front has now been bent or broken into two sectors, the warm front and the cold front. This deformation is called a frontal wave, is moving over the ground in a direction parallel to the isobars in the warm. The cold front moves faster than the warm front and soon catches up with it. The two fronts merge causing an occluded front. As the occlusion increases in dimension, the low-pressure area weakens and the movement of the fronts slows down. Sometimes a new frontal wave may begin to form on the westward portion of the polar front. In the final stage, the two fronts have become a single stationary front again. A COLD FRONT is that part (or parts) of a frontal system along which cold air is advancing and is colored blue on the weather map. A WARM FRONT is that part (or parts) of a frontal system along which cold air is retreating and is colored red on the weather map. TYPES OF FRONTS THE WARM FRONT As a mass of warm air advances on a retreating mass of cold air, the warm air, being lighter, ascends over the cold air in a long gentle slope. As a result, the cloud formation associated with the warm frontal system may extend for 500 or more nautical miles in advance of it. Warm fronts usually move at relatively slow speeds and therefore affect a vast area for a considerable length of time. If the warm air is moist and stable, stratiform clouds develop in a distinctive sequence. The first signs of an approaching warm front are high cirrus clouds which thicken to cirrostratus and altostratus as the warm front approaches. The ceiling gradually falls and there follows a long belt of steady rain falling from heavy nimbostratus cloud. Precipitation may lead the frontal surface by as much as 250 nautical miles. If the warm air is moist and somewhat unstable, cumulonimbus and thunderstorms may be embedded in the stratiform layers. Heavy showers in advance of the surface front can then be expected. Very low stratus clouds and fog throughout the frontal zone are typical characteristics of warm fronts. The passing of the warm front is marked by a rise of temperature, due to the entry of the warm air, and the sky becomes relatively clear. THE COLD FRONT When a mass of cold air overtakes a mass of warm air, the cold air being denser, stays on the surface and undercuts the warm air violently. Surface friction tends to slowdown the surface air while a sharp fall in temperature, a rise in pressure and rapid clearing usually occur with the passage of the cold front. Sometimes, an advancing cold front will be relatively slow moving. Because it does not undercut the warm air so violently, a rather broad band of clouds develops extending a fair distance behind the frontal surface. If the warm air is stable, these clouds will be stratiform; if the warm air is unstable, they are cumuliform and possibly thunderstorms. With passage of the frontal surface, clearing is more gradual. THE STATIONARY FRONT There is generally some part of a front along which the colder air is neither advancing nor retreating. There is no motion to cause the front to move because the opposing air masses are of equal pressure. The surface wind tends to blow parallel to the front and the weather conditions are similar to those associated with a warm front although generally less intense and not so extensive. Usually a stationary front will weaken and eventually dissipate. Sometimes, however, after several days, it will begin to move and then it becomes either a warm front or a cold front. When the progress of time as a depression advances, the cold front gradually overtakes the warm front and lifts the warm sector entirely from the ground. It is simply a case of the cold air catching up with itself as it flows around the depression. Thus only one front remains, which is called an occluded front or occlusion. An occluded depression soon commences to fill up and die away. The cold air, in the distance it has traveled, may have undergone considerable change. Therefore it may not be as cold as the air it is overtaking. In this case (cool air advancing on colder air), the front is known as an occluded warm front or a warm occlusion and has the characteristics of a warm front, with low cloud and continuous rain and drizzle. It the warm air is unstable, heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud may be embedded in the stratiform cloud bank. It the cold air is colder than the air it is overtaking (cold air advancing on cool air), the front is known as an occluded cold front or a cold occlusion. A cold occlusion has much the same characteristics as a warm front, with low cloud and continuous rain. If the warm air is unstable, cumulonimbus and thunderstorms are likely to occur, with the violent turbulence, lightning and icing conditions associated with these clouds. It will be noted that in the case of either a warm or cold occlusion, three air masses are present, a cool air mass advancing on a cold air mass, or a cold air mass advancing on a cool air mass, with, in either case, a warm air mass lying wedge shaped over the colder air. This wedge shaped mass of warm air is known as a trowel in Canada. (In some other countries, such as the US, it is called an upper front.) In Canada, the term upper front refers to a non-occlusion situation. Sometimes, cold air advancing across the country may encounter a shallow layer of colder air resting on the surface or trapped in a topographical depression. The advancing cold air rides up over the colder, heavier air. The cold front which is the leading edge of the advancing cold air, therefore, leaves the ground and moves along the top of the colder air. It is then known as an upper cold front. Sometimes, the structure of the advancing cold front is such that the cold air forms a shallow layer for some distance along the ground in advance of the main body of cold air. The frontal surface If the main mass of cold air, in this situation, will usually be very steep. The line along which the frontal surface steepens is also known as an upper cold front. On occasion, an advancing warm front rides up over a pool or layer of cold air trapped on the ground. A station on the ground does not experience a change of air mass because the front passes overhead. This is known as an upper warm front. Sometimes, the surface of the cold air that is retreating ahead of an advancing warm front is almost flat for some distance ahead of the surface front and then steepens abruptly. The line along which the surface of the retreating cold air steepens sharply is also called an upper warm front. The theory of the polar front, which for the sake of simplicity has been described in the form of its original conception, might leave the impression that depressions form only along some well defined line Iying somewhere midway between the poles and the equator. Air masses are in a constant state of formation over all the land and water areas of the world. Once formed, they tend to move away from the source regions over which they form. The same frontal processes and phenomena occur whenever a mass of warm air and a mass of cold air come in contact. There is a widespread impression among pilots that fronts always bring bad weather and that all bad weather is frontal. Actually some fronts have little or no weather associated with them. A slight change of temperature and a windshift may be the only evidence that the front has gone through. And, of course, bad weather can develop without the passage of a front. Fog, for example, generally occurs when no fronts are present and severe thunderstorms may develop in an air mass, which has no frontal characteristics. Another common misconception is that the front is a thin wall of weather. This false idea is perhaps occasioned by the line that indicates a front on a weather map. The line on the map only shows the surface location at which the pressure change, windshift and temperature change occur. The actual weather associated with the front may extend over an area many miles in width, both well ahead and also for many miles behind the actual line on the weather map. A front itself is actually a transition zone between two large air masses with different properties of temperature and moisture. Each individual air mass may extend over hundreds of thousands of square miles. Everywhere along the boundary of an air mass, where it overrides or undercuts the air mass upon which it is advancing and for a considerable height upward from the surface as well, there is a frontal zone. The frontal weather associated with the front, therefore, can be expected to extend for hundreds of miles along the boundary of the air mass. Frontogenesis means a front, which is increasing in intensity. Frontolysis means a front, which is decreasing in intensity. If you examine the diagrams showing fronts on a weather map, you will notice that all fronts lie in regions of lower pressure. The isobars are bent sharply at a front. These two factors are characteristic of all fronts. WEATHER AT THE COLD FRONT Cold fronts are not all the same. The weather associated with a cold front may vary from a minor windshift to severe thunderstorms, low ceilings, restricted visibility and violent gusty winds. The severity of the weather is determined by the moisture content and stability of the warm air mass that the cold air mass is undercutting and the speed of the advancing cold front. Fast moving cold fronts may travel across the country with a speed of 30 knots or more. If the warm air that is being undercut by the cold air mass is very moist and unstable, towering cumulus clouds and thunderstorms are likely to develop. Heavy rain or hail may be associated with the front. A slower moving cold front advancing on more stable and drier air in the warm sector will produce less severe weather conditions, stratus or altocumulus clouds with light or no precipitation. A long line of cumulus clouds on the western horizon is usually an indication of an approaching cold front. Sometimes a deck of altocumulus cloud or decks of stratus and stratocumulus extending ahead of the front will mask the main frontal cloud from the view of the high flying or low flying pilot respectively. Surface Wind: The wind direction will always veer as the front passes. Gustiness may be associated with the windshift. In flying through a cold front, the windshift may be quite abrupt and occurs at the frontal surface rather than at the front. The windshift is always such that an alteration in course to starboard is required, no matter which way you are flying through the front. Temperature: On the ground, the temperature may drop sharply as the front passes, but usually it drops gradually. The air immediately behind the front has been warmed in passing over the warm ground. Therefore, it may be several hours before the temperature drops to the true value of the cold air mass. In flying through a cold front, there will be a noticeable temperature change when passing through the frontal surface. Visibility: Visibility usually improves after passage of a cold front. If the front is moving fairly rapidly, the width of frontal weather generally is less than 50 miles. If the front is moving slowly, however, flight operations may be affected for many hours. Pressure: The approach of a cold front is accompanied by a decrease in pressure. A marked rise will be noticed when the front has passed. Turbulence: Turbulence may be associated with the cold front if it is active, although thunderstorms are not always present. Even in cases where there are no clouds, turbulence may be a problem. As a rule, flight through an active cold front can be expected to be rough. Precipitation: The frontal rain or snow is usually narrow, especially if it is showery in character. Icing in the turbulent cumulus clouds can be severe. A long line of squalls and thunderstorms which sometimes accompanies the passage of a cold front is called a line squall (or squall line). It is usually associated with a fast moving cold front that is undercutting an unstable warm air mass. It may form anywhere from 50 to 300 nautical miles in advance of the front itself. The line squall is a long line of low black, roller like cloud, which often stretches in a straight line for several hundred miles, and from which heavy rain or hail falls for a short time. Thunder and lightning frequently occur. The squall is also accompanied by a sudden wind change from southerly or south-westerly to north or north-westerly, together with a sudden drop in temperature and a rise in barometric pressure. The actual wind squall lasts only for a few minutes but is often extremely violent, constituting a serious menace both to shipping and to airplanes. The signs indicating the approach of a line squall are unmistakable. Airplanes on the ground should be immediately hangared. Those in the air should at all costs avoid this violent weather phenomenon. WEATHER AT THE WARM FRONT Warm front changes are usually less pronounced than cold front changes. The change is also generally very gradual. However, the weather at a warm front is usually more extensive and may cover thousands of square miles. A wide variety of weather characterizes warm fronts. The weather may even vary along a given front. The degree of overrunning and the moisture content and stability of the overrunning warm air determine the seventy of the weather. If the warm air is very moist, the cloud deck forming in the overrunning air may extend for hundreds of miles up the slope of the retreating cold air. It the warm air is unstable, thunderstorms may be embedded in the cloud deck. High cirrus cloud is the first sign of the approach of an active warm front. Cirrostratus soon follows (the high thin cloud which causes a halo around the sun or moon). The cloud gradually thickens and the base lowers until a solid deck of altostratus/altocumulus covers the area. Low nimbostratus moves in, merging with the altostratus. With the result that a solid deck of cloud extending from near the surface to 25,000 feet or more covers the whole area. Precipitation is usually heavy. Windshift: With the passage of a warm front, the wind will veer, but the change will be much more gradual than in the case of a cold front. When flying through a warm front, the windshift will occur at the frontal surface and will be more noticeable at lower levels. When flying through a warm front, the windshift is such that a course alteration to starboard is necessary. Temperature: The warm front brings a gradual rise in temperature. A pilot flying through the frontal surface will notice a more abrupt temperature rise. Visibility: Low ceilings and restricted visibility are associated with warm fronts and, because warm fronts usually move quite slowly, these conditions persist for considerable time. When rain falls from the overrunning warm air, masses of irregular cloud with very low bases form in the cold air. Fog is frequently a condition 50 nautical miles ahead of an advancing warm front. Turbulence: Cumulonimbus clouds are frequently embedded in the main cloud deck and these storms are responsible for the most severe turbulence associated with a warm front. However, these storms and the turbulence they occasion are less severe than those associated with cold fronts. The principal problem with these storms is that they cannot be located by sight since they are embedded in the main cloud cover. Precipitation: The first precipitation begins in the region where the altostratus layer of cloud is from 8000 to 12,000 feet above the ground. As the front approaches, the precipitation becomes heavier. Occasional very heavy precipitation is an indication of the presence of thunderstorms. Winter Warm Fronts In winter, when temperatures in the cold air are below freezing and temperatures in the lower levels of the warm air are above freezing, snow and freezing rain can be expected. Snow falls from that part of the warm air cloud that is high and therefore below freezing in temperature. From the lower cloud, where temperatures are above freezing, rain falls. However, as the rain falls through the cold air (of the cold air mass that the warm air is overrunning), it becomes supercooled and will freeze on contact with any cold object. This is known as freezing rain (ZR). In the area ahead of the freezing rain, there is a region where the rain falling through the cold air becomes sufficiently supercooled to freeze and falls to the ground as ice pellets (IP). A pilot approaching the frontal surface at higher altitudes may not encounter the ice pellets, but the pilot flying at quite low altitudes can expect to encounter snow, ice pellets and then freezing rain. Icing is a problem associated with warm fronts in winter. Snow is not responsible for icing, unless it is very wet when it can stick to an airplane and form ice. Freezing rain, however, causes a rapid build up of ice. Icing will also be a problem in the cloud layers. WEATHER AT TROWALS AND UPPER FRONTS The weather that occurs with a trowal is a combination of cold and warm front conditions. The cloud pattern ahead of the approaching trowel is similar to that of a warm front. Cold front cloud formations will exist behind it. Cumulus buildups and thunderstorms are likely to be interspersed with stratiform clouds, continuous precipitation and widespread low ceilings. In winter months, freezing rain and severe icing conditions are likely hazards as the rain aloft in the occluded warm air falls through the freezing temperatures of the ground based cold sectors. The maximum precipitation, convective activity and icing conditions usually occur in the northeast sector of the low and extend some 50 to 100 miles ahead of the occluded front. Click here to go to the next section of this chapter: Ceiling and Visibility The material for this section is reproduced from the publication, FROM THE GROUND UP, with the permission of its copyright owner, Aviation Publishers Co. Ltd. No further reproduction is authorized, in any print, electronic or other form of media, without the prior consent of the publisher athttp://www.aviationpublishers.com . Any questions regarding this portion of the website should be directed to Dr. Claudius Carnegie. Questions regarding the publication, FROM THE GROUND UP, should be directed to the publisher at [email protected]. The format in which the material has been presented for the entire section is copyrighted by the ALLSTAR network. Send all comments to [email protected] © 1995-2016 ALLSTAR Network. All rights reserved worldwide. |Funded in part by||Used with permission from Aviation Publishers| Updated: May 04, 2008

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Comment 1 of 11, added on February 14th, 2005 at 12:46 PM. Names do not mean the same thing to all people, but usually are given in the memory of others. The name Maple was actually given to the father as a gift of her (mother's) own memory, so that the father would always see her in the daughter. The symbolism is that a maple tree in autumn is a beautiful birth of colors before the death of winter. This mircle of beauty recurs every year before the dying of the leaves. The same is true for Maple, who is the rebirth of her mother; the cycle of life. It is also interesting that trees have long been considered sacred by ancient cultures. Perhaps because of their long life span and rebirth through the seasons. The Druids for example, believe that some trees contain the spirits of the deceased. from United States This poem has been commented on more than 10 times. Click below to see the other comments.

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Family History Software | Computers and Genealogy |Overview of Computers and Genealogy| |The Internet and Family History| |NGS Guidelines for Publishing Web Pages on the Internet| |Family History Software| |Collaboration and Sharing| |NGS Guidelines for Sharing| |Online Options for Family History Education| |Security Concerns with Technology and Family History| |Other Gadgets and Helpful Technology| - 1 Genealogical Software - 2 Related Software and Online Products - 3 References - 4 External Links Computers are an invaluable tool for storing and disseminating the large amount of information that family historians collect during the course of their research. Genealogical software programs help organize this data in one convenient location. This information can then, at the click of a mouse, be formatted in a number of ways, printed on various forms, exported to other formats, and used to plan further research. Not long ago, the decision of which genealogical software to use was limited to a few programs. With the booming popularity of family history, and advances in related technology fields, there are now many commercial products available, as well as some shareware and freeware. Freeware, as the name implies, is software that is available free from the developer. Shareware is copyrighted software that is available in some form to be downloaded free, but conditionally. The product may only be free for a trial period, or some features or additional support may be unavailable until the product is paid for. Because of the costs associated with developing a product, most of the major software packages are commercial offerings. Choosing the Right Software There are a number of considerations in choosing software. The primary requirement is that the software be compatible with your computer, operating system, and any other electronic tools you plan on using with it. If you are running on an older operating system, or have limited or outdated hardware resources, your choices will be more limited and you may not be able to install some newer programs. While most software is competitive when it comes to the most basic functions, some products may perform better than others in certain areas. Your individual preferences, work habits, and the goals you have in mind for your family history project will dictate which product best suits your needs. Some brands of software have added features, or have even been created entirely to address research characteristics unique to a particular ethnic or religious background. For members of the LDS Church, some software includes fields for LDS ordinance information, and some even allow for electronic submission of files. Personal Ancestral File (PAF) is one such program and is distributed free from the LDS Church. DoroTree has features unique to Jewish research. There are a number of ways that you can find information on the products that are available. The website of the software purveyor is a good place to begin. In addition to listing any hardware and system requirements, a description of the product and the features it includes, you may find helpful tips, FAQs, awards the product has won, and links to reviews. Some sites offer free demos or “tours” of the product with screen shots and a walk through the software’s capabilities. If you belong to a genealogical society, a mailing list, or just know other genealogists, ask what software others are using, what they have used in the past, and what their experience has been with various products. In addition, there are mailing lists and user groups associated with some products, where users share tips and any problems they have encountered. By joining the list for a short time or reading any archives of previous posts, you can learn about the experiences of others who use the product. The periodicals of genealogical societies often include product reviews and there are a number of educational opportunities available on the Web. (These will all be discussed later in this chapter in the section titled “Instructional Material for Technology.”) The National Genealogical Society’s Newsmagazine regularly runs software reviews by genealogist Bill Mumford. He has created a Genealogical Software Report Card, which is available online. The Report Card assigns weighted points to various software programs based on the number of features available, and their importance and exclusivity, which allows users to see how one brand compares with another in each of twelve categories. Keeping your personal preferences in mind, the aforementioned resources can help you to make an informed decision on the best software to suit your needs. The following section of the chapter will discuss some of the features that can help you to organize, record, share, analyze, and in some cases, research your family history. Recording and Reporting Genealogical software gives users the ability to centralize their information, making research easier and more effective. All of the names, dates, family groups, sources, notes, photographs, plans, and logs are brought together electronically. Scanned images of original records can even be attached to the electronic record of the people to whom they pertain. While this won’t eliminate the need to keep the original paper documents, the physical location of those documents can be noted for easy access when needed, and wear and tear from handling will be greatly reduced. Once information has been entered into the software, it can be presented in a variety of ways, allowing for greater analysis of information. Traditional charts like ancestral charts (also called pedigree charts), family group sheets, and ahnentafels, which formerly had to be handwritten on forms, can be produced quickly and easily. Descendancy charts, which had to be hand drawn (owing to the fact that descending families come in different sizes), can now be automatically created and again, printed quickly and easily. Kinship charts showing the relationship of one person to another, or to all other family members are easily available as well. Hourglass charts can be created with ancestors listed above an individual and descendants listed below, and standard pedigree charts can now be reformatted both as fan charts or in a vertical style. All good software programs include a way to cite records and sources. As noted in the previous section on citing electronic sources, citations are critical. Master source and repository lists available in many programs make it easier to cite records that are referred to over and over during the course of research. Programs with good source citation capabilities can make us better researchers, with fields prompting us to enter all the relevant information, which might otherwise be overlooked or forgotten. There are often sections for notes, which can hold research observations, time lines, and information that doesn’t quite fit into the traditional fields. Some software includes special fields for medical information, such as illnesses and causes of death. Programs usually permit the selection of information that can be included on the forms, allowing the user to print different forms for different purposes (such as pedigrees with names and vital dates for taking along on research trips and for sharing, pedigrees with only names for a quick relationship reference, pedigree charts with causes of death for family health histories to be shared with your physician, etc.). Notes and citations can also be included in some reports, allowing for a printable, in-depth report on individuals and families. Having this much information available in easily digested formats can make analysis of data easier and more effective. In some cases, the software may warn users when certain inconsistencies are spotted, such as individuals living to be over 120 years old (or possibly some other age, depending on the software), or a death date before a marriage date, and so on. Some programs also facilitate the creation of heirloom quality charts, with attractive backgrounds, fonts, and formats that are suitable for framing. For family trees too large for home printing, there are also services available that will print oversized charts and even frame them for home decoration. Genealogical software also facilitates new ways of sharing our family history research with others that share an interest in our family lines. Because everyone has their own preference for a particular brand of software, a way is needed for these different brands to communicate with one another. The Family History Department of the LDS Church developed version 1.0 of the Genealogical Data Communications specification (or GEDCOM as it is commonly referred to) in 1985. GEDCOM sets a standard format for the information found in family history databases so that it can be exchanged between individuals, regardless of the type of software used. Information is entered into the genealogical software program and then key elements can be exported into a GEDCOM file, which can then be imported by other software and converted to its own proprietary format to be read. Software also allows for the merging of new information into family history databases. New information, new individuals, or, if desired, entire branches of a family tree can be merged into an existing file, creating a new and expanded database. Several warnings should be heeded, though, before merging files: - A backup of the original database should be created before attempting to merge new information. This way if something goes awry in the process the original information can be restored. - Check and see how your software handles merges, and read instructions carefully either in the software manual or through the Help files. Some programs will perform this function better than others. Look for articles on the subject, or talk to someone using the same software who has performed similar merges. - Check the accuracy of the information that is being imported against original sources to make sure you aren’t importing erroneous information. In this age of electronic information, privacy is a big concern. When sharing family history files, make sure that sensitive information on living individuals is either removed entirely or hidden, with sensitive fields reflecting that the individual is still living. Again, Help files or software manuals should show how to go about this task. More information on this aspect of genealogical software can be found in the section on “Communication and Sharing.” Planning and Keeping Track Planning and keeping track of researched records are critical and ongoing phases of family history research. Realizing this, many companies now include tools that address these needs. To-do lists record those tasks that need to be done. These can also be called Research Journals, Research Tasks, or other similar names. In some cases, the to-do list is combined with, or also serves as a Research Log, helping users to track sources that have already been referenced. Some software allows the linking of tasks with individuals and with repositories, and can be sorted as such. When a trip to a repository is planned, the tasks need only be printed for that repository, for easy reference. Tasks listed by individual can be referenced during the course of research for a quick check of what has been done and what remains to be done. Several brands of genealogical software allow for the recording of expenses in the logs as well, which can be particularly helpful for professional researchers. A growing number of software programs also include tools for creating publications, such as scrapbooks, family history or ancestor books, and photo albums. Some will take the names and dates that have been entered into the family file and insert them into a text report on that individual that might read something like this: John Smith was born on 14 June 1841 in Brooklyn, Kings County, New York. He married Sylvia Spoon on 15 February 1862, St. Mary Star of the Sea Church, Brooklyn, Kings County, New York. John died on 19 March 1898 in Brooklyn, Kings County, NY. He is buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn, Kings Co., NY. This outline can be exported to a word processing format or as an Adobe PDF. Once exported to a word processing format, the information can be enhanced with information that the program is unable to include in this pre-packaged format. Some software also allows for the export of maps showing family locations, charts, photographs, images, and other reports to be included in the publication. Indexes and title pages can be created, but again, the quality of the information should be checked carefully. Some software even allows for multimedia files to be added to family files. Images of documents, photographs, and even video can be attached to individuals. Some programs allow for the creation of scrapbooks which can be played online or saved to a CD-ROM or DVD. Many programs also provide tools for the automatic generation of Web pages using family history information. Since many Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offer free Web space with their service, this is an appealing aspect to many family historians. GEDCOM files can also be easily uploaded to user-submitted lineage collections. When publishing family history information online, genealogists should adhere to National Genealogical Society’s Web publishing guidelines. (See NGS Guidelines for Publishing Web Pages on the Internet for more.) Most programs offer access to extended support functions and/or user groups, which include message boards, mailing lists, newsletters, and online chat forums. Some bundle other services to extend basic functionality. For example, Family Tree Maker (FTM) can be purchased packaged with subscriptions to online data collections at Ancestry.com. Using a built-in search function, FTM automatically scans through online data collections at Ancestry.com and notifies you when it finds a hit for an ancestor. When a matching record is found you can download the information directly to your file. Charting all records and information for an ancestor or ancestral family chronologically in a time line can offer a clear, concise look at life events. In fact, the time line of an ancestor can form the framework for a biographical sketch that can be later used in compiling a family history. Technology has made this task much easier because of the ease with which we can insert and manipulate entries. There are any number of ways that you can construct a time line, and there are even pro-grams that will help you to do so. Legacy genealogical software will chart your ancestors’ lifespan, and Genelines, (available as stand-alone software or as an add-on to Legacy) will help plot your ancestor’s life against historical events, in a variety of charts. The Master Genealogist creates a time line automatically as you enter in the records you have found in your research and the Individual Detail Report lists events (or “tags” as they are referred to in the program) chronologically. In addition to time lines, most software programs feature calendar utilities that can calculate ages or dates of events, even for dates that fell in the transition from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. Software also allows for date estimations. Appropriate abbreviations can be found in the Help files or in the user’s manual. Once you have chosen your software, and begun entering your information, it is possible to pick up clues and facts that may have been overlooked or forgotten. Things that did not make sense scattered on various records, index cards, or scraps of paper, may suddenly come together to form a clearer picture of an individual or family. Tips for Using Genealogical Software - If a manual is available, it is recommended that you read it before using the software. If no user’s guide is available, the Help functions and any software tours should be explored thoroughly. Although most programs are very user-friendly, some functions may be overlooked or misused by new users, causing problems in reports and publications that are generated. - Set up a system for entering new information. If it can’t be entered as you go along, create a file or “inbox” for items that need to be added. Your software won’t be as useful to you if the database isn’t kept current. - Researchers sometimes keep genealogical information on more than one computer. Maintaining the most current database in each place is a challenge. Choose one location, possibly a desktop computer, as the primary database and only enter new information into that database. When new information is located on a road trip, rather than entering the data into your PDA or laptop computer’s software, note it in a word processor or spreadsheet, and then enter the information on the main computer. Before each research trip, update the files in the portable devices for easy reference on the road. This eliminates the risk of having several different databases with varying amounts of information. - Record sources immediately. Again, with the wealth of information now available, as well as the transient nature of websites, it is critical to document where each piece of information was located. - Since computers can crash and data can be lost, it is important to make backup copies of your database, storing one in a location outside your home in case of a natural disaster, fire, or flood. For more on this see the section on “Security” towards the end of this chapter. - Customize report-printing preferences to print the date on all printed reports, so that when referencing these paper copies, it will be possible to determine how current that particular report is. - Don’t rely too heavily on large imports of data. While it takes longer to enter information manually, it may be worth the time. Often, scattered pieces of information from various sources suddenly come together to prove or disprove names, dates, and relationships as they are entered into the database. Additional Software Products There are a number of more specialized software products on the market that can help family historians. Clooz is a software program designed to help family historians manage the huge number of records they acquire as they search for their ancestors. Clues collected over the years can be filed neatly in templates and organized into reports. Another program, GeneWeaver allows for better medical history reporting, creating printed individual health histories, medical genograms, medical pedigree charts showing dates, ages, and causes of death, blank questionnaires, a bibliography of references to medical and genetic health publications, and a checklist of family health history information resources. There are also products geared toward specific record types. Because maps are such a critical tool for family historians, there are software packages devoted to mapping locations. DeedMapper (available from Direct Line Software) gives family historians the ability to plot landownership maps described in deeds grants, surveys, and claims. The website for another popular map program, Animap (from Gold Bug software), says it features “2,300 maps to show the changing county boundaries for each of the 48 adjacent United States for every year since colonial times.” Users can insert markers at locations significant to their ancestry, and the SiteFinder feature contains the locations for 799,000 place names, some of which no longer exist. There are also programs that can help you write a family history. Similar to the publishing features included in some genealogical software, Personal Historian uses events, dates, and notes from genealogical software, text from word processing documents, and photographs, along with information entered into the program, to create a family history. It also comes with a library of “time lines, historical events, cultural fads, and memory triggers” to add interesting elements. As with other software publishing tools, verify the final product for accuracy. The Association for Gravestone Studies sells software created for recording gravestone information. There are additional programs, created by companies and individuals, to help you create time lines, plan family reunions, organize photographs, generate alternate spellings for names, and much more. Related Software and Online Products Software programs created for purposes other than family history can also be useful. In addition to tasks such as writing letters of correspondence and histories, word processors can also be used to create your own chronology and have the advantage that they allow for the flexibility needed to include as much or as little information needed. Step 1: Gather all the records available for a specific family group or individual ancestor and assemble them by date. Step 2: Create an entry for each record, including pertinent information from the record and the source description. (Abstracts, extracts, or in some cases, transcriptions of the record can also be included if desired.) Some typical record entries might look like these: - 17 March 1850 - Catherine Kelly’s death - TOBIN, Catharine; d Mar 17, 1850; bur Mar 19; age 26; - d of consumption; res: 44 N. Water St. - (Website: Known burials at St. Patrick’s Cemetery, Rochester, NY, by Richard T. Halsey, August 2001.) - 3 June 1880 - 1880 US Census, Brooklyn, Kings Co., NY - Kelly, Elizabeth, White, Female, 54, boarder - (Hotel Branting, Madison Ave/58th St.), Single, NY, IRE, IRE - (Source Information: NARA film T9-895, E.D. 584, Page 31, SD 1, 466C. At Ancestry.com: Image 31 of 33. Copy of image at C:\Genealogy\Kelly\Elizabeth\1880 Census.jpeg) - 1 April 1883 - Kelly, Elizabeth died - (Death notice, and death ctf.) - [Transcriptions edited] - Also, from The Sisters of Charity of New York, 1809–1959, Vol. III by Sister Marie de Lourdes Walsh (New York City: Fordham University Press) Chapter 11, pages 225–226: - “. . . Meanwhile the home had been incorporated in 1870 under the legal title of St. Joseph’s Home for the Aged, with the following Board of Managers: - Mother Mary Jerome Ely - Sister Mary Regina Lawless - Sister Ann Borromeo Obermeyer - Sister Mary Francis Wallace - Sister Maria Dodge - Sister Francis Borgia Taylor - Miss Elizabeth Kelly - Mrs. Daniel Devlin - . . . Miss Kelly continued on the Board until her death in 1883 . . .”) - Brooklyn Directory listing - James Kelly, 155 Huntington, Brooklyn, NY, 1889–1890 (Lain’s Directory —Ancestry.com database) Go back through the records and analyze them, looking for more dates that can be filled in. Some examples include the following: - Kelly, James—born - (Estimated from 1880 U.S. Census data) - 6 Jun 1819 - Kelly, Jane—born - (Death ctf. 10 January 1882 she was 62 years, 7 months, 4 days) - ca. 1821 - Kelly family immigrates from Ireland - (Estimated from birth dates and places of James and Catherine found on U.S. Census entries for James and Catherine’s daughter Ann Eliza. Also from James Kelly death certificate in 1896—been in country for 75 years = 1821.) - 1821 or before - Kelly, Mary A.—born - (1880 Census—daughter Kate’s enumeration lists mother born Ireland) - ca. 1823–24 - Kelly, Catherine—born - (Estimated from data on Known burials at St. Patrick’s Cemetery, Rochester, NY—See 1850) - James Kelly moves to Brooklyn (per death ctf. in 1896—living in city 30 years) Formatting, sizing, and color-coding can help to make dates stand out, sources easy to pick out, and delineation between individuals simple. It is helpful to also include sources. As entries are added, there may be conflicting information. Having the sources included makes it easier to find where these problems arise, and thus weigh the evidence. In addition, knowing what records have already been found is helpful in planning future research. To keep the chronology current, make a habit of updating the time line whenever new data is added to your genealogical software program. Relational Databases and Spreadsheets Spreadsheets and databases can also be helpful tools for family historians trying to sort out the records of their ancestors, particularly when tracking families over the years through censuses and directories. They are best used in records with consistent formatting; where information can be entered and sorted by consistent fields. Database search results presented in tabular format can be copied or imported into a spreadsheet and can be customized for further sorting. For example, if you were searching for a common surname in a large city, using various records that include addresses it would be possible to sort throughout by name, address, and year to note patterns and movement. Relational databases can contain several sets of records, called tables, which can be linked together through common fields. For example, you could catalog all your books, photographs, documents, heirlooms, and so forth, with each catalog in a separate table, but with each entry noting the ancestor or family to which it pertains. This data could then be sorted and you can create reports of all the items you have collected for a particular person or family. Microsoft Access is a commonly used program and there are reference books like Microsoft Office Access 2003 for Dummies that can help you learn to use the program.1 Other uses include making charts that calculate ages throughout the years, inventories of located records, and research logs. Government agencies and other institutions have found it expeditious to make downloadable records or information request forms available on the Web. Not only does this save these agencies in terms of paper and other associated costs, it benefits researchers as well, in terms of saving time and sometimes postage. There are also a number of websites that offer free utility forms to genealogists. Many commercial sites, like Ancestry.com and Genealogy.com offer free downloadable charts and forms, such as blank pedigree charts and family group sheets, blank census forms for recording information found on U.S. federal censuses, research and correspondence logs, forms for extractions and abstractions, source summaries, and form request letters (some in various languages). Your family history will eventually creep in to most areas of your computer. You will have word processing files, image files, GEDCOM files, e-mails, lists of favorite websites, and possibly audio and video files. Organizing them for easy retrieval can be a challenge. Most of the computer files we work with are organized using a series of folders. As the number of files increases, so does the number of folders. If you are not careful, the number of files and folders can get to a point where it is hard to find anything. For this reason, it’s a good idea to come up with a standard filing system that can be used across the board, so it will be easier to locate the materials you need. As family historians, we tend to file information by name, record type, and/or geographically, or a combination thereof. This tendency can be reflected in an electronic filing scheme similar to the one outlined below and illustrated in the attached image. - My Family History - Individual folders for surnames filed alphabetically. - Folders for each individual and one for information on the family as a whole. - Documents, photographs, time lines, etc. that reference individuals filed under the appropriate individual or family. - Ancestral Geographic Locations - Individual folders for countries, states, and/or counties filed alphabetically. - Information or documents pertaining to this geographic location, such as where to find vital records, what census records are available, websites of local societies, maps, etc. E-mail clients (computer programs used to read and send e-mail) are constantly expanding their capabilities for use in the business world. Many of these capabilities can be modified to suit the business of family historians. As connections are made with other family historians sharing surname interests, it can be difficult to keep track of who is researching what surname. Try using the contact list in your e-mail client. For each family history contact, include a list of surname and family interests in the notes section. When a piece of information is found for a particular surname, use the Find or Search function to locate a list of all the contacts that are researching that surname. Another solution is to set up a mailing distribution lists for each surname. Then when there is information to share or a question to be asked, simply address the message to that distribution list.

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The arctic fox, also known as the white fox, polar fox or snow fox, is a small fox native to Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and is common throughout the Arctic tundra biome. Arctic fox babies are called either pups or kits. The Arctic fox is an incredibly resilient animal that can live in temperatures as low as -59° F and as warm as temperatures we experience in Southern California. Photo credits: Aquarium of the Pacific It survives in extreme temperatures thanks to its thick fur, furry soles, short ears, and short muzzle. During the winter months, white phase Arctic fox have white coats that serve as camouflage against the vast stretches of snow and ice in their native Arctic region. When the seasons change, their coats change to a brown or blue-gray appearance that allows them to blend in with the summer’s landscape. Blue phase fox, more common in the species’ southern habitat range, remain charcoal-colored year round. Young of each color phase may occur in the same litter. Climate change poses a threat to the Arctic fox, impacting their habitat and food sources. Consequently the International Union for Conservation of Nature has included them on their Red List of Threatened Species and on a list of ten species that are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

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Ice Gopher. Anthony Powell. Sink holes in the ice shelf re-freeze over winter, and when the ice expands as it freezes it causes these mini-volcano shapes to appear. Ice expands at roughly a 9:1 ratio when it freezes, so there was roughly 9 times the volume of this wee eruption in liquid water hidden just below the surface of the ice a few weeks before. Camera mounted to a post set in the ice for part of 4 month long time-lapse project. Recording changes in the sea ice pressure ridges in front of Scott Base in temperatures down to about -60C ambient. Despite the wrappings, snow was still driven inside the camera and packed solid in the compact flash and battery compartments. Star trails, looking straight up over about 2 hours the movement of the stars create an overhead circular pattern. The green bits in the sky are from some auroras that passed though the shot.

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Saving Scott's and Shackleton's Huts The NZ Antarctic Heritage Trust has spent 10 years saving the huts of the early explorers Robert Scott and Ernest Shackleton. This video is about the work involved, and the huge effort that went into preserving these pieces of Antarctic History. From Video Clips Camera mounted to a post set in the ice for part of 4 month long time-lapse project. Recording changes in the sea ice pressure ridges in front of Scott Base in temperatures down to about -60C ambient. Despite the wrappings, snow was still driven inside the camera and packed solid in the compact flash and battery compartments. The full moon about to pass behind Mount Discovery as seen from Black Island in April. This photo was taken a few days before the sun disappeared below the horizon for the winter. The sunlight only just hitting the top half of Mount Discovery.

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Joined: Aug. 2007 This is what makes science so fascinating: |A new class of cosmic object has been found by a Dutch schoolteacher, through a project which allows the public to take part in astronomy research online. | Hanny Van Arkel, 25, came across the strange gaseous blob while using the Galaxy Zoo website to help classify galaxies in telescope images. |Scientists working at telescopes around the world and with satellites in space were asked to take a look at the mysterious Voorwerp. "What we saw was really a mystery," said Schawinski. "The Voorwerp didn't contain any stars." Rather, it was made entirely of gas so hot — about 10,000 Celsius — that the astronomers felt it had to be illuminated by something powerful. They will soon use the Hubble Space Telescope to get a closer look. | Since there was no obvious source at hand in the Voorwerp itself, the team looked to find the source of illumination around the Voorwerp, and soon turned to the nearby galaxy IC 2497. "We think that in the recent past the galaxy IC 2497 hosted an enormously bright quasar," Schawinski explains. "Because of the vast scale of the galaxy and the Voorwerp, light from that past still lights up the nearby Voorwerp even though the quasar shut down sometime in the past 100,000 years, and the galaxy's black hole itself has gone quiet." "From the point of view of the Voorwerp, the galaxy looks as bright as it would have before the black hole turned off – it's this light echo that has been frozen in time for us to observe," said Chris Lintott, a co-organizer of Galaxy Zoo at Oxford University, UK. "It's rather like examining the scene of a crime where, although we can't see them, we know the culprit must be lurking somewhere nearby in the shadows." Similar light echoes have been seen around supernovae that exploded decades or centuries ago. Makes a nonsense of the "where you there" argument. I'm always surprised why more scientists don't use astronomy/cosmology as proof of an ancient universe when confronting YECs.

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Preschool Dir. & Imagination Expert Preschoolers are seemingly always active. So it’s a good idea to have a variety of games on hand to play when you and your child have some free time. Here are three fun and simple games you can play with your preschooler. To play “Mystery Box,” all you need to do is find a shoebox – or you can even use a brown paper grocery bag. You can decorate the box or bag with stickers, construction paper, or whatever you’d like. Then secretly place an item into the box or bag. Then show your children the Mystery Box (or bag) and give them clues as to what’s inside. Keep giving clues until the children have correctly guessed what’s inside. For instance, you can hide a toy zebra inside the box and give clues such as: it’s white with black stripes, or you can find it in the zoo, or it’s similar in size to a horse, etc. To play what’s missing, simply gather about seven different items and place them on a tray or table. Choose things which are different shapes, sizes and colors, such as a yellow tennis ball, a purple crayon, a green LEGO piece, a toy car, a toy dinosaur, an orange cup, and a blue block. Ask them to examine the items for a moment, then take a towel and quickly drape it over all of the items. Then quickly remove the towel with your hand while hiding one of the items underneath the towel. Ask the children which item is missing from the tray or table? You can take turns with the children too see who will remove an item next, or even switch in new items after awhile to make it more difficult. “I Spy” is a great game that you can play just about anywhere because it doesn’t require any materials. All you need to do is to establish the ground rules, for instance, that the item you are “spying” is visible in the room with you. Simply choose an item that you can see in the room and begin describing it. For instance, you can spot a brown stuffed animal in the room and you can say, “I spy something that’s brown with fluffy ears.” When playing games, remember to encourage children to talk by asking them open-ended questions. Games such as these can really help preschoolers develop various skills. Children exercise their memory skills that will be useful for learning to read later. They practice eye-hand coordination as they manipulate items and hide them for the game. As children are engaging in these games, they are learning new words and are able to express themselves through language.

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Balloons Carrying Amateur Radio Payloads Still Circling Earth Three simple plastic foil-envelope balloons carrying Amateur Radio payloads and launched from the UK by Leo Bodnar, M0XER, remain aloft and continue to circle the Earth. The oldest, identified as B63, was released on July 8 and became the second of Bodnar’s balloons to circumnavigate the globe. The first to do so, B64, went up on July 12 and had completed one lap around the Northern Hemisphere by July 31. Air currents have carried the balloon within 9 km of the North Pole and within 10 km of its launch site. The last balloon to make it around the Earth was B66, which Bodnar released on July 15. Each balloon carries a tiny 10 mW solar-powered transmitter that can alternate between APRS and Contestia 64/1000 digital mode on 434.500 MHz (USB). The Amateur Radio payload weighs just 11 grams. As of August 25 at 15:30: The B64 balloon (M0XER-4 on APRS) was north of Moscow, Russia, at an elevation of more than 40,200 feet; the B63 balloon (M0XER-3 on APRS) was located nearly 42,000 feet above South Korea, and the B66 balloon (M0XER-6 on APRS) appeared to be over the Celtic Sea and approaching the tip of southern England. The numeral following the “B” denotes the number of similar balloons Bodnar has launched (B-65 failed to deploy). The transmitter stores positions during its flight and transmits a log file that can recall 5 days of previous locations in the comments field of its APRS transmissions. If it has been out of radio contact, however, a straight line will appear on the APRS map.

