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Dutch East Indies . The name was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856. ] Tasmania was sometimes referred to as "Dervon", as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is "Tassie". Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to "Tas", mainly when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state. In the constructed palawa kani language, the main island of Tasmania is called lutruwita , ] a name originally derived from the Bruny Island Tasmanian language . George Augustus Robinson recorded it as Loe.trou.witter and also as Trow.wer.nar , probably from one or more of the eastern or Northeastern Tasmanian languages . However, he also recorded it as a name for Cape Barren Island . In the 20th century, some writers used it as an Aboriginal name for Tasmania, spelled "Trowenna" or "Trowunna". It is now believed that the name is more properly applied to Cape Barren Island, ] which has had an official dual name of "Truwana" since 2014. ] A number of palawa kani names, based on historical records of aboriginal names, have been accepted by the Tasmanian government. A dozen of these (below) are 'dual-use' (bilingual) names, and another two are unbounded areas with only palawa names. ] There are also a number of archaeological sites with Palawa names. Some of these names have been contentious, with names being proposed without consultation with the aboriginal community, or without having a connection to the place in question. ] As well as a diverse First Nations geography, where remnants are preserved in rough form by European documentation, Tasmania is known as a place for unorthodox place-names . ] These names often come about from lost definitions, where descriptive names have lost their old meanings and have taken on new modern interpretations (e.g. 'Bobs Knobs'). Other names have retained their original meaning, and are often quaint or endearing descriptions (e.g. 'Paradise' ). The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 11,700 years ago. ] Much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions (the upwelling of magma ) through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the world's largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains and cliffs formed from this rock type. The central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerites. Mount Wellington above Hobart is a good example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes. In the southern midlands as far south as Hobart, the dolerite is underlaid by sandstone and similar sedimentary stones. In the southwest, Precambrian quartzites were formed from very ancient sea sediments and form strikingly sharp ridges and ranges, such
is underlaid by sandstone and similar sedimentary stones. In the southwest, Precambrian quartzites were formed from very ancient sea sediments and form strikingly sharp ridges and ranges, such as Federation Peak or Frenchmans Cap . In the northeast and east, continental granites can be seen, such as at Freycinet, similar to coastal granites on mainland Australia. In the northwest and west, mineral-rich volcanic rock can be seen at Mount Read near Rosebery , or at Mount Lyell near Queenstown . Also present in the south and northwest is limestone with caves. The quartzite and dolerite areas in the higher mountains show evidence of glaciation , and much of Australia's glaciated landscape is found on the Central Plateau and the Southwest. Cradle Mountain , another dolerite peak, for example, was a nunatak . The combination of these different rock types contributes to scenery which is distinct from any other region of the world. citation needed ] In the far southwest corner of the state, the geology is almost wholly quartzite, which gives the mountains the false impression of having snow-capped peaks year round. Evidence indicates the presence of Aboriginal people in Tasmania about 42,000 years ago. Rising sea levels cut Tasmania off from mainland Australia about 10,000 years ago and by the time of European contact, the Aboriginal people in Tasmania had nine major nations or ethnic groups. ] At the time of the British occupation and colonisation in 1803, the indigenous population was estimated at between 3,000 and 10,000. Historian Lyndall Ryan's analysis of population studies led her to conclude that there were about 7,000 spread throughout the island's nine nations; ] Nicholas Clements, citing research by N.J.B. Plomley and Rhys Jones , settled on a figure of 3,000 to 4,000. ] They engaged in fire-stick farming , hunted game including kangaroo and wallabies , caught seals, mutton-birds, shellfish and fish and lived as nine separate "nations" on the island, which they knew as "Trouwunna". The first reported sighting of Tasmania by a European was on 24 November 1642 by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman , who landed at today's Blackman Bay . More than a century later, in 1772, a French expedition led by Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne landed at (nearby but different) Blackmans Bay , and the following year Tobias Furneaux became the first Englishman to land in Tasmania when he arrived at Adventure Bay , which he named after his ship HMS Adventure . Captain James Cook also landed at Adventure Bay in 1777. Matthew Flinders and George Bass sailed through Bass Strait in 1798–1799, determining for the first time that Tasmania was an island. ] Sealers and whalers based themselves on Tasmania's islands from 1798, ] and in August 1803 New South Wales Governor Philip King sent Lieutenant John Bowen to establish a small military outpost on the eastern shore of the Derwent River in order to forestall any claims to the island by French explorers who had been exploring the
Lieutenant John Bowen to establish a small military outpost on the eastern shore of the Derwent River in order to forestall any claims to the island by French explorers who had been exploring the southern Australian coastline. Bowen, who led a party of 49, including 21 male and three female convicts, named the camp Risdon. ] ] Several months later, a second settlement was established by Captain David Collins , with 308 convicts, 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) to the south in Sullivans Cove on the western side of the Derwent, where fresh water was more plentiful. The latter settlement became known as Hobart Town or Hobarton, later shortened to Hobart , after the British Colonial Secretary of the time, Lord Hobart . The settlement at Risdon was later abandoned. Left on their own without further supplies, the Sullivans Cove settlement suffered severe food shortages and by 1806 its inhabitants were starving, with many resorting to scraping seaweed off rocks and scavenging washed-up whale blubber from the shore to survive. ] A smaller colony was established at Port Dalrymple on the Tamar River in the island's north in October 1804 and several other convict-based settlements were established, including the particularly harsh penal colonies at Port Arthur in the southeast and Macquarie Harbour on the West Coast. Tasmania was eventually sent 75,000 convicts—four out of every ten people transported to Australia. ] By 1819, the Aboriginal and British population reached parity with about 5000 of each, although among the colonists men outnumbered women four-to-one. ] Free settlers began arriving in large numbers from 1820, lured by the promise of land grants and free convict labour. Settlement in the island's northwest corner was monopolised by the Van Diemen's Land Company , which sent its first surveyors to the district in 1826. By 1830, one-third of Australia's non-Indigenous population lived in Van Diemen's Land and the island accounted for about half of all land under cultivation and exports. ] Tensions between Tasmania's Aboriginal and white inhabitants rose, partly driven by increasing competition for kangaroo and other game. ] ] ] Explorer and naval officer John Oxley in 1810 noted the "many atrocious cruelties" inflicted on Aboriginal people by convict bushrangers in the north, which in turn led to black attacks on solitary white hunters. ] Hostilities increased further with the arrival of 600 colonists from Norfolk Island between 1807 and 1813. They established farms along the River Derwent and east and west of Launceston , occupying ten percent of Van Diemen's Land. By 1824 the colonial population had swelled to 12,600, while the island's sheep population had reached 200,000. The rapid colonisation transformed traditional kangaroo hunting grounds into farms with grazing livestock as well as fences, hedges and stone walls, while police and military patrols were increased to control the convict farm labourers. ] Violence began to spiral rapidly from the
with grazing livestock as well as fences, hedges and stone walls, while police and military patrols were increased to control the convict farm labourers. ] Violence began to spiral rapidly from the mid-1820s in what became described as the " Black War ". ] Aboriginal inhabitants were driven to desperation by hunger – that included a desire for agricultural produce, as well as feeling anger at the prevalence of abductions of women and girls. New settlers motivated by fear carried out self-defence operations as well as attacks as a means of suppressing the native threat – or even in some cases, exacting revenge. ] Van Diemen's Land had an enormous gender imbalance, with male colonists outnumbering females six to one in 1822—and 16 to one among the convict population. Historian Nicholas Clements has suggested the "voracious appetite" for native women was the most important trigger for the explosion of violence from the late 1820s. ] From 1825 to 1828, the number of native attacks more than doubled each year, raising panic among settlers. Over the summer of 1826–1827 clans from the Big River, Oyster Bay and North Midlands nations speared stock-keepers on farms and made it clear that they wanted the settlers and their sheep and cattle to move from their kangaroo hunting grounds. Settlers responded vigorously, resulting in many mass-killings. In November 1826, Governor Sir George Arthur issued a government notice declaring that colonists were free to kill Aboriginal people when they attacked settlers or their property, and in the following eight months more than 200 Aboriginal people were killed in the Settled Districts in reprisal for the deaths of 15 colonists. After another eight months, the death toll had risen to 43 colonists and probably 350 Aboriginal people. ] In April 1828, Arthur issued a Proclamation of Demarcation forbidding Aboriginal people to enter the settled districts without a passport issued by the government. ] ] Arthur declared martial law in the colony in November that year, and this remained in force for over three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. ] ] In November 1830, Arthur organised the so-called " Black Line ", ordering every able-bodied male colonist to assemble at one of seven designated places in the Settled Districts to join a massive drive to sweep Aboriginal people out of the region and on to the Tasman Peninsula . The campaign failed and was abandoned seven weeks later, but by then Tasmania's Aboriginal population had fallen to about 300. ] After hostilities between settlers and Aboriginal peoples ceased in 1832, almost all of the remnants of the Indigenous population were persuaded by government agent George Augustus Robinson to move to Flinders Island . Many quickly succumbed to infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, reducing the population further. ] ] Of those removed from Tasmania, the last to die was Truganini , in 1876. The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal
diseases to which they had no immunity, reducing the population further. ] ] Of those removed from Tasmania, the last to die was Truganini , in 1876. The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal population has been described as an act of genocide by historians including Robert Hughes , James Boyce , Lyndall Ryan and Tom Lawson. ] ] ] However, other historians including Henry Reynolds , Richard Broome and Nicholas Clements do not agree with the genocide thesis, arguing that the colonial authorities did not intend to destroy the Aboriginal population in whole or in part. ] ] Boyce has claimed that the April 1828 "Proclamation Separating the Aborigines from the White Inhabitants" sanctioned force against Aboriginal people "for no other reason than that they were Aboriginal". ] However, as Reynolds, Broome and Clements point out, there was open warfare at the time. ] ] Boyce described the decision to remove all Tasmanian Aboriginal people after 1832—by which time they had given up their fight against white colonists—as an extreme policy position. He concluded: "The colonial government from 1832 to 1838 ethnically cleansed the western half of Van Diemen's Land." ] Nevertheless, Clements and Flood note that there was another wave of violence in north-west Tasmania in 1841, involving attacks on settlers' huts by a band of Aboriginal Tasmanians who had not been removed from the island. ] ] Van Diemen's Land—which thus far had existed as a territory within the colony of New South Wales —was proclaimed a separate colony, with its own judicial establishment and Legislative Council , on 3 December 1825. Transportation to the island ceased in 1853 and the colony was renamed Tasmania in 1856, partly to differentiate the burgeoning society of free settlers from the island's convict past. ] The Legislative Council of Van Diemen's Land drafted a new constitution which gained Royal Assent in 1855. The Privy Council also approved the colony changing its name from "Van Diemen's Land" to "Tasmania", and in 1856 the newly elected bicameral parliament sat for the first time, establishing Tasmania as a self-governing colony of the British Empire. ] The colony suffered from economic fluctuations, but for the most part was prosperous, experiencing steady growth. With few external threats and strong trade links with the Empire, Tasmania enjoyed many fruitful periods in the late 19th century, becoming a world-centre of shipbuilding. It raised a local defence force that eventually played a significant role in the Second Boer War in South Africa, and Tasmanian soldiers in that conflict won the first two Victoria Crosses awarded to Australians. In 1901, the Colony of Tasmania united with the five other Australian colonies to form the Commonwealth of Australia. Tasmanians voted in favour of federation with the largest majority of all the Australian colonies. Tasmania was an early adopter of electric street lighting . Australia's first electric street lights were switched on
in favour of federation with the largest majority of all the Australian colonies. Tasmania was an early adopter of electric street lighting . Australia's first electric street lights were switched on in Waratah in 1886. ] Launceston became the first completely electrified city on the island in 1885, followed closely by the township of Zeehan in 1900. The state economy was riding mining prosperity until World War I. In 1901, the state population was 172,475. ] The 1910 foundation of what would become Hydro Tasmania began to shape urban patterns, as well as future major damming programs. ] Hydro's influence culminated in the 1970s when the state government announced plans to flood environmentally significant Lake Pedder . As a result of the eventual flooding of Lake Pedder, the world's first green party was established; the United Tasmania Group . ] National and international attention surrounded the campaign against the Franklin Dam in the early 1980s. ] Tasmanian Enid Lyons became the first female member of the House of Representatives at the 1943 federal election and first female to serve in the federal cabinet . In May 1948, Margaret McIntyre achieved another milestone as the first female elected to the Parliament of Tasmania. Less than six months after her election, McIntyre died in the crash of the Lutana near Quirindi on 2 September 1948. After the end of World War II, the state saw major urbanisation, and the growth of towns like Ulverstone . ] It gained a reputation as "Sanitorium of the South" and a health-focused tourist boom began to grow. The MS Princess of Tasmania began her maiden voyage in 1959, the first car ferry to Tasmania. ] As part of the boom, Tasmania allowed the opening of the first casino in Australia in 1968. ] Queen Elizabeth II visited the state in 1954, and the 50s and 60s were charactered by the opening of major public services, including the Tasmanian Housing Department and Metro Tasmania public bus services. A jail was opened at Risdon in 1960, and the State Library of Tasmania the same year. The University of Tasmania also moved to its present location in 1963. The state was badly affected by the 1967 Tasmanian fires , killing 64 people and destroying over 652,000 acres in five hours. ] In 1975 the Tasman Bridge collapsed when the bridge was struck by the bulk ore carrier Lake Illawarra . It was the only bridge in Hobart, and made crossing the Derwent River by road at the city impossible. The nearest bridge was approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the north, at Bridgewater. Throughout the 1980s, strong environmental concerns saw the building of the Australian Antarctic Division headquarters, and the proclamation of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area . The Franklin Dam was blocked by the federal government in 1983, and CSIRO opened its marine studies centre in Hobart. Pope John Paul II would hold mass at Elwick Racecourse in 1986. The 1990s were characterised by the fight for LGBT rights in Tasmania ,