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In the past couple of years, as studies have come out sounding the alarm on the ill-effects of excessive sitting, the popularity of standing or stand-up desks has soared. Those who have read much of the coverage of this trend might be forgiven for thinking that standing to work constitutes a new hip fad. But as it is with many things, everything old is new again. For the stand-up desk was cool long before the cats in Silicon Valley got hip to them. They’ve actually been a secret of great men for centuries. Today we’ll explore the standing desk’s place in history, discuss the benefits of using one, and outline how you can rediscover this old/new tradition. The Standing Desk in History Searching the historical record, and by historical record I mean Google Books, you’ll find mentions of the standing desk in a variety of places. Old inventories of furniture from state legislatures and other government bodies during the 19th century often include an entry for stand-up desks. And in industrial journals you’ll find references like this one: “Mr. W. H. Thompson, President of the gas company, with his hat off, stood near the centre of the room, behind a standing desk used by the weigher of the establishment. To his right Emerson McMillin, with his silk hat on, chewed at a cigar.” Thomas Jefferson is perhaps the most famous user of the stand-up desk. His six-legged “tall desk” had an adjustable slanted top that was large enough to place a folio. Jefferson used the desk to draw up brilliant architectural blueprints for buildings like the Virginia State Capitol. Jefferson was not the only head of state to favor the standing desk. Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck would be standing at his desk by five in the morning, ready to sort through all the proposals and business of the day. When Winston Churchill was not lounging in bed, he liked to lay out the galley proofs of his next book on an upright desk and pore over them, looking for needed corrections. Many authors felt like standing up to work got their creative juices flowing. Charles Dickens used one, as revealed by the description of his study by a visitor: “books all round, up to the ceiling and down to the ground; a standing desk at which he writes; and all manner of comfortable easy chairs.” Ernest Hemingway discovered the standing desk method from his editor at Charles Scribner’s Sons, Maxwell Perkins. In Papa Hemingway: A Personal Memoir, AE Hotchner describes Hemingway’s set-up in his home in Havana: “In Ernest’s room there was a large desk covered with stacks of letters, magazines, and newspaper clippings, a small sack of carnivores’ teeth, two unwound clocks, shoehorns, an unfilled pen in an onyx holder, a wood carved zebra, wart hog, rhino and lion in single file, and a wide-assortment of souvenirs, mementos and good luck charms. He never worked at the desk. Instead, he used a stand up work place he had fashioned out of a bookcase near his bed. His portable typewriter was snugged in there and papers were spread along the top of the bookcase on either side of it. He used a reading board for longhand writing.” 5 Reasons to Use a Stand-Up Desk So should you follow in Jefferson’s and Hemingway’s footsteps and start working on your feet? Here are five reasons to consider making the switch: 1. To Avoid an Early Grave Excessive sitting is slowly killing you. I know. It seems like hyperbole. But it’s not. A study found that men who sit for more than six hours of their leisure time each day had a 20% higher death rate than those who sat for three hours or less. The epidemiologist who conducted the study, Alpha Patel, concluded that excessive sitting literally shortens a person’s life by several years. Another study showed that men who sat for 23 or more hours a week had a 64% greater chance of dying from heart disease than those who sat for 11 hours per week or less. So why is sitting so frighteningly bad for you? Well sitting is the ultimate passive activity; you burn more calories chewing gum than you do slouching in your chair. When you sit, the electrical activity in your muscles flat lines, and your body uses very little energy. Powering down your body like that for long periods of time leads to a cascade of negative effects. Your heart rate, calorie burn, insulin effectiveness, and levels of good cholesterol all drop. Your body also stops producing lipoprotein lipase and other molecules that are only released when you flex your muscles, such as when you are standing and walking. These molecules play an important role in processing fats and sugars; without them, your metabolism suffers. Add these factors up, and it’s no wonder that those who sit for long periods of time each day have larger waistlines and worse blood sugar and blood pressure profiles and are at higher risk of heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and cancer than who sit less. And if you think you’re off the hook because you get in a bout of vigorous exercise each day…you’re not. Studies have shown that exercise does not counteract the negative effects of sitting. It’s like thinking you can snack on Twinkies all day, and then offset that by running for an hour. 2. To Lose Weight As mentioned above, when you sit, your heart rate and calorie burn go down. Health experts will tell you that weight gain typically creeps on gradually from consuming a few too many calories here and there, and slowing down in small ways as we age. We just keeping putting on a couple of pounds each year until a decade goes by and suddenly we’re tubby. I did a test with my heart rate monitor and found that my heart rate was 10 beats higher when I was standing than sitting, and I burned 54 calories in an hour of sitting as opposed to 72 in an hour of standing. That doesn’t seem like much, but if you sub in four hours of standing for four hours of sitting a day, that could translate to 7 lbs a year! 3. To Save Your Back When I go to the gym I see all these middle-aged guys lying on the floor and contorting their bodies into weird stretches in an attempt to alleviate their chronic back pain. These aren’t blue-collar men who’ve strained their back from years of heavy labor; no, they are white collar guys whose pain stems from not using their backs enough. Years of slouching in a chair has taken a toll. Standing up engages your back muscles and improves your posture. Many folks who have made the switch to a stand-up desk have reported that the change cured their back pain. 4. To Increase Your Focus Standing up can increase your focus in several ways. First, you don’t get that sleepy feeling where you desperately want to put your head down on the desk and pass out; your muscles are engaged and you’re less comfortable, so you stay alert. And second, it lets you be more active so you can release your restless energy. You can move around more, shift from one leg to another, and start pacing around whenever you’d like. And perhaps there’s something to be said for the argument one hears from creative-types that standing increases your blood flow, thus keeping your brain juiced for inspiration. 5. To Gain a Satisfying Tiredness While you get less sleepy while working standing up, at the same time you gain a satisfying overall tiredness by the end of the day. I hate going to bed feeling like my body hasn’t done a damn thing all day. When you stand up while you work, you earn that satisfying body-used feeling, and at night you fall asleep fast into a restful snooze. Making the Switch to the Stand-Up Desk So you’re sold on the whole standing desk thing. How do you get started? Well of course you can just buy a standing desk outright. BeyondtheOfficeDoor.com carries great, Made in America desks that are built with electric motors that easily adjust the desks up and down, so you can alternate sitting and standing. Or you can shop for more classic styles on sites like standupdesks.com Luckily, you need not have $800 to drop on a new desk if you want to start standing up while you work. The options for jerry-rigging a stand-up desk are limited only by your imagination, and the tolerance levels of others for your potential eyesore of a creation. I use a kitchen counter that’s about the right height for working. And I also frequent a coffee shop that has a high table that can be used with stools or for standing up. In my old place, I stacked together a bunch of large books and placed my computer on top. You can also raise your whole desk by placing it on top of cinder blocks or milk crates. Or you can set a coffee table on top of your current desk. And you don’t even have to start with a desk at all. You can stack together some plastic storage tubs or boxes, or use a book shelf or even an ironing board. Folks have also had luck with modifying IKEA furniture to their purposes. Of course the third option is to build the desk yourself. I’m going to be doing just that, documenting it, and sharing how I did it with you guys once I’m done. Finally, here are a few things to keep in mind no matter what form your standing desk takes: - If you work in an office, some or all of these options may not be viable. You can talk to your boss about getting a different desk. And you can always stand up to surf the web and such when you get home. I personally like to pace around while reading my Kindle. - Excessive sitting isn’t healthy, but standing all day long in the same place isn’t the best thing for you either. Ideally, you want to move around and change positions throughout the day, standing sometimes, then sitting, then pacing, and so on. So keep that in mind when buying or making a desk; get an adjustable one so you can both stand and sit, or have a place to sit near your upright desk (or use a stool). You might consider getting just a podium to place next to your regular desk. - For the best ergonomic positioning, create a stand-up set-up that puts your arms at about 90 degrees while you type. If you’re keen on getting the ergonomics just right, check out this write up from David Martinez on how to find the perfect height for your desk. - Standing up while you work will take some getting used to. At first it will seem tiring, but as you continue to do it, your body adapts, and you’ll be able to stand for longer and longer periods of time. You might also consider getting a soft pad to stand on to give your dew beaters some extra cushioning. So get to work like Jefferson, and soon people will be saying that you’re a real stand-up guy!

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Skip to Content View Additional Content In This Section Sleep patterns naturally change as you get older. Compared to younger people, older adults: It's common for older adults to sleep less deeply and for less time than they did earlier in life. But these normal changes in the sleep patterns of older adults do not mean that the sleep they get is enough. Routine poor-quality sleep caused by health problems, medicine use, and stress from major life changes can lead to chronic sleep problems at any age. This may increase the risk of serious health problems, such as depression. But few older adults get, or try to get, treatment for sleep problems. If you are an older adult and have trouble sleeping, talk to your doctor about what you can do to improve your Here are some things you can try: If you care for an older adult who isn't sleeping well, you might encourage him or her to try the above tips for improving sleep. taking sleep medicines only now and then or only for a short time. They are not the first choice for treating chronic insomnia. This advice about medicines applies to everyone, but especially to older adults. Anyone can become dependent on sleep medicines, and these medicines can affect how well older people think during and after long-term use.footnote 1 Martin JL, et al. (2007). Sleep disorders. In RJ Ham et al., eds., Primary Care Geriatrics: A Case-Based Approach, 5th ed., pp. 391–400. St. Louis: Mosby Elsevier. ByHealthwise StaffPrimary Medical ReviewerKathleen Romito, MD - Family MedicineSpecialist Medical ReviewerLisa S. Weinstock, MD - Psychiatry Current as ofNovember 14, 2014 Current as of: November 14, 2014 Kathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine & Lisa S. Weinstock, MD - Psychiatry To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2015 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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Most of us know that getting a good night's sleep is important, but too few of us ... to our most-cited guidelines on how much sleep you really need at each age. Myth 1: Getting just one hour less sleep per night won't affect your daytime ... to person, most healthy adults need between 7.5 to 9 hours of sleep per night to .... time for work and other commitments, you should schedule enough time for sleep Feb 2, 2015 ... There's no perfect sleep number that can fit every person, but The ... Getting a good night's rest isn't always as easy as it feels like it should be, but it ... Many of us struggle to get enough sleep every night, but is the sleep we ... Apr 6, 2016 ... Research shows that people who sleep so little over many nights don't perform as well on complex mental tasks as do people who get closer to ... Feb 22, 2016 ... How much sleep you need to stay healthy, alert, and active depends on your age and ... to person — most adults need at least seven or more hours of sleep each night. ... to identify the ideal amount of time a person needs to sleep according to their age: ... Many women have undiagnosed sleep disorders. Jul 21, 2014 ... Several studies have found that seven hours a night is the best ... It's the holy grail of questions: how many hours of sleep should we ideally get per night? ... Illness may cause someone to sleep or spend more time in bed, ... Feb 3, 2015 ... There are new recommendations for how much time people should ... Here are the new recommended sleep duration ranges for each age ... Sleep need gets less with age until around. 20 years old when it stabilises. • How much and how fast this happens depends on the person. • It is normal for ... Feb 22, 2012 ... Although sleep needs vary from person to person, the chart below shows ... For example, if you lose 2 hours of sleep each night, you'll have a ... You also should talk with your doctor if you sleep more than 8 hours a night, but ... Feb 15, 2015 ... She warns that teenagers should still try to get enough sleep on a ... the night and couldn't get back to sleep) or its architecture (how much was ...

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Skylab Reboost Mod Skylab Reboost Module American logistics spacecraft. Cancelled 1980. Module developed for Shuttle to deliver to Skylab to boost it to a higher orbit for use during the Shuttle program. Due to Shuttle development delays, Skylab re-entered and burned up over Australia before the first Shuttle mission, and NASA would have to wait another twenty years for a space station. RCS total impulse: 6,115 kgf-sec. Gross mass: 4,392 kg (9,682 lb). More... - Chronology... Unfuelled mass: 1,648 kg (3,633 lb). Height: 3.29 m (10.79 ft). Span: 3.35 m (10.99 ft). Rescue In the early 1960's, in the hey-day of the X-20 Dynasoar, it seemed that the US military would naturally keep building military aerospacecraft that would just keep going higher and faster. It was also supposed that the pilot would have to be given the equivalent of an ejection seat - some means of bailing out of the spacecraft in case of catastrophic failure or enemy attack. More... Associated Launch Vehicles Shuttle American winged orbital launch vehicle. The manned reusable space system which was designed to slash the cost of space transport and replace all expendable launch vehicles. It did neither, but did keep NASA in the manned space flight business for 30 years. Redesign of the shuttle with reliability in mind after the Challenger disaster reduced maximum payload to low earth orbit from 27,850 kg to 24,400 kg. More... Associated Manufacturers and Agencies NASA American agency overseeing development of rockets and spacecraft. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA, USA. More... Home - Browse - Contact © / Conditions for Use

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NASA’s Deep Impact spacecraft has acquired its first images of Comet ISON (C/2012 S1). The spacecraft’s Medium-Resolution Imager took the images over a 36-hour period January 17–18, 2013, from a distance of 493 million miles (793 million kilometers). Many scientists anticipate a bright future for Comet ISON; the spaceborne conglomeration of dust and ice may put on quite a show as it passes through the inner solar system this fall. “This is the fourth comet on which we have performed science observations and the farthest point from Earth from which we’ve tried to transmit data on a comet,” said Tim Larson of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. “The distance limits our bandwidth, so it’s a little like communicating through a modem after being used to DSL. But we’re going to coordinate our science collection and playback so we maximize our return on this potentially spectacular comet.” Deep Impact has executed close flybys of two comets — Tempel 1 and Hartley 2 — and performed scientific observations on two more — Comet Garradd and now ISON. The Comet ISON imaging campaign is expected to yield infrared data and light curves, which are used in defining the comet’s rotation rate, in addition to visible-light images. A movie of Comet ISON was generated from initial data acquired during this campaign. Preliminary results indicate that, although the comet is still in the outer solar system, more than 474 million miles (763 million km) from the Sun, it is already active. As of January 18, the tail extending from ISON’s nucleus was already more than 40,000 miles (64,400km) long. Long-period comets like ISON are thought to arrive from the solar system’s Oort Cloud, a giant spherical cloud of icy bodies surrounding our solar system so far away that its outer edge is about a third of the way to the nearest star other than our Sun. Every once in a while, one of these loose conglomerations of ice, rock, dust, and organic compounds is disturbed out of its established orbit in the Oort Cloud by a passing star or the combined gravitational effects of the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. With these gravitational nudges, so begins a comet’s eons-long, arching plunge toward the inner solar system. Two Russian astronomers using the International Scientific Optical Network’s 16-inch (40 centimeters) telescope near Kislovodsk discovered Comet ISON on September 21, 2012. NASA’s Near-Earth Object Program Office, based at JPL, has plotted its orbit and determined that the comet is more than likely making its first-ever sweep through the inner solar system. Having not come this way before means the comet’s pristine surface has a higher probability of being laden with volatile material just waiting for some of the Sun’s energy to heat it up and help it escape. With the exodus of these clean ices could come a boatload of dust, held in check since the beginnings of our solar system. This released gas and dust is what is seen on Earth as comprising a comet’s atmosphere — coma — and tail. Comet ISON will not be a threat to Earth, getting no closer to Earth than about 40 million miles (64 million km) December 26, 2013. But stargazers will have an opportunity to view the comet’s head and tail before and after its closest approach to the Sun if the comet doesn’t fade early or break up before reaching our star.

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Throughout March, Comet PANSTARRS (C/2011 L4) shone low in the western sky after sunset. Many observers glimpsed its coma (the gaseous envelope that surrounds the comet’s head) with just naked eyes. Many more saw it through binoculars and telescopes. In April, the comet gets higher each evening, even as it fades in brightness while receding from the Sun. So far, Comet PANSTARRS has hit every prediction related to its brightness. It arrived at perihelion (its closest approach to the Sun), on the evening of March 9 in North America. It appeared most brilliant — with a total magnitude of –1.0 — at that point, when it stood approximately 28 million miles (45 million kilometers) from our daytime star. For complete coverage of Comet PANSTARRS, visit www.astronomy.com/panstarrs.

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Frog Leg Trade Decimates Species and Causes Ecological Chaos New report highlights dangers of international frog leg trade Washington, D.C./Munich -- International wildlife conservation groups Pro Wildlife, Defenders of Wildlife, and the Animal Welfare Institute, issued a report today titled Canapés to Extinction: The International Trade in Frogs’ Legs and its Ecological Impact. The report is the first comprehensive study of the frog leg market ever conducted and reveals an industry that is systematically devastating frog populations throughout the world and, subsequently, causing severe environmental impacts to natural ecosystems. "Humans have been eating frogs for ages. But today the practice is not sustainable on a global scale," said Alejandra Goyenechea, acting director of international conservation programs for Defenders of Wildlife. "Billions of frogs are traded internationally each year for human consumption, and that industry is responsible for depleting wild populations, spreading deadly disease, and allowing invasive species to destroy the health of native ecosystems." In recent years, the United States has imported an average of 2,280 tonnes (4.6 million pounds) of frog legs each year - the equivalent of 456 million to 1.1 billion frogs - and another 2,216 tonnes (4.4 million pounds) of live frogs for Asian-American markets. Most frog and frog leg imports to the U.S. come from China, Taiwan, Ecuador, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Vietnam, Mexico and Indonesia. During the last decade, the European Union imported an average of 4,600 tonnes (9.2 million pounds) of frog legs each year - the equivalent of 1 to 2.3 billion frogs. Indonesia is the world’s leading supplier, providing 84 percent of total imports to the EU with the vast majority of frogs being caught in the wild. Belgium, France and the Netherlands are the top importers in the EU. "The decline of many frog species is a global problem that is being greatly accelerated by just a handful of European nations," said Sandra Altherr, director of wildlife programs for Pro Wildlife in Germany. "The capture and killing of native frogs is prohibited within the EU, so it is incomprehensible that we would be supporting environmentally disastrous practices abroad." Until the mid-1980s, India and Bangladesh dominated the international frog leg export market. Severe exploitation resulted in the collapse of many wild frog populations in those countries, including two of the most sought-after species, the green pond frog and the Indian bullfrog. In turn, the decline of those species resulted in a dramatic increase in the use of pesticides, due to an explosion of insects and other agricultural pests previously kept in check by frogs. In 1985, the two frog species were protected with an Appendix II listing under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). India and Bangladesh subsequently banned exports, their native species have since recovered and the use of pesticides has been reduced. However, in recent years, other countries have stepped in to fill the void and their frog populations appear to be headed for a similar fate. Indonesia, where billions of frogs are taken from the wild annually, and to a lesser extent China, Taiwan and Vietnam, where frogs are farmed very intensively, have now taken over the export market. "We must take immediate action to protect frog species from being exploited for international trade," said D.J. Schubert, a wildlife biologist with the Animal Welfare Institute. "Wild populations across Asia are already in trouble, and unregulated trade puts native species in the U.S. at even greater risk from deadly diseases that have been wreaking havoc on amphibians worldwide. It will take a coordinated effort from governments and the world’s conservation community to prevent the extinction of imperiled frog species and to protect our native species from harmful invasives." The report will be distributed to key government decision-makers, including those responsible for the implementation of CITES, with a request that they take immediate action to bring this unregulated trade under control. Considering that the frog species dominating the frog leg trade are not currently protected under CITES, there is an urgent need for governments to secure CITES protections for them. D.J. Schubert, AWI, (609) 601-2875, [email protected]

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Ask most people on the street how many branches of government exist in the U.S. Government and you might be surprised at the response you receive. For those of you who are unsure, our three branches of government include the Legislative Branch, the Executive Branch and the Judicial Branch. But do we now have a fourth branch of government in the Unites States? I believe that government agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Justice, Department of Labor, Department of Energy or the hundreds of other Federal agencies are quickly becoming a fourth branch and contributing to the erosion of our freedoms on a daily basis through new rules that never cross the desks of the people’s Legislative Branch. Do these rules have an impact on our everyday lives? Absolutely. As an example, one rule change by the Department of Energy can have a huge impact on all consumers. To see the entire editorial pick up your copy of The Baxley News-Banner on newsstands today or CLICK HERE to Subscribe.

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Antimatter atom trapped for first time, say scientists - 7 March 2012 - From the section Science & Environment Antimatter atoms have been trapped for the first time, scientists say. Researchers at Cern, home of the Large Hadron Collider, have held 38 antihydrogen atoms in place, each for a fraction of a second. Antihydrogen has been produced before but it was instantly destroyed when it encountered normal matter. The team,reporting in Nature, says the ability to study such antimatter atoms will allow previously impossible tests of fundamental tenets of physics. The current "standard model" of physics holds that each particle - protons, electrons, neutrons and a zoo of more exotic particles - has its mirror image antiparticle. The antiparticle of the electron, for example, is the positron, and is used in an imaging technique of growing popularity known as positron emission tomography. However, one of the great mysteries in physics is why our world is made up overwhelmingly of matter, rather than antimatter; the laws of physics make no distinction between the two and equal amounts should have been created at the Universe's birth. Producing antimatter particles like positrons and antiprotons has become commonplace in the laboratory, but assembling the particles into antimatter atoms is far more tricky. That was first accomplished by two groups in 2002. But handling the "antihydrogen" - bound atoms made up of an antiproton and a positron - is trickier still because it must not come into contact with anything else. While trapping of charged normal atoms can be done with electric or magnetic fields, trapping antihydrogen atoms in this "hands-off" way requires a very particular type of field. "Atoms are neutral - they have no net charge - but they have a little magnetic character," explained Jeff Hangst of Aarhus University in Denmark, one of the collaborators on the Alpha antihydrogen trapping project. "You can think of them as small compass needles, so they can be deflected using magnetic fields. We build a strong 'magnetic bottle' around where we produce the antihydrogen and, if they're not moving too quickly, they are trapped," he told BBC News. Such sculpted magnetic fields that make up the magnetic bottle are not particularly strong, so the trick was to make antihydrogen atoms that didn't have much energy - that is, they were slow-moving. The team proved that among their 10 million antiprotons and 700 million positrons, 38 stable atoms of antihydrogen were formed, lasting about two tenths of a second each. Next, the task is to produce more of the atoms, lasting longer in the trap, in order to study them more closely. "What we'd like to do is see if there's some difference that we don't understand yet between matter and antimatter," Professor Hangst said. "That difference may be more fundamental; that may have to do with very high-energy things that happened at the beginning of the universe. "That's why holding on to them is so important - we need time to study them." Gerald Gabrielse of Harvard University led one of the groups that in 2002 first produced antihydrogen, and first proposed that the "magnetic bottle" approach was the way to trap the atoms. "I'm delighted that it worked as we said it should," Professor Gabrielse told BBC News. "We have a long way to go yet; these are atoms that don't live long enough to do anything with them. So we need a lot more atoms and a lot longer times before it's really useful - but one has to crawl before you sprint. Professor Gabrielse's group is taking a different tack to prepare more of the antihydrogen atoms, but said that progress in the field is "exciting". "It shows that the dream from many years ago is not completely crazy."

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Scientists at NASA built a device to launch dead chickens at the windshields of airliners, military jets, the space shuttle, etc. The idea being to simulate collisions with airborne fowl to test the strength of the windshields. British engineers heard about the device and were eager to test it on the windshields of their new high speed trains. Arrangements were made and a device was sent to the British engineers. When device was fired, the British engineers were shocked... the chicken hurled out of the barrel, crashed into the shatterproof shield, smashed it to smithereens, blasted through the control console, snapped the engineer's back-rest in two and embedded itself in the back wall of the cabin. The horrified Brits sent NASA the disastrous results of the experiment, along with the designs of the windshield and begged the US scientists for suggestions. NASA responded with a one-line memo: "Defrost the chicken."

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Saw this on Facebook. 37 Million bees die.jpg ELMWOOD - Local beekeepers are finding millions of their bees dead just after corn was planted here in the last few weeks. Dave Schuit, who has a honey operation in Elmwood, lost 600 hives, a total of 37 million bees. “Once the corn started to get planted our bees died by the millions,” Schuit said. He and many others, including the European Union, are pointing the finger at a class of insecticides known as neonicotinoids, manufactured by Bayer CropScience Inc. used in planting corn and some other crops. The European Union just recently voted to ban these insecticides for two years, beginning December 1, 2013, to be able to study how it relates to the large bee kill they are experiencing there also. Local grower Nathan Carey from the Neustadt, and National Farmers Union Local 344 member, says he noticed this spring the lack of bees and bumblebees on his farm. He believes that there is a strong connection between the insecticide use and the death of pollinators. At the farm of Gary Kenny, south west of Hanover, eight of the 10 hives he kept for a beekeeper out of Kincardine, died this spring just after corn was planted in neighbouring fields. What seems to be deadly to bees is that the neonicotinoid pesticides are coating corn seed and with the use of new air seeders, are blowing the pesticide dust into the air when planted. The death of millions of pollinators was looked at by American Purdue University. They found that, “Bees exhibited neurotoxic symptoms, analysis of dead bees revealed traces of thiamethoxam/clothianidin in each case. Seed treatments of field crops (primarily corn) are the only major source of these compounds.

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So they post, upload, pin and tumblr– all in the hope of one thing–becoming famous! That’s right, a third of teens and tweens surveyed say it is important for them to be famous. And those kids who want to be famous use social networks. Social networks allow them to create their own image, manage and control it. According to Temple University psychologist, Laurence Steinberg, social media allows teens to imitate what is like to be famous. He also thinks that adults play into this by posting videos and pictures of their kids on Facebook and You Tube. Add society, especially reality TV, where the goal is to be discovered and kids think, this is worthy to pursue. But is this desire to be famous and self-promoting a good thing? Generally speaking, NO. First, how many kids will actually make it and are spending valuable time investing in possible fame? Remember those American Idol contestants who actually thought they had the talent to win? Their families and friends were right there encouraging them when they clearly had no talent for singing. Reality check! They were wasting their time on something that would never happen. So if talent and practice are involved in becoming famous, you have to have and do both.But so many teens think it just happens or overestimate their talent. The pathway to fame now includes: 1) Being arrested. How many shooters and bombers have had this goal in mind? 2) Being born in a wealthy family. Fame is based on entitlement, a problem we see among teens today. 3) Having outstanding physical beauty. Beauty eventually fades, and an emphasis leads to eating disorders and body image problems, both on the rise among teens. 4) Have an affair with someone famous. This is just wrong to begin with, much less getting famous for it. 5) Release a sex tape. I don’t have to explain! 6) Become a reality TV star like Teen Mom or Kate Gosselin who think this is a way of life. Come on teens, how about goals like serving others, making a difference in the world, being a person of integrity, etc.? Fame is fleeting and self-serving. And have you noticed how few people handle fame well. Most self-destruct. Time for a reality check on what is important. Fame doesn’t make the list! Source: Yalda Uhis, researcher at UCLA’s Children’s Digital Media Center presentation at the Society for Research in Child Development (April, 21013)

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Worship is an act of reverence, of giving or acknowledging worth to something/someone beyond yourself. In this way, despite the fact that Jains do not have a central God(s), Jains offer worship to the 24 Tirthankaras. But the Tirthankaras were humans, right? How does one worship a human? First we must understand the Jain attitude toward the Tirthankaras. The title “Tirthankara” means “ford-maker,” in other words, one who has not only crossed the sea of samsara (rebirth), but who has taught the way to the people as well. Lord Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankara of his age. Jain devotees therefore offer reverence to these beings for their character and accomplishments. They do not pray for help or favor (one who has reached moksha, or liberation, is beyond such activities), but only wish to become more like the Tirthankaras so that they might reach the same destination. These idols provide a focal point for many Jain devotees while remembering the actions and characteristics of each Jina (one who has conquered inner and outer karmas). Like a kid with a poster of their favorite band or athlete, a Jain devotee looks to each Jina as an exemplar of a perfect life, one that leads to moksha. So what is Jain worship like? Well to start, not every Jain is the same in this regard. There are some sects within the two major Jain divisions (Svetambara and Digambara) that do not believe in the use of idols. These are the Taranapantha, Sthanakvasi, and Tera panthi. For the sects which do not believe in idol worship, emphasis is placed on study of scripture, silent prayers, and meditation. I personally have no idols this month and so I utilize this form of practice as a Jain. I study the life of the Tirthankaras, try to cultivate my daily living according to Jain philosophy, and spend as much time in meditation and contemplation of Jain principles as possible. For those who utilize idols, daily worship may occur in either a sacred space in the home or in a community temple. Worship within any context is called puja. Home puja is often very simple. Often there is at least one Jina idol upon a dedicated shelf or altar. A devotee will shower, dress in simple white or special clothing for the puja and enter the space with “Namo Jinanam” which means “I bow to the Jina.” After this greeting, one may repeat “Nisihii” three times to help remove outside thoughts and bring focus to worship. At this time, a devotee might bow and recite the most important mantra in the Jain faith; the Navkar Mantra. Namo Arihantanam (I bow to Arihanta) Namo Siddhanam (I bow to Siddha) Namo Ayariyanam (I bow to Acharya) Namo Uvajjhayanam (I bow to Upadhyaya) Namo Loe Savva-sahunam (I bow to Sadhu and Sadhvi) Each of these represent those in the Jain way that have reached moksha, destroyed karmas, teach the Jain philosophy, or are on the monastic path toward moksha. By showing respect toward these individuals, a devotee commits themselves to the path. Beyond these salutations, one’s puja can be as simple or elaborate as they wish. Some may shift into silent prayers commemorating the lives of these individuals and dedicating themselves to observing Jain practices. Others might sit in meditation for Pratikraman, which is an act of penance for negative actions and a re-commitment to the Jain way. Those who visit the temple or have idols in their home may circle the idol three times and perform the Snatra puja (ritual bathing of the idol which represents the bathing of the Tirthankaras by the gods at birth). Other rituals involve removing past karmas and honoring the five praiseworthy beings mentioned in the Navkar mantra. Next, offerings are made in front of the idols which include fruits, flowers, or grain (the flower and fruit must have fallen naturally). Rice is often presented in the shape of a swastika (not the Nazi version) which represents the four types of rebirth: heavenly beings, human, lower creatures, and creatures of hell). Three dots rest above the four-sided symbol which represent the Three Jewels of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct. Above the three dots is a final dot and a crescent denoting liberation (moksha). Once offerings are given, if in the presence of monks and nuns, salutations are given in the form of the Chaitya Vendana. This form offers praise to the monastic order, the Tirthankaras, penance for any harm done to creatures on the way to the temple, and a promise to uphold the Jain philosophy. Worship is concluded by aarti, whichis the act of waving a five-fold light or lamp in front of the image. This is a simple offering of Jain ritual and worship. Although there are many different ways for worship in the Jain faith, some of which do not use idols, there is little concept of right and wrong. Jains of different sects often worship in the same temple in the West. For the most part, the divisions are superficial regarding practice, although the doctrinal and philosophical practices are very similar. The various sects are viewed as compliments to one another, showing a balanced and complete Jain way rather than competitive ideologies.

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Books & Music Food & Wine Health & Fitness Hobbies & Crafts Home & Garden News & Politics Religion & Spirituality Travel & Culture TV & Movies Pompe disease, also known as acid maltase deficiency or glycogen storage disease type II, is caused by a mutations in a gene that reduces or eliminates production of the alpha-glucosidase (GAA) enzyme responsible for breaking down the body's stored form of sugar, known as glycogen. It is said to effect only five to ten thousand people in the world, qualifying it as a rare condition or disease. The build up of glygogen in the body, especially in the heart and skeletal muscles, in early onset infantile Pompe disease, can cause deadly cardiac or respiratory complications before a baby's first birthday. According to the International Pompe Association, symptoms in the first months of life include feeding problems, poor weight gain, muscle weakness, floppiness, head lag, enlarged tongues and hearts, respiratory difficulties and lung infections. Symptoms of late onset juvenile Pompe due to partial deficiency of GAA include muscle weakness progressing to respiratory weakness risking death from respiratory failure after several years. When it is diagnosed via blood test or genetic screening, other family members may consult a genetic specialist. Enzyme replacement therapy in clinical trials with infantile-onset patients helps to decrease heart size, maintain normal heart function, improve muscle function, tone, and strength, and reduce glycogen accumulation. Current treatment research includes improving enzyme replacement therapy, gene therapy, and something known as pharmacological chaperones. If a child, teen or young adult you love has been diagnosed with Pompe's disease, you can find information, resources and support at links from the Family Village website Family Village - Glycogen Storage Diseases FDA Approves New Drug for Pompe Disease - Alglucosidase Alfa - Lumizyme Browse at your local bookstore, public library or online retailer for resources for families who are experiencing the challenges of caregiving and treatment of rare conditions or diseases, or childrens books like Franklin Goes to the Hospital that can be reassuring to brothers, sisters and cousins as well as the child affected. Asking More from Medical Professionals Content copyright © 2015 by Pamela Wilson. All rights reserved. This content was written by Pamela Wilson. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Pamela Wilson for details. Website copyright © 2015 Minerva WebWorks LLC. All rights reserved.

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Common name: 'Albany Catspaw' Origin of Scientific Name Anigozanthos - from the Greek anises, meaning 'unequal' or 'oblique', and anthos, meaning 'flower', in reference to the division of the floral extremities into six unequal parts. preissii - after Ludwig Preiss, 19th century German botanist. A small perennial herb with stems covered in reddish woolly hairs, growing to approximately 70 cm tall. The leaves are 10-25 cm long, sheathed at the base and tapering to a fine point. This species is most easily recognised by its large claw-like, orange-yellow flowers on top of a stem with one fork. The flowers are tubular, 5-6 cm long and covered with red hairs at the pedicel and ovary, with orange-yellow or greenish yellow hairs toward the lobes. Perianths are the most deeply lobed in the genus, suggesting that it might be the Anigozanthos species most closely related to Macropidia. The seeds are the largest of any species in the genus, up to 2.5 mm across. It is restricted to an area within 50 km of Albany, with an outlying population near Walpole. It occurs in low, open woodland of Albany blackbutt. Refer to the distribution map for this species via the Department of Environment and Conservation's FloraBase online herbarium. Propagation is from seed or division. This species has proven to be quite difficult to maintain in cultivation. It prefers moist but well drained, light to medium soils, and is best suited to partial or full sun. It is recommended that plants be divided regularly to help promote vigorous growth and prolong their life. Plants grow well in containers and good drainage is essential. October to November This is the first time Anigozanthos preissii has been successfully grown and planted in the Western Australian Botanic Garden. There are some beautiful examples of this species planted among other spring flowering perennials and annuals on the floral mound outside Aspects of Kings Park. This species attracts a range of nectar-loving birds. View in Kings Park Anigozanthos preissii can be seen growing on the floral mound outside Aspects of Kings Park gallery shop.

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BRUNET, dit L’Estang (L’Étang), VÉRONIQUE, named Sainte-Rose (she signed Verronique Létant), sister of the Congregation of Notre-Dame and superior (superior general); b. 13 Jan. 1726 in Pointe-Claire (Que.), daughter of Jean Brunet, dit L’Estang, and Marguerite Dubois; d. 12 June 1810 in Montreal, Lower Canada. Véronique Brunet, dit L’Estang, came from one of the eight families named Brunet that immigrated to Canada during the second half of the 17th century; three of these added the names L’Estang, Bourbonnais, and Bellehumeur. Véronique entered the noviciate of the Congregation of Notre-Dame in Montreal in 1744 and made her profession two years later under the name of Sister Sainte-Rose. She then went as a missionary in turn to the Lower Town in Quebec, Pointe-aux-Trembles (Neuville), and Sainte-Famille on Île d’Orléans. She was back in Quebec when the town was captured by the British in 1759; at that time, it is reported, she was advised “to remain hidden as far as possible because of her great beauty and . . . other visible charms,” lest in walking about town as usual she attract the attention of the strangers, in whose presence people did not always feel safe. In 1771 Sister Sainte-Rose was called back to the house in Montreal to assume the office of assistant to the superior, Sister de l’Assomption [Marie-Josèphe Maugue-Garreau*]. The following year she became superior. The community was then facing numerous financial difficulties, largely because of the political events of the previous two decades and a fire in 1768. The new superior strove to increase the community’s resources by assigning more sisters to such moneymaking projects as church repairs, laundering, and embroidery. In 1773 the sisters were able to take advantage of the housing of the Collège Saint-Raphaël in the Château de Vaudreuil [see Jean-Baptiste Curatteau*] to acquire supplementary income: they puttied most of the casement windows and made the bulk of the aiguillettes worn by the schoolboys. The missions also were feeling the effects of the difficult times. The Lac-des-Deux-Montagnes (Oka) mission, where the sisters’ work had been supported until the conquest through a royal gratuity of 3,000 livres annually, was maintained after 1760 solely through private grants, particularly those from the generous missionary François-Auguste Magon* de Terlaye. Sister Sainte-Rose solved the financial problem by signing an agreement with the Sulpician seminary on 14 July 1772. In return for performing specific tasks, the foremost being teaching in the mission’s schools for girls, the sisters were to receive from the seminary 200 piastres a year and certain goods in kind: the pure wheaten flour and the bran from 45 bushels of wheat, 12 cords of sound wood, hay for feeding 2 cows over the winter, and free pasture during the summer. However, the community’s poverty prevented the mother house from offering direct financial assistance to the missions, even in the most difficult situations. Thus, when in 1776 the sisters at the Pointe-aux-Trembles mission had to rebuild their convent, which had been destroyed by the American troops under Benedict Arnold after the attack on Quebec, they admitted to Bishop Briand* of Quebec that they were undergoing many privations in order not to ask for anything from the community, “which was itself very hard up.” In 1778, when her term as superior came to an end and Marie Raizenne, named Saint-Ignace, took office, Sister Sainte-Rose was elected mistress of novices; she held this post until 1784, when she again became superior. By then the colony as a whole was benefiting from the state of peace. Boarding pupils were returning to Montreal in numbers and, following a decision of the council on 20 Sept. 1786, the superior sent away the day-boarders whom the community had resigned itself to taking in 1771. Relieved of the heavy financial worries that had marked her first term as superior, Sister Sainte-Rose gave her attention to clarifying certain points in the rule that concerned, among other things, the vow of permanence and the status of the sisters who did the rough work. Few changes were instituted in the missions. The one in Lachine, where the convent was falling into ruin and had few pupils, moved to Pointe-Claire in 1784. The Champlain mission near Trois-Rivières, which had been forced to suspend work three times since its founding in 1676 and which was experiencing problems similar to those in Lachine, closed down permanently in 1788. After leaving the superiorship in 1790 Sister Sainte-Rose became assistant mistress of novices and for two years served as first counsellor. As well, she turned to giving religious instruction to Montreal girls who lacked the time and means to attend regular classes; in this way she took part in the congregation’s efforts to offer “adult education,” a service for which modern democratized education would like to claim the credit. Towards the end of her life she devoted her energies to washing and mending the clothes of the servant girls whom the community employed for meagre wages and supplied with their keep. Sister Sainte-Rose, who had twice been superior general of the community, attended to these tasks until her long life came to an end in 1810, after 66 years in the Congregation of Notre-Dame. ANQ-M, CE1-37, 14 janv. 1726. Arch. de la Congrégation de Notre-Dame (Montréal), Fichier général; Personnel, V; Reg. général. Archange Godbout, “Nos ancêtres au

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The American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) occurs along the Atlantic coast from southern Florida to northern South American and along the Pacific coast of Central America. Populations outside the United States are generally small and declining, but the Florida population has slowly increased since being placed on the endangered species list in 1975 and has been recommended for downlisting to "threatened" . The pre-Columbian American crocodile population in Florida may have been 2,000 to 3,000 individuals . Development and hunting reduced it to an estimated 1,000-2,000 individuals by the early twentieth century . When placed on the endangered list in 1975, there was a maximum of 20 nesting females and 100-200 non-hatching individuals in a small area of northeastern Florida Bay [1, 4]. The population increased to 220 individuals (adults and subadults) in the mid-1980s , to 500-1,000 individuals in 1999 , and to an estimated 1,000 individuals by 2003 . The maximum number of nesting females in 2005 was 85 . The crocodile's range has also increased substantially since 1975 and now encompasses much of the historic Florida range including Key Largo, Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay, the southwestern coast and Marco Island . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan. Atlanta, GA. Available at <http://www.fws.gov/southeast/vbpdfs/species/reptiles/amcr.pdf> NatureServe. 2005. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 4.5. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. <http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Crocodylus+acutus> accessed: August 13, 2005. University of Florida. 2003. UF Crocodile Survey To Yield Information About Everglades Health. January 29, 2003 Press Release, Available at <http://news.ufl.edu/2003/01/29/crocodilesurvey>. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Fish and Wildlife Service Proposes American Crocodile in Florida to be Downlisted from Endangered to Threatened. March 24, 2005 Press Release. Available at < http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2005/r05-018.html>. Wolkomir, R. and J. Wolkomir. 2005. The comback of the crocodiles. Wildlife Conservation (online edition). Available at <http://www.wildlifeconservation.org/wcm-home/wcm-article/14597905>. Mazzotti, F. 2005. Personal communication with Frank Mazzotti, University of Florida, October 2, 2005.

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Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine. Anything human! Hi everyone. This is my first post. I'm a writing some stories and articles so I thought this would be a good forum to ask about certain things so I can get things right. Anyway this is my first question. The human body generates an electromagnetic field, and this field can be detected with certan electromagnetic field meters. Waht I am wondering, how large and powerful is this field, do certain body parts generate more powerful fields than others, and does movement in the body effect the field strength. Also, would you be able to point be in a direction, either in print or online, where I might be able to research this more? I can't give you exact figures, but it is not very strong. Most people can't detect other people's electrical fields unless they are less than a foot away. Trained "experts" in the ability might sometimes detect someone within five feet. As it is, all matter has an electrical field. It is just that our fields are slightly amplified by the electricity in our nervous system, but just barely. If our electric fields were strong enough, pocket compasses would be useless from the interference. Living one day at a time; Enjoying one moment at a time; Accepting hardships as the pathway to peace; i found this because i am looking for a picture of maby how big these electromagnetic fields are. then i saw the responses to this post... the guy who asked the question must have been thoroughly disappointed with the responses maby that's why his account lasted only 3 days... the electromagnetic field around your heart can be detected from several feet away, as cool as that is i really don't think this would affect any compass because the electromagnetic field of the earth can be detected at least as far away as the moon is... that is really powerful. you might not notice it but you are feeling the earths magnetic feild right now, unless you are crawling around on your ceiling or holding on to a tree for dear life. yet somehow you are not so bound up by gravity that you cant easily jump. sometimes i feel the electromagnetic feild of my hands but i can resist that with nearly the same ease of standing up, weird. here is a search for electromagnetic feild on The heartmath website http://www.heartmath.org/index.php?opti ... ubmit#1092 It is big news that Industrial Equipments can affect living thing which has prolong contact with it. A lot of Industrial Equipments is in everyday use and in near places where people live and stay like homes and buildings. Industrial Equipment usage cannot be stop because it is already part of everyone's every day way of life. Electromagnetic's - you have to love it. Its surely close to all of our hearts. There are now foreseeable i pods running on nano-generators powered by cardiac electric activity and not requiring batteries!! Now if they can just get an automobile... SEE: http://www.reghardware.com/2011/03/30/n ... arge_ipod/ The fields are weak, but can be detected with specialized equipment, including by animals such as sharks (it would be stronger in salt water). There is very little evidence demonstrating effects of extrinsic fields on human health (or some, if you include all microwave fields). A study of electrical line workers found that they had no extra risks (beyond things like electrocution and falls) compared to a well-selected group of controls. In fact, they were healthier, probably due to the physical, outdoor nature of their jobs (that was the conclusion of the researchers). My magnetic field is very strong,you can feel it very strongly,willing to help you research on it.My mail address is PM instead. Last edited by JackBean on Fri Oct 07, 2011 1:31 pm, edited 1 time in total. Reason: e-mail removed to protect from spam I've studied different sciences and none of them led me to the answer of this question I found in my own body. It's not exactly visible, or at least not with the equipment we know of but it's absolutely tangible. There's no doubt in my mind. I began meditating and soon after I discovered some very real feelings of electricity in certain areas of my body. After some more research I found names for these areas called Chakras. My experience is hard to put into words but all I can say is that the human body is more powerfully electric than we can even imagine. My journey is one that I hope every person can experience. If you'd like to feel how electromagnetic your body really is then sit quietly and listen to what it has to say. Here's a great link that discusses the electromagnetism of the heart (which is the center Chakra) and how it circulates energy. http://www.heartmath.org/research/scien ... tions.html Plus this one I'd like to add: Hope this helps! electromagnetic fields generated by human body, JJrakman started this conversation with few questions almost 6 years back. Still now exact answer. Like him, I am also having same questions as my own body generation some sort of energy, i feel it. After some research I was came to know that it is electromagnetic field generated by body few yeas age. Still I am having so many doubts. Hope this forum will give few answers. Please friends, participate in this conversation, so that we can explore/share our knowledge, may give at least few solutions to the world. As per my observation, * It is generated by our heart, brain, nervous system, may be glands and even skin. I would like to call this energy as Bio-Electromagnetic field (BEMF). I observed this fields mostly around head, ear ends, palms and feet (where the body have more nerve connection ends). * Especially i feel more when I lay down on bed to sleep, when more thinking or planning alone. * Some times I feel like something is twisting me around, and sometimes some kind of layer wrapped my hole body * Its generation related to temperature I think, BEMF show negative effects to one's body. I know any emf can show negative effect, but I am indicating in a way that, BEMF may show its effects related to change our way of behavior, unable to think properly, unable to perform upto one's own levels, hormonal system can get effect, etc What you say guys.... May I know know what is the exact point/reason for generation of this field. cont we obstacle with any technique ? waiting for your replay Questions and answers... From what I have researched, the human body produces more positive than negative magnetic fields. Harmful pathogens ie virus, bacteria, fungi, cancer mimic the positive magnetic field with greater strength and thus win out against the weaker natural positive magnetic field of the human organism. Thus external negative magnetic fields have been found to have great therapeutic effects on the human body when applied to affected areas. In other sources, a combination of positive and negative magnetic fields is applied therapeutically, with less gauss then uniquely negative fields, to provide beneficial outcomes. The human body produces EMF - as the last person posted: B-EMF, for biological electro magnetic field. I am interested in not only how EMF affects the body, but how much and what kind of BEMF the body emits at different points (taking into account previously posted observations of increased EMF sensation at nerve saturated clusters ie/ head, hands, feet). I thus take this string of comments back up to our title: Electromagnetic fields generated by the human body. More than one person here has mentioned feeling the EMF of their own body. I have followed simple exercises in some reading to come to the same conclusion: repeated slow pushing of the 2 hands towards each other in a gradual prayer position will demonstrate the feeling of [i]resistance[i] (electrical resistance) over a slow repeated course from 10-20 times. I'd like to know whether such a magnetic field can be measured, and what sources would be best for further research, in addition to whether there is a thermal component when measuring BEMF. This said, I have questions about where and how negative vs positive magnetic fields are found and measured. Of notable interest is the magnetic field formed by the widely used DC (directed current) in our electrical systems, and of course how the human body figures into all of these questions. Forgive my pedantry, writing in science blogs makes me feel very big bang... theoretically, of course. SAINA - would love to have some of your sources: found your comments very interesting. KTEA - what you are feeling may not be entirely negative. there may be a positive effect to all of it. There are many research institutes investigating the electromagnetic fields both within the human entity, but also in our environment. Some "stray" fields have very deleterious ramifications and, at the least, can disrupt one's own field. Obviously, the medical community recognizes such a field(s) in the human body, i.e. EKG. We are such an institute, ISHSEF (Institute for Studying the Human Spirit as an Electromagnetic Field). Our research delves into human to human relationships as did some of our forerunners: Einstein, for example. We also seek to understand our relationship to not only The Creator, but also this creation we live on, Earth. The fields can be examined both qualitatively and quantitatively (this faction (measurement) is still being investigated as rather new.)Consider for pondering, what draws or repels one human from another. Most believe it to be sexual. We do not totally concur. Might it be spiritually or electromagnetically? This genre of study is most probably the venue for the control and prevention of most "disease." Consider that a healthy metabolism which incorporates efficient electrolysis in the cellular/systemic human body benefits immensely from balanced ingestion of electrolyte type substances and cell-building proteins. Our major problem with health is fuel intake and its usage. One final thought: God said, "Let there be light" and blew life into the human. Light is most commonly produced by electron movement. Food for thought. Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 0 guests