in 1983, and CSIRO opened its marine studies centre in Hobart. Pope John Paul II would hold mass at Elwick Racecourse in 1986. The 1990s were characterised by the fight for LGBT rights in Tasmania , culminating in the intervention of the United Nations Human Rights Committee in 1997 and the decriminalization of homosexuality that year. ] Christine Milne became the first female leader of a Tasmanian political party in 1993, and major council amalgamations reduce the number of councils from 46 to 29. Following the Port Arthur massacre on 28 April 1996, which resulted in the loss of 35 lives and injured 21 others, the Australian Government conducted a review of its firearms policies and enacted new nationwide gun ownership laws under the National Firearms Agreement . In 2000, Queen Elizabeth II once again visited the state. Gunns rose to prominence as a major forestry company during this decade, only to collapse in 2013. In 2004, Premier Jim Bacon died in office from lung cancer. In January 2011 philanthropist David Walsh opened the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) in Hobart to international acclaim. Within 12 months, MONA became Tasmania's top tourism attraction. ] The COVID-19 pandemic in Tasmania resulted in at least 230 cases and 13 deaths as of September 2021 ] . ] In 2020, after the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic ( SARS-CoV-2 ) and its spread to Australia, the Tasmanian government issued a public health emergency on 17 March, ] the following month receiving the state's most significant outbreak from the North-West which required assistance from the Federal government . In late 2021, Tasmania was leading the nationwide vaccination response. ] Tasmania, the largest island of Australia, has a landmass of 68,401 km 2 (26,410 sq mi) and is located directly in the pathway of the notorious " Roaring Forties " wind that encircles the globe. To its north, it is separated from mainland Australia by Bass Strait . Tasmania is the only Australian state that is not located on the Australian mainland. About 2,500 kilometres (1,300 nautical miles) south of Tasmania island lies the George V Coast of Antarctica . Depending on which borders of the oceans are used, the island can be said to be either surrounded by the Southern Ocean, or to have the Pacific on its east and the Indian to its west. Still other definitions of the ocean boundaries would have Tasmania with the Great Australian Bight to the west, and the Tasman Sea to the east. The southernmost point on mainland Tasmania is approximately WikiMiniAtlas 43°38′37″S 146°49′38″E -43.64361; 146.82722 at South East Cape , and the northernmost point on mainland Tasmania is approximately WikiMiniAtlas 40°38′26″S 144°43′33″E -40.64056; 144.72583 in Woolnorth Kennaook . Tasmania lies at similar latitudes to Te Waipounamu / South Island of New Zealand and parts of Patagonia in South America. Areas at equivalent latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere include Hokkaido in Japan, Northeast China ( Manchuria ),
Te Waipounamu / South Island of New Zealand and parts of Patagonia in South America. Areas at equivalent latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere include Hokkaido in Japan, Northeast China ( Manchuria ), Central Italy , and United States cities such as New York and Chicago . The most mountainous region is the Central Highlands area, which covers most of the central western parts of the state. The Midlands located in the central east, is fairly flat, and is predominantly used for agriculture, although farming activity is scattered throughout the state. Tasmania's tallest mountain is Mount Ossa at 1,617 m (5,305 ft). ] Much of Tasmania is still densely forested, with the Southwest National Park and neighbouring areas holding some of the last temperate rain forests in the Southern Hemisphere . The Tarkine , containing Savage River National Park located in the island's far north west, is the largest temperate rainforest area in Australia covering about 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi). ] With its rugged topography, Tasmania has a great number of rivers. Several of Tasmania's largest rivers have been dammed at some point to provide hydroelectricity . Many rivers begin in the Central Highlands and flow out to the coast. Tasmania's major population centres are mainly situated around estuaries (some of which are named rivers). Tasmania is in the shape of a downward-facing triangle, likened to a shield, heart, or face. It consists of the main island as well as at least a thousand neighbouring islands within the state's jurisdiction. The largest of these are Flinders Island in the Furneaux Group of Bass Strait , King Island in the west of Bass Strait, Cape Barren Island south of Flinders Island, Bruny Island separated from Tasmania by the D'Entrecasteaux Channel , Macquarie Island 1,500 km from Tasmania, and Maria Island off the east coast. Tasmania features a number of separated and continuous mountain ranges. The majority of the state is defined by a significant dolerite exposure, though the western half of the state is older and more rugged, featuring buttongrass plains, temperate rainforests, and quartzite ranges, notably Federation Peak and Frenchmans Cap . The presence of these mountain ranges is a primary factor in the rain shadow effect , where the western half receives the majority of rainfall, which also influences the types of vegetation that can grow. The Central Highlands feature a large plateau which forms a number of ranges and escarpments on its north side, tapering off along the south, and radiating into the highest mountain ranges in the west. At the north-west of this, another plateau radiates into a system of hills where takayna / Tarkine is located. The Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) divides Tasmania into 9 bioregions: ] Ben Lomond , Furneaux , King , Central Highlands , Northern Midlands , Northern Slopes , Southern Ranges , South East , and West . Tasmania's environment consistes of many different biomes
] Ben Lomond , Furneaux , King , Central Highlands , Northern Midlands , Northern Slopes , Southern Ranges , South East , and West . Tasmania's environment consistes of many different biomes or communities across its different regions. It is the most forested state in Australia, and preserves the country's largest areas of temperate rainforest . A distinctive type of moorland found across the west, and particularly south-west of Tasmania, are buttongrass plains, which are speculated to have been expanded by Tasmanian Aboriginal burning practices . ] Tasmania also features a diverse alpine garden environment , such as cushion plant . Highland areas receive consistent snowfall above ~1,000 metres every year, and due to cold air from Antarctica , this level often reaches 800 m, and more occasionally 600 or 400 metres. Every five or so years, snow can form at sea level. ] This environment gives rise to the cypress forests of the Central Plateau and mountainous highlands. In particular, the Walls of Jerusalem with large areas of rare pencil pine , and its closest relative King Billy pine . On the West Coast Range and partially on Mount Field , Australia's only winter- deciduous plant, deciduous beech is found, which forms a carpet or krummholz , or very rarely a 4-metre tree. ] Tasmania features a high concentration of waterfalls . These can be found in small creeks, alpine streams , rapid rivers , or off precipitous plunges. Some of the tallest waterfalls are found on mountain massifs , sometimes at a 200-metre cascade. The most famous and most visited waterfall in Tasmania is Russell Falls in Mount Field due
Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia . It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Australia is Australia’s largest state, with a land area of 2,527,013 square kilometres (975,685 sq mi), ] and is also the second-largest subdivision of any country on Earth, surpassed only by the Sakha Republic in eastern Russia. Western Australia has a diverse range of climates, including tropical conditions in the Kimberley , deserts in the interior (including the Great Sandy Desert , Little Sandy Desert , Gibson Desert , and Great Victoria Desert ) and a Mediterranean climate on the south-west and southern coastal areas. As of 2021, ] the state has 2.91 million inhabitants—11 percent of the national total. ] Over 90 percent of the state's population live in the south-west corner and around 80 percent live in the state capital Perth , ] leaving the remainder of the state sparsely populated. The Trans-Australian Railway and the Eyre Highway traverse the Nullarbor Plain in the state's south-east, providing the principal connection between Western Australia and the population centres in the eastern states . Western Australia's Indigenous peoples have been present for tens of thousands of years. Dutch explorers visited Western Australia from the 17th century, with Dirk Hartog 's 1616 expedition the first Europeans to make landfall. The British claimed Western Australia in 1827 and established the Swan River Colony with Perth as its capital in 1829. The Western Australian gold rushes of the late 19th century resulted in a significant population influx. The colony was granted responsible government in 1890, the last of the Australian colonies to become self-governing, and federated with the other colonies in 1901. Western Australia's mining sector is a key driver of the state economy . The late 20th century saw the development of the state's significant iron ore mining industry – the world's largest – as well as primarily offshore petroleum and natural gas resources . Gold mining retains a significant presence and many other mineral commodities are mined, with Perth being a major centre for associated services. Outside of mining, primary industry is the other significant contributor to the state's economy, including agriculture in the Wheatbelt and temperate southern coastal regions, pastoralism in marginal grassland areas, forestry in the south-west and fishing (including pearling and, historically, whaling ). Western Australia has a geological history dating back to 4.4 billion years ago when Hadean zircons were formed. The earliest direct known life on land, known as stromatolites , started to be created by microbes at around 3.48 billion years ago. The first human inhabitants of Australia arrived from the north "over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago". ] : 5 Over thousands of years
at around 3.48 billion years ago. The first human inhabitants of Australia arrived from the north "over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago". ] : 5 Over thousands of years they eventually spread across the whole landmass. citation needed ] These Indigenous Australians were long established throughout Western Australia by the time European explorers began to arrive in the early 17th century. The first Europeans to visit Western Australia were those of the Dutch Dirk Hartog expedition, who on 25 October 1616 landed at what is now known as Cape Inscription, Dirk Hartog Island . For the rest of the 17th century, other Dutch and British navigators encountered the coast of what Abel Tasman named New Holland in 1644, usually unintentionally as demonstrated by the many shipwrecks along the coast of ships that deviated from the Brouwer Route (because of poor navigation and storms). ] By the late 18th century, British and French sailors had begun to explore the Western Australian coast. The Baudin expedition of 1800–03 included the coast of Western Australia and resulted in the Freycinet Map of 1811 , the first published map featuring the full outline of Australia. The name New Holland remained in popular and semi-official use until at least the mid-1850s; that is, it was in use for about 206 years in comparison to the name Australia which to date has been in use for about 195 years. ] : 11 The origins of the present state began with the establishment by Lockyer ] of a convict-supported settlement from New South Wales at King George III Sound . The settlement was formally annexed on 21 January 1827 by Lockyer when he commanded the Union Jack be raised and a feu de joie fired by the troops. The settlement was founded in response to British concerns about the possibility of a French colony being established on the coast of Western Australia. ] On 7 March 1831 it was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony, ] and named Albany in 1832. In 1829 the Swan River Colony was established on the Swan River by Captain James Stirling . By 1832, the British settler population of the colony had reached around 1,500, and the official name of the colony was changed to Western Australia on 6 February that year. ] ] The two separate townsites of the colony developed slowly into the port city of Fremantle and the state's capital, Perth . York was the first inland settlement in Western Australia, situated 97 kilometres (60 mi) east of Perth and settled on 16 September 1831. York was the staging point for early explorers who discovered the rich gold reserves of Kalgoorlie. Population growth was very slow until significant discoveries of gold were made in the 1890s around Kalgoorlie . In 1887, a new constitution was drafted, providing for the right of self-governance of European Australians, and in 1890, the act granting self-government to the colony was passed by the British Parliament . John Forrest became the first Premier of Western
right of self-governance of European Australians, and in 1890, the act granting self-government to the colony was passed by the British Parliament . John Forrest became the first Premier of Western Australia . In 1896, after discoveries of gold at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie , the Western Australian Parliament authorised the raising of a loan to construct a pipeline to transport 23 megalitres (5 million imperial gallons) of water per day to the burgeoning population on the goldfields. The pipeline, known as the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme , was completed in 1903. C. Y. O'Connor , Western Australia's first engineer-in-chief, designed and oversaw the construction of the pipeline. It carries water 530 km (330 mi) from Perth to Kalgoorlie , and is attributed by historians as an important factor driving the state's population and economic growth. ] Following a campaign led by Forrest, electors of the colony of Western Australia voted in favour of federation with the five other Australian colonies, resulting in Western Australia officially becoming a state on 1 January 1901. ] Western Australia is bounded to the east by longitude 129°E, the meridian 129 degrees east of Greenwich, which defines the border with South Australia and the Northern Territory , and bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and north. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean; in Australia it is officially gazetted as the Southern Ocean . .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} ] ] ] The total length of the state's eastern border is 1,862 km (1,157 mi). ] There are 20,781 km (12,913 mi) of coastline, including 7,892 km (4,904 mi) of island coastline. ] The total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km 2 (970 thousand sq mi). ] The bulk of Western Australia consists of the extremely old Yilgarn craton and Pilbara craton which merged with the Deccan Plateau of India, Madagascar and the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons of Southern Africa, in the Archean Eon to form Ur , one of the oldest supercontinents on Earth (3 – 3.2 billion years ago). In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara craton. ] ] Because the only mountain-building since then has been of the Stirling Range with the rifting from Antarctica , the land is extremely eroded and ancient, with no part of the state above 1,249 metres (4,098 ft) AHD (at Mount Meharry in the Hamersley Range of the Pilbara region). Most of the state is a low plateau with an average elevation of about 400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and no surface runoff . This descends relatively sharply to the coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/ Darling