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Discussion of everything related to the Theory of Evolution. How have emerged and have become sensible ones membrane-ids, which for many billions of years ago, have built a peptide-nucleic super-technology - is an open question. But how do these membranoidy appeared on Earth - we can explore ... http://translate.google.com/translate?h ... .agro.name And the dream! http://spacenoology.agro.name/?page_id=4904 Let me try and explain. (1) There is the modern Standard Theory of Evolution which essentially states .. well here is a good description from:- Evolution and the Tree of Life The modern theory of evolution is based on two primary tenets: All living things are related to one another to varying degrees through common decent (share common ancestors), have developed from other species, and all life forms have a single common ancestor. The origin of a new species results from random heritable genetic mutations (changes), some of which are more likely to spread and persist in a gene pool than others. Mutations that result in an advantage to survive and reproduce are more likely to be retained and propagated than mutations that do not result in a survival to reproduce advantage. The great Tree of Life is real. It is a phylogenetic tree representing the unique ancestral history of each and every creature. Darwin believed that all creatures on Earth might have originated from a single common ancestor so that each species through geological history fit somewhere in an overarching metaphorical tree; (2) From Wikipedia ( I am always cautious about using wiki but in this case they have it about right.) Punctuated equilibrium is a theory in evolutionary biology which proposes that most sexually reproducing species will experience little net evolutionary change for most of their geological history, remaining in an extended state called stasis. Punctuated equilibrium also proposes that stasis is broken up by rare and rapid events of branching speciation called cladogenesis. Cladogenesis is the process by which species split into two distinct species, rather than one species gradually transforming into another. Punctuated equilibrium is commonly contrasted against the theory of phyletic gradualism, which states that evolution generally occurs uniformly and by the steady and gradual transformation of whole lineages (anagenesis). In this view, evolution is seen as generally smooth and continuous. In 1972, paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould published a landmark paper developing this theory and called it punctuated equilibria. Their paper built upon Ernst Mayr's theory of geographic speciation, I. Michael Lerner's theories of developmental and genetic homeostasis, as well as their own empirical research. Eldredge and Gould proposed that the degree of gradualism commonly attributed to Charles Darwin is virtually nonexistent in the fossil record, and that stasis dominates the history of most fossil species. Two opposing views on one of the fundamental pillars of of Darwinian theory. Another fundamental pillar of Darwinian theory is the notion of Common decent. (Tree of life) as explained above. (3) Carl Woese and others like Craig Venter disagree fundamentally with this concept. He describes this as “the doctrine of common decent” and is wrong. There is no tree of life, if any such analogy is to be used then a bush or forest would be more appropriate. Again on one of the fundamental pillars of the standard theory there is disagreement. So here briefly are three different theories but there are more. I could relate Jim Shipiro's Natural Genetic Engineering view which he states is the third way between Creationism and Darwinism. Or Simon Conway Morris who argues against Gould and Darwin in that evolution far from being quirky and unpredictable is essentially front loaded in that the evolutionary routes are many but the destinations are few. Or Lynn Margolis... ….I think I had better leave it there in case everyone starts dozing off. The reason I use the term denominations is because each theory has it's own doctrinal fundamentals and the fact that the adherents of one disagree with another, often with a vitriol that smacks of a sort of religious fervour, paints a picture for me. Does evolution happen? It most certainly does and we have the evidence all around us. What does that evidence show, well quite simply that all this evolution occurs within species. Does it produce new species. Well I am waiting for anyone to demonstrate that with evidence and not speculation. If anyone believes that speciation occurs through evolution by whatever formal theory, I have no problem with that. It becomes a problem when that belief system is presented a fact. I hope this clears up some of my points. btw my comment about birds having a keen sense of taste is actually a quote from the Orlando's sea world website, I gave the link in my response to canolan, here it is again http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/inf ... senses.htm Scroll down to Taste. But other forum participants such translation is acceptable. "Polypeptide-nucleic nano-technology that underpins life on Earth - is ancient and efficient engineering. Multicellularity as an engineering design, just not as ancient." I am a molecular geneticist, in addition, cytology in oncology. These conclusions are based on extensive experience in the Biological Institute. Well I may be wrong, but you have chosen a rather curious way to try to demonstrate your point. I assume that of the “countless ways” to make two systems communicate and do it more safely one way would be to take a lesson from the snake ie locate the olfactory system in the mouth and make the tongue more sensitive. You are aware are you not that the snake requires two senses of smell. One which involves the olfactory system located in the nose (not in the mouth as you have stated) and the other, the vomeronasal system that is associated with the constantly flicking tongue, which incidentally has no taste buds.This system is used in conjunction with the standard sense of smell possibly because the their rate of breathing does not allow the air to enter the nostrils fast enough to collect and translate scent particles in the normal way. I would suggest that just a cursory examination of the needs of the two (humans and snakes) explains the two different systems and in my subjective opinion as opposed to your subjective opinion there is nothing “clunky” about either system. However a far more fundamental point is at issue here. You contend that the human sense of taste and smell evolved from preexisting structures that constrained them so much that a better design was not possible. This raises two questions which I would appreciate you clarify (1)From what lineages were these preexisting structures inherited? (2)Can you provide the evidence for this please. Finally you are clearly using a designed piece of software to demonstrate how something can't be designed because of design flaws. Am I right in assuming that this is the logic you are using to support you point, or am I missing a trick somewhere? I have read Stephen Gould quite extensively, I would be happy to discuss his book(s) later if you wish. Where you see differences in doctrinal fundamentals I see differences in detail. The arguements you site are akin to whether ionic or doric collumns are better. They are both collumns. As for the vitreol and furvor you see in science are simply explained by the fact that humans are involved. Science is not devoid of bias but we make an effort to understand and mitigate those biases. If you espouse faith as a tool toward fact I would suggest it's a tool with a very poor record. After all, If you have enough faith you can believe anything. As for my current understanding ( I avoid having beliefs, they are too hard to abandon when better evidence is presented) I see the tree of life as being very likely. One or a small handful of projenitors. Punctuated equalibrium vs gradualism? It depends on the situation(niche). Some situations cause fast change, some, don't change and some change gradually. If you want to get a feel for real time evolutionary change I would suggest you read "The Beak of The Finch" by Jonathan Weiner about the Grants study of Finches in The Galopagos. It's not overly technical so the main theme comes through well. Sorry for the delay but I am a bit tied up on other matters and have not been able to get back to my computer. I will get back and respond tomorrow just as soon as I am free. I appreciate this discussion very much because a respectful exchange of ideas and thoughts is always refreshing. I will try to explain my point of view in order not to be misunderstood. To me science and faith are two different concepts. Science is limited to natural laws and any explanation must be confined within the limits of known natural laws. Now Darwin proposed a theory or model that explained the Origin of Species. Now because it could be tested within the confines of Natural laws it is a valid scientific theory simply because it can be falsified. He introduced the concept of Natural selection acting on random variation on given species that over time gradually change into another and different species. So this process can be tested and indeed has and continues to be. If I state that species arrived by an act(s) of a God i.e. by supernatural means then that statement cannot be tested in a scientific way and therefore cannot be regarded as a scientific theory, That is a belief system that I would be adhering to. Belief can and often is simply blind and doesn't require evidence. Faith on the other hand is something more than belief. Faith should be based on evidence which maybe directly observed or by strong circumstantial evidence. In a court for example a person may be convicted of murder although no one actually witnessed the crime but other evidence allows the jury to conclude that the crime was committed by that person. So faith and belief are in themselves two different concepts although they are very very often used as synonyms. Now I don't argue from a point of belief, nor indeed in matters of science do I argue from a point of faith. What I will try and explain tomorrow is why I argue the way I do, not from a standpoint of belief or faith but from the standpoint of corroborating evidence, because this is a science forum. Now I prepare my self the popcorn and will settle in the seat and I am waiting impatiently to see the evidence for the existence for god and its implication in creation being presented. The trailer is good, I hope that the main feature will be up to the task. Science has proof without any certainty. Creationists have certainty without any proof. (Ashley Montague) I think your definitions of faith and belief might be peculiar to you. In common usage faith refers to beliefs instilled by authority without evidence beyond the word of the authority. As a recovering catholic I can recount first hand the "because God said so" argument. Belief simply refers to ones understanding of reality regardless of how it came about. To argue another point, I feel that theology is a fine topic for science. The scientific process is the best tool we have to get to the truth. It isn't perfect but it's the best we have come up with yet. Besides, it was the creationists who claimed that they were scientists. Sorry for the delay but life is a bit hectic at the moment. The theories of evolution attempt to describe the process by which species arrive. Now because we are discussing process it is important to understand which process you are subscribing to, as there are various differing theories. Hence my question as to which theory (process)you subscribe to. Since you have refrained to address the question I will assume you subscribe to the first of my descriptions I presented you with, i.e. the Darwinian concept of decent from a single common ancestor. This process of decent being by random mutations within the genetic mechanism and sifted by Natural selection. The whole process operates by the gradual accumulation of changes to produce new species. (If I am wrong please correct me.) Let me try and explain my understanding. The cell is a highly regulated biological information processing system that produces function. By it’s very nature this system is governed by the laws of information theory. Three essential ingredients are required. A coding system using symbols --- the cell has that A decoding system recognising those symbols ---- the cell has that And a channel for communication--- the cell has that. This system uses the physical laws (physics, chemistry etc) to provide this function. Now you appear to have indicated that I concentrate on “doctrine” and you on detail. I am at a loss to understand how you could draw that conclusion, however lets look at some detail of the cell. In order for a eukaryotic organism to develop and form, cell division takes place. There are various stages to this cell cycle. The cell contains several control mechanisms that are referred to as checkpoints and these come into action at various stages of the cycle. These control mechanisms by their very nature check and verify whether the processes that led up to the particular stage are accurately completed before allowing progression to the next stage. An important function of many checkpoints is to assess DNA damage. When damage is found, the checkpoint uses a signal mechanism either to stall the cell cycle until repairs are made or, if repairs cannot be made, to target the cell for destruction via another mechanism. Now this is but a very small part of the control the cell exercises before it divides, but it is enough to reveal some fundamental points. (1) DNA damage (which is at the heart of Darwinian theory for speciation) is identified at virtually every stage in cell division and it is either repaired or it is passed on for destruction, except in some special situations. This demonstrates that decisions are being made by the cell, by way of biological algorithms, to eliminate the damage. Damage in the cell is regarded as noise in an information processing system which of course the cell is. Now engineers devote great time and effort to eliminate or at least reduce noise in any system, simply because noise corrupts information. Is it not strange that the very thing that corrupts information is being regarded as one of the fundamental driving forces of evolutional theory, of whatever shade? (2) Decision points or nodes like this, and there are several in the cell, where the process is directed one way or another cannot come about by chance because natural laws do not work this way. Laws are discovered because endless amounts of dynamic data can be reduced down into mathematical formula, and the reason this can be done is because the behaviour pattern being examined is highly ordered, fixed, and low in information. However degrees of freedom is exactly what is required by the cell systems in living organisms. So not even some yet undiscovered law can address this issue. (3) This is simply why I recognise design in biology. It has nothing to do with doctrine or belief or faith. It is about science. Now the argument has been put forward that bad design is evidence of randomness. However bad design can only be an example of bad design. Randomness cannot produce the prescriptive design we see in the cell. It is not scientifically possible. The analogy of the Panda’s Thumb sadly is the perpetuation of this myth. In 1978 Stephen Gould proposed this as an example of bad design to support his view that bad design is evidence of randomness. However he did not fully understand what he was examining, because he did not have the technology available to examine thoroughly. Some 20 years later however around 1998 and as technology had greatly advanced, his idea was put to the test and was found wanting. You will find the paper in Nature (peer reviewed of course) here http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v3 ... 309a0.html This is how the abstract reads “The way in which the giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, uses the radial sesamoid bone — its 'pseudo-thumb' — for grasping makes it one of the most extraordinary manipulation systems in mammalian evolution1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The bone has been reported to function as an active manipulator, enabling the panda to grasp bamboo stems between the bone and the opposing palm2,6, 7, 8. We have used computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and related techniques to analyse a panda hand. The three-dimensional images we obtained indicate that the radial sesamoid bone cannot move independently of its articulated bones, as has been suggested1, 2, 3, but rather acts as part of a functional unit of manipulation. The radial sesamoid bone and the accessory carpal bone form a double pincer-like apparatus in the medial and lateral sides of the hand, respectively, enabling the panda to manipulate objects with great dexterity. (my emphasis)” The panda has specific needs (stripping bark off bamboo for some 12 hours a day is not an activity normally associated with other mammals) This is good design and therefore hardly an icon of bad design. By the way I am not trying to prove the existence of anything except design. You should not presume to ascribe motives to me. Don't demonstrate fear of discussing science by trying to turn it towards some form of religion. Now how much pop corn do you have? Why not put it to good use and investigate evidences of Good design in Nature that science learns from. As the Whale turns http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/biomec ... hale-turns Read the whole article you will learn something but here is a taster. “The Humpback Whale…. And underwater, the animals move with such astonishing agility that they’ve caught the attention of naval engineers, who hope that some of the principles learned from the study of the humpback’s flippers can be applied to designing submersible vehicles of unprecedented maneuverability.” How about Heat exchanger Design Here is an acknowledgement from by Arthur P Fraas in his book “Heat Exchanger Design” You will find some extracts here http://books.google.com/books?id=rdtKXC ... &q&f=false On page 2 he says “ It is interesting to note that nature presents us with one of the best examples of a highly efficient counterflow system in the blood vessel system in the legs of wading birds such as herons. The warm blood moving outward into the leg from the heart is passed through a system of tiny parallel blood vessels that are interspersed in checkerboard fashion with similar vessels returning from the extremity of the birds leg, giving one of the worlds most effective regenerative heat exchangers. The heat transfer performance of this blood vessel configuration is so good that the warm blood is cooled almost to the ambient temperature before reaching the region immersed in cold water, and thus the bird loses relatively little heat through the skin of it’s leg.” These are but a couple of examples of design that scientists and engineers look to, when designing their machines. I could go on about the seagull’s wings, the low drag design of the boxfish that the concept car imitates, the shock-absorbing properties of the abalone shells, or the sonar in dolphins etc etc. So many good ideas have come from nature that researchers have established a database that already catalogs thousands of different biological systems so that scientists can search this database to find natural solutions to their design problems. The June 9th 2005 edition of the Economist reports .. in part “This process is entirely the wrong way round, says Dr Vincent. “To be effective, biomimetics should be providing examples of suitable technologies from biology which fulfil the requirements of a particular engineering problem,” he explains. That is why he and his colleagues, with funding from Britain's Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, have spent the past three years building a database of biological tricks which engineers will be able to access to find natural solutions to their design problems. A search of the database with the keyword “propulsion”, for example, produces a range of propulsion mechanisms used by jellyfish, frogs and crustaceans.” Now if Bad design is evidence of randomness as you argue to then do tell What is Good design evidence of? I would say Non-randomness, wouldn’t you or would your theology prevent that conclusion? Got any pop corn left? Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest

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On the morning of the 6th of October, twelve thousand American and French soldiers lay encamped in the form of a broad semi-circle almost a mile from the British earthworks about Yorktown. Still nearer, in a deep ravine, above which were some outworks that had been abandoned by the British on the approach of the allies, were the outposts; and these, lacking tents, had hutted themselves with boughs. Intermittently came the roar of a cannon from the British lines, and those in the hollow could occasionally see and hear a shell as it screeched past them overhead; but they gave not one-tenth the heed to it that they gave to the breakfast they were despatching. Indeed, their sole grumblings were at the meagreness of the ration which had been dealt out to them the night before ere they had been marched forward into their present position; and as a field officer, coming from the American camp, descended into the ravine, these found open expression. “’T is mighty fine fer the ginral ter say in the ginral orders that he wants us if attacked ter rely on the bagonet,” spoke up one of the murmurers loud enough to make it evident that he intended the officer to overhear him; “but no troops kin fight on a shred o’ salt pork and a mouthful of collards.” The officer halted, and speaking more to all those within hearing than to the man, said: “You got as good as any of the Continental regiments, boys, and better than some.” “That may be, kun’l,” answered the complainant, “but how about the dandies?” “Yes,” assented the officer. “We sent the French regiments all the flour and fresh meat the commissaries could lay hands on, I grant you. Is there one of you who would have kept it from them for his own benefit?” “P’raps not,” acknowledged another, “but that don’t make it any the less unfairsome.” “Remember they come to help us, and are really our guests. Nor are they accustomed to the privation we know too well. General Washington has surety that you can fight on an empty stomach, for you’ve done it many a time, but he is not so certain of the French.” The remark was greeted with a general laugh, which seemed to dissipate the grievance. “Lord!” exclaimed a corporal; “them fine birds do need careful tending.” “’T ain’t ter be wondered at thet the Frenchies is so keerful ter bring their tents with ’em,” remarked a third. “Whatever would happen ter one o’ them Soissonnais fellers, with his rose-coloured facings an’ his white an’ rose feathers, if he had ter sleep in a bowery along o’ us? Some on ’em looks so pretty, thet it don’t seem right ter even trust ’em out in a heavy dew.” As he ended, the speaker looked down at his own linen overalls. “T ain’t no shakes they laughs a bit at us an won’t believe we are really snogers.” “’T is for us to make them laugh the other way before we’ve done Cornwallis’s business,” remarked the officer. “But make up your minds to one thing, boys, if their caps are full of feathers and their uniforms more fit for a ball-room than for service, these same fine-plumaged birds can fight; and there must be no lagging if we are to prove ourselves their betters, or even their equals.”

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This person was a well-known Italian statesman, writer, philosophy, diplomat and political scientist and is most well-known for writing "The Prince", which was composed in 1513 and published after his death in 1532. His name is synonymous with wily and deceptive politicking. The Roman Empire/Republic "The Discourses" is ostensibly a commentary on Titus Livius's history of this ancient civilization formed in 509 B.C. and continued for over 450 years. It was the basis for a wide range of modern governments. "The Discourses" is focused on advising members of this system on how to govern. The function of this book is to comment on monarchical rulers of city states. The Citizen of a Republic When operating together, these people are often wiser than their rulers. The Discourses often stresses their wisdom but also advises rulers how to manage them. Most of Book Two is... This section contains 334 words (approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)

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Essay Topic 1 Nicolo and Maffeo Polo were respectable merchants of Venice. They set sail in the year 1250 for Constantinople and arrived there in safety. Discuss the underlying goals the brothers had in wanting to go to Constantinople. Use examples from the text to support your response and thesis. Use Book 1, Chapter 1 as a reference. Essay Topic 2 Zorzania was ruled in part by Tartars and in part by native princes. Why were native princes in control of part of the province, and why would rule by different rulers in the same area be a problem? Use examples from the text to support your response and thesis. Essay Topic 3 Tauris was a large and noble city belonging to the province of Irak (Iraq), which contained many other cities and fortified places, but this was the largest and most important city. Tell how the inhabitants supported themselves, where they traded, what... This section contains 1,082 words (approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page)

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Alice in Wonderland Objects/Places Rabbit hole: The entrance through which Alice follows the White Rabbit into Wonderland. The hole is initially straight like a tunnel, but then it suddenly opens into a shaft that goes straight down into the earth like a well. The sides of the well are lined with cupboards, bookshelves, and pictures. Golden key: The key to the tiny door. Alice finds the key on a little table made of glass. She accidentally leaves the key on the table when she becomes tiny, so she is not able to reach it to unlock the door and enter the garden. Later in the story, when she finally manages to enter the garden, she does so by using this key. Garden: The most beautiful garden imaginable. Alice sees this garden, with bright flowers and fountains, through the tiny door soon after she arrives in Wonderland. She longs to get out into the garden, but she is unable to do so until after she leaves the Mad Tea Party. The garden is part of the realm of the King and Queen of Hearts. Bottle marked DRINK ME: This little bottle with a paper label appears on the little glass table while Alice is trying to get through the tiny door. The bottle is not marked 'Poison,' so Alice drinks its contents, which make her shrink to a height of 10 inches. Cake marked EAT ME: Alice finds this tiny cake in a glass box underneath the table made of glass. On the cake, 'EAT ME' is spelled out using currants. Eating the cake makes Alice grow to a height of more than 9 feet. Little cakes: When Alice fills up the Rabbit's house and prevents him from entering, he and his neighbors throw pebbles at her. When the pebbles hit the floor, they turn into little cakes. Alice eats one and shrinks to a height of 3 inches. Mushroom: The Caterpillar's seat. The Caterpillar instructs Alice that eating one side of the mushroom will make her larger and that the other will make her smaller. Alice grabs a handful from each side, and throughout the rest of her adventures, whenever she wants to grow or shrink to a particular size, she nibbles at the appropriate handful of mushroom. Mad Hatter's Watch: A pocket-watch that tells the day of the month. It runs two days behind, even though the March Hare tried to fix it with butter. The Hatter explains that Time controls all clocks, and because he and Time quarreled, in the Hatter's world it is always tea-time. Croquet ground and equipment: The strangest croquet ground and croquet equipment Alice has ever seen. The ground is full of ridges and furrows. The croquet balls are living hedgehogs who have no desire to be used as balls, and the croquet mallets are equally uncooperative live flamingoes. Some of the playing cards, the soldiers, bend over to form the wickets. Lobster Quadrille: A song and a dance that the Mock Turtle and the Gryphon learned when they were young. The dance goes something like this: two lines are formed on the seashore, and each dancer, with a lobster for a partner, goes through some steps; then everyone throws the lobsters as far out to sea as possible, swims after them, and returns to land with a new lobster. Letter : The evidence presented in the trial of the Knave. It is not addressed to anyone, is not in the Knave's handwriting, and is actually a set of nonsense verses. The King and Queen of Hearts believe that the Knave is guilty based upon this evidence.

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Invite a schoolteacher to your den meeting. Maybe one the boys know, to talk about the importance of school. Let the boys talk about what's going on in school. Don't try to change any of their ideas, but guide the discussion in such a way that they will see the value of an education. Learn about the history of education, how schools developed in America. Prepare a chart of the school system and explain and discuss with boys. Discuss & do a den service project for the school. Invite the parents of Webelos to come to a den meeting dressed in the type of clothes they wore to school. Have them bring along such things as class pictures, yearbooks, report cards, etc. and allow each ample time to share his/ her school days with the den. Have a panel of parents with various jobs explain their schooling and training for these jobs Invite an educator to talk with the den about some of the scholar requirements. As a den, talk about good study habits. Have someone from the public library talk about the local literacy project. Tour a local high school or visit a local college campus. Play a Newspaper Search game looking for articles about education. Encourage boys to find out all they can about schools in your community ... the different types and how they work... the problems and opportunities. Discuss these at a den meeting. Have the boys make a list of the things they like about school and another list of the things they don't like about school. Give these lists to the principal. Have the boys make a daily time schedule and use it to determine if they are making the best use of their time. Invite a grandparent to your den meeting to talk about how school was when they were children. If not a grandparent try a retirement home. Have boys make a list of the things they like about school. And another list of the things they don’t like. Discuss them. Plan a trip to the library to have the librarian demonstrate the use of a microfilm or microfiche viewer. Briefly visit a school board meeting. Let them know you are coming. They may be interested to know the boys are working on the Scholar Activities Badge. Seven Hints for Studying Studying is work, but so is football practice or putting together a model rocket. It’s the right mental attitude that can make the difference in your study habits. On the football field, the coach has planned your workout systematically. So much time for drill, so much for tackling, and so on. And a good way to achieve better grades is to plan a study system that’s just right for you. Here are seven study hints: Do You Know Your Alphabet? What letter is: Three Men in a Boat What to do: Rules of Play: Tips on How to Talk To Your Teacher A good conversation with your teacher can increase your chances of making better grades, participating in clubs, working on new projects or earning school awards. Teachers are people too; they respond to genuine interest and enthusiasm. They want you to be a success. Scout Badge Quiz Scout Law Dart Board Using a dart board with the numbers one through twelve, have each boy, in turn, throw a dart at the dart board and score a point if he can recite the point of the Scout Law that relates to that number. If he is correct he gets one point and may continue throwing. The first boy to score 12 points wins. (The twelve points necessary may be any twelve points of the twelve different points.) This test is to see if you can follow directions. Just concentrate, but remember, you have only 2 minutes. If two cars start from Denver to drive to Colorado Springs, a distance of approximately 80 miles, if they are both the same make of car, and if both are being driven at the same rate of speed, and yet, while one of the cars makes the distance in 80 minutes, it takes the other one one hour and 20 minutes. Can you explain the reason? Answer : 80 minutes and one hour and 20 minutes are the same. I walked up the street to the top of the hill and counted 50 windows on my right, I turned around and walked back and counted 50 windows on my left. How many windows did I count? Answer : Fifty. The windows on my right going up were the same 50 that were on my left going back. Papa Duck, Mama Duck and Baby Duck went for a swim. Baby Duck said, “Aren’t we all four having a lot of fun? Why did Baby Duck say four instead of three? Answer: Baby Duck was too young to count. Suppose you are a cab driver. A lady with two suitcases hails you and asks to be driven to the railway station in a hurry. On the way there is an accident which results in a traffic jam. The lady gets impatient, jumps out of the cab, and runs to the depot. She had forgotten the suitcases. She missed the train and now she starts looking for the cab driver. She does not know his name. What was the cab driver’s name? Answer : His name is the same as yours, for “You are the cab driver.” Take the number of pennies in a dollar. Multiply by the number of thirds in a circle. Divide by the number of inches in a foot of string. Subtract the number of nickels in a quarter.

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Brain Child Press, Inc. 13324 Beckenham Drive, Suite 100 Little Rock, AR 72212 Books and Games Building Healthy Beginnings Get Kids Involved in Active Learning about Nutrition! Now you can get kids moving, singing, talking, coloring, cutting, and exploring with “All About Farmers’ Markets: A Teaching Guide for Classrooms, Camps, and Community Programs.” Filled with activities for children in PreK through Second Grade, this companion to “A Visit to the Farmers’ Market” incorporates nutrition education with language arts, social studies, science, music, physical activities, and more. Many activities are adaptable for older children as well. Ten units include topics such as “Thinking About What We Eat,” “Making Good Food Choices,” “From Farm to Market,” and “Tastes and Textures of the Market.” Each unit has clearly stated main concepts and learning objectives that address current health education standards and cross curricular approaches. All of the 40+ activities are original and were developed specifically for the book by the author. Activities include games, songs, reproducibles, ideas for parent involvement and suggestions for field trips. “All About Farmers’ Markets: A Teaching Guide for Classrooms, Camps, and Community Programs.” Peggy Sissel-Phelan, Ed.D. Author and Illustrator ISBN # 0-9771010-2-9 8.5 x 11, 106 pages Retail Price: $32.95 Buy 2 or more: $24.95 each For bulk purchases, see below This page was last updated: February 3, 2014 Table of Contents and the Introduction Download FREE PDF coloring sheets for your classroom or program. - Preschool, Kindergarten, and First Grade Classrooms - Obesity prevention programs - Coop Extension family life, nutrition, and 4H programs - Food stamp outreach programs Check Out Our Flash Cards & Games

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Change your life: Read a banned book Books have the power to change lives. That is the one prevailing idea that makes me so proud and honored to be a librarian. Think back to the books you have read, either as a child or an adult, that so moved or inspired you that you know you would not be the same person today without their influence. Now imagine if you were forbidden from reading those very books, or even knowing they existed. Each year a week is set aside to celebrate the freedom to read: Banned Books Week, sponsored by a dozen literary and educational organizations, including the American Library Association, falls on Sept. 30 through Oct. 6. Librarians in particular use this yearly event to emphasize the role libraries play in a democratic society, allowing every person access to books that are relevant to their lives. One of my favorite quotes on this subject, attributed to Jo Godwin, states that “a truly great library contains something in it to offend everyone.” Behind it is the idea that not everyone has the same definition of what is offensive or obscene, all readers should be free to choose how they educate and entertain themselves, and parents should be the ones to decide what is appropriate for their children. You may be very surprised by the many novels now considered classics that were considered “inappropriate” by city councils and school boards, and are still challenged to this day. It is often only through the efforts of ordinary citizens that these books remain on the shelves. A book is considered “challenged” if a formal or informal complaint is brought forward, while a book is “banned” if it has been removed from shelves or restricted in its use by age or grade level. I would bet that many of you read Mark Twain’s iconic “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” as a teenager, or even as a pre-teen. The book has landed on challenged and banned lists countless times over the last century and a half since its original publication. In fact, in 1885, just one year after it was published, the Concord Public Library removed it from the shelves, citing its “coarse language.” Of course, the idea of a young white boy, without the supervision of adults, traveling down the Mississippi with a runaway slave certainly didn’t sit well with many in an age when the passing of Jim Crow laws was gaining steam. The latest occurrence of censorship of “Huckleberry Finn” surrounds a new edition published in 2011 in which the “n word” is replaced with the word “slave.” I think Twain himself said it best: “Censorship is telling a man he can’t have a steak just because a baby can’t chew it.” Often books were removed from shelves when the political content they contained ran counter to the ideals of those in power. George Orwell’s “1984” and “Animal Farm” were banned in many states, citing Orwell’s “pro-communist” sympathies. In 1963, “Animal Farm” was challenged in Wisconsin due to the use of the phrase “masses will revolt.” “1984” may well be the most ironic book title to ban, given the entire premise of the story is a bleak dystopian future in which Big Brother wields the power of totalitarian censorship. Some examples of more recent publications facing censorship include the “Harry Potter” series by J. K. Rowling, on the grounds of the use of witchcraft, the “His Dark Materials” trilogy by Philip Pullman, charged with being against the Catholic Church and a whole stack of books for children on health and body awareness. The most ridiculous instance of book banning, however, must be the case of Bill Martin, Jr.’s, classic children’s book “Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?” The Texas Board of Education removed it from the curriculum of the entire state in 2010 when someone confused the author with an obscure writer of books on Marxism who also happened to have the name Bill Martin. Other favorite banned books of mine include Katherine Paterson’s “Bridge to Terabithia,” a Newbury-winning chapter book about friendship, imagination and loss. A terrific coming-of-age book is “Forever...” by Judy Blume, an author who often finds herself on banned lists because of her frank discussion of many uncomfortable issues that teens have to deal with, like sexuality, body image and peer pressure. “Maniac Magee” remains one of the books I remember most from my childhood and not just because it brings up important yet controversial issues of race and class. As an adult, my favorite and most reread book continues to be “Mrs. Dalloway” by Virginia Woolf. Given its bold use of stream-of-consciousness writing, it is certainly not to everyone’s reading tastes, but if you love the feeling of being in the city, surrounded by people and sights and sounds, give it a try. On the other end of the spectrum, I also recently devoured “The Hunger Games” trilogy by Suzanne Collins, the story of a teenager in a dystopian future America in which she has to fight for her life, literally. Of course, one of the best dystopian novels I have ever read is “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Margaret Atwood, the story of an ordinary woman who is forced to leave her job at a library when it is shut down and the books are taken away. She eventually is forced to leave her child and husband and become a servant in the home of a powerful government official, to carry his children when his wife is thought to be infertile. All of these books at one time or another have been challenged or banned by those who believed they are too powerful to be read by just anyone. Find these and more at the Brainerd Public Library and watch for special displays and book lists starting Sept. 30. Change your life today: Read a banned book. LAUREL M. HALL is the senior outreach coordinator for Kitchigami Regional Library System.

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You exercise your body to stay physically in shape, so why shouldn't you exercise your brain to stay mentally fit? With these daily exercises you will learn how to flex your mind, improve your creativity and boost your memory. As with any exercise, repetition is necessary for you to see improvement, so pick your favorite exercises from our daily suggestions and repeat them as desired. Try to do some mentalrobics every single day! This little exercise will help you unleash your creativity. Pretend that you are in charge of coming up with a new superhero for a comic book. Take 5 minutes and come up with as many unique creative names as you can for this superhero. What is his or her super power? How many did you get? 0-5 You need to practice. 5-10 Pretty good. Next time try for double. 11-20 Good job! 20+ You have an excellent imagination. You can repeat this exercise as many times as you want with different products (try our Chocolate Cereal exercise). The more you practice the better you'll get. adjective :: Occurring or returning daily. adjective :: Commonplace. "There's nothing quite like a real train conductor to add color to a quotidian commute" --Anita Diamant. Many students misuse the technique of highlighting important parts of their textbook. One common problem is reading the text just to find and highlight facts, instead of reading the text to understand the material. When the student returns to study the highlighted sections, they won't know the context of the facts and learning will be impaired. Another bad habit is highlighting too much information or incorrect information, which will make remembering the material more difficult. The proper way to highlight a text is to read a section all the way through without highlighting anything. Then think about the important points and summarize the section in your head. Now reread the section and highlight the most important facts. You will only be able to pick out the key phrases after you have truly understood the material. Another benefit of this method is the use of repetition which will help you remember the important parts of the material. Proper highlighting will give you a good way to review the text later, which will be very helpful if you are using the SQ3R study method.

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The years 1904, 1939, 1941 and 1945 are significant years in Australian history, each characterised by the political blue moon of seeing three prime ministers in a calendar year; 2013, on current indications, looks set to join the list. Each of the landmark years, with the possible exception of 1945, saw the prime ministerial turmoil stemming from a political crisis, and 2013, in that sense, is no different. It is interesting that the last minority government, delivered at the 1940 election, saw leadership chaos, just as we have seen in the Parliament elected in 2010. Rudd's poll effect Newman on Mitchell: "I'm a huge Trump fan" Lynette Daley: Two men charged The women behind Eddie McGuire's shaming ADF sex abuse survivor speaks out Election 2016: the tradie vs the unionist Hotham, Falls Creek to receive weekend snowfall Collaroy braces for another king tide Rudd's poll effect Kevin Rudd's return as PM has jolted Labor's poll numbers. Pollster John Stirton explains why the Party may even be just in front of the Coalition - for now. Parties, it seems, are more inclined to change leaders than the electorate is to change governments, with only one government in the modern era, that of the hapless Jim Scullin in 1932, being thrown out after only one term - in the highly unusual circumstances of the Great Depression. With 27 prime ministers in the 112 years of the Commonwealth, the average term, not counting the caretakers, is around five years, but admittedly this figure is distorted by the extraordinary 16-year term of Robert Menzies in his second prime ministership from 1949 to 1966. His record is unlikely to be challenged. What this tells us is that neither Julia Gillard nor Kevin Rudd has quite attained the average in terms of tenure. The government has changed only three times in 30 years, yet of the five prime ministers since 1983, three of them - Bob Hawke, Kevin Rudd and now Julia Gillard - have been deposed by their own party whereas the electorate saw off the other two, Paul Keating in 1996 and John Howard in 2007. The first political blue moon in 1904 was a systemic crisis, the result of three parties in the Parliament with more or less equal representation, aptly characterised by Australia's second prime minister, Alfred Deakin, as three cricket elevens in the field trying to play the same match. Deakin, who headed a minority government with Labor support, effectively walked away from government and handed it to Chris Watson, leader of the Labor Party, whose parliamentary position was even more precarious than Deakin's, falling after just four months to yet another minority government under Free Trader George Reid. Deakin, who stage-managed each of the changes, including the removal of Reid and his own return, was out to prove a point that the party system, as it was constituted, was unworkable. It was to lead, eventually, to the so called Fusion, the merger in 1909 of Deakin's Protectionists and Reid's Free Traders, and the beginning of the party system we have today. The crisis of 1939 was entirely different. Joe Lyons was the first prime minister to die in office and his death precipitated a crisis in the ruling United Australia Party, formed when Lyons and a number of former Labor figures left the ALP to merge with the conservative Nationalist Party. Lyons was popular with the electorate, yet many of his conservative colleagues remained suspicious of his Labor past. Into this mix was injected an ambitious young politician from Victoria, Menzies, who made no secret of either his superiority or ambitions. Menzies was lured from Victorian politics to Canberra in 1934 by a promise of the party leadership before the 1937 election as Lyons was tired and in poor health. The promise was not honoured, raising tensions within the UAP, which won the 1937 election. When Lyons died the UAP elected Menzies, who had resigned from the ministry over a disagreement with Lyons, but in the interim, the Country Party leader, Earle Page, was sworn in as prime minister and promptly rebuked Menzies over his non-service in World War I and said his party would not serve in a coalition under his leadership. Menzies duly took office, but the whole business raised serious doubts about the UAP, and its secretive finances and external influences, and also Menzies. Menzies failed to win a majority at the 1940 election, and was forced to rely on two independents for survival. But his leadership was under attack and in 1941 he was deposed and succeeded by the Country Party leader, Arthur Fadden, who later that same year was defeated on the floor of the Parliament when the two independents threw their support behind Labor and John Curtin became prime minister. Curtin's thumping win at the 1943 election, which reduced the UAP to a rump, had a cathartic effect on conservative politics, with the UAP disintegrating and moves starting to form a new conservative party, the present day Liberal Party. The next blue moon was in 1945, but alone of the four years it was scarcely a crisis. True, Australia was still at war and the wartime leader, Curtin, had died in office. The deputy leader and army minister, Frank Forde, was sworn in as prime minister until caucus could meet to elect a new leader which it did a week later, anointing the treasurer, Ben Chifley. Which brings us to 2013, which is different again. In none of the previous blue moons did an election intervene, so if, as seems likely, Tony Abbott completes the 2013 trifecta later this year, he will have set a new variation on the theme. But like 1904, 1939 and 1941, there is little doubt that this probable blue moon year will be regarded as one of very deep crisis - a crisis more deep-seated and prolonged than any of those that came before. Just as 1904 exposed serious fault lines in the party and parliamentary system and the related crises of 1939 and 1941 highlighted structural and process issues in the UAP, the crisis that began in 2010 and carried through the life of the current Parliament, suggests that the Labor Party is suffering a chronic malaise, institutional as well as electoral. The wipeouts in NSW and Queensland, the magnitude of which will lock it out of office for a decade or more, now threaten to do the same nationally, Rudd's return notwithstanding. That fact that Labor has devoured three of its past four prime ministers is not a pretty record, and the history of the past three years, despite some fine achievements, is sadly one of a house destructively divided against itself. There will be much time for reflection after government. The crisis of 1904 led to a far-reaching realignment of the party system while those of 1939 and 1941 saw a reshaping of conservative politics, each of them having profound effects on Australian politics. What, one wonders, will emerge from this crisis? Dr Norman Abjorensen teaches public policy at the ANU's Crawford School. He is writing a book about prime ministerial exits.

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The orange bread mold Neurospora has served as a beautiful and simple model organism for genetic and biochemical studies since Beadle and Tatum used it to establish the one gene-one enzyme model in 1941. The many ways that Neurospora has provided insights into biological processes have been enumerated briefly (Horowitz, 1991; Perkins, 1992) and in exceptional detail (Davis, 2000). Neurospora is the best-characterized of the filamentous fungi, a group of organisms critically important to agriculture, medicine, and the environment. Neurospora is widespread in nature and thus, like the fly Drosophila, it is exceptionally suited as a subject for population studies. While, like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is an ascomycete and thus shares the advantage of this group of organisms in yielding complete tetrads for genetic analyses in the laboratory, it is more similar to animals than yeasts in many important ways. For example, unlike yeast but like mammals, it contains complex I in its respiratory chain, it has a clearly discernable circadian rhythm, and it methylates DNA to control gene expression. The six decades of intensive studies on the genetics, biochemistry and cell biology of Neurospora establish this organism as a gold mine of biological knowledge. The sequence of the genome will provide the key to deeper exploration of this rich and well mapped mine. The N. crassa genome has been extensively characterized by classical genetic and physical means. - It is estimated to contain 43 Mb of DNA of 54% G/C content, which is organized in seven linkage groups (Table 1, Perkins et al., 2001) - It has little repeated DNA other than the ~150 copies of rDNA genes (Krumlauf and Marzluf, 1979, 1980). - Other repeated DNA is dispersed and tends to be short and/or diverged, presumably because of the phenomenon of "RIP" (repeat-induced point mutation). - RIP searches the genome for duplicated (repeated) sequences in haploid nuclei of special premeiotic cells, efficiently finds them and then litters them with numerous GC to AT mutations (Selker, 1990). Apparently RIP serves as a genome defense system for Neurospora, inactivating transposons and resisting genome expansion (Kinsey et al., 1994). - More than 1000 distinct genetic markers have been mapped to these linkage groups (Table 1, Perkins et al., 2001). 248 of these mapped markers represent genes that have been both cloned and sequenced; these well-characterized genes are distributed uniformly throughout the genome on each linkage group and will be used for verification of the genome sequence. It has been estimated that Neurospora has more than twice as many genes as S. cerevisiae (Nelson et al., 1997). - A recent analysis has shown that over 50% of the expressed Neurospora genes lack identifiable homologues in any organism, and only about 33% have homologues in S. cerevisiae (Braun et al., 2000). |Linkage Group||Size (Mb)||Genetic markers||Chromosome Band (PFGE)| Table 1. The N. crassa genome. Linkage groups, their estimated sizes in megabases (Mb) estimated from pulsed field gel electrophoresis, and the number of mapped genetic markers on each linkage group. Linkage group numbering, assigned from genetic data, is not correlated to physical chromosome size. Physical sizes are listed for each chromosome as determined by pulse field gel electrophoresis (Orbach et al., 1988). Genetic markers are from (Perkins et al., 2001). Other projects to analyze the Neurospora genome are underway. Links to these resources can be found at the Fungal Genetics Stock Center. A German consortium led by Ulrich Schulte is engaged in the large-scale sequencing of BAC and cosmid clones of DNA from linkage groups II and V . Complete or partial sequences for many other genes are available . Nearly 24,000 EST reads have been deposited in databases by investigators at the University of New Mexico, and by a joint effort between Dartmouth Medical School and the University of Oklahoma. Many of these unique sequences have as yet no homolog in Saccharomyces or in other organisms; clearly the Neurospora genome contains a large complement of novel genes. A group led by Jonathan Arnold at the University of Georgia has constructed cosmid libraries of N. crassa DNA in fungal transformation vectors, has sorted these cosmids based on their hybridization to chromosome-specific probes, and is tiling these cosmids onto linkage groups. Braun, E. L., Halpern, A. L., Nelson, M. A., and Natvig, D. O. (2000). Large-scale comparison of fungal sequence information: mechanisms of innovation in Neurospora crassa and gene loss in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genome Res. 10, 416-430. Davis, R. H. (2000). Neurospora: Contributions of a Model Organism (Oxford, Great Britain: Oxford University Press). Horowitz, N. H. (1991). Fifty years ago: the Neurospora revolution. Genetics 127, 631-636. Kinsey, J. A., Garrett-Engele, P. W., Cambareri, E. B., and Selker, E. U. (1994). The Neurospora transposon Tad is sensitive to repeat- induced point mutation (RIP). Genetics 138, 657-664. Krumlauf, R., and Marzluf, G. A. (1979). Characterization of the sequence complexity and organization of the Neurospora crassa genome. Biochemistry 18, 3705-3713. Krumlauf, R., and Marzluf, G. A. (1980). Genome organization and characterization of the repetitive and inverted repeat DNA sequences in Neurospora crassa. J. Biol. Chem. 255, 1138-1145. Nelson, M. A., Kang, S., Braun, E. L., Crawford, M. E., Dolan, P. L., Leonard, P. M., Mitchell, J., Armijo, A. M., Bean, L., Blueyes, E., Cushing, T., Errett, A., Fleharty, M., Gorman, M., Judson, K., Miller, R., Ortega, J., Pavlova, I., Perea, J., Todisco, S., Trujillo, R., Valentine, J., Wells, A., Werner-Washburne, M., and Natvig, D. O. (1997). Expressed sequences from conidial, mycelial, and sexual stages of Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genet. Biol. 21, 348-363. Orbach, M. J., Vollrath, D., Davis, R. W., and Yanofsky, C. (1988). An electrophoretic karyotype of Neurospora crassa. Mol. Cell. Biol. 8, 1469-1473. Perkins, D. D. (1992). Neurospora: the organism behind the molecular revolution. Genetics 130, 687-701. Perkins, D. D., Radford, A., and Sachs, M. S. (2001). The Neurospora Compendium: Chromosomal loci (San Diego, CA: Academic Press). Selker, E. U. (1990). Premeiotic instability of repeated sequences in Neurospora crassa. Ann. Rev. Genet. 24, 579-613.

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Budgie lifespan and feeding Budgie lifespan is about 15-20 years. Budgerigar parakeets are not very pretentious; They feed with vegetarian food. Feeding and caring for parakeets is extremely crucial for budgie lifespan. Budgerigar food consists of seeds of oat and millet, carrots, strawberries, broccoli, lettuce, parsley, apples, nectarines, pears, mango, grapefruit, oranges, spinach, kiwi, peaches. For a long budgie lifespan we recommend that you avoid foods like chocolate, cocoa, cabbage, peas, beans, milk products, raw potatoes, avocados, and altered food. Water should be refreshed daily, and we recommend that you introduce a few drops of A, B, C, E and K vitamins in water. Also, it is good if in the budgerigar parakeets’ cage be special sand, toys, food and clean water. If you want to spoil your budgie, you can buy a stick of honey and other goodies. If you can, every evening or several times a week, let your parakeet fly freely around the cage. All of this gives your budgerigar parakeet the desired comfort and contributes to a longer budgie lifespan. Budgies need a significant contribution of protein in the daily diet – about 12-15%. In winter, when budgerigar parakeets consume more energy, it is necessary for their diet to be richer in fat and carbohydrates and millet seeds that contain 60% carbohydrates and 3.5% fat. Beware of fresh vegetables; Shriveled vegetables can be harmful for budgies. (Photo credit: Jeremy Doorten on www.sxc.hu/photo/709727) Budgie lifespan is determined even by…sand. The sand in the cage helps digestion and budgerigar parakeets swallow sand to facilitate grinding the seeds in the stomach. The easiest method is to sprinkle a layer of special sand in the seed bowl. Instead of sand you can use finely-crushed eggshells, which are a source of calcium. How do you know if a budgerigar parakeet is healthy? - Not to have wheezing breath; - Not to have troubled eyes; - Without beak deformities; - Budgie must be lively and stand on her feet; - Feathers around the nostrils and the beak must be dry and clean; - Check if they have all claws; - Lack of feathers indicates a disease; - If tail feathers are dirty, then the budgie has a digestive disease Budgies love to be petted, loved, and to be with the master. Besides the fact that budgies should be rewarded sometimes with goodies, they like to be kept on the shoulder and treated with love. Budgerigar parakeets need an average of 10-12 hours of sleep in the dark in a quiet environment. If they sleep less, they become nervous. If a budgerigar parakeet has night fears, flying through the cage hysterical, then uncover the cage, turn the lights on, and talk to calm him/her down. Usually a budgie lifespan expectancy in captivity is lower than the one found in the wild because of nutrition. There are no differences between the lifespan of male and female budgerigar parakeets. Caring of budgerigar parakeets Budgie lifespan is more than 15 years, but in order to live for so long time, they need to be cared for. The budgie cage must be kept clean, neat and washed, and it needs to have several accessories and toys. They hate to be left alone, to be punished or hit, or to have unwashed cages or be kept in tight spaces. Budgerigar parakeet cages should be large enough to fit two parakeets in order to fly from side to side of cage. Put the cage in a bright place and beware of moisture because that can affect the parakeet. Once a week, wash the cage with boiling water. Detergent should be in small amounts. Budgerigar parakeets’ caring does not require long hours, but care for them must be regular. Be careful when choosing to buy one, two or more budgies. They need all your attention and must be loved. Like any bird, parakeets are not safe from disease. They must be protected from: the smell of detergents and perfumes, sunlight, noise, smoke, cold, moisture. Be cautious of falling feathers, and that the feet, nose and beak do not bleed. If you don’t know these risks it is possible to drain the budgie lifespan. Get your budgie to the vet Before buying a budgie, make sure that there is a veterinary office near you. Even they are not highly demanding, they are quite vulnerable to disease. It is contraindicated that medication be placed in water. When you observe that your budgie health is not very good, talk to a specialist. Sick budgerigar parakeets have a few symptoms like: They stand all the time on the cage bottom, retired, do not care of anything, eat less food, sneeze, breath hard, and have fluffy feathers. It is necessary to separate the sick budgies from the healthy ones. Budgie lifespan is so essential when you and your budgie become close friends, and more than that, because each budgerigar parakeet is unique, lively and makes you happy when you’re sad. - Understand your budgie’s behavior better using this guide. - How to have the perfect parrot: healthy, happy, and thriving for years to come – See this guide. No related posts.

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A tsunami watch is in effect in Australia, New Zealand, and other places in the South Pacific after an 8.0-magnitude earthquake struck near the Solomon Islands, the U.S. Geological Survey is reporting. The strong quake hit in the Santa Cruz islands, a group of islands to the southeast of the Solomon Islands Chain. It struck 50 miles west of Lata, a provincial capital in the Solomon Islands, at a shallow depth of 5.8 kilometers, the AP reports. Shortly after the earthquake, a three-foot tsunami wave was recorded at Lata Wharf, near the quake's epicenter, according to an update from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. Several aftershocks have also been recorded in the region,including a 6.4-magnitude quake, according to the USGS. The Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, New Caledonia, Kosrae, Fiji, Kiribati, and Wallis and Futuna are currently under a tsunami warning, according to the PTWC. A tsunami watch is in effect for New Zealand, American Samoa, Tonga, Australia, the Marshall Islands, Guam, and other islands in the region. The government of New Zealand has issued a potential threat for several areas, including North Cape, Auckland West, East Cape, Gisborne, Auckland East, New Plymouth, and Wellington while officials assess the situation. Officials in Hawaii said that there was no threat of a tsunami to the state, according to the Pacific Tsunami Center. And Japan's meteorological agency said it did not expect to issue a warning, according to AlertNet.

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Used as a general term, face value means the apparent value or worth of something as opposed to the real value or worth. That’s why, when we say that you do not take things at face value, we mean that you should take a deeper look to find out what that thing (or idea) really stands for, or what it is worth. In the financial world, face value holds a similar meaning, although it can be applied in various ways. If you’re talking about a coin, or a bill, or even a stamp, the face value is what is actually stamped on the coin. Let’s say that you have a coin that is marked as 1 U.S. dollar. Its face value is 1 U.S. dollar. The same thing goes for paper money and stamps – whatever is printed on them is their face value. However, as rare coin collectors would know, face value may not always mean the same as actual value. Old and rare coins may be marked a low value but can be sold for hundreds of times worth the face value. That is the market value. Face value is also used to refer to stocks and bonds. In these contexts, face value is also known as par value. For stocks, the par value is the amount which is printed on the stock certificate – the original value of the stock. For bonds, the par value is the amount that is paid to the holder when the bonds reach their maturity date.

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Halloween is celebrated yearly on October 31, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day. It is also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Day. Halloween is celebrated amongst family, friends, and local communities. Children dress up in costumes and go trick-or-treating in their local neighborhood or community. Each house gives out candy or a "treat" to the child. If no treat is given, then a "trick" is imposed on the house, but no tricks are played out as it is all in good fun. Other activities include carving pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns, visiting haunted houses, attending costume parties, bobbing for apples, listening to scary music and watching horror films. Halloween starts the triduum of Allhallowtide, the time dedicated in remembering the dead including the martyrs, saints (hallow), and departed believers. The traditional focus involves the use of humor and ridicule to deal with the power of death. All Hallows' Eve is influenced by Celtic harvest festivals as a Christian feast. Commercialization started in the 1900s with costumes appearing in the 1930s and 'trick-or-treating' in the 1950s.

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...I didn't realise you could see curvature from normal commercial aircraft... Sort of. With all the lack of rigour of any "back of a fag packet" calculation, assume a horizon 180 miles away with an aircraft 6 miles up (rough and ready but the order of magnitude is about right). As you are looking down on a horizon which is a circle of radius 180 then, at 30° from the direction the camera is pointing in, if you drop a perpendicular from the horizon at that 30° offset to the line of sight of the camera then the intersection is about 160 miles away (180*cos(30)). Draw a straight line from the horizon 180 miles away to both the aircraft 6 miles up and the ground immediately below it. The angle subtended has a tangent of 6/180 which is about 1.909°. Similarly, the angle subtended from a point 160 miles away is about 2.148°. This is a difference of about ¼°, which is about half the angular diameter of the Sun or Moon. The effect in your shot looks to be about equivalent to the full angular diameter of the Sun. If your lens can see to 40° either side of central then a full angular diameter is about right and I've made myself unpopular because nobody likes a So, what was the field of view of your lens? Any less than 40° and we might have to blame a little of the effect on either optically bad window glass or my rubbish calculation.

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If you think your job is safe, think again. Advances in technology mean that even highly educated workers will begin to feel the pinch of the digital revolution, with close to half of US jobs at risk of ‘computerisation’ on the next 20 years. Machines and computer programs have always taken routine and repetitive tasks from the employment market, but increasingly sophisticated artificial intelligence could result in a new wave of job losses. ‘‘Occupations that require subtle judgement are also increasingly susceptible to computerisation,’’ write Dr Carl Frey and Dr Michael Osborne from the University of Oxford in their study The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation? ‘‘To many such tasks, the unbiased decision making of an algorithm represents a comparative advantage over human operators.’’ Dr Frey and Dr Osbourne also note the irony that algorithms, created by computer software designers, are putting IT workers out of work. ‘‘Algorithms can further automatically detect bugs in software, with a reliability that humans are unlikely to match. Big databases of code also offer the eventual prospect of algorithms that learn how to write programs to satisfy specifications provided by a human.’’ The study estimates that 47 per cent of US employment has a 70 per cent to 99 per cent chance of being computerised in the next two decades. These estimates can be similarly applied to other developed countries. Most at risk Of the 700 jobs analysed, telemarketers, sewers, watch repairers and library technicians are among the jobs most at risk, with a 99 per cent chance they will be computerised. Recreational therapists, audiologists, healthcare and social workers, and dentists look to be the safest, with a less than 1 per cent chance of their jobs being computerised, the study found. New jobs created There is an argument to be made that as society progresses, and industries shed jobs, new and more rewarding jobs are created. It’s an argument that got aired after Holden and Ford announced that they would end local vehicle manufacturing last year. In Australia, the Department of Employment expects manufacturing employment will grow marginally, 1.5 per cent, between 2012 and 2017, much lower than the all-industries average of 7.1 per cent. Employment in heath care and social assistance is, once again, expected to be the best performing, sector for employment growth, with an estimated 13 per cent increase of the same period. But Australia’s manufacturers are just the latest in a long line of industries that have felt the brunt of technology change and globalisation. Despite an increasing population, the number of Australians employed in the manufacturing sector peaked in May 1989, at 1.2 million, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Since then, jobs have slowly declined to just under 950,000, but it remains one of the country’s largest sectors. By and large, a shift towards higher education creates a larger high-skilled workforce who generally earn better wages. Between 1997 and 2011, the proportion of Australians, aged 25-64, with a bachelor’s degree, or above, rose from 15.6 per cent to 27.9 per cent. The benefits are easy to see on a population scale, but that argument ignores the individual who has been working at the same factory for the last 20 years and is unlikely to obtain gainful employment with their skills, learnt on the job, being replaced by machines. Catch the wave late Computers will not put humanity, as a whole, out of work, writes Nielsen Norman principal Dr Jakob Nielsen. However, for those of us at the beginning of a new wave of technology, the prospects aren’t as great. ‘‘Over the 100-year period from 1770 to 1870 factory workers got 60 per cent richer. But the entire increase happened during the second half of that period. People who were unlucky enough to have worked during the first half of the period got nothing,’’ writes Dr Nielsen. ‘‘Will history repeat itself? I am an optimist and think so. This may be little comfort to those people who’re currently living through the 50 years (or so) of flat earnings.’’

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August 12, 2002 Overview of Cigar Smoking and Oral Cancer Risks Margaret J. Fehrenbach, RDH, MS, Dental Hygiene Educational Consultant From the available scientific evidence as reported by the National Cancer Institute (NCI)1, it is now clear that cigar smoking causes a variety of oral cancers, including cancers of the lip, tongue, oral cavity, and also the associated cancers of the pharynx, esophagus, and larynx. Importantly, many of these oral and related cancers have extremely low cure rates. For example, only 11 to 14 percent of patients with esophageal cancers survive five years after diagnosis. The health risks associated with cigar smoking are significant for daily cigar users (at least one cigar per day). This should eliminate any complacency that cigar smokers may have enjoyed since they were told in the past by cancer experts and other health care professionals that they had less risk of lung cancer than cigarette smokers (still significantly higher than nonsmokers). Therefore, smoking only one to two cigars per day has significant oral health risks, even though many would consider this light use. For example, smoking one to two cigars per day doubles the risk for oral cancers compared to someone who has never smoked. And someone smoking at the same moderate level (one to two cigars daily) increases the risk of cancer of the larynx by more than six times that of a nonsmoker. Like cigarette smoking, the risks from cigar smoking increase with the number of cigars smoked per day. Smoking three to four cigars per day increases the risk of oral cancers to 8.5 times greater than the risk of a nonsmoker, and smoking more than five cigars daily raises the oral cancer risk to 16 times the level for nonsmokers. The health risks associated with less than daily smoking (occasional smokers) are not known at this time. However, it is important to note that about three-quarters of cigar smokers smoke only occasionally. But, the trend for smoking cigars is growing and with it an increase in overall use. Sadly, education and regulations have not kept up with this social trend. Unlike what consumers were told in the past by the tobacco companies, nicotine is the addictive agent in tobacco and tobacco smoke is capable of producing addiction or nicotine dependence. Most cigars contain nicotine in quantities equivalent to several cigarettes and can deliver nicotine in concentrations comparable to those delivered by cigarettes and spit (smokeless) tobacco. For large cigars this can be up to 40 times more nicotine than just one cigarette. When cigar smokers inhale, nicotine is absorbed rapidly as it is with cigarette smoke inhalation. For those who do not actively inhale, nicotine is absorbed predominantly through the lining of the oral cavity which leads to a slower rise and lower peak of nicotine in the blood compared to cigarette smokers who absorb nicotine primarily through the lungs. However, both inhaled and noninhaled nicotine can be highly addictive. For example, the studies of the large number of people addicted to spit tobacco demonstrate that nicotine absorbed through the lining of the oral cavity is capable of forming a powerful addiction. Studies documenting the frequency or intensity of nicotine dependence and withdrawal symptoms from cigar smoking have not been conducted. However, the pattern of cigar smoking in the population, infrequent use, low number of cigars smoked per day, and lower rates of inhalation compared to cigarette smokers, suggests that cigar smokers are less likely to be dependent on nicotine than cigarette smokers. Specifically, the fraction of adult cigar smokers who smoke daily appears to be smaller than the fraction of everyday cigarette or spit tobacco users. In addition, with that recent data show that increased cigar use among adults is largely an increase in occasional smoking, suggesting that the risk of addiction is lower for cigars than for cigarettes. However, this is not to say that cigar smoking is free of the risk of dependence; cigar smoking is only less of a risk for nicotine dependence than cigarette smoking. One researcher clearly states that there is no safe number of cigars you can smoke. 1National Cancer Institute (NCI) Monograph Number 9 (NIH Publication No. 98-4302): Cigar Smoking: Health Effects and Trends (February 1998) Report summarized and discussed by Margaret J. Fehrenbach, RDH, MS, Dental Hygiene Educational Consultant, Website:http://www.dhed.net Margaret Fehrenbach has published oral biology textbooks with WB Saunders and presented continuing education courses in the area of oral biology. Ms. Fehrenbach will be presenting at the American Dental Association 2002 Annual Session. She has online case-based continuing education programs with ArcMesa Educators at http://www.arcmesa.org

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Despite getting off to a slow start this year, mosquito season is expected to pick up in the coming months with an increase in rainfall and standing water. The Lee County Mosquito Control District typically sees a jump in the local mosquito population in May with the spring tides and rain. This year, the season is running about a month or so behind. "Our mosquito season started a little later than usual," Shelly Redovan, the district's deputy director, said. "We're starting to see standing water now, and we're seeing it throughout the county." Freshwater mosquitoes require standing water in which to lay their eggs. If the amount of rainfall does not allow for water to stand for several days, the population is essentially kept in check. The salt marsh or coastline mosquito, however, deposits its eggs into the ground, then they hatch as the tide comes in. "It just depending on the tides and rainfall," she said. Redovan noted that the wet-dry cycle can pose a problem in fighting the salt marsh mosquito. "As we get more water that stands, it will be flooding areas for the first time, where it will hold and eggs will hatch," she said, adding that the district should be fairly busy for the next two months. "It will be more like our May-June type of period," Redovan said. As for the freshwater mosquito, it tends to breed strictly around people's homes. "We need people to start getting better at dumping that water out and not breeding their own mosquitoes," she said. Mosquito season typically starts to calm down in October. Recently, the Lee County Mosquito Control District started employing its aircrafts to treat the adult mosquito population. Treatments were planned for Thursday night in Lehigh Acres and Iona. "We had put trucks out, scattered throughout the county," Redovan said of the district's work in recent weeks. "It's not the widespread problem that we normally have (at this time of year)." Other areas treated include Pine Island and the northwest side of Cape Coral. Treatments were also administered during high tides to curb the salt marsh mosquitoes. "But the rains soaked in pretty fast, so they didn't give us that much of a problem," she said. This year, officials are asking that people who travel to the Caribbean, Dominican Republic or Haiti be aware of the full-blown chikungunya outbreak in the region. There are currently over 300,000 cases. "Sometimes, they'll visit and they don't realize they've been bitten by mosquitoes," Redovan said, explaining that the infected person then returns home, where they could be fed upon. "We don't want them exposing our local mosquitoes to a virus that they can pick up," she said. Anyone returning from the region should see a doctor immediately if they start to feel bad. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the most common symptoms are fever and joint pain. Others symptoms may include headaches, muscle pain, joint swelling or a rash. Redovan offered tips on what people can do to keep from breeding their own mosquitoes. "The basic things around their house is to try and avoid standing water," she said. Gutters should be cleared of debris and water, and screens should be intact without rips or cuts. "We recommend they don't have too much vegetation right near the door," Redovan said. People should also avoid wearing dark-colored clothing. "It's always best to wear light-colored clothing," she said. "They're not as attracted to it." When working or playing outside, use some form of mosquito repellent. More information on those products containing DEET, as well as natural repellents, can be found on the district's website. "Wear long pants and sleeves," Redovan said. She noted that the chikungunya-carrying species are active during the day, not at night. "We want you to consider mosquitoes during the daytime, as well," Redovan said. For more information, visit the Lee County Mosquito Control District at: www.lcmcd.org.

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In 1880, China was an Empire beset by the European Imperialist powers seeking to exploit the Celestial Kingdom and control portions of her territory. Military force had enabled the British and other European powers to gain control of key areas along its coast. The Empire of China lacked the modern arms and effective military organization to throw off this yoke or prevent its expansion. It had just endured a period of three internal rebellions and its military structure was obsolete. There had been attempts to modernize the military technology. Imperial General Tso Tsung T'ang had established a modern arsenal and a dockyard at Foochow on the coast in 1864 and Imperial General Tseng Kuo Feng had founded Kiangnan Arsenal at Shanghai in 1865. Rifled muskets, bayonets and swords were produced. In the 1870's, breech loaders on the Remington Rolling Block pattern were made. Domestic production could not begin to provide what was needed to arm Chinese forces with modern arms. China had to import modern rifles to arm its forces. Among rifles acquired in the 1870's were Remington Rolling Block 11mm (.43 Spanish caliber) rifles, Steyr made 11mm (French caliber) Gras rifles and carbines, and 11mm Mauser (Prussian caliber) Model 1871 Rifles, each of these types using a different form of 11mm cartridge. In the 1880's, various foreign rifle types were acquired. In 1883, the French, already in control of Cochin China (south Viet Nam) compelled the Vietnamese to cede Annam (central Vietnam) and the Tonkin provinces (North Vietnam) as protectorates. The Emperor of Vietnam appealed to The Empress of China, who sent troops to garrison North Vietnam. In 1884, 4000 Remington Lee bolt action Model 1879 11mm (.43 Spanish caliber) magazine rifles were purchased by China for use in the Sino-French conflict of 1884-85 in northern Indochina. The French defeated the Chinese force and it seemed if China would surrender. A militant faction in the Imperial Court took control of policy and the conflict continued into 1885 with the French attempting to advance into China's Yunnan Province and being defeated by a Sino-Viet Namese force at the Battle of Liangshan. The French then blockaded the China coast and invaded Formosa, sinking most of the Chinese Navy. China was defeated and recognized French rule in Indochina. Circa 1886-87, 7000 Remington Model 1882 rifles and carbines in 11mm and .45-70 caliber were acquired by China along with Mauser Model 1871/84 magazine rifles in 11mm. Steyr Model 1886 11mm Mannlicher rifles which arrived near the end of the decade along with quantities of older, used, foreign rifle types in small numbers. A scaled up copy of the Remington Rolling Block was made in China in large bore requiring two men to operate which was used as a wall gun on fortifications. Copies of the 11mm Rolling Block continued to be made. In the 1890's, Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War and now joined the European Imperialists in carving up the wealth and body of China. During the '90's, China acquired Modell 1888 German Commission 7.92mm Rifles from Steyr and German made Model 1895 Mauser 7x57mm rifles and carbines. The Ludwig Loewe & Co sold a license and the tooling to produce a copy of the 7.92 Commission Rifle at an arsenal founded near the city of Hankow in Hupei Province, located well up the Yangtze River from Shanghai. The facility was called Hangyang Arsenal after its locality. (Three cities, Hankow, Hangyang and Wuchang were located on a bend of the river and eventually merged into one metropolitan area called Wuhan) Production began circa 1893 with the original German pattern M1888 at Hangyang Arsenal and would change to a modified pattern after a period of time, probably around 1905. This modified pattern known as the Hangyang Rifle replaced the metal barrel jacket of the M1888 with a wooden hand guard. This version remained in production until rifle production at Hangyang shifted to a copy of the 7.92mm Oberndorf Standard Modell of 1924 which was phased into production in very late 1932. The Hangyang design was copied and made at other arsenals and workshops in China for over 50 years and was even made by artisans in villages using hand operated tools. It was last produced by the Chinese Communists workshops in Yenan circa 1946. Parts will not interchange on most of the Chinese versions of these rifles without hand fitting, sometimes not at all. Possibly close to one million rifles and carbines and slight variants based on this design were produced in China by 1946. In 1899, a movement arose in reaction to foreign intrusion into China. It was called the Society of the Righteous Harmonious Fists and its members practiced traditional Chinese boxing and Kung-Fu martial arts. They were known as the "Boxers" by the Occidentals (or "Foreign Devils" as Westerners and Japanese were known to the Chinese). They attacked foreigners and Chinese who adopted Western ways. They received some support from the Imperial Court and besieged the Foreign Legations in Peking in 1900, supported by Imperial troops. An International Expedition was sent to relieve the besieged Westerners. It was composed of troops from the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Japan and Austria Hungary. This force captured Peking. After the Boxers were defeated, the Allied Powers took over control of more areas and further infringed on China's sovereignty. They placed an arms embargo on China for several years thereafter. The Germans had military advisers active in training the Chinese from the 1890's up to WW1. After 1905, surplus German Army M1888 rifles were acquired in different lots over a long period of time. Some Steyr 6.5x53mm Mannlicher Schoanauer Rifles were acquired about this time and were still reported in use by an American military attaché as of 1923. Model 1904 7.92mm Steyr Mannlichers very similar to the Hanyang Rifle were also purchased in limited numbers. The Model 1904 may have served as the inspiration for the "Hangyang Rifle". The next rifle to be adopted by China was based on the M1904 Oberndorf Mauser. It was purchased in 6.8mm as the M1907 from Germany. Some in 7x57mm were also purchased. Chinese production of the Model 1907 in 6.8mm began in 1916 at Kwangtung Arsenal located outside the city of Canton near China's coast. It remained in production there until 1932. Sometime during its production run, a slightly modified version in 7.92mm was introduced. This was when it was decided to standardize 7.92mm ammunition where possible. Kung Hsien Arsenal in Honan Province began making the 7.92mm M1907 in 1928 and continued until about 1932. The M1907 in 7.92mm was produced at Mukden Arsenal before 1927, and at other arsenals and workshops in China. Supply of these rifles from Germany ended with the 1911 Revolution when funding was disrupted. M1907 rifles not shipped and still in Germany in 1914 were issued to German forces during WW1. In 1911-12, the Imperial system was over thrown and a chaotic period in Chinese history began. Centralized control degenerated and various regional warlords took power. In 1912, China became a republic. A Republican movement founded by Sun Yat Sen attempted to form a National Government. Most of the large wealthy cities near the coast were virtual foreign colonies. The interior was driven by factional fighting among warlords. Yuan Shi Kai, a former Imperial general, became head of a government which was recognized by the foreign powers as the National Government. It was based in North China at Peking. Upon taking office, Yuan Shi-kai attempted to dissolve Sun Yat-sen's Revolutionary party, the Kuomintang, and closed the parliament, assuming dictatorial powers. He declared himself emperor of China on 12 December 1915. Increasingly, central control was breaking down as regional warlords ignored the Government. Yuan Shi Kai died on 6 July 1916. General Li Yuan Hung became President. Japan issued "21 Demands" upon this National Government which would infringe on Sino sovereignty. China was forced to yield to Japanese controls in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Under pressure from the Imperialist Powers and at American urging, this Government entered WW1 on the side of the Allies in 1917 in the hope of Allied support mitigating Japanese territorial claims on China in the post war period. Factional fighting Prior to the outbreak of WW1, some Steyr Model 1912 Mauser rifles were imported. WW1 cut off European arms supplies. Japan began supplying rifles to some factions after the 1911 Revolution. These were Type 30 6.5mm rifles and carbines and later 6.5mm Type 38 Arisaka rifles and carbines. Chinese copies of these were made as well as some modified copies over the next three decades in small workshops as well as at some arsenals. After WW1, at the Versailles Peace Conference Japan was awarded additional territory in China. Despite the fact that China had itself sided with the Allies, Japan was given the German Shantung concessions. The Japanese had taken Korea and Formosa from China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895. During the Russo-Japanese War they had taken the Russian concessions at Port Arthur and well as the railroads in south Manchuria. In August 1917, Sun Yat Sen established a military government in Kwangtung Province in south coastal China. Sun reformed his party, the Kuomintang or KMT. In 1921, Sun became President of a new entity called the Southern Republican Government in Canton, Kwangtung Province with support from southern warlords. The Communist Party of China was formed in 1921 (CCP). With the end of WW1, surplus rifles from the former warring nations became available for sale. China and its many factions provided a ready market. Mosin Nagant and carbines were brought to China from Siberia by fleeing White Guardsman after the collapse of Admiral Kolchak's anti-bolshevik government. At the Washington Conference of 1921-22, the powers agreed to respect the sovereignty, independence, and integrity of China and to adhere to the principle of equal opportunity in China for trade and development for all nations, and similar high sounding platitudes. An arms embargo was agreed to in which the powers were to desist from aiding any of the Chinese factions in their struggles for This was supposed to be for the good of China. Imported rifles were to be contraband. Despite this, gun running was a growth industry. Surplus German Gewehr M1898 rifles and Kar.98az carbines were in great demand. Just about any type of rifle was marketable and all sorts were provided. China was in during the early 1920's. No one or group could establish unified, central control of the country. Warlords ruled various regions conflicts abounded. In the far north in Manchuria, the Marshal Tso Lin led a powerful army and enjoyed some support from Japanese Shansi Province was controlled by Marshal Yen Hsi Shan. Marshal Pei Fu and President Li Yuan Hung representing different factions of the Peiping Army contended for control of the northern capitol at In 1924, Sun Yat Sen and his Republican Government set up a military academy to train officers whom would be loyal to the Kuomintang. From Soviet Russia, Lenin sent aid in the form of Mosin Nagant rifles and advisers such as General Vasili Bluecher, the GRU/Comitern operative Commissar Mikhail Borodin and other agents. Chiang Kai Shek and others went to Moscow for advanced training. Chinese Communist Party members now enjoyed membership in the KMT. Chiang Kai-shek was made commandant of this Whampoa Military Academy during 1924. On 10 November 1924, Sun Yat-sen called for a "National People's Convention" of China's major leaders. Two weeks later, General Tuan Chi-jui, provisional head of the Peking Northern Government met Sun Yat-sen, head of the Southern Government in Peking. Sun died of natural causes on 12 March 1925 while in Peking. A KMT junta was formed to run the Southern Government. It established a National Government in July 1925. It appointed Chiang Kai-shek commander in chief of its army. With Chiang as commander, the "National Revolutionary Army" set out to bring the warlords to the north under control of the KMT Government. This so called Northern Expedition went well and in less than year a large area of China was subject to Nationalist control. Hangyang Arsenal was now under control of the KMT but internal divisions were growing intense. The KMT was divided into Communist, Pinko and Right Factions. The Pinks tended to side with the Reds against Chiang's Right Faction. In March 1926, following an abortive kidnapping, Chiang cashiered his Soviet advisers, and moved to neutralized Communist power in the KMT leadership. It is said that his Japanese advisers arranged a secret agreement in which the Japanese agreed to support the unification of China under Chiang's KMT, if Chiang purged the Communists from KMT and gave Japan greater presence and control in Manchuria and Mongolia as a buffer against the Soviet Union and Communist expansion. The Chinese Communists had held automatic dual membership in the KMT (Nationalist Party). Chiang believed the Communist's intent was to gain control of the KMT and establish a Soviet China. At the beginning of 1927 a major schism in the KMT took place. The Northern Expedition was going well when the Reds and Pinkos moved the capitol of the KMT government from Canton to Wuhan, site of the great Hanyang Arsenal and other major industries. Chiang set his forces, marching on Shanghai, to destroy the Shanghai Red cadres and organization. Wang Ching Wei, a founding father of the Chinese Republic and the leading figure in the Pinko faction of the KMT, advocated continued cooperation with the CCP and the Comintern. Wang demanded a halt to the Northern Expedition. Wang's position was strongly opposed by Chiang Kai-shek, who was engaged in the ruthless purge of the Communists in Shanghai. Chiang Kai-shek then established his KMT Right Faction Government in Nanking on 18 April 1927. China now had three entities claiming to be the National Government: the Peking Government recognized by the powers of the world, the Pinko/Red KMT Government in Wuhan, and Chiang's KMT in Nanking. Chiang continued his purge and the Northern Expedition. Unable to resist the growing power of Chiang, Wang and the Pinko faction collapsed and the Wuhan government was no more. Wang reconciled with Chiang and adhered to his authority. Chiang banned the Communist Party. The anti-Communist purge that Chiang set in motion forced the Communists to retreat into the countryside. Such Red leaders as Mao Tze Tung , Chou En Lai, and Sun Ching Ling were forced to run for their lives. The campaigns against the warlords and Communists continued, to build a unified China under the centralized control of the KMT. The Comintern (the Communist International organization controlled by Soviet Russia) called for a new policy initiative from the China Communist Party of armed revolution in cities and countryside. The urban uprisings were crushed. The rural insurrection fared somewhat better. (The armed Chinese Communist forces will be called the CCF or Reds in this article.) Due to the arms embargo on rifles, a great demand for pistol carbines developed for the police and military market. Japanese trading companies supplied huge quantities of Mauser, Royal and Astra pistols of this type in the 1920's and early 1930's as they were not banned. Feng Yu Hsiang was a former officer of the Imperial Army. He joined Yuan Shi k’ai’s new Republican Army and converted to Christianity in 1914. Feng became a warlord with the passing of Yaun in 1916. He ruled his area with a form of militarized Christian socialism, rising to prominence among northern warlords. Sometime in 1926-27, General Feng Yu Hsiang, after having lost Peking in factional fighting with Marshal Chang Tso Lin and Marshal Wu P'ei Fu, went to Soviet Russia and received some support in re-equipping his Army. Some Type 30 and Type 38 6.5x50mm Japanese rifles which had been sent to Russia during WW1 were provided. These types had recently been withdrawn from Red Army service as Soviet Russia was beginning to standardize on the Dragoon Model 7.62x54mm Moisin Nagant in an attempt to rationalize logistics. Feng then joined Chiang Kai Shek and the KMT Northern Expedition against his enemies. He would later rebel against the KMT in 1929 and 1930, losing both times. As a result, he lost all his military power. After full scale war with Japan flared in 1937, he supported Chiang's KMT and was given various positions in the KMT government until the Civil War resumed following the Chiang Kai-shek continued to strike northward to bring under control the warlords of central and northern China. In early 1928, moving north, the National Revolutionary Army was advancing on Chinan, the capital of Shantung Province when the Japanese sent 3,000 soldiers to the city to block the movement. Attempting to negotiate to avoid an armed conflict, the Nationalists sent an officer to parley. The Japanese killed him and massacred thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians. It was in 1928 that Chiang's National Government at Nanking was recognized by the international powers as the government of the Republic of China . In the late 1920's, the small arms producer Fabrique Nacional De Guerre (FN) in Herstal, Belgian began supplying their Model 1924 7.92 Mausers to the Republic of China government, and later their Model 1930. The National Government was gaining arsenal capacity at this time to make new rifles. Hangyang Arsenal and others were now under its control but badly needed new tooling and machinery. The military campaigns accelerated the demand for rifles and all sorts of locally made copies of existing rifles and crude adaptations of these designs were produced. Some had counterfeit markings such as "Mauser", "FN", often mis-spelled. As Chiang advanced, he gained control by defeating the warlords in his path or accepting their fealty if they recognized his authority. It was now possible for Chiang to purchase arms openly on the world market. Brno in Czechoslovakia supplied Model 98/22 7.92mm rifles, Vz24 short rifles and ZB26 light machine guns. Copies were later made in China. Surplus Japanese made Type 30 and Type 38 Arisaka 6.5x50mm rifles were purchased from Finland. Marshal Chang Tso Lin was the preeminent figure in Manchuria during the warlord period, from 1916 to his death on 4 June 1928. He had led a band of irregular troops in support of Japan during the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War and had enjoyed some Japanese support from that time onward. He declared himself Generalissimo of all Chinese forces in 1926. He had Japanese advisers attached to his staff. About 1926, Chang Tso Lin arranged to have the arsenal at Mukden in Manchuria expanded and modernized to produce a new design based on an Austrian Steyr experimental Mauser with a firing mechanism similar to the Japanese Type 38. Machinery and technicians came from Austria to establish production of this design. At this time, the "Arsenal" was a series of shops, huts, and forges, but a modern production line and power house were erected to make the new rifle. This was the Type 13 rifle (Type of 1924 if the system used was based on the years from the 1911 revolution, a fact which has not been established. See explanation of how rifle designations were made later in this article.) in 7.92mm. It took some time to get into production, but production was established by 1927 and lasted into the period of Japanese control in the early 1930's. Serial numbers in excess of 100000 exist. During the period of Japanese control from 1931-1945 the arsenal at Mukden was called Hoten Arsenal. Circa 1935. The Japanese began manufacture of the Arisaka Type 38 rifle and carbine in 6.5x50mm Japanese and circa 1944 the Type 99 7.7x58mm short rifle. Marshal Chang had briefly resisted the advance of the Northern Expedition in the spring of 1928 after he had proclaimed himself "Head of State" at Peking in 1927, but then retreated back to Manchuria. This displeased the Japanese elements which were seeking expanded control of China. Chang's private train was blown up as he approached Mukden. The Japanese advisers assigned to his staff had previously disembarked at a water stop and as always a second train was preceding the Marshal's for security reasons, to be sure the line was clear and intact with no obvious ambush laying ahead, and this was allowed to pass unmolested. The Type 13 is known as the "Manchurian Mauser" to collectors. There is one version of the Type 13 with the typical German upper band assembly over a t-bar for the bayonet, fitted to the fore end of its stock. Workmanship is most excellent and stock wood seems to be walnut. The common version Type 13 version is stocked like the M1907 Mauser: the forend with upper band and bayonet attachment point has a different design. In the 1930's, the KMT "National Revolutionary Army" was advised and reorganized along German lines with military advisers from Germany increasing its efficiency. The Standard Modell of 1924 Oberndorf Mauser short rifle was adopted as standard along with an improved form of the Modell 1908 Maxim machine Gun and the Czechoslovakian ZB26 light machine gun, all in 7.92mm. The " Standard Modell" and Chinese made copies and variations was variously known as the 'New Asia Model", the "Generalissimo Model", the Type 24, Type 77, Type 79 and other names depending on where and when made and used. Copies were produced in Chinese Arsenals and workshops beginning in late 1932. The Germans later supplied tooling and technical assistance to establish four complete production lines, but it was also made in other arsenals and small shops. Some of the copies were simplified in various ways and parts are not easily interchangeable among the many variants. The Germans continued to supply 7.92mm rifles from Oberndorf up to the time of the Axis alliance with Japan. Some rifles were in 7x57mm and other were rifles originally produced for the new German Wehrmact as the Kar 98K, but rejected by inspectors for non critical defects. These were accepted by China due the critical shortage of rifles needed to fight the Communists and Japanese. German made rifles also may be found marked "Standard Modell of 1933" and "1934" that were purchased by China. A further word is needed here about how the Chinese marked their small arms. A particular model of rifle was usually given a "Type" number. The Nationalists usually used the year of formal adoption which was calculated from the year of the Republican Revolution of 1911. Thus a rifle adopted in 1935 A.D. being 24 years after 1911 was the Year 24 and the Rifle Type of 24th Year or Type 24. Marking on a rifle receiver ring might include Chinese characters indicating "Type" in Chinese characters, plus other information such as date of manufacture. The date is not always marked. The date was usually in the form of two groups of western style numerals such 28-6. Based again on the start date of 1911, this would indicate it was made in the year 1939, month of June. This was not universally true. Rifles made at Hangyang might have only a number representing the Western year of manufacture such as 30 (for 1930A.D.), or just 3 indicating 1933, or may have two numerical groups such as 26-3 indicating 1926 A.D., March. Nanking Arsenal post 1945 can be found with a western date used as in 46-9 for 1946 A.D., September. The Chinese were fond of "numerology" and often used numbers to commemorate some occasion or to evoke good fortune. The Type 77 rifle is essentially a Type 24 copy but it commemorates the date 7 July 1937, the date the Sino-Japanese official war began. Another mark, which can be found on many rifles, is a symbol that identifies the arsenal. The reverse swastika is found on many Hangyang rifles and on some Nanking rifles. There are many other symbols representing an arsenal in different locations at different time periods. Ideographs of other types can also be found. The Chiang Kai Shek "chop" or ideograph representing his name is commonly encountered on receivers along with other markings. It is sometimes defaced, having been captured by Communist forces. There are often strings of characters that must be figuratively taken which describe the place of manufacture. The Type 24 Rifle and the "Generalissimo" model. The name "Generalissimo" comes from the "chop" or special ideograph of Chinese characters meaning Chiang Kai Shek which was stamped on the receiver ring of many of these rifles as made in different arsenals. It was rolled on the receiver ring along with other symbols and, at times, western numbers. Traditionally the Chinese attribute good luck to certain symbols and numbers. The reverse swastika, an ancient symbol in Asia, is one such mark and it is often found on rifles made at Hanyang Arsenal. At this point in time Chiang had a reputation for victory and common soldiers had confidence in using "his rifle". It also was good propaganda for Chiang. The Chinese Communists eventually called this rifle the Type 79 Rifle and when they captured such a rifle often defaced Chiang's chop if present. In 1930, Wang Ching-wei, along with General Feng Yü Hsiang and Marshal Yen Hsi Shan, revolted against Chiang again and once more was a loser. He again rejoined Chiang but in 1940 he defected to the Japanese and became head of the puppet Central China Government until his death in 1944. In 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army staged an incident and seized Manchuria. The "Old Marshal" Chang Tso Lin had been assassinated in 1928 when the Japanese blew up his train. Now another explosion was staged by the Japanese on the South Manchurian Railway line near Mukden (this railroad taken by Japan from Russia after the Russo-Japanese War). The Chinese were blamed and it was claimed that this act of terror required Japan to maintain order and protect Japanese nationals. Japan attacked and took over in Manchuria. A new Japanese protectorate, called Manchukuo, was proclaimed with a puppet Emperor on its throne. Henry Puyi, the last Manchu Emperor of China, had been deposed by the Republic. The son of Chang Tso Lin, the "Young Marshal" Chang Hsueh Liang, having taken command of his father's army after the assassination and to the Japanese's surprise, winning their loyalty, had allied himself with the KMT. He was sick with typhoid in Peking with most of his forces in North China when the take over happened. He relayed orders by phone not to resist. The local forces were unable to stand up to the better trained and armed Japanese. Mukden Arsenal was taken over by the Japanese and production continued with the Type 19 in 7.92mm for a period of time to arm puppet troops of the new Manchuko. Eventually production shifted to a 6.5x50mm version and then was phased out in favor of making the Arisaka design. In 1933, production of a copy of the new FN Model 1930, which had been purchased for the Nationalist 17th Army, was begun at Kwangtung Arsenal. Replacing the M1907 after a long production run dating back to 1916. In 1933, after a string of defeats the Communist forces were trapped in a mass enrichment, but were able to breakout and escape the Nationalist Army. Withdrawing on their "Long March" of 6000 miles to China's remote northwest mountains in Yenan, they were able to hold out there until the war with Japan allowed them to rebound. In 1935, the Type 24 rifle was put in production in the four German tooled arsenals and copies were being made in other arsenals and workshops. Other designs were also being made in China including copies of the FN Model 1930, the Vz24, the Kar 98az, Type 30 and Type 38 Arisaka, and variations on these. The Hanyang rifle continued to be produced but not at Hangyang as it was now producing a copy of the "New Asia" model short rifle. The M1907 was also being produced in some work shops. All except the Japanese rifles were in 7.92mm and there were even some Arisaka variants hand made in 7.92mm. The German Model 1935 helmet was adopted and put into By 1936, the Japanese had advanced south of the Great Wall in North China and expanded in the coastal provinces. Chiang continued to give priority to fighting the Communists to achieve a unified China before confronting the Japanese. This plan was not popular with many Chinese. He was forced to accept a cease fire and alliance with the Communists after being kidnapped by the "Young Marshal" in December 1936. On 7 July 1937, Japan staged another "incident" at the Marco Polo Bridge near Peking which led to them taking control of Peking. It was an uneasy alliance between the KMT and the Reds. It began to break down rapidly as the Communists quickly gained strength. The Japanese advanced rapidly south from Peking. They forced Chinese troops to retreat inland from the coast taking many major cities. Driving up the Yangtze River, they took Wuhan. The Hangyang Arsenal plant was relocated well before it fell. The capture of Nanking was a terrible blow with a horrific massacre of prisoners and civilians. The machinery of Nanking Arsenal and possibly Hangyang too, was mostly evacuated to Chengtu, in an area of Szechwan Province near Chungking, the wartime Nationalist capitol. Whenever possible, all sorts of machinery and supplies were moved inland before the Japanese could capture them. Production was re-established when and where possible. The Japanese were able to go where they wanted and could smash any organized Chinese force, but lacked the numbers to occupy any but the key points. This led them to control the railroads, provincial capitols and important economic zones but left the smaller cities and rural areas beyond their control. This favored the Communists whom moved into the vacuum when Nationalist control was smashed by the advancing Japanese. The Japanese began organizing puppet entities with local Chinese troop and police units to help guard communications and fight the Communist and Nationalist partisan units left in the wake of their advance. The Japanese collected captured and abandoned Chinese rifles and set up shops to repair them. These were issued to the puppet troops and police. In 1937, the greatest number of foreign Mausers reached China, including FN M1930, Oberndorf Standard Modell, and ZB Vz 24 types. Soviet aid began arriving in the form aircraft and pilots in the fall of 1937. Some Mosin Nagant rifles and ammunition were provided along with other material. When Japan joined the AXIS, Hitler ordered the withdrawal of German assistance to China. Soviet Russia began providing advisorys and arms, including tanks (87 Model 1933 T-26 tanks), aircraft, and artillery. After the Hitler/Stalin Pact in 1939, this aid dried up. However, with the covert assistance of elements in Germany that were pro Chinese, Czech and Belgian Mausers continued to find there way to China after the NAZI occupations of these countries. Even in 1941, the Japanese protested to Hitler that Mausers from Europe were reaching China by way of the Burma Road. The war against Japan did not go well for the Chinese in the period 1938-40. In March of 1940, a KMT official and former member of the Pinko faction, Wang Ching Wei agreed to head the Japanese sponsored Central Government of China, a puppet state, that Japan recognized as the legitimate government of China. It had an Army and Police apparatus which was responsible for order in areas of Japanese conquest in classic China. Conflicts between the Communists and Nationalists escalated. In 1940, relations with the USA began to develop towards American support and aid of China. In 1941, the United States brought strong diplomatic and economic pressure to bear on Japan regarding the war in China. An oil embargo was declared. If Japan did not accept America's terms it would run dry of fuel. The U.S. knew from intelligence sources that war with Japan was inevitable. Japan would not accept the terms for releasing the embargo and they had about a six month oil reserve. Colt Browning M38B 7.92mm machine guns were purchased as were some 7.92mm BAR (Colt Browning Automatic Rifles). Similar automatic weapons had been purchased from FN in Herstal Belgium in the 1930's. On 23 July 1941, President Roosevelt ordered the provision of arms and equipment to China, along with a Military Advisory Group to help train the Chinese in their use. The mission was known as MAGIC (Military Advisory Group In China). The mission arrived in October 1941. The Burma Road was the only viable supply link to China by this time. In December 1941, Roosevelt agreed to train and arm 30 divisions of KMT troops. After the U.S.A. and British Empire entered the war against Japan on 8 December 1941, things did not improve. Hong Kong fell and the only supply route to China was a very long one from the port of Rangoon in British controlled Burma by rail and road through to Lashio on the Burma- China border, and then by truck through Yunnan Province to Chungking. The Japanese took Singapore and soon threatened Burma. The U.S. Army Mission, headed by General Stilwell, together with three good Chinese divisions Chiang sent into Burma, attempted to help the British defend Burma and keep the The British were rapidly defeated and the Chinese units along with the Americans were swept along in the British retreat to India. This closed the Burma Road. The Chinese units were well armed by prevailing standards in wartime China. They had good Type 24 and Standard Modell Mausers, ZB-26 light machine guns, Type 24 Maxim Guns and even artillery. They performed well against The situation in China grew worse in 1942. In India, the American aid for China began arriving. The Rifle .30 Model of 1917, the so called American Enfield, Automatic Rifle .30 M1918 and M1918A2 known as the "BAR", and the Browning Machine Gun .30 M1917A1 were issued to the Chinese troops in India which were placed under Stilwell's command. Some of these small arms were issued to British Indian Army troops at first, due to shortages of .303 weapons and fear of a Japanese advance into Assam. The British supplied the Chinese with 5000 Submachine Gun .45 M1928A1. The Chinese 7.92mm Mausers, MG's and LMG's were withdrawn as .30 weapons became available. Logistics dictated this move. 7.92mm ammunition was in very short supply. The U.S. Government had placed an order with Western Ammunition Co. for 7.92mm ammo loaded to Chinese needs (actually the compromise 8mm Mauser being loaded for the American commercial market was just about right except the bullet needed to have an FMJ (jacketed) bullet to comply with the Geneva Convention), but it was not yet available and no longer a high priority as China was blocked by the Japanese. These Chinese forces were reorganized and trained by American officers. In China, domestic production of rifles of all type in improvised shops, small factories and arsenals had to provide for the demand of the KMT Chinese forces. The Communists were making a copy of the 7.92mm Hangyang Rifle, and capturing other rifles from puppet troops, the Japanese when possible, and attacks on Nationalist units and stores. All foreign aid had to be flown into China from India over "the Hump" in C-46 and C-47 AAF transports, and bulky objects like rifles did not take priority over 55 gal. drums In 1944, major Japanese offensives were underway in China and Burma. Large advances were made in China as the Japanese launched the Ichigo Offensive to capture the Sino American air bases which the U.S. 14th Air Force using to great effect against the Japanese. The rapid advances and great defeats inflicted on the KMT troops caused the Chinese 500000 casualties, wiping out many of Chiang Kai-shek’s best divisions. In Burma, the Japanese surged forward only to reach the end of the line logistically, unable to continue. They were hit by a massive counter attack which included the American trained and armed Chinese troops. A new road to China had been built called the Ledo Road and alongside it a fuel pipeline. When it opened, supplies began pouring into Kunming in Yunnan for the Chinese. At this time, U.S. Rifles .30 M1903 and M1903A3 (American Springfield Rifles) were being received in quantity to supplement the .30 M1917 Enfields for arming the Chinese. Altogether about 400,000 .30 Enfield and Springfield Rifles were supplied by the end of WW2 to Nationalist China. By 1945, American small arms for China were joined by .303 Canadian No.4 Mk.1* Enfields, .303 Bren Guns , and 9mm Sten Machine Carbines, Canadian Inglis 7.92mm Bren Guns, and Inglis 9mm Browning Pistols. The Japanese surrendered after the U.S.A. dropped two Atom Bombs on Japan and the Soviet Union rushed in to attack Manchuria before the war ended. When the war was over, the Nationalist Government had by far the greatest number of serviceable small arms in its history. The best were the American supplied rifles and the Canadian 7.92mm BREN Guns. The Chinese Communists were short of weapons but very disciplined and well led. The Russians took the surrender of all Japanese troops in Manchuria and in Korea north of the 38th Parallel. The Chinese Communists began moving 20 central committee members, 20,000 Political cadre, and over 100,000 troops to Manchuria from the south and south west and by January 1946 began taking local control. The Russians then turned the captured Japanese war material over to the Chiang prevailed upon the U.S. to fly his best American armed troops north to Manchuria to take control from the Russians as had been agreed upon. The Russians used the interim to strip all they could, including light bulbs, from industrially developed Manchuria. While the Chinese Reds, initially thin on the ground in Manchuria, continued to force march as many men as possible northeast to assume control before the Nationalists could. It was obvious a Civil War would break out. The Communists, armed with the Japanese weapons were a formidable force. The U.S. wanted a coalition government. General Marshal was sent to negotiate this new government. For the moment, the Nationalists had the upper hand, but time was not on their side. Chiang had gambled by not securing the lines of communication through areas of North China which the Reds had come to dominate during the late war. The Reds whom had sent many of their troops from these areas into Manchuria, still had enough forces to undermine the Nationalist Chiang's troops were able to seize the key cities and railroads in Manchuria from the Reds, but were not able finish them off. They became established in the rural areas as the U.S. pushed Chiang into four cease fires in 1946. Each time the KMT lost ground. Marshall put an embargo on the supply of .30 (U.S. thirty caliber) ammunition to Chiang to pressure him into accepting U.S. proposals. The U.S. had supplied Enfield and Springfield rifles to Chiang's troops during WW2 that needed this .30 ammunition and the best trained troops were armed with them. The Nationalists couldn't make this ammo in country. From the summer of 1946 until May of 1947 the U.S. would not supply ammunition for these rifles. There was an American military mission still assigned to the Nationalist Army in 1946. General Lucas, then head of MAGIC, said "All we can do is draw up a new table of organization for the Chinese forces. We are getting them to shift from the four squad system to the three squad system, as we had done in our own forces. We are also preparing paper plans on logistics. But every one of my men is forbidden, from Washington, to go within fifty miles of any front. The exercise I am going through here is a pretense. I'm not able to do anything effective." The Nationalists were forced to withdraw the .30 small arms from issue and store them. Some M1917 rifles were converted to 7.92mm at the arsenal in Mukden by pulling the barrels, boring out and re-rifling, shortening the chamber end, reaming and refitting to the receiver. Most of the .30 weapons were captured in storage when Manchuria later fell to the Reds. You can spot the conversion when bayonet is mounted as the muzzle ring is seen to be forward of the front sight at the very end of the barrel. The Nationalists had captured large numbers of Japanese rifles in the south after the surrender. The Nationalists also converted Japanese Type 38 and Type 99 rifles to 7.92mm, as they sought to get more serviceable rifles in a caliber they could manufacture ammunition for readily. Most Chinese Armies had facilities to reload 7.92mm ammunition. German machinery was available for large scale production of this caliber in the arsenals. The Communists strategy was to hold onto their foothold in Manchuria. As they knew from their prewar experience the Nationalist Government could isolate and destroy their base areas anywhere else. The U.S. pressure on Chiang for cease fires allowed the Reds to survive. The halt saved their sanctuary in northern Manchuria and kept their main forces intact. The Communists were now ready to launch a counter offensive. Their aim was to divert Nationalist forces away from Manchuria by attacking in Shantung and in central China. The Nationalist command made the strategic error of dividing its forces in reaction to the new threats instead of concentrating its strength on a focused strategy of securing Manchuria. The KMT gained several victories on other fronts, but allowed the Communists to build their strength and eventually take Manchuria. That was the beginning of the end for the Nationalists. By 1948, Communist manpower growth was approaching the level of the Government. Chiang's forces were over extended and tied down in defensive positions guarding railroads, lines of communication and cities. Large amounts of arms, material and troops fell to the Reds. KMT command, control and discipline was inferior to the Communists. Initiative passed to the Reds whom could attack in superior numbers at places of their choosing, isolating Chou Chow fell in October 1948 and the remaining Nationalist positions in Manchuria, being cut off and isolated, rapidly collapsed. This was followed by the fatal defeat of half a million Nationalist troops at the Huai Hai battle in central China in December 1948. At the end of 1948, most of the North and Northeast was dominated by the Communists. In January 1949, the Northern capitol of Peking fell to the Reds without a fight as the Nationalist General commanding went over to the Reds with his divisions. In April 1949, the Communist forces crossed the Yangtze River and Shanghai fell without a fight as the the KMT General withdrew his still large force. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Peking in October 1949. Production of the Mauser rifle in China appears to have dropped at the end of WW2 and again during the later 1940's, but new ones were still being made on captured machinery at least into 1951. The later drop in production may be attributed to the loss of major arsenals to the CCF (Chinese Communist Forces) and the destruction to facilities which probably took place not only to rifle production machinery but also to steel making plants. One of the largest and best arsenals in China was located in Shansi Province at the city of Taiyuan (known as the Pittsburgh of China) beyond the Yellow River in north central China. Marshal Yen Hsi Shan was the Governor of this Province. He had received military training in China and in Japan at the Imperial Academy. He seized power in Shansi after the 1911 Revolution. Under his rule it became the industrial gem of China. Employing German and Japanese technicians to aid development, Shansi produced half the coal in China, had steel mills, a locomotive factory, cement works and many other productive enterprises. Yen accepted Chiang Kai Shek as the ruler of China in 1926. In 1929, he, Wang Ching Wei, and Feng YU Hsiang joined in an attempt to over throw Chiang. They lost out. Forced from power in Shansi, he soon returned to power and instituted changes to combat growing Communist influence in the province. In 1926, the Arsenal at Taiyuan had produced 1500 rifles, 500 Mauser type Broom handle Military Pistols, 300 mortars, mortar shells, hand grenades and three million rounds of ammunition a month with foreign technicians, assisted by American trained Chinese, supervising and training 8,000 Chinese workers. By late 1948, the Arsenal was making 3,000 Mauser Type 24, 60 7.92mm Type 24 Maxim water cooled machine guns (MG08/30), 300 7.92mm ZB 26 light machine guns, eight 75mm field guns, and large quantities of grenades, mortar rounds, swords, bayonets and ammunition every month. But small arms 7.92mm ammunition production was down. Over 150,000 Reds surrounded the city and it was necessary to air drop ingots of brass for the production of ammunition casings. Early in 1949 two Curtiss C-46 transports of Civil Air Transport flown by American pilots landed on an improvised runway carrying dynamite and caps to destroy the steel mills and arsenal. The city fell in the spring and it is not known to me what was the fate of the Arsenal. Perhaps a reader can supply that information. Chiang Kai Shek was nominally replaced as leader of Nationalist China earlier in 1949 and had begun shipping his personal forces, cultural treasures, and other key assets to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) before the final stages of collapse. When most of the KMT hierarchy and their families and others fled there to escape the Communists. In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the new capitol of the Republic of China Government. Chiang, once again the President, began rebuilding his forces. Initially, the small arms situation was quite good as the troops transported there were considered among the best and had been armed with better quality rifles, including German made 7.92mm Standard Modell 1924, 7.92mm Type 24 of good quality, .30 Caliber Carbines M1, and M1903 and M1903A3 .30 Springfield's. U.S. aid shipments had been diverted to Taiwan as China was falling. The first .30 M1 carbines had reached China in 1943 when Captain Milton E. Miles, USN, presented about 100 to Tai Li for Chiang's personal bodyguard. Tai Li was head of the BIS (Chinese Nationalist FBI/OSS equivalent). Miles was U.S. Navy representative to SACO (Sino American Cooperative Organization) and for a time OSS representative in China. UD-42 sub machine guns in 9x19mm were also provided. After 1951, .30 M1 Garand rifles were provided in quantity and by late 1950's 7.92mm Mausers were largely in storage. Circa 1962 these Mausers were transferred to an other power. The Garands were replaced by a Chinese made version of the M14 7.62mm NATO rifle beginning in the mid sixties. These were followed by the 5.56mm M16A1 and then supplemented by a Chi-Nat derivative of the Stoner design which avoided license costs. On the mainland of China in 1949, Soviet advisers began arriving around November to help reorganize the victorious CCF. Huge numbers of men were under arms and conflict continued over the off shore islands belonging to China. There were about 5,3000,000 men in 253 divisions, but less than half of these could be considered properly equipped and trained. Serviceable rifles were in very short supply and stocks of 6.5x50mm Arisaka ammunition were very, very low. The Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) (CCF) was basically a light infantry force that had captured tanks, artillery, trucks and planes from the defeated Nationalists. Millions of men had be taken prisoner or defected from the KMT forces. The policy towards these Nationalist troops was generally this: Prisoners taken after defeat: rank and file prisoners were debriefed, "re-educated" ("brainwashed" is the term used when American prisoners were subjected to the process during the Korean War) and incorporated into the CCF; Officers and other class enemies were interrogated, evaluated for "crimes" and either denounced at a meeting of their former troops or of a group of peasants from their area of operations and shot after a vote as to their guilt...or if it was decided that the individual in question was not a threat or technically needed, and willing to "sincerely reform", he was sent to "Military College" where he was "reeducated" and taken into the CCF as a non command role soldier. They were expected to atone for their past errors and crimes and to become a "Beet" (that is a vegetable that is red on the surface and all the way through under its skin...not a "Radish" which is red outside and white under the skin). whole divisions or once even an entire Army Group went over to the Reds. These units were politically organized and commissars placed at every level and allowed to retain their existing officers (after vetting) as command personnel ( no more "officers" ) and the unit then grafted into the CCF. Units that surrendered after initial resistance were treated with more caution. The officers were interrogated , evaluated and sent to "Military College" and rank and file were given a new command structure with political commissars at every level and new command personnel. This policy encouraged surrender and defections, preserved material which might otherwise be destroyed, ( have seen several hundred Mausers with stocks broken at wrist, missing bolts, with smashed handguards, made unserviceable before surrendering by hard-core Nationalist troops) and freed up resources otherwise needed to guard and feed all these former Chi-Nats soldiers. Coming Soon Part 2 China Rifles 1950-1980 When the Korean War began in June 1950, Chiang had about 300,000 troops on Formosa and perhaps another 100,000 on offshore islands such as the Pescadores, Quemoy, Matsu and others, as well as holdouts on the mainland in various partisan bands. A well known power began providing some arms directly to Nationalist troops not on Formosa which included Vz 24 7.92mm Mausers purchased from Spanish Civil War surplus material, the origin obscure so the benefactor need not take credit, while the ammunition was locally available. Some Major Chinese Arsenals were located in: Common Name...............................Geographic Area..... Arsenal)............ Southeast Area Hsien Arsenal).... Central North Area Arsenal).......... North Central Area Arming the Dragon ...by China Pilot ...by Felix