400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and no surface runoff . This descends relatively sharply to the coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/ Darling Scarp near Perth). The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile and frequently laterised . Even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and deficient in zinc , copper, molybdenum and sometimes potassium and calcium . The infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of fertilisers. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations. citation needed ] The grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora and fauna. As a result, the South West region of the state has a higher concentration of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna than many areas of Australia, making it one of the world's biodiversity "hot spots". Large areas of the state's wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate . It was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri , one of the tallest trees in the world. ] This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, with a higher proportion of endemic species than most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current , the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 millimetres (12 in) at the edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 millimetres (55 in) in the wettest areas near Northcliffe , but from November to March, evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants are adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. The central two-thirds of the state is arid and sparsely inhabited. The only significant economic activity is mining. Annual rainfall averages less than 300 millimetres (8–10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer. ] An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 millimetres (20–60 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only
November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River . Snow is rare in the state and typically occurs only in the Stirling Range near Albany , as it is the only mountain range far enough south and sufficiently elevated. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range . Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of southwestern Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the Perth Hills , as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums . However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day. ] The highest observed temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded in Onslow on 13 January 2022. ] The lowest temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008. ] The south geomagnetic pole is currently tilted 10 degrees away from the South Pole towards Western Australia, allowing for aurora australis displays as far north as Geraldton . ] Western Australia is home to around 630 species of birds (depending on the taxonomy used). Of these around 15 are endemic to the state. The best areas for birds are the southwestern corner of the state and the area around Broome and the Kimberley. The Flora of Western Australia comprises 10,162 published native vascular plant species, along with a further 1,196 species currently recognised but unpublished. They occur within 1,543 genera from 211 families ; there are also 1,276 naturalised alien or invasive plant species, more commonly known as weeds. ] ] In the southwest region are some of the largest numbers of plant species for its area in the world. Western Australia's ecoregions include the sandstone gorges of the Kimberley on the northern coast, and below that the drier Victoria Plains tropical savanna inland, and the semi-desert Pilbara shrublands , Carnarvon xeric shrublands , and Western Australian mulga shrublands to the southwest. Southwards along the coast are the Southwest Australia savanna and the Swan Coastal Plain around Perth, with the jarrah-karri forest and shrublands on the southwest corner of the coast around the Margaret River wine-growing area. Going east along the Southern Ocean coast is the Goldfields-Esperance region, including the Esperance mallee and the Coolgardie woodlands inland around town of Coolgardie . Deserts occupy the interior, including the Great Sandy-Tanami desert , Gibson Desert , Great Victoria Desert , and Nullarbor Plain . In 1831 Scottish botanist Robert Brown produced a scientific paper, General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River . It discusses the vegetation of the Swan River Colony . ] Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 when Albany was claimed by Britain to
General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River . It discusses the vegetation of the Swan River Colony . ] Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 when Albany was claimed by Britain to forestall French claims to the western third of the continent. Perth was founded as the Swan River Colony in 1829 by British and Irish settlers, though the outpost languished. Its officials eventually requested convict labour to augment its population. In the 1890s, interstate immigration, resulting from a mining boom in the Goldfields region , resulted in a sharp population increase. Western Australia did not receive significant flows of immigrants from Britain, Ireland or elsewhere in the British Empire until the early 20th century. At that time, its local projects—such as the Group Settlement Scheme of the 1920s, which encouraged farmers to settle the southwest—increased awareness of Australia's western third as a destination for colonists. Led by immigrants from the British Isles, Western Australia's population developed at a faster rate during the twentieth century than it had previously. After World War II , both the eastern states and Western Australia received large numbers of Italians , Croatians and Macedonians . Despite this, Britain has contributed the greatest number of immigrants to this day. Western Australia—particularly Perth—has the highest proportion of British-born of any state: 10.3% in 2011, compared to a national average of 5.1%. This group is heavily concentrated in certain parts, where they account for a quarter of the population. ] Perth's metropolitan area (including Mandurah ) had an estimated population of 2,043,138 ] in June 2017 (79% of the state). Other significant population centres include Bunbury (73,989), ] Geraldton (37,961), ] Kalgoorlie-Boulder (30,420), ] Albany (33,998), ] Karratha (16,446), ] Broome (14,501) ] and Port Hedland (14,285). ] At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: ] ] ] 3.1% of the population, or 75,978 people, identified as Indigenous Australians ( Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders ) in 2016. ] ] ] At the 2016 census, 75.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages being Mandarin (1.9%), Italian (1.2%), Vietnamese (0.8%), Cantonese (0.8%) and Tagalog (0.6%). ] ] According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the major religious affiliation in WA, followed by 41.1% of its population. In 1971, Christianity was followed by 85.5% of the population and it has been declining since, while the percentage of people who identified as having no religious affiliation has increased from 8.7% in 1971 to 42.9% in 2021. A small minority of the population are Muslims (2.5%), Buddhists (2.2%) and Hindus (2.0%). ] ] ] Western Australia's economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing a
economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing a comparative advantage in resource extraction and processing. As a consequence: In 2019 Western Australia's overseas exports accounted for 46% of the nation's total. ] ] The state's major export commodities included iron-ore, petroleum, gold, alumina , nickel, wheat, copper, lithium, chemicals and mineral sands. ] Western Australia is the world's largest iron-ore producer (34% of the world's total), and extracts 66% (6.9% of world production) of Australia's 306 tonnes (9.8 million troy ounces) of gold in 2022. ] It is a major world producer of bauxite, which is processed into alumina at four refineries providing 11% of total world production. Until 2020 diamonds were extracted from the world's largest diamond mine in the far north Kimberley region. Coal mined at Collie is the main fuel for baseload electricity generation in the state's south-west. ] ] Agricultural production in WA is a major contributor to the state and national economy. In the period 2010–2019 wheat production in WA has averaged nearly 10 million tonnes (22 billion pounds), valued at $2.816 billion in 2019, accounting for half the nation's total and providing $2–3 billion in export income. ] ] Other significant farm output includes wool, beef, lamb, barley, canola, lupins, oats and pulses. ] There is a high level of overseas demand for live animals from WA, driven mainly by southeast Asia's feedlots and Middle Eastern countries, where Islamic dietary laws and a lack of storage and refrigeration facilities favour live animals over imports of processed meat. About half of Australia's live cattle exports come from Western Australia. ] Resource sector growth in recent years has resulted in significant labour and skills shortages, leading to recent efforts by the state government to encourage interstate and overseas immigration. ] According to the 2006 census, needs update ] ] the median individual income was A$500 per week in Western Australia (compared to A$466 in Australia as a whole). The median family income was A$1246 per week (compared to A$1171 for Australia). Recent growth has also contributed to significant rises in average property values in 2006, although values plateaued in 2007. Located south of Perth, the heavy industrial area of Kwinana had the nation's largest oil refinery with a capacity of 23,200 cubic metres per day (146,000 barrels per day) until its closure in 2021, producing most of the state's petrol and diesel. ] ] ] Kwinana also hosts alumina and nickel processing plants, port facilities for grain and other bulk exports, and support industries for mining and petroleum such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g. Austal ) and associated support industries are found at nearby Henderson , just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary