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New York Times, In a letter to a fellow physicist in 1915, Albert Einstein described how a scientist gets things wrong: “1. The devil leads him by the nose with a false hypothesis. (For this he deserves our pity.) “2. His arguments are erroneous and sloppy. (For this he deserves a beating.)” According to his own rules, Einstein should have been pitied and beaten alike. “Einstein himself certainly committed errors of both types,” the astrophysicist Mario Livio writes in his enlightening new book, “Brilliant Blunders.” Much of what we read about science is some version of a success story: Scientists just discovered the oldest human fossil; how did they do it? Success is certainly part of the story, but this version of Whig history blinds us to how people actually do science. Science is a mess. It’s shaped by the time and place in which scientists work. Scientists choose to do a certain experiment or interpret an observation for many reasons. “More than 20 percent of Einstein’s original papers contain mistakes of some sort,” Livio writes. “In several cases, even though he made mistakes along the way, the final result is still correct. This is often the hallmark of great theorists: They are guided by intuition more than by formalism.” For many people, however, being a great scientist means being above error. That’s why it is so common to see a magazine cover headline declaring, in screaming type, Einstein was wrong, or its weasel-word variant, was Einstein wrong? Livio’s book is a valuable antidote to this skewed picture. He profiles five great scientists — Einstein, Charles Darwin, Lord Kelvin, Linus Pauling and Fred Hoyle — each of whom made major discoveries and major mistakes. All five put their chips down on the wrong number, even as others prevailed. Thanks to his deep curiosity, Livio turns “Brilliant Blunders” into a thoughtful meditation on the course of science itself. When Charles Darwin presented his theory of evolution in 1859, he built a foundation for all of modern biology. Crucial to his theory was the fact that animals and plants inherited traits from their ancestors. Natural selection favored some traits over others, giving rise to long-term change. But Darwin didn’t know how heredity worked. He devoted a lot of time to developing ideas that, in hindsight, seem daft. “Darwin had been educated according to the then widely held belief that the characteristics of the two parents become physically blended in their offspring,” Livio writes, “as in the mixing of paints.” By this logic, each ancestor’s genetic contribution would be halved in each generation. This idea wasn’t just wrong. It undermined Darwin’s own theory of evolution. If our traits are just a result of blended particles, it shouldn’t be possible for natural selection to change traits over the generations. But try as he might, Darwin couldn’t figure out a better explanation. Yet right around the time that Darwin published “On the Origin of Species,” the Czech monk Gregor Mendel was discovering genetics. Crossing pea plants in his garden, he got a glimpse at how heredity actually does work. Darwin apparently never became aware of Mendel’s work, nor did he discover Mendel’s results for himself. Today biologists can track evolution at the molecular level because they know what genes are made of. In the early 1950s, Francis Crick and James Watson worked out the double-helix structure of DNA. They worked quickly, because they knew that the Nobel Prize-winning biochemist Linus Pauling was trying to solve the puzzle as well. Pauling came very close, but stumbled just as Watson and Crick were making their breakthrough. He got stuck on the idea that DNA forms three intertwined spirals, rather than two, and worse, he made an elementary error in the chemistry — his nucleic acid molecule was actually not an acid. Shortly after Crick and Watson published their discoveries in 1953, Pauling paid them a visit at Cambridge and examined their model of DNA. He acknowledged that they were right and he was wrong, and soon afterward he made the same declaration in public. That kind of graciousness is not universal among Livio’s blunderers, though. The great physicist Lord Kelvin held firm, until his death in 1907, to his conviction that the Earth was only millions of years old. Kelvin believed that life had been designed, and he investigated the age of the Earth in part to rebut Darwin’s theory of natural selection. If Darwin’s theories were right, then the Earth must be very old, but geologists had no way to precisely measure the planet’s age. Kelvin had the brilliant insight that the temperature of rocks might hold the answer. The Earth, Kelvin rightly reasoned, had started out as a ball of molten rock. It took a straightforward mathematical exercise to calculate how long it had taken for the Earth to cool to its current temperature. And when Kelvin did the math, he concluded that the Earth was fairly young, roughly 100 million years (we now know it to be about 4.567 billion years old). He carried out similar calculations to work out the comparable age of the Sun. If the Sun had indeed formed billions of years ago, Kelvin believed it would have burned out long ago. Kelvin was wrong for two reasons. As a former student of his pointed out, Kelvin assumed that the Earth’s interior was fixed and transports heat at the same rate everywhere. In fact, it roils like boiling water, transporting heat to the surface. The other reason for Kelvin’s error was quantum physics. Radioactivity helps keep the Earth warm, and nuclear fusion has allowed the Sun to burn for 4.567 billion years. Kelvin’s critics brought both these counterarguments to his attention, but he seems to have viewed them with contemptuous indifference. Nuclear fusion doesn’t just power stars, it also creates new elements like carbon and iron. The British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle made this tremendous discovery in the 1940s and ’50s. Unfortunately, Hoyle might be better known for promoting a flawed theory about the origin of the universe: He was convinced that the universe was in a continual state of creation. As evidence for the Big Bang mounted, he became an increasingly embarrassing crank. Livio chooses Einstein as the fifth member of his blundering quintet. Einstein was puzzled as to why the universe didn’t cave in on itself. Empty space, he suggested, contained a mysterious energy pushing outward, resisting the universe’s inward collapse. After he published this idea — what came to be known as the cosmological constant — he regretted it. He said it didn’t emerge naturally from his equations; he’d tacked it on like a cheap piece of plywood over a hole in a roof. Einstein eventually denounced the cosmological constant. And that, it turns out, was his big mistake. In the 1990s, physicists discovered dark energy, something very similar to that mythical force. Livio brings the care of a historian to his nimble narratives, avoiding heroic clichés. He’s less adept at explaining why these great scientists made their mistakes, too often trotting out pop psychology to demonstrate why people stubbornly cling to ideas even when they see evidence to the contrary. The psychology of bad science is a fascinating topic, but it requires a broader look at how the entire scientific community operates. Five scientists — no matter how great — cannot shoulder that load. Copyright 2013 The New York Times Company. Reproduced with permission.

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A Scottish Jesuit, b. at Elgin in Morayshire in 1575; died in London, 24 September, 1624. he was the nephew of Dr. John Leslie , Bishop of Ross, a faithful adherent of Mary Queen of Scots, and her ambassador at the French Court. After completing his education at the university of Edinburgh, he entered the Society of Jesus at Rome, in 1597, and in due time acquired a reputation as a linguist, mathematician, philosopher, and divine. In 1609, he was appointed to the Scotch mission, where his labours were highly successful and his hairbreadth escapes from the pursuivants truly marvelous. He left Scotland for Paris to meet his superior, Father James Gordon, late in 1611. Father Anderson undertook to supply the great dearth of missionaries in his native country by collecting nearly one hundred youths in Scotland, all of them most eager to serve God and the Church. In 1615 he became the first Jesuit Rector of the Scots College in Rome, founded fifteen years before by Pope Clement VIII. Returning to Scotland, he was soon after betrayed by a pretended Catholic, and committed to the Tolbooth jail, Edinburgh, where, in the daily expectation of torture and death, he displayed the heroic intrepidity of a true martyr. He was finally set at liberty on the petition, it is supposed, of the French Ambassador who requested to have him for his confessor. Father Anderson has left us some valuable and interesting letters relating to his missionary labours in Scotland ; these letters may be found in the London "Month" for December, 1876. No one was better qualified to bear witness to the state of the Church in Scotland during the reign of James the First. In 1623 he published "The Ground of the Catholicke and Roman Religion in the Word of God " a work which shows he had carefully studied the scriptural argument for the Catholic Faith. While imprisoned in Edinburgh, he also compiled the "Memoirs of the Scotch Saints", formerly in manuscript at the Scots College in Paris. The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes. Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration. No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny. Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912 Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online

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Little is known of his life beyond what is mentioned in his poems. He was b. about 1368; d. in 1450. The place of his birth and education is unknown. When about nineteen he became a clerk in the Privy-Seal Office, a position which he held for at least twenty-four years. It is recorded in the Patent Rolls (1399) that he received a pension of £10 a year. In his poem "La Male Règle", written in 1406, he confesses to having lived a life of pleasure and even of dissipation, but his marriage in 1411 seems to have caused a change in his career, and his poem "De Regimine Principum", written soon afterewards, bears witness to his reform. In 1424 he was granted a pension of £20 a year for life. His name and reputation have come down to us linked with those of Lydgate; the two poets were followers and enthusiastic admirers of Chaucer. It is most probable that Occleve knew Chaucer personally, as he has left three passages of verse about him, and, in the manuscript Of the "De Regimine", a portrait of Chaucer (the only one we possess), which he says he had painted "to put other men in remembrance of his person ". He was a true Chaucerian as far as love and admiration could make him, but he was unable to imitate worthily his master's skill in poetry. Occleve has left us a body of verse which has its own interest, but none of which, as poetry, can be placed much above mediocrity. Nevertheless, there are many things which give pleasure. There is his devoted love of Our Lady, which causes some of the poems he wrote in her honour (especially "The Moder of God ") to be among his best efforts. There is his admiration of Chaucer, already spoken of, and there is also sound morality, and a good deal of "the social sense" in the matter of his poems. Though he had no humour, he could tell a story well, and in several poems he enlists our sympathy by the frank recognition of his weakness both as man and poet. His work consists of: a long poem, "De Regimine Principum" (the Government of Princes), addressed to Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V ; it is written in the seven-line stanza and contains much varied matter, religious, moral, social and political; two verse stories from the "Gesta Romanorum"; three other poems of some length, largely autobiographical, "La Male Règle", "A Complaint", and "A Diologue"; "Ars sciendi mori" (the Art of learning to die) a specimen of his work at its best, most of it in the seven-line stanza, but with an ending in prose; many other poems, chiefly Ballades, and mostly short, with the exception of "Cupid's Letter" and the interesting expostulation with Sir John Oldcastle concerning his heresy, "O Oldcastle, alas what ailed thee To slip into the snare of heresie?". All the above poems are contained in the Early English Text Society's edition of Occleve's works (London, 1892-7). The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes. Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration. No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny. Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912 Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online

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Persons using assistive technology might not be able to fully access information in this file. For assistance, please send e-mail to: [email protected]. Type 508 Accommodation and the title of the report in the subject line of e-mail. Guidelines for National Human Immunodeficiency Virus Case Surveillance, Including Monitoring for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome The following CDC staff members prepared this report: Patricia L. Fleming, Ph.D., M.S. Ronald O. Valdiserri, M.D., M.P.H. in collaboration with Jeffrey L. Jones, M.D., M.P.H. Eva M. Seiler, M.P.A Harold W. Jaffe, M.D. CDC recommends that all states and territories conduct case surveillance for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection as an extension of current acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) surveillance activities. The expansion of national surveillance to include both HIV infection and AIDS cases is a necessary response to the impact of advances in antiretroviral therapy, the implementation of new HIV treatment guidelines, and the increased need for epidemiologic data regarding persons at all stages of HIV disease. Expanded surveillance will provide additional data about HIV-infected populations to enhance local, state, and federal efforts to prevent HIV transmission, improve allocation of resources for treatment services, and assist in evaluating the impact of public health interventions. CDC will provide technical assistance to all state and territorial health departments to continue or establish HIV and AIDS case surveillance systems and to evaluate the performance of their surveillance programs. This report includes a revised case definition for HIV infection in adults and children, recommended program practices, and performance and security standards for conducting HIV/AIDS surveillance by local, state, and territorial health departments. The revised surveillance case definition and associated recommendations become effective January 1, 2000. AIDS surveillance has been the cornerstone of national efforts to monitor the spread of HIV infection in the United States and to target HIV-prevention programs and health-care services. Although AIDS is the end-stage of the natural history of HIV infection, in the past, monitoring AIDS-defining conditions provided population-based data that reflected changes in the incidence of HIV infection. However, recent advances in HIV treatment have slowed the progression of HIV disease for infected persons on treatment and contributed to a decline in AIDS incidence. These advances in treatment have diminished the ability of AIDS surveillance data to represent trends in the incidence of HIV infection or the impact of the epidemic on the health-care system. As a consequence, the capacity of local, state, and federal public health agencies to monitor the HIV epidemic has been compromised (1-3). In response to these changes and following consultations with multiple and diverse constituencies (including representatives of public health, government, and community organizations), CDC and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) have recommended that all states and territories include surveillance for HIV infection as an extension of their AIDS surveillance activities (1,4). In this manner, the HIV/AIDS epidemic can be tracked more accurately and appropriate information about HIV infection and AIDS can be made available to policymakers. CDC continues to support a diverse set of epidemiologic methods to characterize persons affected by the epidemic in the United States (5-10). Although HIV/AIDS case surveillance represents only one component among multiple necessary surveillance strategies, this report focuses primarily on CDC's recommendation to implement HIV case reporting nationwide. This report provides a revised case definition for HIV infection in adults and children, recommended program practices, and performance and security standards for conducting HIV/AIDS surveillance by local, state, and territorial health departments. The case definition for HIV infection was revised in consultation with CSTE and includes the current AIDS surveillance criteria as a component (11). The recommended program practices and performance and security standards are based on a) the established practices of AIDS and other public health surveillance systems; b) reviews of state and local surveillance programs, confidentiality statutes, and security procedures; c) studies of the performance of surveillance systems; d) ongoing evaluations of determinants of test-seeking or test-avoidance in relation to state policies and practices on HIV testing and reporting; and e) discussions at a consultation held by CDC and CSTE in May 1997. A draft of this report was made available for public comment from December 10, 1998, to January 11, 1999, through a notice published in the Federal Register (12). History of AIDS and HIV Case Surveillance Since the epidemic was first identified in the United States in 1981, population-based AIDS surveillance (i.e., reporting of AIDS cases and their characteristics to public health authorities for epidemiologic analysis) has been used to track the progression of the HIV epidemic from the initial case reports of opportunistic illnesses caused by a then unknown agent in a few large cities to the reporting of 711,344 AIDS cases nationwide through June 30, 1999 (5,13-15). The AIDS reporting criteria have been periodically revised to incorporate new understanding of HIV disease and changes in medical practice (16-19). In the absence of effective therapy for HIV infection, AIDS surveillance data have reliably detected changing patterns of HIV transmission and reflected the effect of HIV-prevention programs on the incidence of HIV infection and related illnesses in specific populations (20-25). Because of these attributes, AIDS surveillance data have been used as a basis for allocating many federal resources for HIV treatment and care services and as the epidemiologic basis for planning local HIV-prevention services. With the advent of more effective therapy that slows the progression of HIV disease, AIDS surveillance data no longer reliably reflect trends in HIV transmission and do not accurately represent the need for prevention and care services (26,27). In 1996, national AIDS incidence and AIDS deaths declined for the first time during the HIV epidemic (Figure 1). These declines have been primarily attributed to the early use of combination antiretroviral therapy, which delays the progression to AIDS and death for persons with HIV infection (1-3,9). Revised HIV treatment guidelines recommend antiretroviral therapy for many HIV-infected persons in whom AIDS-defining conditions have not yet developed (28-30). In addition, antiretroviral treatment of pregnant women and their newborns has reduced perinatal HIV transmission and resulted in dramatic declines in the incidence of perinatally acquired AIDS (31,32) (Figure 2). In response to these changes in HIV treatment practices and the information needs of public health and other policymakers, CDC and CSTE have recommended that all states and territories extend their AIDS case surveillance activities to include HIV case surveillance and the reporting of HIV-exposed infants (1,4,33). Since 1985, many states have implemented HIV case reporting as part of their comprehensive HIV/AIDS surveillance programs. As of November 1, 1999, a total of 34 states and the Virgin Islands (VI) had implemented HIV case surveillance using the same confidential system for name-based case reporting for both HIV infection and AIDS; two of these states conduct pediatric surveillance only (5) (Figure 3). Areas that conduct integrated HIV/AIDS surveillance for adults, adolescents, and children have reported 42% of cumulative U.S. AIDS cases. In addition, four states (Illinois, Maine, Maryland, and Massachusetts) and Puerto Rico, representing 11% of cumulative AIDS cases, are reporting cases of HIV infection using a coded identifier rather than patient name. Washington has implemented HIV reporting by patient name to enable public health follow-up; after services and referrals are offered, names are converted into codes. In most other states, HIV case reporting is under consideration or laws, rules, or regulations enabling HIV surveillance are expected to be implemented during 2000. In contrast to AIDS case surveillance, HIV case surveillance provides data to better characterize populations in which HIV infection has been newly diagnosed, including persons with evidence of recent HIV infection such as adolescents and young adults (13-24-year-olds) (34,35). Of the 52,690 HIV infections diagnosed from January 1994 through June 1997 in 25 states that conducted name-based HIV surveillance throughout this period, 14% of cases occurred in persons aged 13-24 years. In comparison, of the 20,215 persons in whom AIDS was diagnosed in these 25 states, only 3% of cases occurred in persons aged 13-24 years. Thus, AIDS case surveillance alone does not accurately reflect the extent of the HIV epidemic among adolescents and young adults. Compared with persons reported with AIDS, those reported with HIV infection in these 25 states were more likely to be women and from racial/ethnic minorities (36) (Table 1). These patterns reflect the characteristics of populations that were affected by the epidemic more recently, but they might also reflect changes in testing practices or behaviors (6,36,37). Compared with the diagnosis of AIDS, which can be delayed among HIV-infected persons receiving antiretroviral therapy, the first diagnosis of HIV infection is not delayed by treatment but is affected by testing behaviors and targeted testing programs. In addition, in these 25 states as of June 30, 1999, the total number of persons (159,083) who were reported as living with either a diagnosis of HIV infection (90,699) or AIDS (68,384) was 133% greater than that represented by the number living with AIDS alone (5). Therefore, these states have documented that the combined prevalence of those living with a diagnosis of HIV infection and those living with AIDS provides a more realistic and useful estimate of the resources needed for patient care and services than does AIDS prevalence alone. States with confidential name-based HIV case surveillance systems have used data on all perinatally exposed children to document the sharp decline in perinatally acquired HIV infection, the increase in the proportion of infected pregnant women who have been tested for HIV infection before delivery, and the high proportion of HIV-infected pregnant women who accept zidovudine therapy (31,38-44). These findings contribute to HIV-prevention policy development. CSTE and the American Academy of Pediatrics have recommended that all states and territories conduct pediatric HIV surveillance that includes all perinatally exposed infants to facilitate follow-up to assess infection status and access to care (11,31,33,40,45). Persons can choose to be tested for HIV in the following ways: a) anonymously -- whereby identifying information, including patient name and other locating information, are not linked to the HIV test result (e.g., at anonymous testing sites) and b) confidentially -- whereby the HIV test result is linked to identifying information such as patient and provider names (e.g., at medical clinics). In states that require HIV case reporting, providers in confidential medical or testing sites are required to report HIV-infected persons to public health authorities. Not all persons infected with HIV are tested, and of those who are, testing occurs at different stages of their infection. Therefore, HIV surveillance data provide a minimum estimate of the number of infected persons and are most representative of persons who have had HIV infection diagnosed in medical clinics and other confidential diagnostic settings. The data represent the characteristics of persons who recognize their risk and seek confidential testing, who are offered HIV testing (e.g., pregnant women and clients at sexually transmitted disease [STD] clinics), who are required to be tested (e.g., blood donors and military recruits), and who are tested because they present with symptoms of HIV-related illnesses. CDC estimated that, in 1996, approximately two thirds of all infected persons in the United States had HIV infection diagnosed in such settings (46). HIV surveillance data might not represent untested persons or those who seek testing at anonymous test sites or with home collection kits; such persons are not reported to confidential HIV/AIDS surveillance systems. However, the availability of anonymous testing is important in promoting knowledge of HIV status among at-risk populations and provides an opportunity for counseling to reduce high-risk behaviors and voluntary referrals to appropriate medical diagnosis and prevention services. Despite their current limitations, HIV and AIDS case surveillance data together can provide a clearer picture of the HIV epidemic than AIDS case surveillance data alone. Therefore, CDC and CSTE continue to recommend that all areas implement HIV case reporting as part of a comprehensive strategy to monitor HIV infection and HIV disease. The strategy should also include surveys of the incidence and prevalence of HIV infection; AIDS case surveillance; monitoring HIV-related mortality; supplemental research and evaluation studies, including behavioral surveillance; and statistical estimation of the incidence and prevalence of infection and disease. Considerations in Implementing Nationwide HIV Case Surveillance The nationwide implementation of the 1993 expanded AIDS surveillance case definition prompted renewed discussions of the rationale and need for data representing HIV-infected persons who did not meet the AIDS-defining criteria. Because many states were considering implementing HIV reporting, CDC held a consultation in 1993 with public health and community representatives to discuss relevant issues and concerns. Community representatives' main concerns were that the security and confidentiality standards of surveillance programs might not be sufficient to prevent disclosures of information and that many persons at risk for HIV infection might therefore delay seeking HIV counseling and testing because of these confidentiality concerns. The consensus of the consultants was that few published studies were of sufficient scientific quality to assess these concerns. Therefore, the consultants identified several areas that required additional research and policy development before CDC and CSTE should consider recommending further expansion of HIV surveillance efforts. These areas included a) the impact of reporting policies on testing behaviors and practices, including the decreased availability of anonymous testing in some states; b) the role of surveillance data in linking reported persons to prevention and care programs; c) the development of recommended standards for the security and confidentiality of publicly held HIV/AIDS surveillance data; and d) determining whether alternatives to reporting of patient names would reduce confidentiality risks while meeting the needs for high-quality surveillance data. In response to the consultants' recommendations, CDC initiated several research projects to a) assess the effect of confidential name-based HIV surveillance on persons' willingness to seek HIV testing and care; b) review program practices and legal requirements for the security and confidentiality of state and local HIV/AIDS surveillance data; and c) evaluate the performance of coded-identifier-based surveillance systems. Findings from these projects and expert advice from participants at numerous technical meetings and consultations held during the intervening period have guided formulation of the policies and practices recommended in this report. The findings from these projects are summarized in the following three subsections: HIV surveillance and testing behavior, HIV surveillance using non-name-based unique identifiers, and confidentiality of HIV surveillance data. HIV Surveillance and Testing Behavior Few studies have characterized test- or care-seeking behaviors in relation to state HIV reporting policies. A 1988 general population study of previous or planned use of HIV testing services did not identify an association of reporting policy with testing behavior (47). In contrast, interviews of persons seeking anonymous testing in 1989 documented that many would avoid testing if a positive test resulted in name reporting or partner notification (48). A review of the published literature on HIV testing behaviors highlighted several limitations and biases in previous studies (49), including small numbers, lack of geographic and risk-group representativeness, and analysis of intent to test rather than of actual testing behavior. An additional limitation of the available literature is that studies published 5-10 years ago might not reflect actual testing behaviors in the current treatment era. Literature that highlights potential misuse of public health surveillance data might have the unintended effect of increasing test avoidance among some at-risk persons (50). Examining knowledge of and perceptions about testing and reporting, as well as actual testing behavior, in the context of current treatment advances and evolving HIV reporting policies, can address some of the limitations of previous research. To determine the effect of changes in reporting policies on actual testing behaviors among persons seeking testing at publicly funded HIV counseling and testing sites, CDC and six state health departments reviewed data routinely collected from these sites to compare HIV testing patterns during the 12 months before and the 12 months after implementation of HIV case surveillance (51). In these areas, the number of HIV tests increased in four states and decreased in two states; the declines were not statistically significant. All the analysis periods (25-month periods during 1992-1996) antedated the widespread beneficial effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Slight variability in testing trends was observed among racial/ethnic subgroups and HIV-risk exposure categories; however, these data do not suggest that, in these states, the policy of implementing HIV case reporting adversely affected test-seeking behaviors overall (52). CDC also supported studies by researchers at the University of California at San Francisco and participating state health departments to identify the most important determinants of test seeking or test avoidance among high-risk populations and to assess the impact of changes in HIV testing and HIV reporting policies. Data from these surveys of high-risk persons in nine selected states about their perceptions and knowledge of HIV testing and HIV reporting practices documented that few respondents had knowledge of the HIV reporting policies in their respective states (53,54). In surveys conducted during 1995-1996, respondents reported high levels of testing, with approximately three fourths reporting that they had had an HIV test. The most commonly reported factors (by nearly half of respondents) that might have contributed to delays in seeking testing or not getting tested were fear of having HIV infection diagnosed or belief that they were not likely to be HIV infected. "Reporting to the government" was a concern that might have contributed to a delay in seeking HIV testing for 11% of heterosexuals, 18% of injecting-drug users, and 22% of men who have sex with men; less than 1%, 3%, and 2% of respondents in these risk groups, respectively, indicated that this was their main concern. Concern about name-based reporting of HIV infections to the government was a factor for not testing for HIV for 13% of heterosexuals, 18% of injecting-drug users, and 28% of men who have sex with men. As the main factor for not testing for HIV, concern about name-based reporting to the government was substantially lower in all risk groups (1% of heterosexuals, 1% of injecting-drug users, and 4% of men who have sex with men) (55). These findings suggest that name-based reporting policies might deter a small proportion of persons with high-risk sex or drug-using behaviors from seeking testing and, therefore, support the need for strict adherence to confidentiality safeguards of public health testing and surveillance data. In addition, the survey documented that the availability of an anonymous testing option is consistently associated with higher rates of intention to test in the future. In this survey, high levels of testing, together with high levels of test delay or avoidance associated with reasons other than concern about name reporting, suggest that addressing these other concerns may have a greater effect on testing behavior. For example, 59% of men who have sex with men reported being "afraid to find out" as a factor for not testing, and 27% reported it as the main factor for not testing. In addition, 52% of men who have sex with men reported "unlikely to have been exposed" as a factor for not testing, and 17% reported it as the main factor. In a companion survey of persons reported with AIDS in eight of these same states, participants who had recognized their HIV risk and sought testing at anonymous testing sites reported entering care at an earlier stage of HIV disease than persons who were first tested in a confidential testing setting (e.g., STD clinics, medical clinics, or hospitals), where persons are frequently first tested when they become ill (56). These data suggest that anonymous testing options are important in promoting timely knowledge of HIV status for some at-risk persons. HIV Surveillance Using Non-Name-Based Unique Identifiers To assess the feasibility of using alternatives to confidential name-based methods for HIV surveillance, several states implemented reporting of cases of HIV infection or CD4 (a marker of immunosuppression in HIV-infected persons) laboratory test results using various numeric or alphanumeric codes. Other states considered or tried to conduct case surveillance without name identifiers by using codes designed for nonsurveillance purposes (e.g., codes intended for use in tracking patients in case-management systems) (57). In May 1995, CDC convened a meeting at which these states identified operational, technical, and scientific challenges in conducting surveillance using coded identifiers rather than patient names. The states recommended that CDC evaluate additional coded identifiers and assist them in documenting and disseminating the results of their findings. In addition, CDC supported research to evaluate the performance of a coded unique identifier (UI) in two states that implemented a non-name-based HIV case-reporting system while maintaining name-based surveillance methods for AIDS (58). The study, conducted by Maryland and Texas during 1994-1996 in collaboration with CDC, documented nearly 50% incomplete reporting, in part because the social security number necessary to construct the identifier code was not uniformly available in medical or laboratory records. In Maryland, provider-maintained logs were needed to link the UI to name-based medical records to obtain follow-up data (e.g., on HIV risk/exposure). A more recent evaluation conducted by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (MDHMH) reported data from a publicly funded counseling and testing site and documented a higher level of completeness of HIV reporting (88%) than the 50% documented in the previous study (58,59). MDHMH reports that their code is unique to a given person and that assignment of two different codes to the same person is unlikely. That is, the probability that a given code can distinguish one person from any other is greater than 99% if all the elements of the code are complete and accurate. No published evaluations have assessed the probability of assigning the same code to different persons, which could occur if elements of the code were missing. In contrast to MDHMH's findings, analogous evaluations in Texas, as well as studies that used more diverse methods in Los Angeles and New Jersey, failed to identify a code that performs as well as name-based methods (58,60-67). On the basis of published evaluations (58), Texas recently switched to name-based HIV case surveillance. In addition to Maryland, three other states (Illinois, Maine, and Massachusetts) and Puerto Rico recently implemented HIV reporting using four different coded identifiers. CDC will assist these states in implementing their systems, establishing standardized criteria for assessing the overall performance of their systems, as well as assessing whether the required standards are achieved. Additional evaluations will be conducted by the respective state health departments, in collaboration with CDC, to determine a) the ability of coded identifiers to accurately track disease progression from HIV infection to AIDS to death, b) their utility for evaluating public health efforts to eliminate perinatal HIV transmission, c) their acceptability, and d) their usefulness in matching to other databases (e.g., tuberculosis). Confidentiality of HIV Surveillance Data A 1994 review of state confidentiality laws that protect HIV surveillance data documented that all states and many localities have legal safeguards for confidentiality of government-held health data (68). These laws provide greater protection than laws protecting the confidentiality of information in health records held by private health-care providers. Most states have specific statutory protections for public health data related to HIV infection and other STDs. However, state legal protections vary, and CDC supports additional efforts to strengthen privacy protections for public health data. On the basis of input from expert legal and public health consultants, the Model State Public Health Privacy Act (69) was developed by an independent contractor at the behest of CSTE. If enacted by states, the provisions of the Model Act would ensure the confidentiality of surveillance data, strengthen statutory protections against disclosure, and preclude the intended or unintended use of surveillance data for non-public health purposes. CDC has reviewed state and local security policies and procedures for HIV/AIDS surveillance data. Since 1981, states have conducted AIDS surveillance, and few breaches of security have resulted in the unauthorized release of data (70,71). Because survival has improved for HIV-infected persons, information about them might be maintained in public health surveillance databases for longer periods. This has resulted in increased concerns about confidentiality of surveillance data among public health and community groups (72). Therefore, CDC has issued technical guidance for security procedures that include enhanced confidentiality and security safeguards as evaluation criteria for federal funding of state HIV/AIDS surveillance activities (73). The receipt of federal surveillance funding depends on the recipient's ability to ensure the physical security and confidentiality of case reports. At the federal level, HIV/AIDS surveillance data are protected by several federal statutes, which ensure that CDC will not release HIV/AIDS surveillance data for non-public health purposes (e.g., for use in criminal, civil, or administrative proceedings). Privacy is also ensured by the removal of names and the encryption of data transmitted to CDC. On the basis of the importance of maintaining the confidentiality of persons in whom HIV infection has been diagnosed by public or private health-care providers, CDC has recommended additional standards to enhance the security and confidentiality of HIV and AIDS surveillance data (74,75). GUIDELINES FOR SURVEILLANCE OF HIV INFECTION AND AIDS HIV Surveillance Case Definition for Adults and Children CDC, in collaboration with CSTE, has established a new case definition for HIV infection in adults and children that includes revised surveillance criteria for HIV infection and incorporates the surveillance criteria for AIDS (17-19,76) (Appendix). HIV infection and AIDS case reports forwarded to CDC should be based on this definition. For adults and children aged greater than or equal to 18 months, the HIV surveillance case definition includes laboratory and clinical evidence specifically indicative of HIV infection and severe HIV disease (AIDS). For children aged less than 18 months (except for those who acquired HIV infection other than by perinatal transmission), the HIV surveillance case definition updates the definition in the 1994 revised classification system. In addition, the new case definition is based on recent data regarding the sensitivity and specificity of HIV diagnostic tests in infants and clinical guidelines for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) prophylaxis for children (19,77-88) and for use of antiretroviral agents for pediatric HIV infection (30). The revised surveillance case definitions for adults and children become effective January 1, 2000. HIV/AIDS Case Surveillance Practices and Standards CDC and CSTE recommend that all states require reporting to public health surveillance of all cases of perinatal HIV exposure in infants, the earliest diagnosis of HIV infection (exclusive of anonymous tests) and the earliest diagnosis of AIDS in persons of all ages, and deaths among these persons (4,33). Such reporting should constitute the core minimum performance standard for HIV/AIDS surveillance in all states and territories. CDC provides federal funds and technical assistance to states to establish and conduct active HIV/AIDS surveillance programs. On the basis of feasibility, needs, and resources, areas may be funded to implement additional surveillance activities (e.g., supplemental research and evaluation studies and serologic surveys), but these approaches might not be necessary in all areas. The following recommended practices update and revise the CDC Guidelines for HIV/AIDS Surveillance released in 1996 and updated in 1998 as a technical guide for state and local HIV/AIDS surveillance programs (34,73-75). Recommended practices represent CDC's guidance for best public health practice based on available scientific data. Programmatic standards set minimum requirements for states to receive support from CDC for HIV/AIDS surveillance activities. Recommended Surveillance Practices Minimum Performance Standards Recommended Security and Confidentiality Practices Minimum Security and Confidentiality Standards The security and confidentiality policies and procedures of state and local surveillance programs should be consistent with CDC standards for the security of HIV/AIDS surveillance data (73,74). The minimum security criteria were established following reviews of all state and numerous local health department HIV/AIDS surveillance programs. In general, the reviews documented that health departments have achieved a high level of security and that most state health departments meet or exceed the minimum standards. Beginning in 2000, CDC will require that recipients of federal funds for HIV/AIDS surveillance establish the minimum security standards and include their security policy in applications for surveillance funds (73,74). Examples of these standards include the following: Relation to HIV-Prevention and HIV-Care Programs: Recommended Practices At the federal level, the primary function of HIV/AIDS surveillance is collecting accurate and timely epidemiologic data for public health planning and policy. Consequently, CDC is authorized to provide federal funds to states through surveillance cooperative agreements, both to achieve the goals of the national surveillance program and to assist states in developing their surveillance programs in accordance with state and local laws and practices. Federal funds authorized for HIV/AIDS surveillance are not provided to states for developing or providing prevention or treatment case-management services; funds for such services are provided by CDC and other federal agencies under separate authorizations. Whether and how states establish a link between individual case-patients reported to their HIV/AIDS surveillance programs and other health department programs and services for HIV prevention and treatment is within the purview of the states. However, in considering or establishing such linkages, CDC recommends the following: Surveillance Case Definition for HIV Infection and AIDS The revised case definition for HIV infection in adults and children integrates reporting criteria for HIV infection and AIDS in a single case definition and incorporates new laboratory tests in the laboratory criteria for HIV case reporting. The 2000 case definition for HIV infection includes HIV nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) detection tests that were not commercially available when the AIDS case definition was revised in 1993. The revised case definition for HIV infection also permits states to report cases to CDC based on the result of any test licensed for diagnosing HIV infection in the United States. Although the reporting criteria generally reflect the recommendations for diagnosing HIV infection, the HIV reporting criteria are for public health surveillance and are not designed for making a diagnosis for an individual patient. The laboratory criteria include the serologic HIV tests described in the clinical standards for diagnosing HIV infection (92-95). The pediatric HIV reporting criteria include criteria for monitoring all children with perinatal exposures to HIV and reflect recent advances in diagnostic approaches that permit the diagnosis of HIV infection during the first months of life. With HIV nucleic acid detection tests, HIV infection can be detected in nearly all infants aged greater than or equal to 1 month. The timing of the HIV serologic and HIV nucleic acid detection tests and the number of HIV nucleic acid detection tests in the definitive and presumptive criteria for HIV infection are based on the recommended practices for diagnosing infection in children aged less than 18 months and on evaluations of the performance of these tests for children in this age group (30,77-88). The clinical criteria in the case definition for HIV infection are included to ensure the complete reporting of cases with documented evidence of HIV infection or conditions meeting the AIDS case definition. The AIDS-defining conditions are included as part of the single case definition for HIV infection. In adults and adolescents aged greater than or equal to 13 years, criteria for presumptive and definitive AIDS-defining conditions have not been revised since 1993 and continue to include the laboratory markers of severe HIV-related immunosuppression and the opportunistic illnesses indicative of severe HIV disease, which greatly increase mortality risks. Effect of National HIV Case Surveillance on Reporting Trends Changes in the HIV reporting criteria will have little effect on reporting trends in states already conducting HIV case surveillance. However, the number of cases of HIV infection reported nationally will increase primarily because of implementation of HIV surveillance by the remaining states and local areas. Many of the states that will implement HIV case surveillance in the future have high AIDS incidence rates. Similar to the effect on AIDS surveillance trends after the implementation of the revised reporting criteria in 1993, the initiation of HIV surveillance by additional states might result in a sudden and large increase in HIV case reports (96). On the basis of CDC's estimate that approximately 220,000 HIV-infected persons without AIDS-defining conditions had had HIV infection diagnosed in confidential testing settings and resided in states that were not conducting HIV case surveillance at the end of 1996 (46), the possibility exists that this number of persons could be reported with HIV infection from these states in 2000. However, reporting of prevalent HIV infections is more likely to be spread over several years, and the annual increases will most likely be more modest. Initially, most case reports will represent persons whose HIV infection was diagnosed before the implementation of HIV surveillance. As the reporting of prevalent cases of HIV infection reaches full implementation nationwide, the number of HIV case reports will decrease, and case reports will increasingly represent persons with recent diagnoses of HIV infection. To facilitate interpretation of HIV surveillance data and given that CDC strongly promotes continued availability of anonymous testing options, evaluations of HIV/AIDS surveillance systems will include assessments of the representativeness of HIV case surveillance data. These assessments will include special surveys to evaluate the delays between HIV testing and entry to care. In addition, these evaluations will be useful in determining the effectiveness of program efforts to refer persons into care services after the diagnosis of HIV infection in anonymous testing settings. AIDS cases have declined nationwide; however, because AIDS surveillance trends are affected by the incidence of HIV infection, as well as the effect of treatment on the progression of HIV disease, future AIDS trends cannot be predicted. AIDS surveillance will continue to be important in evaluating access to care for different populations and in identifying changes in trends that might signal a decrease in the effectiveness of treatment. The long-term benefits of antiretroviral therapy and antimicrobial prophylaxis for AIDS-related illnesses continue to be defined. In addition, various factors (e.g., access, adherence, treatment costs, and viral resistance) will influence the use and effectiveness of these therapies and their effects on AIDS incidence and mortality trends (97-99). Because trends in new diagnoses of HIV infection are affected by when in the course of disease a person seeks or is offered HIV testing, such trends do not reflect the incidence of HIV infection in the population. In addition, because all HIV-infected persons in the population might not have had the infection diagnosed, these data do not represent total HIV prevalence in the population. Currently, interpretation of these data is complicated by several factors. First, persons might have HIV infection diagnosed and later during the same calendar year have AIDS diagnosed, which can complicate presentation of the data. Second, delays in reporting cases of HIV infection tend to be shorter than for AIDS cases, necessitating development of stage-specific statistical adjustments. Third, methods of imputation of exposure risk data for AIDS cases have been developed based on historical patterns of reclassification after investigation, but comparable methods for cases of HIV infection are only recently available at the national level. Finally, whether a trend in the number of new HIV diagnoses is stable, increasing, or decreasing might reflect current or historical HIV transmission patterns, changes in testing behaviors, and/or stage of the epidemic in the local geographic area. Overall, in the United States, the incidence of HIV infection peaked approximately 15 years ago, and the annual number of HIV infections has been stable at approximately 40,000 since 1992, when CDC estimated the prevalence of HIV infection in the range of 650,000-900,000 infected persons (100,101). Based on HIV and AIDS case surveillance data, CDC estimates that the prevalence of HIV infection at the end of 1998 was in the range of 800,000-900,000 infected persons. Of these persons, approximately 625,000 (range: 575,000-675,000) had had HIV infection or AIDS diagnosed (CDC, unpublished data, 1999). Because the annual number of new infections in recent years is relatively lower than during the peak incidence years, over time the remaining untested or anonymously tested infected persons will have HIV infection diagnosed through test-seeking, targeted testing, entry to care, or progression of disease to AIDS. Ultimately, the number of new diagnoses of HIV infection will decrease each year as they increasingly represent the smaller pool of more recently infected persons. Thus, in states that have been conducting HIV case reporting for several years, the number of new diagnoses of HIV infection is expected to decrease, then stabilize at a lower rate if the number of new infections remains stable. For states that newly implement HIV reporting, a large bolus of reported prevalent infections is expected to occur, followed by a decline in the annual number of new cases until the number stabilizes at a lower level. Recently, since the impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy on survival, the estimated number of new infections each year probably exceeds the number of deaths, and the prevalence of HIV infection might be increasing by a small proportion of total prevalence. Thus, during the transition period to nationwide HIV-infection reporting, measures of the combined prevalence of HIV infection diagnoses and AIDS diagnoses will be most useful in projecting the need for resources for care and prevention. Trends in the numbers of new cases reported will not provide immediate insights into the dynamics of the epidemic because prevalent case reports represent a mixture of new and old HIV infections. Within the next several years, however, all states will be able to characterize new diagnoses of HIV infection or a representative sample by demographic and clinical characteristics that will provide meaningful insights into actual HIV transmission patterns and will have well-characterized the health and service needs of the population of prevalent HIV-infected persons. CDC will develop analysis profiles, statistical adjustments for reporting delays and imputation of risk data, and recommendations for data presentation to assist states in analyzing and interpreting their HIV/AIDS surveillance data during this transition period. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Practices Laboratories will be an increasingly important source of information from which to initiate reporting. HIV infection is frequently diagnosed in the outpatient clinical setting, and laboratory-initiated reporting will be particularly useful in identifying outpatient sources of HIV testing (89) although contact with individual providers is necessary to complete the reporting process. The routine collection of HIV and CD4 test data from laboratories and managed-care organizations promotes completeness of reporting and may increase the simplicity and efficiency of initial case-finding activities by local surveillance programs. Nonetheless, repeated testing of the same persons results in multiple reports and necessitates labor-intensive follow-up to eliminate duplicates. CDC is increasing its efforts to promote standards in laboratory reporting and to facilitate the transfer of data from public health and commercial laboratories to health departments. Performance criteria for HIV and AIDS surveillance are necessary to ensure that surveillance data are of sufficient quality to target prevention and care resources and to detect emerging trends in the HIV epidemic. Evaluations of HIV and AIDS surveillance programs have documented that areas should be able to meet these performance criteria (5,36,61-67,89,90). According to these evaluations of name-based surveillance systems, the completeness of HIV surveillance (from 79% to approximately 95%) and AIDS surveillance (from 85% to approximately 95%) is high, and reporting is timely with nearly one half of AIDS cases and three quarters of cases of HIV infection reported to the national HIV/AIDS reporting system within 3 months of diagnosis (5). CDC estimates that the duplication rate of cases of HIV infection reported from different states to the national surveillance database was approximately 2%; for AIDS cases, the rate was approximately 3% (5,36). The performance criteria also reflect the need for public health surveillance systems to identify and follow-up on cases of public health importance. On the basis of current evaluation studies of non-name-based case identifiers and the current infrastructure of state and local health departments, name-based methods for collecting and reporting public health data provide the most feasible, simple, and reliable means for ensuring timely, accurate, and complete reporting of persons in whom HIV infection or AIDS has been diagnosed. Confidential name-based reporting also facilitates follow-up of perinatally exposed infants to determine their infection status and of persons reported with HIV infection to determine progression to AIDS and vital status (36,42). A name-based patient identifier allows providers to report cases directly from their name-based medical records, facilitates elimination of duplicate case reports, enables cross-matching of HIV and AIDS data with other name-based public health data (e.g., tuberculosis surveillance), permits follow-up with providers to collect information regarding risk for HIV infection and other data of public health importance. Through follow-up with providers, the HIV/AIDS surveillance system has provided an effective means to identify rare or unusual modes of HIV transmission and infection with rare strains of HIV and to improve prevention of HIV-related opportunistic illnesses (102-106). CDC will assist states in monitoring the impact of changing medical interventions, epidemiology, and HIV case surveillance policies on test- and care-seeking behaviors. Security and Confidentiality of HIV and AIDS Surveillance The revision of the case definition for HIV infection provides an opportunity to review and strengthen state and local confidentiality laws and regulations. Although state HIV/AIDS surveillance confidentiality laws and regulations adequately protect privacy compared with the statutory protections of other health-care data, state statutes differ in the degree of privacy protections afforded health information and the criteria for permissible disclosures of personal information. Most state statutes describe some permissible disclosures of public health information. To help ensure uniform confidentiality protections, the Georgetown University Law Center developed the Model State Public Health Privacy Act (69). Public health, legislative, legal, and community advocacy representatives provided expert consultation. The model legislative language protects confidential, identifiable information held by state and local public health departments against unauthorized and inappropriate non-public health uses but still allows public health officials to use surveillance information to accomplish the public health objectives defined by the law (69). CDC recommends that states planning to implement HIV case surveillance should consider adopting the model legislation, if necessary, to strengthen the current level of protection of public health data. Although HIV/AIDS surveillance systems have exemplary records of security and confidentiality, it is essential for all programs to identify ways to strengthen data protection because of a perceived greater sensitivity of HIV case surveillance compared with that of AIDS case surveillance alone (71). Providing accurate public education and factual media messages to inform vulnerable populations, as well as promoting testing programs that facilitate referrals into treatment and prevention services, will be important to ensure that test seeking and acceptance are not adversely affected as additional states implement HIV case reporting. The revised security standards (74) promote enhancements to further reduce any potential for disclosure of sensitive surveillance data. CDC continues to conduct evaluations of methods to further enhance data security, including the use of coding and encryption of data collected in the HIV/AIDS reporting system. HIV Prevention and Care CDC has published guidelines concerning the provision and targeting of HIV counseling and testing services (29,41,107-111) and provides support for most public sources of HIV testing. The availability of anonymous HIV testing services might be particularly important for persons who delay seeking testing because of a concern that others might learn of their serologic status (55). Studies have documented that the availability of anonymous HIV testing is associated with increased numbers of persons seeking testing services (112-115). Anonymous HIV testing services are a required element of federally supported prevention programs unless prohibited by state law or regulation. Currently, 39 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia provide anonymous HIV testing services. CDC advises that the decision to refer persons reported to the surveillance system to prevention and care services (e.g., partner counseling and referral services [PCRS]) be made at the local level. PCRS programs provide HIV counseling and testing to persons who might be unaware of HIV risk exposures, and these services are a required component of federally sponsored HIV-prevention programs (116,117). The provision of such services to persons in whom HIV infection or AIDS has been diagnosed, especially those who receive services in publicly funded testing and clinic settings, is conducted successfully by states regardless of whether they have implemented HIV reporting (118). Referrals from surveillance to other health department services, when they occur, should be established in a manner that ensures both the quality of the surveillance data and the security of the surveillance system, as well as the quality, confidentiality, and voluntary nature of HIV-prevention services (119). At the federal level, the primary function of HIV/AIDS surveillance remains the provision of accurate epidemiologic data for public health information, planning, and evaluation. Persons in whom HIV infection has been diagnosed at either confidential or anonymous test sites should be promptly referred to facilities that provide confidential HIV care. Recent studies have documented disparities in ensuring timely testing and access to care by demographic, socioeconomic, and other factors (120,121). Although not directly responsible for the delivery of medical care, CDC provides federal direction for state and local programs that facilitate referral of HIV-infected persons from counseling and testing centers and health education/risk-reduction programs to HIV care facilities. CDC has developed guidelines to strengthen the system of referrals between HIV testing sites and care programs, in part by increasing coordination with the Health Resources and Services Administration and the Ryan White CARE Act grantees (122). To provide further guidance, CDC has participated in developing model contract language for Medicaid programs that serve persons with HIV infection to ensure cooperation with public health authorities in case reporting and follow-up. A well-developed and well-implemented HIV and AIDS case surveillance system is integral to public health efforts to identify disparities, target programs and resources to vulnerable populations, and assess the impact of these programs in reducing infection, disease, and premature death. CDC is undertaking a national effort to further reduce perinatal HIV transmission in the United States. This effort will incorporate HIV counseling and voluntary testing, treatment, and outreach to pregnant women, especially those who are racial/ethnic minorities and substance abusers, and will integrate prevention and treatment services for women and children. Surveillance for perinatally HIV-exposed and HIV- infected children will remain a critical measure of the effectiveness of this campaign (32,40,41,123,124). The implementation of a national surveillance network to include both HIV and AIDS case reporting is a necessary response to epidemiologic trends and new standards for HIV care (125-127). Integrated HIV/AIDS surveillance programs will provide data to characterize persons in whom HIV infection has been newly diagnosed, including those with evidence of recent infection, persons with severe HIV disease (AIDS), and those dying of HIV disease or AIDS. The revised HIV surveillance case definition and the establishment of minimum performance standards will promote uniform case ascertainment and will ensure that the surveillance data are of sufficient quality for effective planning and allocation of resources for prevention and care programs. Note: To print large tables and graphs users may have to change their printer settings to landscape and use a small font size. TABLE 1. Characteristics of persons aged >=13 years with HIV, by disease status at initial diagnosis* -- 25 states, January 1994-June 1997 * For persons who had not had an HIV diagnosis before being diagnosed with AIDS, their AIDS diagnosis date is considered their earliest HIV diagnosis date; for persons initially reported with HIV who subsequently had AIDS diagnosed and reported, they are presented by the earliest diagnosis date, which is their HIV diagnosis. Return to top. Return to top. Return to top. Return to top. Disclaimer All MMWR HTML versions of articles are electronic conversions from ASCII text into HTML. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors in the HTML version. Users should not rely on this HTML document, but are referred to the electronic PDF version and/or the original MMWR paper copy for the official text, figures, and tables. An original paper copy of this issue can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9371; telephone: (202) 512-1800. Contact GPO for current prices.**Questions or messages regarding errors in formatting should be addressed to [email protected]. Page converted: 12/8/1999 This page last reviewed 5/2/01