such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g. Austal ) and associated support industries are found at nearby Henderson , just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary industries include cement and building product manufacturing, flour milling, food processing, animal feed production, automotive body building and printing. Western Australia has a significant fishing industry. Products for local consumption and export include western rock lobsters , prawns, crabs, shark and tuna, as well as pearl fishing in the Kimberley region of the state. Processing is conducted along the west coast. Whaling was a key marine industry but ceased at Albany in 1978. Western Australia has the world's biggest plantations of both Indian sandalwood (northern WA) ] and Australian sandalwood (semi-arid regions), which are used to produce sandalwood oil and incense . ] The WA sandalwood industry provides about 40% of the international sandalwood oil market. ] In recent years, tourism has grown in importance, with significant numbers of visitors to the state coming from the UK and Ireland (28%), other European countries (14%) Singapore (16%), Japan (10%) and Malaysia (8%). ] Revenue from tourism is a strong economic driver in many of the smaller population centres outside of Perth, especially in coastal locations. Tourism forms a major part of the Western Australian economy with 833,100 international visitors making up 12.8% of the total international tourism to Australia in the year ending March 2015. The top three source markets include the United Kingdom (17%), Singapore (10%), and New Zealand (10%) with the majority of purpose for visitation being holiday/vacation reasons. ] The tourism industry contributes $9.3 billion to the Western Australian economy and supports 94,000 jobs within the state. Both directly and indirectly, the industry makes up 3.2% of the state's economy whilst comparatively, WA's largest revenue source, the mining sector, brings in 31%. ] Tourism WA is the government agency responsible for promoting Western Australia as a holiday destination. ] Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890 ] with a bicameral Parliament located in Perth, consisting of the Legislative Assembly (or lower house ), which has 59 members; and the Legislative Council (or upper house ), which has 36 members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for citizens over 18 years of age. With the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, Western Australia became a state within Australia's federal structure; this involved ceding certain powers to the Commonwealth (or Federal) government in accordance with the Constitution; all powers not specifically granted to the Commonwealth remained solely with the State. However over time the Commonwealth has effectively expanded its powers through broad interpretation of its enumerated powers and increasing control of taxation and financial distribution (see Federalism in Australia ). Whilst the
has effectively expanded its powers through broad interpretation of its enumerated powers and increasing control of taxation and financial distribution (see Federalism in Australia ). Whilst the sovereign of Western Australia is the monarch of Australia (currently Charles III ) and executive power is nominally vested in his or her state representative, the Governor (currently Chris Dawson ), executive power rests with the premier and ministers drawn from the party or coalition of parties holding a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly. Roger Cook is the premier, having succeeded Mark McGowan after his resignation in June 2023. Secessionism has been a recurring feature of Western Australia's political landscape since shortly after European settlement in 1826. Western Australia was the most reluctant participant in the Commonwealth of Australia . ] Western Australia did not participate in the earliest federation conference. Longer-term residents of Western Australia were generally opposed to federation; however, the discovery of gold brought many immigrants from other parts of Australia. It was these residents, primarily in Kalgoorlie but also in Albany who voted to join the Commonwealth, and the proposal of these areas being admitted separately under the name Auralia was considered. citation needed ] In a referendum in April 1933 , 68% of voters voted for the state to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the British Empire as an autonomous territory. The State Government sent a delegation to Westminster , but the British Government ruled that after the Statute of Westminster 1931 , it no longer had the authority to amend the constitution of Australia without the consent of its federal government; the British Government took no action. ] Western Australia is divided into 139 Local Government Areas , including Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands . Their mandate and operations are governed by the Local Government Act 1995 . ] Education in Western Australia consists of one year of pre-school at age 4 or 5, followed by six years of primary education for all students as of 2015. ] At age 12 or 13, students begin six years of secondary education. Students are required to attend school up until they are 16 years old. Sixteen and 17 year olds are required to be enrolled in school or a training organisation, be employed or be in a combination of schoolemployment. ] Students have the option to study at a TAFE college after Year 10, ] or continue through to Year 12 with vocational courses or a university entrance courses. ] There are five universities in Western Australia. They consist of four Perth -based public universities , being the University of Western Australia , Curtin University , Edith Cowan University and Murdoch University ; and one Fremantle -based private Roman Catholic university , the University of Notre Dame Australia . The University of Notre Dame is also one of only two private universities
Murdoch University ; and one Fremantle -based private Roman Catholic university , the University of Notre Dame Australia . The University of Notre Dame is also one of only two private universities in Australia, along with Bond University , a not-for-profit private education provider based in Gold Coast, Queensland . Western Australia has two daily newspapers: the Seven West Media -owned tabloid The West Australian and the Kalgoorlie Miner . Also published is one weekend paper, The Weekend West , and one Sunday tabloid newspaper, which is also owned by Seven West Media after purchase from News Corporation's The Sunday Times . There are also 17 weekly community newspapers with distribution from Yanchep in the north to Mandurah in the south. There are two major weekly rural papers in the state, Countryman and the Australian Community Media -owned Farm Weekly . The national broadsheet publication The Australian is also available, although with sales per capita lagging far behind those in other states. WAtoday is an online newspaper owned by Nine Entertainment , focusing its coverage on Perth and Western Australia. Metropolitan Perth has five broadcast television stations; Regional WA has a similar availability of stations as Perth. Geographically, it is one of the largest television markets in the world, including almost one-third of the continent. In addition, broadcasters operate digital multichannels: Pay TV services are provided by Foxtel , which acquired many of the assets and all the remaining subscribers of the insolvent Galaxy Television satellite service in 1998. Some metropolitan suburbs are serviced by Pay TV via cable; however, most of the metropolitan and rural areas can only access Pay TV via satellite. Perth has many radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations include ABC NewsRadio (6PB 585 AM), ABC Radio Perth (6WF 720 AM), [Radio Nationa