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Here are the steps to formatting and labeling NHANES variables : These user-defined formats used here include the: Use proc format with a value statement for each variable to assign the format to the selected value. Don't forget to put format names in single or double quotation marks. When defining formats in SAS, do not forget to put format names in single or double quotation marks. After you have assigned formats, you can apply them to selected variables using the format statement in the data step of your code. Please note that format names always come directly after variable names and MUST end with a period. Finally, label selected variables using a label statement. User-defined labels should always be surrounded by single quotation marks.

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Life connections are the recognition of the application, relevance, and meaning of academic information to a first grader’s experience in civic, social, and post-secondary life. Making connections is the cornerstone of thinking strategies. Making life connections involves building on prior knowledge and schema to allow for greater depth of learning. The ability to relate or associate people, events, ideas, language, performance and various other aspects of learning to one another creates deeper understanding. Life Connections can connect all 10 content areas as detailed below. Comprehensive Health and Physical Education In comprehensive health and physical education, life connections involve relating health and fitness to the ways wellness affects one individually, including the ability of the brain to learn, and relationships to others and the environment. Understanding the benefits of physical activity is essential to developing lifelong movers. By mastering life connections, students will be able to apply their fitness prevention knowledge to choose healthy behaviors when dangerous situations arise and to engage in physical activity regularly. In dance, life connections help learners connect dance to the world around them. Examples of this include: use of costumes, masks, headpieces and dance sequences to understand various peoples, places and things. Connecting body movement to simple concepts to understand other cultures or ethnicities fosters cultural literacy. Drama and Theatre Arts In drama and theatre arts, life connections pull together theatre and real life experiences. Describing the difference between theatre and real life enhances the theatre experience. Early discernment of individual, group and environmental connections prepares learners for understanding differences between fiction and nonfiction. In mathematics, life connections help develop mathematical understanding and transfer concepts to new situations and contexts. For example, solving a variety of contextual problems is the basis for learning the concepts of addition and subtraction. First graders create and relate their knowledge of addition, subtraction, graphs, and time to relevant life connections. In music, life connections show the integral part of music in communities and culture. Identifying the types of music used for various events such as patriotic music for Independence Day can enable students to connect relevance and understanding to a particular way of life or cultural event. Reading, Writing, and Communicating In reading, writing and communicating, life connections help learners build background knowledge in order to construct new meaning and make real world connections. In first grade, students develop a purpose for reading by asking critical questions to create a deeper understanding of text. In science, life connections refer to the associations students make between their life and the natural world. The scientific skills of making careful observations and predictions, analyzing evidence, and formulating and evaluating conclusions can be used in any type of decision making process. In social studies, life connections are the ways in which students make sense of life and how they are connect to the world. History supports how students connect the events of the past to the present and to make meaning of the world in which they live. Economics helps students understand how the choices they make have both costs and benefits. In geography students learn how the physical and human environments interact with their lives. Civics provides an understanding of how humans interact and the need for rules and order in society. Making life connections is critical for one to relate and understand how the interaction of people, events, and ideas are interconnected and impact one’s world. In visual arts, life connections are associations made between art and the surrounding world. For example, icons and pictorial representations help the learner understand various peoples, places and things. Connecting visual representation to concepts such as cultural differences can help to foster understanding of these complex connections. In world languages, life connections help learners understand the target culture and are found in a culture’s perspectives, expressive products (e.g., music, visual arts, literature), tangible products (e.g., toys, food) or intangible products (e.g., concept of time, holidays). In playing games, singing songs, and reading books in the target language, learners find relationships between their culture and the target culture. Summary Document: All standards pages for life connections

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There are many economic aspects to think about when purchasing a tool. This post discusses some of the basics covering: burdened costs, assessing the value of a tool, make versus buy decisions , and training costs. Correctly accounting for the burdened costs is critical when understanding the costs of internal development. This is important for both “make versus buy” decisions and to understand what a productivity improvement is worth in lowering expenses. The development costs are more than just the internal developer’s salary. This should be the total costs that the company spends for that person’s time. The benefits for the internal employee should be included, then a portion of other costs such as the rent. There may be other costs that should also be added. For example, if there is one technician for every three hardware engineers then one third of the technicians’ burdened cost should be added to the burdened cost for the hardware engineer. A more in-depth discussion is available at the following link (though a bit “salesy” as they partly promote their solution): http://www.infoplusacct.com/cms-pdf/Labor%20Burden-PDF%20version.pdf For example, in high-tech a typical yearly burdened cost for a development engineer in the Bay Area is between $200,000 and $250,000. This cost will vary depending on the region of the country, the experience of the engineer, and the particular expertise involved. The costs can easily vary up to 100% within the same company within the same location. Most yearly burdened costs for an engineer are between $75,000 and $400,000 a year. Value of a Tool Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe. - Abraham Lincoln The value of a sharp and efficient tool can be great, and there are times for when selecting or building the right tool is critical. Just imagine how taxing it would be to undertake a large software project without a compiler. However, the first question about a tool is “Is it worth it at all?”. Does the tool provide enough value to justify the purchase or the development of a tool? Assessing the value of a tool depends on how it fits within the project. A tool that enables the team to take on a complex project may be invaluable. Another tool may accelerate the completion of tasks that are on the critical path for a project. The primary value of such a tool comes from the improved time-to-market for the overall project. Another tool may provide a general productivity improvement for team members. The value for such a tool may be in lowering the expenses to complete the project. Lastly, another tool’s primary value may be in being able to debug complex issues that will hold up the project when they are encountered. The biggest part of the value for such a tool may be the peace of mind that it brings to project management. It is interesting to follow how the value of a tool evolves over time. When a tool is a new concept the focus is on improving time-to-market and user productivity. Early adopters may receive tremendous gains from being first to use a tool. As a tool becomes more commonly used the focus becomes keeping up with your competition. You may feel that you are being left behind, or will have difficulty keeping pace without the tool. Once a tool is in widespread usage often it becomes a recruiting issue. The lack of the tool may make it hard to hire engineers that view the tools as inferior without the capability. Also being trained on the tool may become a requirement to be considered for certain positions. Make Versus Buy Decisions Most commercial tools started as internal custom tools. Then as the number of users grew, some companies decided they could make a profit to selling tool products to those users. With third party commercial tools available a company is presented with a “make versus buy” decision. In doing such an analysis it is important to make sure that it is a fair “apples-to-apples” comparison. The first issue in making the comparison fair is to understand the true burdened costs for the internal development option. Other variables also need to be taken into account. For example, if the commercial tool has better documentation than the internal tool. You must either add time to improve the internal documentation, or assess the lost productivity in using a poorly documented tool. The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of the tool needs to be assessed, including the ongoing maintenance, calibration, and training for the tool. There are issues that go beyond just the economics in a “make versus buy” the decision. Other factors such as risk and control need to be included. The presentation at this link provides a good checklist of those other issues when procuring an outside product. http://www.maxwideman.com/issacons4/iac1402/sld002.htm For complex tools the training costs associated with using a tool can be a significant portion of the cost of integrating a tool into a development organization. First there are the actual fees for the training class itself. If the expertise is rare and in-demand these fees can easily run into the thousands of dollars per engineer. Of course on top of that is the burdened cost of the time of the engineer that is taking the class, the cost of travel, or other specific expenses in taking a class. Lastly there are the hidden training costs. These come from the lessened initial productivity when using a new tool. It may take a few weeks or months before someone is fully proficient in the new tool. They are still effectively training themselves, even though they are not in a classroom. Also the person that is the internal expert on the tool may become deluged with questions from colleagues during the learning phase. When these costs are factored in, it becomes apparent why the ease-of-use can be a critical decision criterion when selecting a new tool. It also explains why companies are generally reluctant to switch tools, and almost never switch tools in the middle of a project. I hope this summary has been valuable, and caused you to think about the economics of tools. Please comment if you have a specific example that relates. Packet Plus, Inc.

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This is an excerpt from my latest book. The particular chapter is about ear infections — what they are and what they would look like if you could see the microscopic action up close. Before you can understand an infected ear, though, you need to see what a normal one looks like. The idea in this passage is to describe what you would see if you were inside a combination tiny submarine and all-terrain vehicle and made a journey up the back of the nose, up the tube connecting the nose to the middle ear, and then into a normal middle ear. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Finally, you pop through a tight opening and find yourself in the middle ear. You land your craft on the floor of this air-filled cave to have a good look around. In its tiny way, it is a majestic sight. Your searchlight reveals high above you, like stone arches in the Utah desert, a series of three delicately interconnected bones. The bones span the open space from one side of the cavern to the other. One wall of the cavern is formed by the translucent, pearl gray eardrum. When you shine your light on it you can see right through it, revealing some clumps of earwax in your son’s ear canal beyond. You cringe a bit, wondering if you should have cleaned his ears out with a cotton swab. (The answer is no—never stick a swab deep into his ear canal. Gazing at the delicate structures around you, it is clear why: they are easily damaged.) Shining your light back at the bony arches in the space above, you see the first of these bones presses up against the inner surface of his eardrum. The end of the third bone lies against the far wall on what looks like a tiny, oblong window. This structure has a matter-of-fact name: the oval window. There is another opening nearby, called the round window, because that is what it resembles. Both windows are covered by a thin membrane. Behind the windows lies the inner ear, but you cannot see it because it is recessed into the wall. The middle bone, directly above you, connects the other two bones with each other, linking eardrum to oval window. What you are looking at is the astonishing mechanism by which sound waves in the air are transformed into a sound we can hear inside our brains. It works like this: When sound waves strike the eardrum, it vibrates. The vibrations cause the connected series of three bones to wiggle, passing the vibrations down the chain to the delicate membrane covering of the oval window. As this membrane vibrates, it causes the fluid within the inner ear to move. Sticking out into this liquid are the so-called hair cells, which get their name because they do look hairy; from the inner ear surface a matrix of delicate hairs sticks out into the liquid. When the liquid moves, the tiny hairs move back and forth. The hair cells connect directly to nerves that run into the brain, which finally translates these minute twitches and wiggles into what we perceive as sound. The little round window is necessary because, without its complementary movement in and out, the vibrations from the third bone pushing on the oval window would be unable to move the fluid in the inner ear. You cannot compress a liquid inside a rigid container—in this case, the rigid container is the skull bone encasing the inner ear. The sensitivity of this chain of bones, membranes, and tiny hairs is another amazing aspect of hearing. It allows us to localize, quite precisely, from which direction a particular sound is coming. Our brains do this by comparing the intensity of the sound between our two ears: we can turn our head until the sounds are equal on both sides in order to locate the direction of a sound. This explains those instances when we find it difficult to localize a sound—in a cave, for example. Any situation in which sound waves are reflected off surrounding walls or structures can make them strike our eardrums in confusing patterns. We can twist our heads around to try and find the source, but if it the sound waves come from several directions our brains will remain confused. Hearing is indeed a fantastic mechanism. As your searchlights illuminate the overarching mini-cathedral of the middle ear, your son hears something, and you see the system function in all its glory—eardrum vibrating, connecting bones quivering, and the oval and round windows shimmering as they move. Inside the windows, you glimpse the hair cells waving. Suitably awed by the grandeur of what you have seen, you exit his middle ear and nose the same way you came in. - What inflammation looks like up close and personal, part II Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Here’s another snippet from the first... - What inflammation looks like up close and personal, part I Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Here’s a snippet from the first... - What inflammation looks like up close and personal, part III Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Here’s another snippet from the first... - What inflammation looks like up close and personal, part IV Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Here’s another snippet from the first... Leave a Reply 06/11/2014 • Complicated medical procedures can be dangerous, even when done by highly skilled and experienced people. Why? Because, irrespective of the procedural risk itself, all of us are human and we can overlook or forget things, ...more 02/13/2014 • It seems lately that questions of medical ethics are coming up more and more in the news, things like the rights of patients to make decisions, definitions of futile care, and end of life care. ...more 11/23/2013 • A large number of pediatric practices these days use after-hours call centers for parents who have questions about a sick child. I've been looking around to find some data about how common this is, but ...more 08/12/2013 • This is something that doesn't seem, on the surface, to be directly related to critical care, but it really is. Doctor Mike Magee and his wife founded an organization called The Rocking Chair Project. The notion is simple. ...more

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ON THE SITUATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS In light of the background information and considerations set forth in the present report, the overall conclusion of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights is that an alarming climate of violence has prevailed in recent years in Guatemala, which violence has either been instigated or tolerated by a Government, unwilling or unable to contain it. The violence has resulted in an excessive loss of life and in a widespread deterioration of the human rights set forth in the American Convention on Human Rights. While the victims of this violence are found in all sectors of society—including even the Armed Forces and those who possess political and economic power--, there is no doubt at all that the sectors most affected have been political leaders of opposition parties, trade unionists, priests, lawyers, journalists, professors and teachers, as well as the thousands of peasants and Indians who have been assassinated. In the large majority of cases, the deaths resulting from this violence were due to illegal executions and to the “disappearances” engineered by the security forces or paramilitary civilian groups acting in close collaboration with the governmental authorities, which authorities took no steps to conduct proper or effective investigation as to the identities of the perpetrators of These illegal executions and disappearances not only violate the right to life, they have created an endemic climate of total alarm, and even terror, which has subverted the rule of law, and in practice, has inhibited the observance of most of the rights set forth in the American Convention on Human The generalized violence in Guatemala has meant, as shown in the various chapters of this Report, that the rights to personal freedom and safety, a fair trial and due process, freedom of conscience and religion, freedom of thought and expression, and freedom of assembly and association, as well as political rights, are seriously affected and restricted in fact, despite their formal recognition in the Guatemalan Constitution and Laws. The great socio-economic disparities among the various sectors of the Guatemalan population have also contributed to the generalized violence in the country. These disparities are evident in, among other things, the notable lack of correspondence between Guatemala's rates of growth in recent years and the quality of life of approximately half the population, whose economic and social rights—particularly as regards basic needs in the areas of health, nutrition and education—have not been realized. In consideration of the conclusions set forth here the IACHR presents the following recommendations to the Government of Guatemala: That it take the necessary measures to prevent the occurrence of serious violations of the right of life; that it end the participation of an tolerance by, governmental authorities and paramilitary groups in the violence and terrorism, and that it investigate and rigorously punish those responsible for That it investigate and punish, with the full force of the law, those responsible for the illegal executions, disappearances, arbitrary detentions and That it effectively guarantee freedom of association, the right of assembly and trade-union freedom as set forth in the Guatemalan Constitution and in the American Convention on Human Rights. That it effect a thorough-going and complete reorganization of the judiciary, so that once it has the human and material resources, the judiciary can function in true autonomy and with sufficient powers to effectively and promptly investigate violations of human rights, and to punish those responsible, regardless of who they may be, without fear of reprisals. That it open a broad dialogue with all sectors of Guatemalan society in an effort to end the violence and to find a solution to the social and economic problems through democratic, peaceful means and processes.

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WARSAW, Poland — The American POWs sent secret coded messages to Washington with news of a Soviet atrocity: In 1943 they saw rows of corpses in an advanced state of decay in the Katyn forest, on the western edge of Russia, proof that the killers could not have been the Nazis who had only recently occupied the area. The testimony about the infamous massacre of Polish officers might have lessened the tragic fate that befell Poland under the Soviets, some scholars believe. Instead, it mysteriously vanished into the heart of American power. The long-held suspicion is that President Franklin Delano Roosevelt didn't want to anger Josef Stalin, an ally whom the Americans were counting on to defeat Germany and Japan during World War II. Documents released Monday and seen in advance by The Associated Press lend weight to the belief that suppression within the highest levels of the U.S. government helped cover up Soviet guilt in the killing of some 22,000 Polish officers and other prisoners in the Katyn forest and other locations in 1940. The evidence is among about 1,000 pages of newly declassified documents that the United States National Archives released and is putting online. Ohio Rep. Marcy Kaptur, who helped lead a recent push for the release of the documents, called the effort's success Monday a "momentous occasion" in an attempt to "make history whole." Historians who saw the material days before the official release describe it as important and shared some highlights with the AP. The most dramatic revelation so far is the evidence of the secret codes sent by the two American POWs — something historians were unaware of and which adds to evidence that the Roosevelt administration knew of the Soviet atrocity relatively early on. The declassified documents also show the United States maintaining that it couldn't conclusively determine guilt until a Russian admission in 1990 — a statement that looks improbable given the huge body of evidence of Soviet guilt that had already emerged decades earlier. Historians say the new material helps to flesh out the story of what the U.S. knew and when. The Soviet secret police killed the 22,000 Poles with shots to the back of the head. Their aim was to eliminate a military and intellectual elite that would have put up stiff resistance to Soviet control. The men were among Poland's most accomplished — officers and reserve officers who in their civilian lives worked as doctors, lawyers, teachers, or as other professionals. Their loss has proven an enduring wound to the Polish nation. In the early years after the war, outrage by some American officials over the concealment inspired the creation of a special U.S. Congressional committee to investigate Katyn. In a final report released in 1952, the committee declared there was no doubt of Soviet guilt, and called the massacre "one of the most barbarous international crimes in world history." It found that Roosevelt's administration suppressed public knowledge of the crime, but said it was out of military necessity. It also recommended the government bring charges against the Soviets at an international tribunal — something never acted upon. Despite the committee's strong conclusions, the White House maintained its silence on Katyn for decades, showing an unwillingness to focus on an issue that would have added to political tensions with the Soviets during the Cold War. Nazis forced POWs to view scene It was May 1943 in the Katyn forest, a part of Russia the Germans had seized from the Soviets in 1941. A group of American and British POWs were taken against their will by their German captors to witness a horrifying scene at a clearing surrounded by pine trees: mass graves tightly packed with thousands of partly mummified corpses in well-tailored Polish officers uniforms. The Americans — Capt. Donald B. Stewart and Lt. Col. John H. Van Vliet Jr. — hated the Nazis and didn't want to believe the Germans. They had seen German cruelty up close, and the Soviets, after all, were their ally. The Germans were hoping to use the POWs for propaganda, and to drive a wedge between the Soviet Union and its Western Allies. But returning to their POW camps, the Americans carried a conviction that they had just witnessed overwhelming proof of Soviet guilt. The corpses' advanced state of decay told them the killings took place much earlier in the war, when the Soviets still controlled the area. They also saw Polish letters, diaries, identification tags, news clippings and other objects — none dated later than spring of 1940 — pulled from the graves. The evidence that did the most to convince them was the good state of the men's boots and clothing: That told them the men had not lived long after being captured. Stewart testified before the 1951 Congressional committee about what he saw, and Van Vliet wrote reports on Katyn in 1945 and 1950, the first of which mysteriously disappeared. But the newly declassified documents show that both sent secret encoded messages while still in captivity to army intelligence with their opinion of Soviet culpability. It's an important revelation because it shows the Roosevelt administration was getting information early on from credible U.S. sources of Soviet guilt — yet still ignored it for the sake of the alliance with Stalin. One shows head of Army intelligence, Gen. Clayton Bissell, confirming that some months after the 1943 visit to Katyn by the U.S. officers, a coded request by MIS-X, a unit of military intelligence, was sent to Van Vliet requesting him "to state his opinion of Katyn." Bissell's note said that "it is also understood Col. Van Vliet & Capt. Stewart replied." MIS-X was devoted to helping POWs held behind German lines escape; it also used the prisoners to gather intelligence. A statement from Stewart dated 1950 confirms he received and sent coded messages to Washington during the war, including one on Katyn: "Content of my report was aprx (approximately): German claims regarding Katyn substantially correct in opinion of Van Vliet and myself." The newly uncovered documents also show Stewart was ordered in 1950 — soon before the Congressional committee began its work — never to speak about a secret message on Katyn. Krystyna Piorkowska, author of the recently published book "English-Speaking Witnesses to Katyn: Recent Research," discovered the documents related to the coded messages more than a week ago. She was one of several researchers who saw the material ahead of the public release. She had already determined in her research that Van Vliet and Stewart were "code users" who had gotten messages out about other matters. But this is the first discovery of them communicating about Katyn, she said. Another Katyn expert aware of the documents, Allen Paul, author of "Katyn: Stalin's Massacre and the Triumph of Truth," told the AP the find is "potentially explosive." He said the material does not appear in the record of the Congressional hearings in 1951-52, and appears to have also been suppressed. He argues that the U.S. cover-up delayed a full understanding in the United States of the true nature of Stalinism — an understanding that came only later, after the Soviets exploded an atomic bomb in 1949 and after Poland and the rest of Eastern Europe were already behind the Iron Curtain. "The Poles had known long before the war ended what Stalin's true intentions were," Paul said. "The West's refusal to hear them out on the Katyn issue was a crushing blow that made their fate worse." The historical record carries other evidence Roosevelt knew in 1943 of Soviet guilt. One of the most important messages that landed on FDR's desk was an extensive and detailed report British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent him. Written by the British ambassador to the Polish government-in-exile in London, Owen O'Malley, it pointed to Soviet guilt at Katyn. "There is now available a good deal of negative evidence," O'Malley wrote, "the cumulative effect of which is to throw serious doubt on Russian disclaimers of responsibility for the massacre." Gorbachev comes clean It wasn't until the waning days of Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe that reformist leader Mikhail Gorbachev publicly admitted to Soviet guilt at Katyn, a key step in Polish-Russian reconciliation. The silence by the U.S. government has been a source of deep frustration for many Polish-Americans. One is Franciszek Herzog, 81, a Connecticut man whose father and uncle died in the massacre. After Gorbachev's 1990 admission, he was hoping for more openness from the U.S. as well and made three attempts to obtain an apology from President George H.W. Bush. "It will not resurrect the men," he wrote to Bush. "But will give moral satisfaction to the widows and orphans of the victims." A reply he got in 1992, from the State Department, did not satisfy him. His correspondence with the government is also among the newly released documents and was obtained early by the AP from the George Bush Presidential Library. The letter, dated Aug. 12, 1992, and signed by Thomas Gerth, then deputy director of the Office of Eastern European Affairs, shows the government stating that it lacked irrefutable evidence until Gorbachev's admission: "The U.S. government never accepted the Soviet Government's claim that it was not responsible for the massacre. However, at the time of the Congressional hearings in 1951-1952, the U.S. did not possess the facts that could clearly refute the Soviets' allegations that these crimes were committed by the Third Reich. These facts, as you know, were not revealed until 1990, when the Russians officially apologized to Poland." Herzog expressed frustration at that reply. "There's a big difference between not knowing and not wanting to know," Herzog said. "I believe the U.S. government didn't want to know because it was inconvenient to them." National Archives page on Katyn: http://www.archives.gov/research/foreign-policy/katyn-massacre/ -- Randy Herschaft and Venessa Gera, Associated Press

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With Climate Change, Brazil Faces Drop in Crops By Jan Rocha, Climate News Network São Paulo − Higher temperatures, drastic changes in rainfall, lower productivity, more blight and disease − these are just some of the expected consequences of climate change in Brazil if the projections of 345 scientists who make up the Brazilian Panel on Climate Change (PBMC) prove true. They predict that if present trends in greenhouse gas emissions continue, average temperatures in Brazil will be 3º-6ºC higher by 2100 than they were at the end of the 20th century. Future harvests of monoculture crops, such as soya beans, could be severely reduced in Brazil if farmers don’t adapt to climate change. Credit: Tiago Fioreze via Climate News Network Rainfall patterns could change drastically, increasing by up to 30 percent in the south and south-east of the country, while diminishing by up to 40 percent in the north and north-east. The forecasts, based on research over the last six years, are contained in a report that provides the most complete diagnosis yet of the future tendencies of the Brazilian climate. The report will be presented at Brazil’s first national conference on global climate change, to be held in São Paulo from September 9-13 and organized by the publicly-funded São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). The data will then be included in the fifth report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), to be released two weeks later. The changes in temperature and rainfall will not be confined to Brazil, the largest country in South America, but will also affect neighboring countries. “With the exception of Chile’s central and southern coast, where the last decades have seen a cooling, there will be a rise in temperature in all the other regions of South America,” says Jose Marengo, a climate scientist at Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (INPE), who uses regional climate models to develop projections for the future. ‘A bit crazy’ “There is a feeling that the seasons have become a bit crazy, with more frequent extremes of climate.” Tornados, once a rare occurrence, will become more frequent. Big and medium-sized cities will become hotter, with altered rain patterns. Rainfall in the Amazon region and in the semi-arid caatinga area of the north-east could fall by 40 percent, whereas in the south and south-east it could increase by 30 percent. For the cerrado savanna region of the central plateau, which has become a major cereal growing area, and the wetlands of the Pantanal, climate models also indicate significant changes, although the reliability of these projections is lower. All these changes will have a dramatic effect on harvests in one of the world’s major food producing countries, but Brazil’s farmers have so far shown little awareness of the problems in store, and consequently have not begun to adapt to the changing climate. Monocultures continue to expand, advancing into the Amazon region and taking over the cerrado. “We must act now to avoid a worsening situation,” warns Eduardo Assad, one of the PBMC researchers, who works for Embrapa, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation. Suggested measures include investing intensively in mixed agricultural systems, and abandoning the practice of monoculture. Farmers should also increase the biological fixation of nitrogen, reduce the use of pesticides (since 2008, Brazil has been the world’s biggest consumer), and increase the rotation of crops. Need a cup of Joe? Since 2000, there has been a fall in productivity in some regions in Brazil, principally in coffee, soy and maize. Credit: flickr/Global Crop Diversity Trust “The knowledge to do all this already exists, but we need stronger government guidance [for farmers],” Assad warns. “We must increase productivity in the mid-west, south-east and south to avoid the destruction of the Amazon. The reorganisation of Brazil’s rural space is urgent.” Antonio Magalhães, adviser to the government’s Center for Strategic Studies and Management in Science, Technology and Innovation (CGEE), also believes that agricultural, industrial and urban policies must be changed to include concerns with sustainability and extreme climate events such as rainstorms and droughts. “We must widen the debate and overcome institutional rigidity, resistances and short-term interests.” Crop losses are already being noted. “Since 2000, we have seen a fall in productivity in some regions, principally in coffee, soy and maize,” Assad says. Soy will be the most affected. By the end of 2013, Brazil is expected to overtake the US to become the world’s major producer, but that position will be hard to sustain if the expected effects of climate change kick in. “Even if the amount of rain stays the same, soil humidity will fall, because the rise in average temperatures will increase evaporation,” Magalhães warns. This will affect regions, such as the semi-arid north-east, where lack of water is a constant. The productivity of basic crops such as maize, beans, cotton, cassava and rice will suffer, leading to a drop in income in the region that is already Brazil’s most backward in terms of social indicators intensifying poverty. The federal government’s successful poverty reduction program, Bolsa Familia, will not be enough to stop a renewal of migration from the rural area to the cities, worsening infrastructure problems related to housing, transport and sanitation. The PBMC report foresees that climate change in Brazil will also bring an increase in fungal diseases and pests, caused by the rise of CO² levels in the air and ultraviolet B radiation. In addition to cereals, fruit crops such as banana, mango and grape will be hit. The report also says that more, and more intense, episodes of flooding and drought could alter the volume of the rivers and affect the supply of water to dam reservoirs. Hydropower accounts for well over half of Brazil’s energy. Biodiversity will be badly affected, including that of aquatic environments. Some biomes, characterized by a dominant vegetation, have already lost large areas because of intensive agriculture − the cerrado has lost 47 percent and the caatinga 44 percent − and it is now questionable whether their ecological equilibrium can be restored. In the cities, where more than 85 percent of Brazilians now live, there will be a greater risk of mudslides and worse flooding, while many of the major cities − such as Rio, Salvador and Recife − are on the coast, and therefore subject to a possible rise in ocean levels. The researchers want their report to be used to guide the drawing up and implementation of public policies for climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as to help companies in their future planning. The report, the first by the PBMC, also marks Brazil’s acceptance by the IPCC as a nation supplying projections on a planetary scale. This is because it has developed its own climate simulation model, the Brazilian Earth System Model (BESM) − the only country in the southern hemisphere to do so. The establishment of the BESM has enabled the scientists to reconstruct recent occurrences of the El Niño climate phenomenon − caused by abnormal heating up of the surface waters of the equatorial Pacific, which affects the rainfall regime in a large part of the planet − and simulate the effects of future El Niños. Author’s note: This report is based on articles by Carlos Fioravanti and Marcos Pivetta in the August edition of FAPESP’s research magazine. Jan Rocha is a reporter in the Latin American bureau for Climate News Network. Climate News Network is a news service led by four veteran British environmental reporters and broadcasters. It delivers news and commentary about climate change for free to media outlets worldwide.