Bangladesh , ] officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh , ] is a country in South Asia . It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and among the most densely populated with a population of 170 million in an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi). Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the north, west, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast. To the south, it has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal . To the north, it is separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor , and from China by the mountainous Indian state of Sikkim . Dhaka , the capital and largest city , is the nation's political, financial, and cultural centre. Chittagong is the second-largest city and the busiest port. The official language is Bengali , with Bangladeshi English also used in government. Bangladesh is part of the historic and ethnolinguistic region of Bengal , which was divided during the Partition of British India in 1947 as the eastern enclave of the Dominion of Pakistan , from which it gained independence in 1971 after a bloody war . ] The country has a Bengali Muslim majority. Ancient Bengal was known as Gangaridai and was a stronghold of pre-Islamic kingdoms. The Muslim conquest after 1204 led to the sultanate and Mughal periods, during which an independent Bengal Sultanate and wealthy Mughal Bengal transformed the region into an important centre of regional affairs, trade, and diplomacy. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of British rule. The creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 set a precedent for the emergence of Bangladesh. The All-India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka in 1906. ] The Lahore Resolution in 1940 was supported by A. K. Fazlul Huq , the first Prime Minister of Bengal . The present-day territorial boundary was established with the announcement of the Radcliffe Line . In 1947, East Bengal became the most populous province in the Dominion of Pakistan and was renamed East Pakistan , with Dhaka as the legislative capital. The Bengali Language Movement in 1952, the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état , and the 1970 Pakistani general election spurred Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements. The refusal of the Pakistani military junta to transfer power to the Awami League , led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , triggered the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The Mukti Bahini , aided by India, waged a successful armed revolution ; the conflict saw the Bangladeshi genocide . The new state of Bangladesh became a constitutionally secular state in 1972, although Islam was declared the state religion in 1988. ] In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secular principles in the constitution. ] The Constitution of Bangladesh officially declares it a socialist state . ] A middle power in the Indo-Pacific , ] Bangladesh is home to the fifth-most spoken native language , the third-largest Muslim-majority population , and the second-largest economy in South Asia. It maintains the third-largest military
, ] Bangladesh is home to the fifth-most spoken native language , the third-largest Muslim-majority population , and the second-largest economy in South Asia. It maintains the third-largest military in the region and is the largest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations. ] Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system . Bengalis make up almost 99% of the population. ] The country consists of eight divisions , 64 districts , and 495 subdistricts , and includes the world's largest mangrove forest . Bangladesh hosts one of the largest refugee populations due to the Rohingya genocide . ] Bangladesh faces challenges like corruption , political instability , overpopulation , and effects of climate change . Bangladesh has twice chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum and hosts the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) headquarters. It is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Commonwealth of Nations . The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore and Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam , used the term in 1905 and 1932 respectively. ] Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan . The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language . The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe, ] and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom . ] The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangala Desa is found in 11th-century South Indian records. ] ] The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century. ] ] Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first " Shah of Bangala" in 1342. ] The word Bangāl became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period. ] 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". ] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim 's Riyaz-us-Salatin . ] The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha , which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal". ] The history of Bangladesh dates back over four millennia to the Chalcolithic period. The region's early history was characterized by a succession of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires that fought for control over the Bengal region . Islam arrived in the 8th century and gradually became dominant from the early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji and the activities
fought for control over the Bengal region . Islam arrived in the 8th century and gradually became dominant from the early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji and the activities of Sunni missionaries like Shah Jalal . Muslim rulers promoted the spread of Islam by building mosques across the region. From the 14th century onward, Bengal was ruled by the Bengal Sultanate , founded by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah , who established an individual currency. The Bengal Sultanate expanded under rulers like Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , leading to economic prosperity and military dominance, with Bengal being referred to by Europeans as the richest country to trade with. The region later became a part of the Mughal Empire , and according to historian C. A. Bayly , it was probably the empire's wealthiest province. citation needed ] Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal , ultimately led by Siraj-ud-Daulah . It was later conquered by the British East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, but also faced significant deindustrialization . The Bengal Presidency was established during British rule. citation needed ] The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal between India and Pakistan during the Partition of India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as part of the newly formed State of Pakistan following the end of the British rule in the region . The Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence in March 1971 led to the nine-month-long Bangladesh Liberation War , which culminated in the emergence of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Independence was declared by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1971. citation needed ] Since gaining independence, Bangladesh has faced political instability, economic reconstruction, and social transformation. The country experienced military coups and authoritarian rule, notably under General Ziaur Rahman and General Hussain Muhammad Ershad . The restoration of parliamentary democracy in the 1990s saw power alternate between the Awami League , and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party . In recent decades, Bangladesh has achieved significant economic growth, emerging as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, driven by its garment industry , remittances, and infrastructure development. However, it continues to grapple with political instability, human rights issues, and the impact of climate change. The return of the Awami League to power in 2009 under Sheikh Hasina's leadership saw economic progress but criticisms of authoritarianism . Bangladesh has played a critical role in addressing regional issues, including the Rohingya refugee crisis , which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments. citation needed ] The poverty rate went down from 80% in 1971 to 44% in 1991 to 13% in 2021.