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The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) is a very large, filter feeding shark, second only to the whale shark in size. Adults grow to lengths of up to 12 meters and weights of up to 20 tons, though specimens of this size are now rare. Due to past overexploitation, specimens caught today usually fall between 6 to 10 meters in length as individuals are less likely to reach their maximum age. Similar to the whale shark, it possesses a greatly enlarged mouth and highly modified gill rakers, though its body is noticeably different with a fusiform shape, crescent-shaped caudal fin and pointed snout. The colouration is typically greyish-brown, black or dark-blue dorsally and a dull white or light-grey ventrally. The term ‘basking’ refers to the animal’s habit of swimming and feeding slowly near the water’s surface. It is a filter feeder and employs a passive feeding mechanism which relies on the pressure of the passing water to push suspended prey through its gill rakers, distinct from the active suction filter technique of the whale shark. Prey items consist predominantly of zooplankton, small fish, fish eggs and invertebrates. The basking shark is a cosmopolitan, pelagic and migratory species, with a circumglobal distribution across the temperate and boreal oceans. It favours cold water habitats of between 8°C and 14°C, and is believed to migrate and overwinter in deeper waters. Recent studies however, show that some individuals overwinter in warmer waters of lower latitudes. Animals of the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts migrate south to Brazil for the winter, crossing the equator and remaining at depths of between 200 meters and 1000 meters for the course of this journey. Because of the shark’s sluggish and unaggressive nature, slow swimming speed and large size, the basking shark has been exploited for centuries for its liver oil, skin and meat. Its large and squalene-rich liver, accounting for up to 25% of its weight, has historically been used to supply oil of lighting and industrial use, its tough highly textured skin for leather and more recently, its fins, which are highly sought after for international trade to East Asia, for shark fin soup. Due to its slow maturity, long longevity and low reproduction rate, the basking shark is considered to be extremely vulnerable to overfishing, and population numbers have seen significant and rapid declines in the past few decades. As a result of this, the basking shark is legally protected in the US (regionally) and EU territorial waters, and trade in its products is restricted in many countries under CITES (Appendix II). It is currently listed in Appendix I and II of CMS, Annex I of the CMS Sharks MOU and Annex I of UNCLOS. photo credit: Tobey Curtis, NOAA Fisheries Service |CMS Instruments||CMS, Sharks (2010)| |Countries||Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Cabo Verde, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Denmark, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Libya, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Senegal, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay| |English||Basking Shark, (Traditionally Sunfish Or Sailfish, Hoe Mother)| |Scientific name||Cetorhinus maximus| |Standard reference||Eschmeyer, W.N. (1990). Catalogue of the Genera of Recent Fishes. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California.| |Additional notes||Cites listing: Appendix II|

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StatusThe thesis was presented on the 28 December, 2006 Approved by NCAA on the 1 March, 2007 Abstract– 0.31 Mb / in romanian 2.54 Mb / This work ,,Development of visual perception to students through the agency of studying graphic discipline” is addressee to draw up, specification a lot of strategy and contents in illustrative activity process., which allow assimilation and application most fruitfully of creating contents. In this work was tackle specific features of visual-spatial perception of object’s representation, as well as some problems of education visual perception as Ist and IIst year students, who study technical drawling, perceptional drawling and projective drawling. In this model of base propose its founded a solution strategy and fulfill all graphic works special selected, volumetric spatial modeling, both through the agency of traditional technology, and this modern programs of computer. Under consideration :

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(CNN) -- The rollout of vaccine intended to protect against the global pandemic of H1N1 influenza is continuing on or ahead of schedule, a federal health official told reporters Thursday. The H1N1 vaccine has begun shipping to 21 states and major cities. Vaccine makers began shipping H1N1 nasal spray this week, earlier than health officials had predicted, to 21 states and the cities of Washington; New York; Chicago, Illinois; and Los Angeles, California, said Dr. Anne Schuchat, director of the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Some 600,000 doses are expected to arrive at those locations by Tuesday, she said. The first round of deliveries will be the nasal spray, which contains live virus, and is recommended for people ages 2 to 49 with no existing health conditions. In many states, the initial doses of nasal spray will be directed first to health care workers. The spray is not recommended for pregnant women, children younger than age 2 or people with health problems. Some 300,000 liquid doses of the antiviral agent Tamiflu for children were ordered by Health and Human Services Secretary Kathleen Sebelius and are to be delivered over the coming week, Schuchat said. Texas and Colorado received shipments Thursday, she said. Schuchat urged the public not to be alarmed if expiration dates for some of the liquid Tamiflu have passed, because the Food and Drug Administration extended them "after careful testing" to ensure they are safe and effective. Schuchat asked for patience as the distribution process begins. "We are expecting a slow start," she said. She called the flu's impact on pregnant women "striking," and said obstetricians nationwide have told the agency they "have never seen this kind of thing before." From the time the disease was discovered in April until the end of August, the pandemic, sometimes referred to as swine flu, has killed 28 pregnant women in the United States, she said. Another 100 or so have required hospitalization in intensive-care units, she said. But Schuchat said it is not clear how the impact of H1N1 on pregnant women differs from that of seasonal flu, because the H1N1 outbreak is being more closely monitored than seasonal flu has been in the past. Still, public health officials are certain that flu activity in the United States is more prevalent now than it was at this time of year during previous flu seasons, with "substantial flu illness ... in virtually all states." CNN's Sabriya Rice contributed to this story.

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(Parenting.com) -- It's understandable that parents want to keep their children's environments clean, especially when kids are young. Moms wash bottles in hot water, clean pacifiers that fall on the ground and take dirty things out of their kids' mouths. But overall, when it comes to germs, most people have it backward: With relatively few exceptions, they are good for our kids. Keeping things clean is smart, but going crazy using antibacterial hand soaps, buying antibacterial kids' toys and other products and overusing antibiotic medications is actually killing off the microbes that can help strengthen the immune system. Antibacterial products may help to reduce some infections, but they also promote the growth of drug-resistant organisms and weaken the good bacteria within us. Rather than focus on killing germs, we need to think about how to encourage their growth. Supporting the "right" bacteria can have a huge health payoff for your kids: fewer ear infections, tummy aches, episodes of diarrhea, urinary-tract infections and food allergies. It can even help kids fight off coughs, colds and fevers. Here's how to ensure your kids have enough of the good stuff: Feed your kids right Give them foods that naturally contain helpful organisms. These include yogurt, pickles, dark chocolate and feta cheese. In some cases, it may be useful to give a probiotic supplement (available at most pharmacies and health-food stores) containing beneficial live bacteria. All of these foods and supplements are fine to give kids starting at around 6 months. There are other foods to include in their diet that don't actually contain good germs but help to nurture them: garlic, onions, asparagus, whole oats, whole wheat, honey (for children over age 1) and bananas. Make safe and smart choices Keep your kids away from cigarette smoke; exposure can kill off favorable bacteria. As for antibiotic drugs, don't insist that your pediatrician prescribe them when he says they're not necessary. These drugs eliminate both good and bad bacteria. If your kids do have to take antibiotics, make sure they get probiotics, too, to restore the body's supply of good bacteria. Keeping the body's bacteria in balance doesn't take a lot of effort, but it can have big benefits. Starting these habits young can help keep kids healthy for life. Get 2 FREE YEARS of Parenting magazine - Subscribe Now!! Copyright 2011 The Parenting Group. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

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Communication in Technology (B.S.) Student Learning Outcomes Students should have understanding of or competency with: - Broadcasting and TV production concepts, strategies, and technology. - The principles and technology of Web, graphic and print design. - Communication as a dynamic and culturally interactive process with social, cognitive, and rhetorical dimensions. - Mass communication phenomena, their relationship to popular culture, and the role of technology in the information age. - The practice, process, and ethics of contemporary journalism, as well as an understanding of the news media landscape. - The contemporary, historical, social and political contexts of mass media. - Different goals and modes of oral presentation and the ability to competently express ideals. - Demonstrate critical thinking and expression in oral, written, and visual modes. - Demonstrate competence in vocabulary, concepts, and issues in the mass media, as well as an understanding of the interplay between media and culture. - Demonstrate conceptual development and oral presentation in various rhetorical and expository modes. - Demonstrate applied skill sets in areas of graphic and Web design and television production. - Demonstrate competence in solving problems of graphic design and composition using distinct forms of visual media and production modes. - Exhibit professionalism as well as a universal and advanced set of communication skills that are consonant with the contemporary communication workplace.

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The Gates-Lewis Collection: An Enduring Presence - Cultural Continuity and Change Among the Peoples of the Desert Southwest Originating from remote regions of New Mexico and Arizona, revealing native cultures of the Navajo and Pueblo peoples. In 1901 together with the Smithsonian Institute, artifacts were collected and donated to the Museum including lithics, pottery and baskets. The Desert Southwest is a seemingly changeless expanse of magnificant mesas and canyons where spectacular rock formations thrust themselves upward into the cloudless blue sky.This consistency is but an illusion, as change is at the very heart of the desert's nature. Where desert winds now blow across sandy expanses, a vast ocean once existed. Native Peoples have lived and prospered in this region for millennia. Their vibrant culture has always adapted itself to the changes which took place in the world around them. Climatic changes, alterations in subsistence systems and population shifts have each had their impact upon the Native Peoples of the region. The development and maintenance of complex trade networks has also been a vital aspect of the southwest Native culture. The increasing presence of non-Native peoples into the area during the late nineteenth century was taken advantage of by the Native artisans. Pottery, basketry and textiles were produced to satisfy the demand for Native-made works. Traditional materials and motifs were utilized along with non-traditional forms in response to market demands. At the same time, traditional forms were still being produced for their own use. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Peter Gates and Gertrude Lewis-Gates traveled into the remote regions of New Mexico and Arizona. In 1901, they co-sponsored an expedition to the area on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution. They photographed the Native Cultures and made extensive collections of Puebloan and Navajo artifacts. These artifacts now reside in the ethnographic collection of the Orma J. Smith Museum at The College of Idaho. A grant was secured to display items from the Gates-Lewis collection of Southwestern artifacts. The collection, housed at the Orma J. Smith Museum of Natural History, has been recognized by a number of experts including George Horse Capture, Dr. Max Pavesic and Joe Ben Wheat. The items include ceramics illustrating the theme of enduring cultural continuity; basketry originating on the Hopi Second and Third Mesa; textiles, including blankets, rugs, and horse equipment produced by theDine' (Navajo) peoples who lived in Tusayan and Cibola areas of Arizona and New Mexico.

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When writing formulas it is important to have an understanding of the rule of BODMAS. Not understanding this rule could result in incorrect formulas. BODMAS stands for: In a nutshell, that means that Excel will divide or multiply before it adds or subtracts unless specified by brackets. For example, the formula =5+3/2, we would expect the result to be 4. However Excel produces the result 6.5. Why? Because of BODMAS Excel calculated 3/2 and then that number was added to 5. To specify that we want Excel to add 5 and 3 and then divide the answer by 2 we enclose it in brackets. As you can see if you are hoping to use add and subtract along with multiply and divide in a formula, you need to know BODMAS.

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For the Irish rock band, see U2. The U-2 was created in 1954 in response to the growing threat of the Soviet Union's nuclear program during the Cold War, and the lack of other forms of intelligence at that time. The United States Air Force originally thought to just modify an existing aircraft for aerial photography, but this plan had many potential problems. Instead of just completing the original request for a modified aircraft, Lockheed-Martin designeer Clarance L. "Kelly" Johnson led a team to research a new aircraft design at the "Skunk Works" site. Before being renamed to U-2, the project was referred to as the "Lockheed CL-282". The first U-2 flight was successfully flown by pilot Tony LeVier on August 4, 1955. The first operational U-2 mission over Poland and East Germany was flown by Carl Overstreet on June 20, 1956. The main purpose of the U-2 was to photograph strategic sites of foreign military, supplies, and research. Special cameras and film were developed for the U-2, and many new technological breakthroughs were made in order to create a fully functional system capable of photographing at high resolution from 70,000 feet. Numerous reconnaissance missions were flown at later dates, with some venturing over the USSR. In one mission over the USSR, flown by Francis Gary Powers, a Surface-To Air Missile was launched, disabling the aircraft. Powers escaped and was taken prisoner by the Soviet Union. (For more information, see Francis Gary Powers) Cuban Missile Crisis On October 14th, a U-2 photographed nuclear missiles being constructed by the Soviet Union, on the island of Cuba. As these missiles were not yet operational, it gave the United States the advantage of an early warning. U-2 flights continued to monitor the construction of the missiles. (For more information, see Cuban Missile Crisis) The U-2 was a surprising technological breakthrough at that time. It's huge, glider like wings spanned 80 feet (Compared to a length of 49 feet) giving it glider like capabilities. Through this aspect of the design, it was able to travel up to 3,000 nautical miles without refueling. Its design also enabled it to reach altitudes above 70,000 feet, and reach speeds above 430 miles per hour. These unique characteristics prevented standard aircraft from being able to hinder the U-2 flights. It was discovered though, that Soviet Surface-To-Air-Missiles were capable of disabling a U-2. - Eyeball To Eyeball - Dino Brugioni - Operation Overflight - Francis Gary Powers

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|Социјалистичка Федеративна Република Југославија| Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija |Language||Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian (official)| |President||Stjepan Mesić (last; 1991-1992)| |Prime minister||Ante Marković (last; 1989-1992)| |Area||98,766 sq mi| |Population 1989||23,724,919 (est)| The former state of Yugoslavia (literally "Land of the South Slavs") was created following the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 as the "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes." Since these were not the only ethnic groups existing in the country, the name was changed in 1929 to "Kingdom of Yugoslavia." During the span of its existence it was the largest and most important nation in the Balkan peninsula. While none of the countries created at the Peace Conference perfectly represented the Wilsonian ideal of national self-determination, Yugoslavia was more of a repudiation of this idea than probably any other. Most of its territory had previously been part of the recently destroyed kingdom of Serbia; the Austro-Hungarian Empire; or prior to World War I, the Ottoman Empire. World War II Besides Britain and France, Yugoslavia was the only European country to openly defy Nazi Germany after the Munich agreement of 1938 but before being attacked or annexed. It earned this distinction as a result of a coup d'etat in April 1941 triggered by Benito Mussolini's unsuccessful invasion of neighboring Greece. The coup overthrew a pro-Nazi prime minister and led to war with Germany. Hitler invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941. The Yugoslavian government fled to London and joined the Allied governments-in-exile of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the French National Committee. At the Inter-Allied Meeting held of September 24, 1941 in London, the Yugoslavian government along with the other governments-in-exile and the Soviet Union, pledged their "adherence to the common principles of policy set forth" in the Atlantic Charter, to "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live." On January 1, 1942, the Yugoslavian government agreed to the Declaration by United Nations, "being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world.... each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto." Within Yugoslavia, Colonel Draja Mikhailovitch, a Serb, organized a Serbian resistance army on behalf of the Yugoslavian government known in the press as the "Chetniks". Yet Mikhailovitch soon found it more important to fight Communism than the occupater and at the end of 1941 started collaborating with Germans. Although both were allied with Berlin, there were still fights between the chetniks and the Croatian ustashe movement. Tito, led the communist Yugoslav Partisans. The Yugoslav government-in-exile in London continued to support Mikhailovitch. President Roosevelt in 1942 paid tribute to Mikhailovitch and his men. But at the 1943 Teheran conference, as part of the policy of appeasing Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill abandoned Mikhailovitch completely and agreed to support Tito. The U.S. sent arms to Tito and thus delivered Yugoslavia to communism, but also shortened the war as the Communist partisans were by then a much stronger force against the Nazis than the weak Mikhailovitch forces. Shortly after the Teheran conference, Churchill in a speech in February 1944 indicated that the allies were no longer sending supplies to Mikhailovitch. Two months later King Peter, the Yugoslavian Head of State was forced to dismiss Premier Purich, which meant the entire cabinet in which Mikhailovitch was Minister of War. A delegate of the partisans Subasich was made Prime Minister. Neither the Russians not the British ever invaded; Tito took control and never had to depend on the Russians or worry about their army inside his country. Mikhailovitch was executed after the war as a traitor. Following the Axis invasion and partition in 1941, Yugoslavia became the scene of numerous interrelated ethnic and ideological conflicts fought by insurgents, occupiers, and various local bands and militias--in effect, a civil war fought within the wider context of global war. This view, now widely accepted, contrasts with the communists' black-and-white interpretation of the postwar period, which held that the war in Yugoslavia was merely an extension of a global anti-fascist struggle. During the war a bitter struggle was waged between two anti-Nazi forces, the Chetniks and the Communsit partisans under Tito. The defeat of the royalist and Serb nationalist forces, known collectively as the Chetniks, resulted from chronic disunity as well as their lacking appeal to non-Serbs. By contrast, their great rivals, Tito's Communists and the partisan movement they led, realized that they had to appear as a broader patriotic movement in order to acquire and retain the support of non-communist followers, all the while focused on establishing communist rule in postwar Yugoslavia. The Chetniks and their nominal leader, Mihailović, had been the first to take up the insurgency against the Axis occupiers. But they never developed either an effective central command structure or an ideological appeal that could transcend the boundaries of nationality, and thereby attract non-Serbs to their cause in significant numbers, even though they enjoyed official legitimacy for much of the war. In some regions there was a high degree of passive and sometimes even active cooperation of Chetnik forces--and others as well--with the Axis occupiers and their regional satrapies, such as "Serbian Residual State." The facts and perception of resistance and collaboration proved decisive not only to the military and diplomatic course of the war but also to the history of postwar Yugoslavia. All parties assumed—falsely—that sooner or later the Allies would invade. Many optimistic plans were based on the assumption of Western Allied support, and on its magical power to put everything right. Historians are unsure why there was such universal faith among all parties in Allied invasion or intervention. Was it Nazi disinformation? Faulty intelligence? Wishful thinking? Or a combination of all three? Meanwhile there was an exiled royal government in London sponsored by Churchill. Besides receiving British aid, Mihailović served as war minister of the royalist government and chief of Supreme Command Staff in the homeland. But the Allies, the exiled government, and even young King Peter II eventually concluded (not without reason) that the Communist partisans were the only ones effectively resisting the Axis and transferred their support to Tito during 1944. Insurgents in Yugoslavia caused the Nazis more trouble than in any other country with the exceptions of the Soviet Union. Tito was the new leader of a reunited Yugoslavia. In 1949, he broke with the Soviet Union and adopted a policy of armed neutrality in the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. The U.S. provided large amounts of military equipment. Yugoslavia prospered considerably from this policy and was able to trade on favorable terms with both superpowers and their economic blocs. Shortly after Tito's death in 1980, the state industrial ministry began marketing the last new European car brand, the Yugo, to the United States. The Yugo suffered, however, from the same quality deficiencies as the state-made cars of other communist countries and never caught on. In 1991-1992 the internal republics comprising the country of Yugoslavia divided up and became five separate countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). In 2006 Montenegro became independent and in 2008 even Kosovo, a former province of Serbia, declared its independence. It was said at the time that only Tito could have held the fractious nation together, although the monarchy had also managed tolerably well prior to the Nazi invasion. Serbia and Montenegro both claim to be the successor country to the former Yugoslavia so each use the name "Yugoslavia." - The Atlantic Conference : Resolution of September 24, 1941. - Declaration by United Nations, January 1, 1942, U.S. Department of State Bulletin, vol. VI, p. 3. - Matteo J. Milazzo, The Chetnik Movement and the Yugoslav Resistance. (1975); Jozo Tomasevich, The Chetniks: War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945 (1975) - Walter R. Roberts, Tito, Mihailovich, and the Allies, 1941-1945 (1973) online edition - Walter R. Roberts, Tito, Mihailović, and the allies, 1941-1945, (1987) excerpt and text search - Banac, Ivo. With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. (1989). 294 pp. - Bennett, Christopher. Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course, and Consequences. (1995). 253 pp. - Djordjevic, Dimitrije, ed. The Creation of Yugoslavia, 1914-1918. (1980). 228 pp. - Gapinski, James H. The Economic Structure and Failure of Yugoslavia. (1993). 212 pp. - Hehn, Paul N. The German Struggle Against Yugoslav Guerrillas in World War II: German Counter-Insurgency in Yugoslavia, 1941-1943. (1979). 153 pp. - Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Twentieth century (1983) 476 pages excerpt and text search - Judah, Timothy. The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. (1997). 347 pp. - Lane, Ann. Britain, the Cold War and Yugoslav Unity, 1941-1949. (1996). 220 pp. - Larson, David L. United States Foreign Policy Toward Yugoslavia, 1943-1963. (1979). 380 pp. - Magas, Branka. The Destruction of Yugoslavia: Tracking Yugoslavia's Break-Up, 1980-92. (1993). 384 pp. - Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia. (2008). 352pp - Ramet, Sabrina Petra. Balkan Babel: Politics, Culture, and Religion in Yugoslavia. (1992). 230 pp. - Roberts, Walter R. Tito, Mihailovich, and the Allies, 1941-1945 (1973) online edition - Silber, Laura and Little, Alan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation. (1996). 306 pp. - Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples. (1985). 309 pp. - Vucinich, Wayne S., ed. At the Brink of War and Peace: The Tito-Stalin Split in a Historic Perspective. (1982). 341 pp. - West, Richard. Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia. (1995). 448 pp. - Wheeler, Mark C. Britain and the War for Yugoslavia, 1940-1943. (1980). 351 pp. - Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War. (1995). 536 pp. - Woodward, Susan L. Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945-1990. (1995). 443 pp.[[Category:Cold War

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PLC: Switches, Circuits, and Basic Functions--Logic "And Circuit" Part 2 of the Switches, Circuits, and Basic Functions Series explains the function of a simple series/“AND” circuit, as well as a working model. What is an "AND"? How to wire it What logical does it perform?

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Arthritis: Management and treatment options If you're a baby boomer or beyond, experiencing aching joints and temporary stiffness when you get out of bed in the mornings, you're likely experiencing symptoms of arthritis. The word arthritis means "joint inflammation" (arth = joint; itis = inflammation). There are several types of arthritis with the most common ones being rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune condition, is two to three times more common in women than in men. It's estimated that at least 1.5 million people in the U.S. suffer from rheumatoid arthritis. This chronic condition is usually treated by a patient's primary care physician and/or a rheumatologist and typically involves a regimen of oral medication, perhaps coupled with physical and/or occupational therapy. By far the most common type of arthritis - and the focus of this article - is osteoarthritis. This condition affects at least 27 million Americans and more than one-third of individuals over the age of 65 have some degree of osteoarthritis. It is equally prevalent among men and women. "We most often see symptoms of osteoarthritis develop in patients over age 50," said Cortez orthopedic surgeon Doug Bagge, MD. "Typically they report pain in the joints and stiffness that takes several minutes to work itself out." "The main cause of osteoarthritis is simply getting older," said Bagge. "Certain occupations and physical activities that are hard on the joints may make it more likely, but that's not the case for everyone." Having had an injury to or infection in a joint may result in osteoarthritis. There is a hereditary component to osteoarthritis, but it's not strictly hereditary, according to Bagge. In other words, if you have a parent with arthritis you may escape developing it yourself, and if a parent doesn't have the condition, you may still develop it. "Osteoarthritis is diagnosed based primarily on a patient's history and physical examination," said Bagge. "Plain x-rays are sometimes used to confirm a diagnosis, but expensive imaging such as CT and MRI are not needed." A thorough examination can usually reveal where pain is originating from and it's important for both patient and doctor to know exactly which joints are being affected. "Pain can sometimes 'refer' from the hip to the knee or vice-versa, for example," said Bagge. The joints most commonly affected with osteoarthritis are the knees, hips, shoulders, and back. Smaller joints such as those in the hands, wrists, elbows, and ankles can also be involved. Mild to moderate osteoarthritis can usually be treated at home with over-the-counter medications. "Tylenol is the first choice over-the counter medication that patients may try. If that is ineffective, then anti-inflammatories such as Aleve, Motrin, and Advil or their generic equivalents give most patients relief from their symptoms," said Bagge. Always consult with your doctor about taking any medications, especially those you take on a regular basis. "Light exercise is also helpful because it helps people maintain range of motion and keeps the muscles around the joints stronger." Losing weight to put less strain on joints - especially hips and knees - can also help relieve the symptoms of arthritis. If osteoarthritis progresses, symptoms become more severe. "Patients will begin to have pain even while they're resting, the affected joints may swell, and they'll have decreased range of motion," said Bagge. These symptoms can make everyday activities like getting in and out of the car and putting on socks and shoes challenging. Osteoarthritis may be aggravated by high-impact exercise such as running and some people find that their symptoms worsen when the weather is changing. "There is no rational explanation for that, but patients report being able to predict a storm moving in based on their symptoms all the time, so there must be something to it," said Bagge. There is no scientific evidence that supplements such as glucosamine and chondroitin are effective in alleviating the symptoms of osteoarthritis, but according to Bagge, quite a few patients anecdotally report feeling better when taking these compounds. "I'm not opposed to patients taking supplements, but I'm not an advocate either. There's no proof that they're effective, but they have minimal side-effects," said Bagge. If symptoms of osteoarthritis progress to the point that over-the-counter medications and regular, moderate exercise are not effective, physical therapy is the next step in the treatment plan. "Certain types of physical therapy can help strengthen joints and muscles and reduce pain," said Bagge. Joint injections may be recommended if non-invasive treatments do not relieve symptoms and a patient's daily activities are being negatively impacted. "Cortisone is commonly used, as is visco-supplementation which is a joint lubricating fluid," said Bagge. For patients who have severe osteoarthritis that does not respond to the treatments mentioned above, joint replacement may be an option. "This is the solution when non-operative intervention fails to adequately relieve symptoms," says Bagge. Knee and hip replacement operations have become less risky and quite common in recent years, with more than 400,000 such procedures being performed each year in the U.S. Patients are typically hospitalized for one to three days and then recover at home while engaging in a rigorous course of physical therapy. "Patients who are committed to feeling better and complete a course of physical therapy following surgery tend to do very well," says Bagge. "Their quality of life improves dramatically, and I always enjoy hearing stories about what they're up to and doing following their operations. It's like they have a new lease on life." Southwest Health Notes is a public service feature provided by Southwest Memorial Hospital in Cortez, Colorado. The information provided herein is not intended as patient-specific medical advice or as a substitute for consultation with your personal healthcare provider.

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McPhee 'flats' damage a concern With low water, off-road play at reservoir could impact archaeological sites Low levels at McPhee Reservoir have U.S. Forest Service officials concerned over more than just the area's water supply. Off-road enthusiasts drawn to the mud flats left behind by the receding waterline are threatening sensitive ecosystems and archaeological resources normally protected beneath the surface of the reservoir. According to Dolores Public Lands Office District Ranger Derek Padilla, off-road vehicular play on the newly revealed flats is counterproductive to the preservation efforts of the forest service and dangerous to the history buried by McPhee. "We have serious concerns about the archaeological sites and the use that is occurring," Padilla said. McPhee Reservoir, completed in 1984 and filled to capacity in 1996, has long been a recreational jewel of Southwest Colorado, providing boating, fishing and camping opportunities for hundreds. However, the reservoir was created by flooding an area rich in archaeological significance, thus creating a tension between protection of the past, enjoyment of the present and planning for the future. During construction of the reservoir, workers surveyed and recorded 1,626 archaeological sites on more than 16,000 acres as part of the Dolores Archaeological Program. Program archaeologists fully excavated 125 sites, collecting more than 1.5 million artifacts. However, much of the history of the ancient people groups from Southwest Colorado remained in the ground, covered over by the rising waters of the reservoir. Now, as the water slowly disappears, many of those delicate sites and artifacts are being threatened by the unusual use of the area. "The Native Americans of the past utilized the area quite extensively with what appears to be many hunting camps," Padilla said. "Even normal wave action and things like that reveal prehistoric human remains and other just run-of-the-mill-type archaeological artifacts. Now, with the unique usage that we are seeing there is a huge potential for damage." Padilla said the public lands office has received calls regarding off-road vehicles as well as full-sized four-wheel-drive vehicles "mud bogging" on the flats of McPhee, drivers apparently not realizing the damage their fun could do on the fragile terrain. While the draw of unclaimed land is understandable, Padilla noted the area under the waters of McPhee is considered an "A Area" in travel management terms, land that is always off-limits for off-road vehicles. Padilla was careful to note Forest Service officials do not want to limit access to McPhee, and encouraged anglers to continue to find their way to the shoreline. However, he asked off-road users to be conscientious of the impact they have on the landscape. "In years past we have had a person or two here or there go beyond where we had anticipated," he said. "Now that the water level is as low as it is we are seeing far more usage in that area." The Forest Service has not enforced the A designation on the McPhee flats as of yet, preferring simply to educate locals on travel rules until the new Boggy-Glade Travel Management Plan is implemented. "Most of the Boggy-Glade landscape will be off-limits to cross country, off-road travel, so that will be our opportunity to reverse the situation," Padilla said. Though there has not been any official enforcement of current travel rules or ticketing of inappropriate usage, Padilla did say the Forest Service can take action any time they can demonstrate natural resources are being damaged by recreational use. For the time being, users are asked to be careful around the shores of McPhee, enjoying the recreational opportunities while respecting the history usually hidden beneath the water.

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Marxism & Community Oriented Policing © 2000 Phillip Worts, Detective, San Diego Police Department What is communism? The concept of the dialectic has been around for a long time. It is simply that of opposite positions: Thesis (position) vs. Antithesis (opposite position). In traditional logic, if my thesis was true, then all other positions were by definition untrue. For example, if my thesis is 2 + 2 = 4, then all other answers (antithesis) are false. Georg W.F. Hegel, the nineteenth century German philosopher, turned that concept upside down by equalizing Thesis and Antithesis. All things are now relative. There is no such thing as absolute truth to be found anywhere. Instead, “truth” is found in Synthesis, a compromise of Thesis and Antithesis. This is the heart and soul of the consensus process. This is diametrically opposed to the Judeo-Christian world-view prevalent in the Western world for the better part of two millennia that held that God existed, that He existed outside of the material creation and that man had a moral obligation to Him and His laws. God was transcendent and thus truth was absolute and transcendent, outside of our ability to manipulate it. This all changed with Hegel and modern man was born. Man could now challenge any authority and position, even God. Since there is no such thing as absolute truth, “my truth” is just as good as “your truth”, so don’t tell me what to think or how to behave. As Nietzsche, the “God is Dead” philosopher, would later say, “There is absolutely no absolute.” Now 2 + 2 can equal 5, or 17, or whatever you feel is right. (Hint: This is why our schools are failing. All teachers are certified on Benjamin Bloom’s work. He said “…we recognize the point of view that truth and knowledge are only relative and that there are no hard and fast truths which exist for all time and all places”). At about the same time that Hegel was passing from the scene, Karl Marx caught the revolutionary fever. He drew heavily from Hegel (the dialectic) and Feuerbach (materialism). He picked up where the other philosophers left the discussion, but with a twist. He scornfully stated, “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways. The point, however, is to change it.” To CHANGE the WORLD was to become the warp and woof of Marxism. In the Marxian interpretation of reality, God had been abandoned. Alone in his universe, man was to fill the vacuum left by religion with materialism. Religion was the enemy of all progress. As he wrote in 1843, “Religion is the opium of the people.” No longer bound to a relationship with his Creator, the social relationship of “man to man” became the principle of Marx’s theory. It followed that these social relationships, which necessarily involve conflict, cause the changes in human progress. As the opening words of the Communist Manifesto announce: “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” Note the dialectic reasoning: the clash of opposites produces synthesis and change. Man, freed from religious restraints will carry the revolution (change via conflict) forward until all are equal in a man made utopia on earth. To that end, the Manifesto concludes, “Working men of all countries, unite!” To summarize Marxism: It is Dialectical Materialism, or, in simpler terms: a God-expunged human reasoning process. REVOLUTION is its goal, to “change the world”, Marx said. The CHANGE is to be from a Theistic World View (Old World Order) to a Humanistic World View (New World Order). The term New World Order was a popular euphemism for world communism for years. Conspiracy kooks did not invent it. When it started to take on negative connotations, it was dropped for the nicer sounding label, Global Governance. Change is to occur through CONFLICT, (Crisis/Problems/Issues). The Cold War. Where is the battlefield? Change Happens: The Re-culturing of America Even as the worldwide communist revolution got underway in earnest around the globe, a rift was forming within Marxist intellectual circles. Around the turn of the century there was a growing trend within this movement that a better way to change the world is not abruptly and violently at the point of a bayonet, (traditional Marxist revolution), but rather it should be done slowly and incrementally by transforming individuals and their cultural institutions. Then you can control a country as effectively as if you conquered it militarily. In fact, this method is preferred because one does not have to rebuild bombed out cities and dig all those mass graves! The home for this new wave of dialectical Marxist thinking became the emerging “science” of socio-psychology. It may come as a surprise to many to discover that virtually all of the pillars of modern psychology were humanistic utopians who believed that there is no God, mankind can and should be manipulated (for its own good, of course), and all social problems can be solved by the proper reprogramming of man’s mind. This would lead to an era of peace and prosperity based on diversity, tolerance and unity. Most of their work dealt with the details of human behavior, but their over-arching view was that of transforming society (echo the revolution). Hence, they came to be known as “Transformational Marxists”. One such group was the Fabian Socialist (determined to stamp out Christianity), who took their name from the Roman general, Fabius. Fabius, it will be remembered, was confronted with Hannibal’s invasion of Italy. Hannibal with his elephants held the advantage of superior forces, but was far from home and supplies. Instead of confronting his foe head on, a battle he would have certainly lost, Fabius utilized hit-and-run tactics. Harassing his enemy and wearing him down incrementally piece-by-piece over time until Hannibal capitulated, Fabius won the war. The Fabian Socialists adopted this strategy in their goal of world socialism. In a similar vein, the transformational Marxists advocated a “slow march through the institutions,” as famous Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci would say. Gramsci’s theories cannot be overstated in this regard, as this strategy has become synonymous with his name. The Gramsci Strategy is the “War of Position”, (i.e. the battle ground is for the mind and culture) vs. the “War of Maneuver”, (i.e. traditional battlefield warfare with guns and bombs). Gramsci engendered the anger of his communist counterparts in Moscow when he basically told them they were doing it all wrong. Gramsci died in prison under Mussolini’s regime, but his strategy has become the strategy for changing society. Meanwhile, in Germany, a group of some 21 Marxist socio-psychologists gathered in Frankfurt and formed the Institute of Marxist Research. Perhaps that was a little too obvious for their opponents and they renamed it the Institute for Social Research. When Hitler rose to power, most of these men fled to America and continued their work here. Kurt Lewin, J.L. Moreno, Theodor Adorno, Erik Fromm, Max Horkhiemer and others found positions in American universities and had their work funded by pro-Marxist foundations. Kurt Lewin is of special interest for this discussion because it was he who went to M.I.T. and conducted the research involving group dynamics that laid the foundation for Total Quality Management. At the risk of oversimplifying how the process of group dynamics works, it could be summarized as a method of belief and behavior modification, using dialectic-reasoning skills (remember, all truth is relative), in a group setting. It utilizes the inherent fear an individual person has of being alienated from the group. By use of a change agent, or “facilitator”, individuals are herded toward “consensus” by compromising their position for the sake of “social harmony.” According to Lewin, “A successful change includes, therefore, three aspects: UNFREEZING the present level, MOVING to the new level, and FREEZING group life on the new level.” This is precisely the technique with which the communists brainwashed American POWs, the only difference being they could accelerate the “unfreezing” phase with physical torture. In group dynamics the pain is not physical, it’s emotional. Do not underestimate the force of emotional pain. POWs frequently described their long periods in isolation as worse than some of the most brutal physical torture. Isolation from the group is a powerful behavior modification weapon. Transformational Marxists such as Kurt Lewin refined their weapon for the new battlefield: Using group dynamics to invade the culture to affect the paradigm shift. The weapon looks like this: A Diverse Group (“Diversity” needed for conflict) Dialoging to Consensus (Dialectic process) Over a Social Issue (Problem/Crisis/Issues) In a Facilitated Meeting (Controlled environment using facilitator /change agent) To a Predetermined Outcome (Paradigm shift) The Marxist Trojan Horse: Total Quality Management (TQM) TQM is an organizational transformation strategy that uses: Facilitator/Change Agents (“Strategic Planning” occurs in councils) Systems Management (ISO 9000) Decoding the term “Total Quality Management” is impossible without an understanding of the Marxist foundation upon which it was built. I use the word “decoding” because so many of the dialectic concepts are masked by nice sounding double-talk. TOTAL = Holistic, Gestalt, Global QUALITY = People. (Also slang, short for TQM systems in general, e.g. “We have a Quality organization”). MANAGEMENT = The facilitators, the agents of change. With this background we arrive at our current application of the dialectic in our nation. I would like to now focus on the role that your local law enforcement agency has in the “re-culturing of America.” Your local beat cop has a special part to play, and he doesn’t even realize it. Not only has TQM change agents restructured many of the police departments in America, they are now in a position to turn the police themselves into the facilitators of the community through a program called COPs, or Community Oriented Policing. COPs is a federally funded program administered through the U.S. Department of Justice. What is COPs? The most succinct definition I found was in a DJ brochure: COMMUNITY POLICING WHAT IS IT? Translation: Transformation from a constitutionally empowered local police force performing their duty to keep the peace to that of a change agent working within the community to affect a Marxist paradigm shift. Pay close attention to what the influential German Marxist Georg Lukacs had to say about who the facilitators are in the community: “The institutions in socialist society which act as the facilitators between the public and private realms are the Soviet. They are the congresses [diverse groups], which facilitate the debate [dialoguing to consensus] of universal problems [social issues] in the context of the everyday.” - Leaders of the community (law enforcement, government, business, education, health, civic, non-profit, medical, religious, etc.) collaborating to identify problems in the community, what the significant impact on people will be, and suggesting solutions to those problems. (This is POP, or Problem Oriented Policing. See footnote). - Identifying common ground, where all factions of a community can work together for the COMMON GOOD of the community in a broader problem-solving approach. Forming a partnership between police and the rest of the community where each is accountable to each other and the community as whole. (Emphasis mine. End of COPs definition). Note the reference to the “common good”, the ever-present ideal in the communist state. Individual rights become subordinated to the so-called greater good. This raises serious concern over the role of the police officer in society as a “partner” with community groups and social service programs, which, due to the blurring of lines of responsibility, are unaccountable to the public [voters]. To further understand the philosophy of COPS, one does not have look further than the late socio-psychologist Dr. Robert Trojanowicz. Formerly the director of the National Center for Community Policing at the University of Michigan, he is considered the father of Community Oriented Policing. Consider the following selections from his writings. “Social control is most effective at the individual level. THE PERSONAL CONSCIENCE IS THE KEY ELEMENT in ensuring self-control, refraining from deviant behavior even when it can be easily perpetrated.” “The family, the next most important unit affecting social control, is obviously instrumental in the initial formation of the conscience and in the continued reinforcement of the values that encourage law abiding behavior.” This is an astonishing admission of the fundamental dynamics of crime prevention and social disorder. The most conservative thinkers alive today couldn’t have better articulated what makes for domestic tranquility in any society. Our founding fathers were keenly aware of this fact. James Madison cited the fact that our form of limited government is “wholly inadequate” without personal conscience as the internal social control. So then, in an effort to solve America’s moral chaos, we are going to restore the personal conscience by encouraging accountability to a higher authority (ten commandments) and strengthening the family, right? Don’t be silly, says Dr. Trojanowicz. “Unfortunately, because of the reduction of influence exerted neighbors, the extended family and even the family, social control is now often more dependent on external control, than on internal self-control.” Oh, darn, he says. Since that “unfortunate” breakdown of conscience and the family structure, the social order is now dependent on “external control”. Read that, “The State”. Unfortunately indeed! Dr. Trojanowicz ponders the dilemma of the current state of affairs in his paper Community Policing and the Challenge of Diversity: “In addition to raising questions (dialectic reasoning questions all absolutes) about our national identity, increasing diversity also raises questions about how we define American “values’ and “morality.’ (Absolute values of right and wrong vs. relative values). Many strongly held traditional beliefs derive from Judeo-Christian traditions, blended with faith in the intrinsic virtues of family and the American Dream of the United States as a meritocracy where those who are willing to work hard will succeed. Can this model encompass the experience of the growing number of Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists among us? (What, Muslims Hindus and Buddhists aren’t willing to work hard?) Does it reflect sufficient sensitivity to the concerns of people of color, women and gays?” Got that? Traditional Judeo-Christian beliefs (with their absolute truths and morals) are out, diversity and relative values are in. If we are not to restore the personal conscience and the family, what is his solution? He continues: “The community of interest generated by crime, disorder and fear of crime becomes the goal to allow community policing officer an entre into the geographic community.” If you did not fall out of your chair with that line, you weren’t paying attention. Social chaos is the GOAL for the transformational Marxist. The crisis of crime and disorder is the door for the police officer as facilitator/change agent to enter the community (the “client”, or the latest term, “customer”) and to initiate the paradigm shift! Even though these social architects plainly admit what is most vital in making for a crime free community, they have absolutely no intention of restoring “individual conscience” or going back to repairing the traditional family. On the contrary, for the past sixty years these socio-psychologists have been introducing these very dialectic concepts into our school system with the intent on demolishing personal conscience. Is there any doubt they have succeeded? For them, there is no going back: “They (Americans) may not yet recognize that there is no ‘going back to basics’ in education.” Training manual for Goals 2000. "If ‘Equality of Opportunity’ is to be become a part of the American Dream, the traditional family must be weakened." Socio-psychologist James Coleman. “In order to effect rapid change, one must mount a vigorous attack on the family lest the traditions of present generations be preserved.” Socio-psychologist Warren Bennis in his book, The Temporary Society. Bennis’ book “Leaders”, was recommended reading at one time when one was promoted to sergeant on the S.D.P.D., wherein he identifies the leaders in any organization as “agents of change”. Dr. Trojanowicz admits in no uncertain terms that is what his research is all about: “It should also be noted that the continuing interest in finding a viable definition for the term community has not merely been an intellectual exercise. The theme underlying much of the research is that once you can identify a community, you have discovered the primary unit of society ABOVE the level of the individual and the family that can be mobilized to take concerted action to bring about POSITIVE SOCIAL CHANGE.” Just in case you doubt the Marxist nature of their concepts of community transformation, Trojanowicz quotes Saul Alinsky, the extreme Marxist change agent of the ‘60’s who authored Rules for Radicals. Alinsky proposed “we begin viewing community through the prism of issues (Issues=problems=crisis=conflict) which, in essence, constitutes the most urgent kind of community of interest.” “What community policing does is put an officer in daily face-to-face contact with the community, so that he or she can have the input of the community in setting priorities. Unlike police programs of the past where police administrators or so-called community leaders set the police agenda, the community policing movement encourages average citizens to become involved.” Formerly, the police administrators were accountable to the elected officials who were accountable to the voters (representative democracy). This new paradigm that Trojanowicz describes is exactly what Marxist George Lukacs termed “participatory democracy” and is nothing more than the Soviet style council. The United States Constitution was the law of the land (absolute authority) restraining government intrusion into the rights of the individual. The framers designed it to insulate the private realm (the individual) from the public realm (government). Allow me to repeat Lukacs: "The institutions in socialist society which act as the facilitators between the public and private realms are the Soviets.” By practicing the dialectic, we are removing the only barrier between a tyrannical government and the private citizen. Your neighborhood cop is now that facilitator, the Soviet. Why a police officer? “In the role of the community ombudsman/liaison (i.e. facilitator), the community policing officer also acts as the community’s link to other public agencies. The police are the only governmental agency open 24 hours a day, which makes them the ideal public agent to begin regenerating community spirit.” A Diverse Group Dialoging to Consensus Over a Social Issue In a Facilitated Meeting To a Predetermined Outcome Conclusion: Useful idiots? When Lenin was consolidating the Bolshevik revolution, he wrote how he would implement the communist bureaucracy without hardcore Marxist believers. While the elite rulers of his inner circle understood the structure he was building, Lenin said he would exploit the natural vanity and ambition of people to forward his agenda without them knowing what they were really doing. Eager to gain his favor and to enhance their political careers, they would fall all over themselves trying to promote his agenda. He called these types of people “Useful Idiots.” Before you brand every police officer you see as an undercover Marxist, understand that most of them comprehend little of what they are participating in. In reality, most officers intuitively know that something is wrong in their organization, but they play the game rather than risk damaging their career. Sadly, they constitute a vast army of “useful idiots.” I’m all for “promoting mutual trust” and “cooperation between the people and the police” and “empowering neighborhoods.” These “positive social changes” are the selling points for Community Policing. But in reality, those appealing ideals camouflage the vehicle of Marxist change. Who asked the citizenry if they wanted their communities “transformed” and their government “reinvented?” Who asked parents if they wanted their children to learn with their feelings instead of learning facts? Who asked your local police officers if they wanted their beliefs and attitudes manipulated? No one asked because if someone did, they would have been run out of town. Instead, using dialectic-reasoning skills, they have schemed to seduce, deceive and manipulate every community in the land into a utopian vision of so-called “unity in diversity.” These social engineers have no intention of taking America back to individual conscience within the family structure in order to preserve domestic peace and tranquility. That would mean a return to recognizing and submitting to the Higher Authority. This “vision” has failed wherever it has been tried. By participating in the dialectic, we have deified human reason; traded in God and truth for relative values and consensus; and abandoned individual liberty and inalienable rights for the common good and diversity. In the final analysis, we are destined for Totalitaria, and worse, the loss of our souls. The terms “communism”, “socialism”, “Marxism”, “New World Order” etc., may be worn out and abandoned. The names change, because deception is one of the rules of the game. Many erroneously believe that the cold war is over and that we actually won. But the revolution is still very much alive and America is losing. The culture war is raging in our schools, our workplaces, our media and our churches. Antonio Gramsci would be very pleased if he could see just how effective his strategy has been. A certain governor from Arkansas attended the Gramsci Institute in Italy. In early works from the ‘40s and ‘50s such as Kenneth Benne’s Human Relations in Curriculum Change, Warren Bennis’s Planning of Change and Planned Change by Ron Lippett, they frequently refer to those helping bring about change as “change agents” or “agents of change”. The “change agents” eventually were referred to simply as “Facilitators”, from the word Facile that means to guide and make easy. Kurt Lewin, Human Relations in Curriculum Change, p. 34 (I recently attended training sponsored by the COPs program, “Facilitation Skills for Law Enforcement”, which was a crude re-hash of Kenneth Benne’s book on organizational change. It prominently features Lewin’s material). Socio-psychologists Edgar Schien and Warren Bennis studied how the communists brainwashed POWs so they could apply their techniques “humanely” in American classrooms. Antonio Gramsci categorizes objects, things that can be reproduced, as quantity. “Quality” he says, “should be attributed to men, not to things…” Prison Notebooks p. 308. If that sounds like convoluted reasoning, that’s because it is! Georg Lukacs, The Process of Democratization, p 46. Soviet can mean an individual, someone who practices the dialectic, or a political system. In Russia, the soviet system consists of a hierarchy of councils, from the local level all the way to the top echelon, the Supreme Soviet Council. In this context, the soviet is the system, particularly the local council. Problem Oriented Policing (POP) was supposedly “invented” by Dr. Herman Goldstein. But the “problem solving techniques” embodied in POP were laid out by Lewin in the 1940’s and is simply a rip-off of one aspect of TQM. Dr. Robert Trojanowicz, The National Center for Community Policing, University of Michigan, The Meaning of “Community” in Community Policing. P.2 Dr. Trojanowicz, Community Policing and the Challenge of Diversity, p.2 Trojanowicz, The meaning of “Community” in Community Policing, p3 In Planned Change, by Ron Lippitt, the organization or individual that is targeted for change is the “client”, as if he were a “consumer” of the change agent’s services. I think “victim” more accurately describes the recipient of such “service.” The San Diego Police Department recently opened a new division entitled The Business Center. The concept is right out of Lippitt’s work. The police dept.’s “customers” are “consumers” of police services. Trojanowicz, The meaning of “Community” in Community Policing, p4, emphasis added Ibid, p9 Ibid, p9 Ibid, p10, emphasis added "Be strong and of good courage; do not be afraid, nor be dismayed, for the Lord your God is with you wherever you go.” Joshua 1:9 Home | Articles | Brainwashing in America | Reinventing the World

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How to Raise a Well-Mannered Child - Donna Jones Author - 2005 18 May Want to raise a well-mannered child without ever nagging again? Become a proactive parent. "Thank you for dinner, Mrs. Porter. It was delicious. May I be excused, please?" Every adult at the table stared open-mouthed in awe at four-year-old Ryan. I gazed in admiration at Ryan's mother. No child learns manners by osmosis. Children must be taught. You can be sure that Ryan didn't spout out his gratitude for dinner on his own initiative. Without a doubt, Ryan's parents had rehearsed this moment, and when the moment came, Ryan knew what to do. Proactive rehearsal is more than simply telling your child what to do. Plenty of parents tell their children what to do and still end up raising out-of-control kids. Proactive rehearsal involves showing your child what to do and allowing your child to practice. The best way to begin is to choose just one skill you would like your child to learn or improve. Attempting to teach your child more than one skill at a time is certain to leave your child overwhelmed and you frustrated. Pique your child's interest in learning this skill or pick a skill your child is eager to learn already. Seize a teachable moment, such as an upcoming special event or sleepover or party your child plans to attend. Young children can be motivated by allowing them to learn a "big girl" or "big boy" thing. With older children you may want to appeal to their desire to be likeable or feel more self-confident. Show your child how learning this particular good manner will benefit her or how not learning it will hinder her. Next, teach the skill in a relaxed, fun environment. It's OK to be silly and have fun teaching manners. Now is not the time to lay on the pressure or give a sixty-minute lecture. When I teach the Confidence & Courtesies class, I often do silly, exaggerated things, such as chew with my mouth open or talk too loudly or answer the phone with a "Yeah, what?" to show the children how "bad" manners look. We all end up laughing, and the kids get the picture of why good manners are important. Finally, rehearse with your child. It is not enough to tell your child what to do; you must practice with your child as well. Experts tell us that we remember only 20 percent of what we hear, 30 percent of what we see, and 50 percent of what we see and hear. Yet we remember a whopping 90 percent of what we see, hear, and do. So lug out that old toy telephone or cell phone to practice phone manners; introduce your child to her father or brother or sister to practice meeting others; allow your child to set the dinner table to learn table manners. Knowing which plate is my salad plate and which is my bread plate, for instance, helps me behave with proper manners at the table. Practice and rehearse whatever you wish your child to learn. You'll stay one step ahead of your child, and your child will be prepared to succeed in becoming a person who loves and respects God and others. So, all we have to do is rehearse with our child and she will supernaturally become a miniature Emily Post, right? Yet, if we are honest, this is sometimes what we expect. We find ourselves becoming exasperated with our child when we must remind her of something we know she has been taught. I've seen it a hundred times -- and I've done it myself. Most likely, so have you. It goes something like this: "Lauren, did you thank Mrs. Smith for having you over to play today?" (Meekly) "No . ." (Exasperated) "No? Why not? Lauren, you know better!" And off we drive, either lecturing Lauren all the way home, or equally as bad, simply dropping the subject all together. Either way, we feel like parental losers. A better way is to embrace the necessity of reminding our children about the kind of behavior we expect-kind, considerate, appropriate, behavior-before the fact, not merely after. While children do need to learn personal responsibility, and as they grow older our reminders should become less frequent, we, as parents, need to realize that reminders are a vital part of a child's learning process. If we view reminding as part of raising our well-mannered child, it can free us from becoming frustrated moms and dads. I don't know how many times I have reminded my children about good party manners while on the way to celebrate a friend's birthday. "What will you say to Mrs. Barker when you leave?" "Thank you for having me." "Will you ask for the biggest piece of cake with the rose on top?" "What will you say when you are given food or a drink?" "What should you do if they play a game you don't like?" "Play anyway, with a happy attitude." Similar scenarios have been played out in my SUV with topics ranging from party manners to meeting adults, to being in a place of business, to sitting quietly at church, and most recently, job interview skills and dating etiquette. You name it-we've role-played it. And these conversations have served as necessary reminders to help my children live out a life of love and respect for others. But refreshing our children's memories about appropriate behavior doesn't stop when the seat belts are unbuckled and car doors slammed shut. No, children, especially younger children, often need prompts to remember their manners. This especially holds true for toddlers and preschoolers. You can be sure that a three-year-old birthday girl will need to be reminded to thank each child for his or her gift as she rips into two dozen assorted toys, dress-ups, and games-all just for her. Count on it. Anticipate it. Rehearse it. And when the time comes, prompt it. Give your little birthday girl a moment or two, just in case she remembers on her own. But if she does not, gently ask, "What do you say?" If you have instructed and rehearsed beforehand, this is usually enough to prompt your child to politely say, "Thank you." During my children's early years, I found this same gentle reminder useful to help them in a number of different situations. Upon meeting an adult, a sweetly whispered "What do you say?" reminded my daughter to look the adult in the eye and say, "It's nice to meet you." When leaving a friend's home, a gentle "What do you say?" reminded my son to say, "Thank you for having me." When my young children have inadvertently gotten up from the dinner table without being excused, "What do you say?" has reminded them to say, "Thank you for dinner, Mom. May I please be excused?" For older kids one-word prompts, such as napkin, posture, or tone, can be effective ways to remind your child about proper behavior. Through the use of repetition and prompts, children come to make these niceties habits of their own. They become not just your manners, but theirs. And moment by moment, day by day, you begin to tame your family zoo. [Note that the way in which we remind our children is every bit as important as the reminder itself. If our reminders are barked as commands or said in a way that embarrasses or demeans our children, we will most certainly not raise confident kids who love and respect God, themselves, or others. Gentleness is imperative. We are to encourage our children, not exasperate them. We can encourage them to become kind and considerate people when we use gentle reminders to help them learn.] Excerpted from: Taming Y our Family Zoo: Six Weeks to Raising a Well-Mannered Child by Donna Jones. Copyright © 2005. Published by Revell Books, a division of Baker Publishing Group. Used by permission. Unauthorized duplication prohibited. Donna Jones is cofounder of Confidence & Courtesies, an etiquette course for kids, and has been teaching manners for sixteen years.

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The hydrophobic effect is considered to be the major driving force for the folding of globular proteins. It results in the burial of the hydrophobic residues in the core of the protein. It is exemplified by the fact that oil and water do not mix and was described well by G. S. Hartley in 1936 . "The antipathy of the paraffin chain for water is, however, frequently misunderstood. There is no question of actual repulsion between individual water molecules and paraffin chains, nor is there any very strong attraction of paraffin chains for one another. There is, however, a very strong attraction of water molecules for one another in comparison with which the paraffin-paraffin or paraffin-water attractions are slight." The thermodynamic factors which give rise to the hydrophobic effect are complex and still incompletely understood. The free energy of transfer of a non-polar compound from some reference state, such as an organic solution, into water, Gtr, is made up of an enthalpy, H, and entropy, -TS, term. At room temperature, the enthalpy of transfer from organic solution into aqueous solution is negligible; the interaction enthalpies are the same in both cases. The entropy however is negative. Water tends to form ordered cages around the non-polar molecule and this leads to a decrease in entropy. At high temperatures (~ 110°C) these cages are no longer any stronger than bulk water, and the entropy contribution tends to zero. The enthalpy of transfer, however, is now positive (unfavourable). Because the temperature dependence of entropy and enthalpy are not the same, there is some temperature at which the hydrophobic effect is strongest, and the effect decreases at temperatures above and below this temperature. The decrease in the strength of the hydrophobic effect with decreasing temperatures is probably the major cause of cold-denaturation in proteins. The contribution of the hydrophobic effect to globular protein stability has been estimated empirically both by measuring the thermodynamics of transfer of model compounds (e.g. blocked amino acids, cyclic peptides...) from organic solvents to water, and by site directed mutagenesis studies on proteins. The number arrived at is usually given as a function of the change in the solvent accessible non-polar surface area upon going from the unfolded to the folded state. The model compound studies predict that the hydrophobic effect of exposing one buried methylene group to bulk water is 0.8 kcal/mol (in Pace, 1995). The site directed mutagenesis studies yielded a larger number with greater statistical variation: the average hydrophobic effect estimated by SDM for a buried methylene group is about 1.3 kcal/mol. However, when the SDM results for methylene were plotted against the size of the cavity created by the residue substitution, and extrapolated to zero, the result at zero cavity size is 0.8 kcal/mol - in agreement with the value found for the transfer of model compounds from octanol to water (Pace et al., 1996 and references therein). In the SDM studies, cavities created by residue substitution have an additional destabilizing effect: the loss of favourable VDWs interactions (as compared to the wild-type). Thus, the "hydrophobic effect" measured by SDM includes both an entropic component due to solvent ordering and a (primarily) enthalpic component due to loss of VDWs contacts within the protein. Such an SDM study of T4 lysozyme replaced the 80% buried Ile3 residue by Val (Eriksson et al, 1992): the loss of this methyl group gave rise to a decrease in stability of 0.6 kcal/mol (corrected to 100% burial). This is smaller than expected (c.f. 0.8 kcal/mol for methylene) and suggests that the mutation introduced some smaller stabilizing influence, perhaps such as the alleviation of strain within the protein. Click here for a gif showing the cavity and links to the structures. In barnase, 15 mutants were constructed in which a hydrophobic interaction was deleted (V10A, V36A, V45A, I4A, I25A, I51A, I55A, I76A, I109A, I4V, I25V, I51V, I55V, I76V & I109V). The finding was a strong correlation between the degree of destabilization (which ranges from 0.60 to 4.71 kcal/mol) and the number of methyl or methylene side chain groups surrounding the methyl or methylene group that was deleted (r = 0.91) (Serrano et al, 1992). See figure below. The average free energy decrease for removal of a completely buried methylene group was found to be 1.5±0.6 kcal/mol. This is additive, such that Ile or Leu to Ala can destabilize a protein by up to 5 kcal/mol. (Remember that many mesophilic proteins are stable by <10 kcal/mol, so two deletions such as this would be enough to destabilize a protein completely). The figure below shows the backbone of barnase with the hydrophobic side-chains coloured blue. Those parts of the side-chains deleted in the mutagenesis experiments have been coloured green and given dot surfaces to show the potential cavities left behind. click for gif and link to pdb. The Major Factors Affecting Protein StabilityHydrogen BondsBeginning

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Ray tracing is a powerful technique to generate realistic images of 3D scenes. A drawback is its high demand for processing power. Multiprocessing is one way to meet this demand. However, when the models are very large, special attention must be paid to the way the algorithm is parallelised. Combining demand driven and data parallel techniques provides good opportunities to arrive at an efficient scalable algorithm. Which tasks to process demand driven and which data driven, is decided by the data intensity of the task and the amount of data locality (coherence) that will be present in the task. Rays with the same origin and similar directions, such as primary rays and light rays, exhibit much coherence. These rays are therefore traced in demand driven fashion, a bundle at a time. Non-coherent rays are traced data parallel. By combining demand driven and data driven tasks, a good load balance may be achieved, while at the same time spreading the communication evenly across the network. This leads to a scalable and efficient parallel implementation of the ray tracing algorithm.

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Since even before the recession, people have continuously searched for opportunities to save money. Hunting for grocery coupons and exercising haggling skills stand as best practices in the lives of many. Tuesday, another approach at cutting costs was announced through the Associated Press; this attempt targeted the price tag on moon travel. John Shannon, NASA's shuttle program manager, recently presented a plan for cost-saving moon travel, known as the Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle, to an independent panel. The panel, which holds responsibility for reviewing NASA’s expensive space travel plans, reacted positively to Shannon’s proposal. According to the Associated Press, Shannon’s plan revolves around a concept that has been around NASA for decades: the shuttleless shuttle. Under NASA’s permission, Shannon has been informally toying with this concept with a group of others over the last three years. The model Shannon proposes would be comprised of the old space shuttle system, equipped with its large orange fuel tank and twin solid-rocket boosters, only with no shuttle. Instead, the rocket would have two items sitting on the external fuel tank: a generic cargo container, which would be the only new component, and an Apollo-like capsule, which would be located inside the cargo carrier and allow for astronaut travel. The capsule in this model would be the same as the new Orion crew capsule being designed for Constellation, NASA’s new moon program. The cost-cutting model calls for hardware that already exists, which would save both time and money. For example, if NASA were to move forward with the plan, they would not have to reconfigure the Kennedy Space Center launch site and use shuttle flight control systems, according to Shannon. “The new system could also launch a year earlier, and fewer space workers would have to be laid off because of that,” Shannon said. Although the proposed design is not as powerful as current designs, the new shuttle would still enable two astronauts to travel at one time to either the moon or the international space station. (Current architecture can hold around three to four astronauts.) NASA is currently on course with a 4-year-old plan which costs $35 billion and is aimed at both constructing new rockets and sending astronauts to the moon over years to come. Shannon’s proposal provides an alternative to this plan and would cost roughly $6.6 billion. Shannon’s plan does not stand as the only one of its kind. One panel chairman and longtime aerospace executive, Norman Augustine, mentioned liking a similar proposal from approximately 20 years ago. Additionally, Michael Curie, a NASA spokesman, said that Shannon was encouraged to present in the spirit of sharing the options NASA has studied in the past. Curie assured that Shannon's presentation does not reflect a lack of backing toward current NASA plans: "NASA believes the best plan is to fully fund the current architecture... This does not indicate a lack of confidence in or support for the current program," he said. According to space experts, however, the plan illustrates that top officials in NASA do have concern regarding their chosen moon travel plan. As the Associated Press reports, experts are convinced that the panel’s reaction, along with the upper-level management’s fingerprints on Shannon’s proposal, suggest that NASA management may be shifting gears, or at minimum, signaling doubts regarding the more expensive plan. Keith Cowing, a former NASA engineer who heads the Nasawatch.com web site, explained, "It clearly reflects some doubts among senior agency folks in the overall veracity of their current approach." While all of this is occurring, the whole program of human spaceflight has been undergoing evaluations from an outside board, due to President Barack Obama’s science policy.

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study in Klickitat County, Washington shows that active wind farms in Washington and Oregon kill more than 6,500 birds and 3,000 Orah Zamora works for West, Inc., an ecological field study company, monitors the Windy Flats project, one of the largest wind farms in the United States. Zamora looks for dead birds and bats that have been severed by the spinning blades of the surrounding wind turbines in order to conduct survey's to observe how wind-power development is affecting birds. like a crime scene, and you try to figure out what happened," said Zamora. "Sometimes it's really obvious because you can see a slice mark." surveys are financed by the wind industry and are mainly concerned with birds like eagles, hawks, and other raptors. Klickitat County is especially a concern because the area has an abundance of prey for these larger birds, hence, they tend to stay in the area. According to the study, these birds are diving for their prey and do not pay attention to the large wind turbine blades that may be in the way. are differing views between scientists, biologists and wind-energy developers as to whether birds are at high risk because no one knows what cumulative death toll will have a significant impact on the advocates say "these deaths are an acceptable trade-off for development of a renewable energy source." They also note that man-made hazards and house cats account for tens of millions deaths per year. According to Mike Sagrillo, a consultant who writes for the American Wind Energy Association, bird mortality "at wind farms, compared to other human-related causes of bird mortality, is biologically and statistically insignificant." surveys taken in Klickitat County showed that wind power is only a minor hazard to birds, but scientists say it's too early to really "discount the risks posed by the rush to develop Northwest wind survey in Klickitat County at the Big Horn Wind Farm indicated that more than 30 raptors were killed "during an initial year of operations - more than seven times the number forecast in a pre-construction study." Among the dead birds were short-eared owls, kestrels, red-tailed hawks and a ferruginous hawk. take questions and concerns of wildlife impacts very seriously," said Jan Johnson, a spokeswoman for Iberdrola Renewables, which owns the Big Horn Wind Farm. addition to these findings, Altamount Pass Wind Farms in California have older wind turbines from the 1980's that have killed more raptors "per megawatt of power than anywhere else in the nation." These wind farms kill more than 1,600 raptors per year. developers have agreed to relocate turbines away from canyon ridges where the large birds of prey spend most of their time, the death toll is still expected to rise due to the lack of information regarding what death toll is biologically significant to these study by West, Inc. that was paid for by the Klickitat County Planning Department showed that the turbines would kill 516 raptors each year just in the Columbia River plateau region of Oregon and Washington if the industry doubled in size. The study determined that this was not a significant number, but ecologist K. Shawn Smallwood thinks the study underestimates the number of deaths and that it's hard to conclude whether these wind turbine-related deaths would harm an entire species.

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Solar Impulse, an experimental solar plane, took off on a historic ride around the world early today from Geneva, Switzerland. Supporters hope that this flight will prove the value of solar energy.According to team co-founder Bertrand Piccard, a record-breaking balloonist who's father and grandfather also airborne and submarine feats, the prototype has been designed to test and promote new energy-efficient technologies. "The goal of the project is to have a solar-powered plane flying day and night without fuel," Piccard said. "This flight is crucial for the credibility of the project."Ten test flights have been completed since the project began seven months ago. The prototype aircraft is a single-seater shaped like a giant dragonfly. It has 12,000 solar panels spread across its 207 foot (63 meter) wingspan. The aircraft is powered by four small electric motors and will depend on the sun to charge its batteries. theory is that the aircraft will store enough energy during the day to last through the night. Pilot Andre Borschberg, a former flight jet pilot, will attempt to stay alert during the flight with the help of a ground control team that is monitoring the aircraft on the teams website. 57, is wearing a parachute just in case he runs into trouble in the

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Armour, a doctoral student in physics at the University of Washington is boldly challenging that certain assertions of the Nobel Prize-winning International Panel on Climate Change, in their current state, may be flawed. He argues that the UN's suggestion that stopping aerosol emissions will stop warming is misleading [press release]. These conclusions are noteworthy, given the controversial state of warming research and legislation aimed to "stop" global warming. At issue is various climatology models, collected from published research, that attempt to simulate the effects of changing global climate variables. These variables include changing the levels of an "aerosols" (atmospheric dust) like sea salt or soot from burning fossil fuels; or greenhouse gases (GHGs) like CO2 or methane. The effects of these variables are dubbed "forcings" (aerosol forcing, GHG forcings, solar forcing, etc.). Various forcings sum up to predict a net climate change and its contributors by approximate percentage. Models are typically fit to current data, but the narrow range that many climate variables have been constrained to in the modern era limits them. They're also limited by how many variables and effects on those variables they consider. Last, but not least, they're limited by how accurately and completely we can measure certain variables (e.g. total global aerosol levels). In this case, Kyle Armour says that current models are flawed in that they fail to consider how high the uncertainty is regarding the amount that aerosols contribute to climate change. He says that the aerosols could contribute a lot to climate change, or only a In the "best case" scenario they would only contribute a little to net warming, thus they would not be masking the effects of GHG-related warming. If all emissions of aerosols and GHGs stopped (a cessation of fossil fuel burning, and mammalian livestock farming, in short) the aerosols would quickly exit the atmosphere. GHGs would remain for years at elevated levels, but the net result would be a slight decrease in temperatures by about half a degree Fahrenheit, given that the aerosols were the chief culprits. In other words, the current temperature, which is about 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit above pre-Industrial Revolution levels would dip to only 1.0 degrees Fahrenheit above that base level -- but wouldn’t return entirely for many years. Society can obviously not just instantly cut emissions, Mr. Armour acknowledges, but he says that such a scenario would offer justification to However, it's also possible that aerosols offer a larger contribution and are masking the effects of GHGs. In this case, even if emissions stopped, temperatures would continue to rise and likely reach 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit above pre-Industrial Revolution levels, as the GHGs would persist in the atmosphere. Such a temperature increase would likely cause some of the more severe predicted climate change effects (though it could In other words, Mr. Armour is arguing that uncertainty in the aerosol components of models may lead to the IPCC significantly underestimating the amount of warming that will occur under various scenarios. Mr. Armour says that keeping this uncertainty in mind is critical and the IPCC needs to do a better job in doing so in its next report. He states, "This is not an argument to say we should keep emitting aerosols. It is an argument that we should be smart in how we stop emitting. And it's a call to action because we know the warming we are committed to from what we have emitted already and the longer we keep emitting the worse it gets." One interesting conclusion of the study not explored by Mr. Armour is the question of maximum forcing. Clearly historically temperatures rose due to increased GHGs, but leveled off (reach equilibrium) or reversed as the global system dampened the warming effects. (In other words the Earth remained habitable, if a bit hotter, and didn't become some sort of arid, barren fireball.) This equilibrium may be reached by a number of mechanisms -- radiative heat loss into space/changes in ocean currents/changes in atmospheric water vapor, etc. The question is what is the "maximum" reachable temperature? If Mr. Armour is correct and we may already be locked in to a large temperature rise, the question is whether we'll reach this maximum. If so, the climate change will already be enacted. While this will be unfortunate in some ways (population would have to shift, growing areas would shift, etc.) and fortunate in others, humanity would already be forced to adapt to the change. If indeed a maximum with dampening is destined to be reached, stopping emissions would do little good (unless we can somehow remove a significant quantity of GHGs from the atmosphere, which does not seem currently feasible). Thus the question of whether fossil fuel and farming emissions should be cut, and if so how much, largely rests on a data set that is largely unknown and uncertain. Mr. Armour's key conclusion is in noting this, and in noting that the IPCC needs to do a better job informing policy makers (politicians) of this uncertainty. Mr. Armour's work has been published [abstract] in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. quote: Primary driver: the Sun quote: Ever taken a f*ing science class? quote: Sorry to be harsh, it's just amazing how stupid some of the statements made on this site are, and it really makes me sad. quote: Global temperatures are rising, there is no debate about that quote: the next generations will have no choice but to pay, which doesn't seem to bother anybody quote: The cost to stop using fossil fuels (which is easier to quantify, and nobody wants to voluntarily pay) quote: but the ocean's properties aren't changing. quote: Oceans do drive the weather and mediate the climate, but when talking about long term climate change, we are changing properties of the atmosphere that affect it's insulating properties, but the ocean's properties aren't changing. So, the atmosphere is still the primary driver of change

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Most dairy farmers have long recognized that feeding raw milk to calves is not exempt of health risks. Of the U.S. dairy farms only 25.6 percent feed raw milk to their calves (APHIS 2007). Dairies with more than 500 cows are rapidly adopting pasteurization with 30.7 percent of them already doing it. The reason has been the understanding of the role pasteurization played in history as a process to increase milk safety both in cattle and humans. In the late 1800 tuberculosis in the U.S. decimated both cattle and human populations. At the time 70 to 90 percent of urban inhabitants were infected, and almost 80 percent of those died from the disease. Unpasteurized cow’s milk was a very common cause of tuberculosis, typhoid fever and salmonellosis. Unpasteurized cow’s milk caused nearly 25 percent percent of all food-borne outbreaks during that time. Public outcry demanded solutions to the high children mortality. In 1882 commercial pasteurizers were developed with the first U.S. milk pasteurizing plant opening at Sheffield Farms Dairy in New Jersey in 1891. In 1892 the “Pasteurized Milk Laboratory”, funded by the Straus family, opened in New York offering free of charge “purified milk” (pasteurized) to indigent mothers. In 1897, encouraged by the results obtained in New York, the U.S. Health Department set chemical milk standards, and required milk shop dealers to obtain permits. Chicago became the first major American city in 1908 to pass a law that required commercial milk pasteurization. . Initially introduced to prolong milk shelf life, pasteurization led to the full control of bovine tuberculosis (TB) transmission to humans. Scientists discovered later on, that the tuberculosis bacterium was not the only pathogen present in milk, and that it could contain other bacteria such as brucella, E. coli, salmonella, and listeria. Alice C. Evans (1881-1975) a USDA microbiologist discovered in 1918 that brucella, the bacterium which caused “undulant fever”, the disease with which she was personally affected, could be found in milk. Other bacteria sometimes found in raw milk have resulted in recent outbreaks. In a recent E. coli outbreak for example which occurred in Tennessee in November 2013, nine children became ill after drinking raw milk. Five of the nine children, all younger than seven, required hospitalization, and three developed a severe kidney problem known as hemolytic uremic syndrome. Listeria monocytogenes is less frequently found compared to other bacteria however it is feared for its relatively high fatality rate. The health risks are particularly severe among the young, elderly, pregnant women and those with compromised immune systems. Between 1993 and 2006 a total of 20 states reported 121 outbreaks caused by contaminated dairy products. Of these 73 percent involved non-pasteurized products and were caused by bacteria (CDC). The bacteria identified in raw milk or non-pasteurized dairy products outbreaks were: Campylobacter (54 percent), Salmonella (22 percent), Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia Coli (13 percent), Brucella (4 percent), Listeria (4 percent), and Shigella (3 percent). The MN Department of Health recently published an extensive (one decade) report on non-outbreak gastro-intestinal infections associated with raw milk (Robinson et al. 2013). Main causative agents were: Campylobacter, Salmonella, Cryptosporidium, E. coli O157, and E. coli non-O157 with Campylobacter accounting for 77 percent of the cases. Results of this report concluded that sporadic illnesses associated with raw milk consumption far outnumber those reported as outbreaks by the Center for Disease Control (CDC). It also concluded that laboratory-confirmed infections are 25 times greater than reported outbreaks and that 17 percent of Minnesotans that consumed raw milk became ill during the duration of the study. Campylobacter is the most common intestinal pathogen in Minnesota, with a yearly median of 903 cases between 2001 and 2008. In one of the biggest outbreaks of campylobacter bacteria seen nationally, raw milk from a Pennsylvania dairy sickened 148 people in four states in January 2012 (CDC). Milk has become safer today than in the past as a result of better understanding of bacteria, improvements in cattle health, and the development of hygienic milk handling practices. However, the best we can do is just to reduce, not eliminate the risk of contamination. A cow producing 80 pounds of milk excretes nearly 100 pounds of wet feces, and no matter how careful dairy farmers are they cannot guarantee milk to be free from bacteria. Not only does bacteria come from feces but also from infected udders (mastitis), dust, rodents, insects, dirty milking equipment, etc. Quickly, cooling raw milk in sanitary storage containers such as a bulk tank helps preserve it and minimize the growth of these bacteria to a certain extent. Once we drink it however, bacteria enter an environment (our digestive system) abundant in nutrients and optimum temperature for their growth. A fight then ensues between the body cells and the pathogens. The body of a healthy adult might remember previous similar challenges (immunity) and be prepared to fight. However young children don’t have this acquired memory within their body cells (immunity), and the elderly have lost it or it’s weakened. After extensive studies on food and its safety, pasteurization was developed to protect the end consumer from harmful and sometimes fatal microorganisms that may haphazardly reach the food chain, while simultaneously protecting humans and young calves from unwanted diseases. Robinson, T.J, J.M. Schefel, and K.E. Smith. 2013. Raw Milk Consumption Among Patients With Non-Outbreak-Related Enteric Infections. Minnesota Department Of Public Health, St. Paul. MN.

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Air entering the ramjet is compressed solely by the forward movement of the vehicle. Also known as a "flying drainpipe," it consists essentially of a long duct into which fuel is fed at a controlled rate. The fuel is ignited by the incoming heated, compressed air. Although straightforward in principle, the ramjet demands careful design if it is to work efficiently and significant design variations are called for depending on the operating speed of the vehicle. In any case, a ramjet will only start to work above a certain speed – typically about 485 km/h (300 mph) – so that below this speed some form of auxiliary propulsion system is needed. The ramjet is more fuel efficient than turbojets or turbofans above about Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) making them very attractive for use on missiles. Related entry interstellar ramjet Related category AERODYNAMICS AND AERONAUTICS Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact

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Scientists have discovered a biological marker that may help to identify which depressed patients will respond to an experimental, rapid-acting antidepressant. The brain signal, detectable by noninvasive imaging, also holds clues to the agent’s underlying mechanism, which are vital for drug development, say National Institutes of Health researchers. The signal is among the latest of several such markers, including factors detectable in blood, genetic markers, and a sleep-specific brain wave, recently uncovered by the NIH team and grantee collaborators. They illuminate the workings of the agent, called ketamine, and may hold promise for more personalized treatment. "These clues help focus the search for the molecular targets of a future generation of medications that will lift depression within hours instead of weeks," explained Carlos Zarate, M.D., of the NIH’s National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). "The more precisely we understand how this mechanism works, the more narrowly treatment can be targeted to achieve rapid antidepressant effects and avoid undesirable side effects." Zarate, Brian Cornwell, Ph.D., and NIMH colleagues report on their brain imaging study online in the journal Biological Psychiatry. Previous research had shown that ketamine can lift symptoms of depression within hours in many patients. But side effects hamper its use as a first-line medication. So researchers are studying its mechanism of action in hopes of developing a safer agent that works similarly. Ketamine works through a different brain chemical system than conventional antidepressants. It initially blocks a protein on brain neurons, called the NMDA receptor, to which the chemical messenger glutamate binds. However, it is not known if the drug’s rapid antidepressant effects are a direct result of this blockage or of downstream effects triggered by the blockage, as suggested by animal studies. To tease apart ketamine's workings, the NIMH team imaged depressed patients’ brain electrical activity with magnetoencephalography (MEG). They monitored spontaneous activity while subjects were at rest, and activity evoked by gentle stimulation of a finger, before and 6.5 hours after an infusion of ketamine. It was known that by blocking NMDA receptors, ketamine causes an increase in spontaneous electrical signals, or waves, in a particular frequency range in the brain's cortex, or outer mantle. Hours after ketamine administration— in the timeframe in which ketamine relieves depression — spontaneous electrical activity in people at rest was the same whether or not the drug lifted their depression. Electrical activity evoked by stimulating a finger, however, was different in the two groups. MEG imaging made it possible to monitor excitability of the somatosensory cortex, the part of the cortex that registers sensory stimulation. Those who responded to ketamine showed an increased response to the finger stimulation, a greater excitability of the neurons in this part of the cortex. Such a change in excitability is likely to result, not from the immediate effects of blocking the receptor, but from other processes downstream, in the cascade of effects set in motion by NMDA blockade, say the researchers. Evidence points to changes in another type of glutamate receptor, the AMPA receptor, raising questions about whether the blocking of NMDA receptors is even necessary for ketamine’s antidepressant effect. If NMDA blockade is just a trigger, then targeting AMPA receptors may prove a more direct way to effect a lifting of depression. A separate study of ketamine biomarkers by the NIMH group adds to evidence that the drug may work, in part, by strengthening neural connections . Thirty treatment resistant depressed patients who received ketamine showed increased sleep-specific slow brainwave activity (SWA) — a marker of such strengthened synapses and of increased synchronization of networks in the cortex. They also had higher blood levels of a key neural growth chemical, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), previously linked, in animal studies, to ketamine's action. Intriguingly, the boosts in BDNF were proportional to those in SWA only among 13 participants whose depressions significantly lifted – suggesting a potential marker of successful treatment. "Linked SWA and BDNF may represent correlates of mood improvement following ketamine treatment," said Zarate. "These may be part of the mechanism underlying the rapid antidepressant effects and prove useful in testing potential new therapies that target the glutamate system." The increases in SWA, detected via electroencephalography (EEG), were also reflected in increased slope and amplitude of individual brainwaves — additional indicators of neural health and adaptability. Prior to discovery of ketamine's antidepressant effects, the only fast-acting antidepressant therapies were sleep deprivation and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), both of which are also thought to work, at least in part, by stimulating BDNF. There is also new evidence that people with one of two common versions of the gene that codes for BDNF respond better to ketamine — and clues about why. The versions are created by a site in the human BDNF gene where the genetic code differs slightly across individuals. Each person inherits two copies of the gene, one from each parent. So people can inherit one or two copies of each version. In June, NIMH-funded researchers reported that ketamine’s ability to spur the growth of neural connections and trigger antidepressant-like behavioral responses was impaired in mice genetically engineered to express two copies of a risk version of the human BDNF gene that is carried by about 30 percent of the population. NIMH grantees George Aghajanian M.D., and Ronald Duman, Ph.D., of Yale University, New Haven, Conn., also discovered atrophy in extensions of neurons and dampened electrical activity in key cells at the front of the brain, with the risk version. The mouse results suggested that the same site of variability in the BDNF gene might similarly influence patients' responses to ketamine. In July, Zarate and NIMH colleagues reported that in 62 depressed patients, this variability in the BDNF gene accounted for 28 percent of difference in patients’ responsiveness to the medication. As expected, the antidepressant effect was strongest in patients with two copies of the other, protective version, which is carried by about 60 percent of the population. These results strengthen the case for BDNF’s pivotal role in mediating antidepressant effects produced via the glutamate system. They also suggest that it might be possible to improve ketamine's antidepressant effect in risk version carriers by first giving them treatments known to enhance BDNF, such as exercise, transcranial magnetic stimulation, ECT, or conventional antidepressants. In another recent study by the NIMH team and NIH collaborators, by-products of the chemical breakdown of ketamine, detectable in blood, helped to sort out responders from non-responders, as well as diagnosis and symptoms. This first study of its kind pinpointed correlates of such downstream ketamine metabolites in 45 treatment resistant depressed unipolar and 22 depressed bipolar patients. Blood levels of one metabolite were higher among bipolar non-responders, indicating that these patients might require a lower dose of the drug for optimal efficacy. Levels of three related metabolites were higher in bipolar patients, with only one, of a different type, elevated in patients with major depression. Higher levels of three metabolites of the former type were also associated with lower scores on measures of psychotic and other side effects, following ketamine treatment. The identification of these downstream metabolites opens the door to possibly developing them into newer treatments that are better tolerated than ketamine. Ketamine also recently produced the fastest, strongest and longest-lasting anti-suicidal intervention ever demonstrated in a controlled trial, according to Zarate and colleagues. In a replication of an earlier study, the researchers confirmed that ketamine not only lifts depression, but also reduces suicidal thoughts in bipolar patients. The effects were detectable as soon as 40 minutes after a single infusion in 15 treatment resistant patients taking mood stabilizers, and remained significant for at least a few days. Three fourths of the patients responded to ketamine, with none responding to a placebo. The results add reduced suicidal thinking to the list of potential therapeutic benefits of targeting the brain’s glutamate system. While the research on biological markers and mechanisms holds hope for development of more practical medications in the long term, questions remain about whether there might be a limited role for ketamine itself in the short term. In a recent assessment of the state of the science, Zarate and American and European colleagues propose that intravenous ketamine may prove useful for acutely suicidal patients who receive treatment in hospital emergency rooms. It may also offer an alternative to ECT, long considered the treatment of last resort for treatment resistant depression, but fraught with concerns about cognitive side effects. However, the researchers recommend against the use of ketamine outside of a hospital setting, citing potential cardiovascular and other risks. They note that anesthesiologists participate in the trials at NIMH and Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York City which also require a 24-hour inpatient stay following drug infusion. Among about 163 patients who have been studied to date, the drug has been well tolerated and seems a reasonable treatment option for most treatment resistant depressed patients, say the researchers. Studies are under way using nasally administered ketamine and other strategies to determine how the rapid antidepressant affect might best be sustained. "We are investigating ketamine in multiple ways — studying genes, gene expression, synapses, cells, circuits, and symptoms with neuroimaging, genetics, electrophysiological measures and other techniques," explained Zarate. "These studies hold hope for predicting the likelihood of response and for gaining insights into mechanisms of action." Date: August 3, 2012 Source: National Institute of Mental Health

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Definitions for hair cells, auditory, outer This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word hair cells, auditory, outer U.S. National Library of Medicine Hair Cells, Auditory, Outer Sensory cells of organ of Corti. In mammals, they are usually arranged in three or four rows, and away from the core of spongy bone (the modiolus), lateral to the INNER AUDITORY HAIR CELLS and other supporting structures. Their cell bodies and stereocilia increase in length from the cochlear base toward the apex and laterally across the rows, allowing differential responses to various frequencies of sound. The numerical value of hair cells, auditory, outer in Chaldean Numerology is: 4 The numerical value of hair cells, auditory, outer in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9 Find a translation for the hair cells, auditory, outer definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these hair cells, auditory, outer definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: "hair cells, auditory, outer." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 24 Jun 2016. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/hair cells, auditory, outer>.

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Definitions for set about This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word set about set about, go about, approach(verb) begin to deal with "approach a task"; "go about a difficult problem"; "approach a new project" undertake, set about, attempt(verb) enter upon an activity or enterprise get down, begin, get, start out, start, set about, set out, commence(verb) take the first step or steps in carrying out an action "We began working at dawn"; "Who will start?"; "Get working as soon as the sun rises!"; "The first tourists began to arrive in Cambodia"; "He began early in the day"; "Let's get down to work now" To initiate or begin some action. The numerical value of set about in Chaldean Numerology is: 5 The numerical value of set about in Pythagorean Numerology is: 4 Sample Sentences & Example Usage Set about whatever you intend to do; the beginning is half the battle. Both governments have agreed to set about creating conditions for more Mexican companies to invest in Cuba. The Japanese decided to destroy Manila. They were going to give them a dead city, they set about doing that, they burned, they killed. To be always intending to make a new and better life but never to find time to set about it is as to put off eating and drinking and sleeping from one day to the next until you're dead. To be always intending to live a new life, but never find time to set about it - this is as if a man should put off eating and drinking from one day to another till he be starved and destroyed. Images & Illustrations of set about Translations for set about From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary Get even more translations for set about » Find a translation for the set about definition in other languages: Select another language:

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Definitions for walter rudolf hess This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word walter rudolf hess Hess, Walter Hess, Walter Rudolf Hess(noun) Swiss physiologist noted for studies of the brain (1881-1973) Walter Rudolf Hess Walter Rudolf Hess was a Swiss physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for mapping the areas of the brain involved in the control of internal organs. He shared the prize with Egas Moniz. The numerical value of walter rudolf hess in Chaldean Numerology is: 4 The numerical value of walter rudolf hess in Pythagorean Numerology is: 8 Images & Illustrations of walter rudolf hess Find a translation for the walter rudolf hess definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these walter rudolf hess definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: "walter rudolf hess." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 24 Jun 2016. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/walter rudolf hess>.

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The Study Process The reports of the National Academies are viewed as being valuable and credible because of the institution's reputation for providing independent, objective, and non-partisan advice with high standards of scientific and technical quality. Checks and balances are applied at every step in the study process to protect the integrity of the reports and to maintain public confidence in them. This web page will help you navigate our study process. You can Watch The National Academies Committee Process Video (you will be redirected to another website). Study Process Overview Ensuring Independent, Objective Advice. For more than 140 years, the National Academies have been advising the nation on issues of science, technology, and medicine. The 1863 Congressional charter signed by President Lincoln authorized this non-governmental institution to honor top scientists with membership and to serve the nation whenever called upon. Today the National Academies—National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, and National Research Council—continue that dual mission. Like no other organization, the National Academies can enlist the nation's foremost scientists, engineers, health professionals, and other experts to address the scientific and technical aspects of society’s most pressing problems. Each year, more than 6,000 of these experts are selected to serve on hundreds of study committees that are convened to answer specific sets of questions. All serve without pay. Federal agencies are the primary financial sponsors of the Academies' work. Additional studies are funded by state agencies, foundations, other private sponsors, and the National Academies endowment. The Academies provide independent advice; the external sponsors have no control over the conduct of a study once the statement of task and budget are finalized. Study committees gather information from many sources in public meetings but they carry out their deliberations in private in order to avoid political, special interest, and sponsor influence. Through this careful study process, the National Academies produce 200–300 authoritative reports each year. Recent reports cover such topics as the obesity epidemic, the use of forensics in the courtroom, invasive plants, underage drinking, the Hubble Telescope, vaccine safety, the hydrogen economy, transportation safety, climate change, and homeland security. Many reports influence policy decisions; some are instrumental in enabling new research programs; others provide program reviews. Stage 1: Defining the Study Before the committee selection process begins, National Academies' staff and members of their boards work with sponsors to determine the specific set of questions to be addressed by the study in a formal "statement of task," as well as the duration and cost of the study. The statement of task defines and bounds the scope of the study, and it serves as the basis for determining the expertise and the balance of perspectives needed on the committee. The statement of task, work plan, and budget must be approved by the Executive Committee of the National Research Council Governing Board. This review often results in changes to the proposed task and work plan. On occasion, it results in turning down studies that the institution believes are inappropriately framed or not within its purview. Stage 2: Committee Selection & Approval Selection of appropriate committee members, individually and collectively, is essential for the success of a study. All committee members serve as individual experts, not as representatives of organizations or interest groups. Each member is expected to contribute to the project on the basis of his or her own expertise and good judgment. A committee is not finally approved until a thorough balance and conflict of interest discussion is held at the first meeting, and any issues raised in that discussion or by the public are investigated and addressed. Careful steps are taken to convene committees that meet the following criteria: - An appropriate range of expertise for the task. The committee must include experts with the specific expertise and experience needed to address the study’s statement of task. One of the strengths of the National Academies is the tradition of bringing together recognized experts from diverse disciplines and backgrounds who might not otherwise collaborate. These diverse groups are encouraged to conceive new ways of thinking about a problem. - A balance of perspectives. Having the right expertise is not sufficient for success. It is also essential to evaluate the overall composition of the committee in terms of different experiences and perspectives. The goal is to ensure that the relevant points of view are, in the National Academies' judgment, reasonably balanced so that the committee can carry out its charge objectively and credibly. - Screened for conflicts of interest. All provisional committee members are screened in writing and in a confidential group discussion about possible conflicts of interest. For this purpose, a "conflict of interest" means any financial or other interest which conflicts with the service of the individual because it could significantly impair the individual's objectivity or could create an unfair competitive advantage for any person or organization. The term "conflict of interest" means something more than individual bias. There must be an interest, ordinarily financial, that could be directly affected by the work of the committee. Except for those rare situations in which the National Academies determine that a conflict of interest is unavoidable and promptly and publicly disclose the conflict of interest, no individual can be appointed to serve (or continue to serve) on a committee of the institution used in the development of reports if the individual has a conflict of interest that is relevant to the functions to be performed. Point of View is Different from Conflict of Interest A point of view or bias is not necessarily a conflict of interest. Committee members are expected to have points of view, and the National Academies attempt to balance these points of view in a way deemed appropriate for the task. Committee members are asked to consider respectfully the viewpoints of other members, to reflect their own views rather than be a representative of any organization, and to base their scientific findings and conclusions on the evidence. Each committee member has the right to issue a dissenting opinion to the report if he or she disagrees with the consensus of the other members. - Other considerations. Membership in the three Academies (NAS, NAE, IOM) and previous involvement in National Academies studies are taken into account in committee selection. The inclusion of women, minorities, and young professionals are additional considerations. Specific steps in the committee selection and approval process are as follows: - Staff solicit an extensive number of suggestions for potential committee members from a wide range of sources, then recommend a slate of nominees. - Nominees are reviewed and approved at several levels within the National Academies; a provisional slate is then approved by the President of the National Academy of Sciences, who is also the Chair of the National Research Council. - The provisional committee list is posted for public comment in the Current Projects System on the Web. - The provisional committee members complete background information and conflict of interest disclosure forms. - The committee balance and conflict of interest discussion is held at the first committee meeting. - Any conflicts of interest or issues of committee balance and expertise are investigated; changes to the committee are proposed and finalized. - Committee is formally approved. - Committee members continue to be screened for conflict of interest throughout the life of the committee. Stage 3: Committee Meetings, Information Gathering, Deliberations, and Drafting the Report Study committees typically gather information through: 1) meetings that are open to the public and that are announced in advance through the National Academies Web site; 2) the submission of information by outside parties; 3) reviews of the scientific literature, and 4) the investigations of the committee members and staff. In all cases, efforts are made to solicit input from individuals who have been directly involved in, or who have special knowledge of, the problem under consideration. In accordance with federal law and with few exceptions, information-gathering meetings of the committee are open to the public, and any written materials provided to the committee by individuals who are not officials, agents, or employees of the National Academies are maintained in a public access file that is available for examination. The committee deliberates in meetings closed to the public in order to develop draft findings and recommendations free from outside influences. The public is provided with brief summaries of these meetings that include the list of committee members present. All analyses and drafts of the report remain confidential. Stage 4: Report Review As a final check on the quality and objectivity of the study, all National Academies reports—whether products of studies, summaries of workshop proceedings, or other documents—must undergo a rigorous, independent external review by experts whose comments are provided anonymously to the committee members. The National Academies recruit independent experts with a range of views and perspectives to review and comment on the draft report prepared by the committee. The review process is structured to ensure that each report addresses its approved study charge and does not go beyond it, that the findings are supported by the scientific evidence and arguments presented, that the exposition and organization are effective, and that the report is impartial and objective. Each committee must respond to, but need not agree with, reviewer comments in a detailed "response to review" that is examined by one or two independent report review "monitors" responsible for ensuring that the report review criteria have been satisfied. After all committee members and appropriate National Academies officials have signed off on the final report, it is transmitted to the sponsor of the study and is released to the public. Sponsors are not given an opportunity to suggest changes in reports. The names and affiliations of the report reviewers are made public when the report is released.

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Sean Klepper M.D. Artur Zembowicz M.D.... - Small, well-circumscibed, brown macule resulting from a benign increase in the number of melanocytes and melanin production - The finding of widespread lentigines is known as lentiginosis profusa. - Multiple lentigines can be seen in several syndromes: - LEOPARD: Lentigines, electrocardiographic conduction abnormalities, ocular hypertelorism, pulmonary stenosis, abnormal genitalia, retardation of growth, deafness - LAMB: Lentigines, atrial myxomas, cutaneous papular myxomas, blue nevi - Peutz-Jeghers syndrome - Lengigines may eventually give progress to melanocytic nevi. - Increased density of basilar melanocytes compared to adjacent uninvolved skin - Elongation of the rete ridges with a club-shaped appearance - Hyperpigmentation of the basal epidermis, sometimes extending into the upper epidermis, often most pronounced at the tips of the rete ridges

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