Rohingya refugee crisis , which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments. citation needed ] The poverty rate went down from 80% in 1971 to 44% in 1991 to 13% in 2021. ] ] ] Bangladesh emerged as the second-largest economy in South Asia, ] ] surpassing the per capita income levels of both India and Pakistan. ] ] As part of the green transition , Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world in 2023. ] In January 2024, Awami League led by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured a fourth straight term in Bangladesh's general election . Following nationwide protests against the Awami League government, on 5 August 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India. ] ] ] ] ] An interim government was formed on 8 August, with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as the Chief Advisor . ] Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal . It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal , Bhutan , and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta , the largest river delta in the world. ] The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda ), Brahmaputra ( Jamuna or Jomuna ), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers", ] as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers , the most of any nation-state. Water issues are politically complicated since Bangladesh is downstream of India. ] Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than 12 m (39 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.3 ft). ] 12% of the country is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong , located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft). ] Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest. In Bangladesh forest cover is around 14% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,883,400 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 1,920,330 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,725,330 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 158,070 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity)
covered 158,070 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 33% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership . ] ] Straddling the Tropic of Cancer , Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 0 °C (32 °F), with a record low of 1.1 °C (34.0 °F) in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905. ] A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods , tropical cyclones , tornadoes , and tidal bores occur almost every year, ] combined with the effects of deforestation , soil degradation and erosion . The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people. ] In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000. ] As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years. ] The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, with a death toll around 500. ] Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change . ] ] Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 percent of which are believed to have made landfall in Bangladesh. ] Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter. ] It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people. ] To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched. ] ] Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm , and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests , Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests , Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests , and Sundarbans mangroves . ] Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries , lakes, wetlands , evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests , freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango , jackfruit , bamboo , betel
is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango , jackfruit , bamboo , betel nut , coconut , and date palm . ] The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants. ] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries . Bangladesh is home to most of the Sundarbans , the world's largest mangrove forest , covering an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries–the South , East , and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests , a freshwater swamp forest , and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail , and Mymensingh . St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country. Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands, and hills. ] The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi). ] The Bengal tiger , clouded leopard , saltwater crocodile , black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans. ] Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant , hoolock gibbon , Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill . ] The chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel , capped langur , Bengal fox , sambar deer , jungle cat , king cobra , wild boar , mongooses , pangolins , pythons and water monitors . Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins . ] The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds . ] Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl . The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. The country has widespread environmental issues; pollution of the Dhaleshwari River by the textile industry and shrimp cultivation in Chakaria Sundarbans have both been described by academics as ecocides . ] ] Although many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas , including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The
growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas , including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation. ] It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994. ] As of 2014 ] , the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan . ] Bangladesh is a de jure representative democracy under its constitution , with a Westminster -style parliamentary republic that has universal suffrage . The head of government is the Prime Minister, who forms a government every five years. The President invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to become prime minister. ] The Government of Bangladesh is overseen by a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh . The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. The Bangladesh Civil Service assists the cabinet in running the government. Recruitment for the civil service is based on a public examination. In theory, the civil service should be a meritocracy. But a disputed quota system coupled with politicisation and preference for seniority have allegedly affected the civil service's meritocracy. ] The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state ] whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is the highest court of the land, followed by the High Court and Appellate Divisions. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh , who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review , and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog. The Jatiya Sangshad (National Parliament) is the unicameral parliament. It has 350 members of parliament (MPs), including 300 MPs elected on the first past the post system and 50 MPs appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment . Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party. However, several laws proposed independently by MPs have been transformed into legislation, including the anti-torture law. ] The parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad , who is second in line to the president as per the constitution. ] Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions, ] ] ] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal ] ), Chittagong (officially Chattogram ] ), Dhaka , Khulna , Mymensingh , Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Divisions are subdivided into districts ( zila ). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each
] ), Chittagong (officially Chattogram ] ), Dhaka , Khulna , Mymensingh , Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Divisions are subdivided into districts ( zila ). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana . The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions , with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas . There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates. ] Bangladesh is considered a middle power in global politics . ] It plays an important role in the geopolitical affairs of the Indo-Pacific , ] due to its strategic location between South and Southeast Asia. ] Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and the United Nations in 1974. ] ] It relies on multilateral diplomacy on issues like climate change, nuclear nonproliferation, trade policy and non-traditional security issues. ] Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC , which has been the preeminent forum for regional diplomacy among the countries of the Indian subcontinent . ] It joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1974, ] and is a founding member of the Developing 8 Countries . ] In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade and transport links with support from the World Bank . ] Dhaka hosts the headquarters of BIMSTEC , an organisation that brings together countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal . Relations with neighbouring Myanmar have been severely strained since 2016–2017, after over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh. ] The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan . ] ] Bangladesh shares an important bilateral and economic relationship with its largest neighbour India, ] which is often strained by water politics of the Ganges and the Teesta , ] ] ] and the border killings of Bangladeshi civilians . ] ] Post-independent Bangladesh has continued to have a problematic relationship with Pakistan, mainly due to its denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. ] It maintains a warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier. ] Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership . ] Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust. ] Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East, ] despite poor working conditions affecting over
partnership . ] Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust. ] Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East, ] despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers . ] Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum . ] The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army . ] In 2022, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Army was around 250,000, ] excluding the Air Force and the Navy (24,000). ] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces . The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021. ] ] The Bangladesh Navy , one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China. ] In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India . ] ] Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal. ] In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement. ] The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement , an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement. ] ] ] In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . ] Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society . There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations , human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce , employers' associations, and trade unions. ] The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Media
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British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC ) is the westernmost province of Canada . Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains , the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, forests, lakes, mountains, inland deserts and grassy plains. ] British Columbia borders the province of Alberta to the east; the territories of Yukon and Northwest Territories to the north; the U.S. states of Washington , Idaho and Montana to the south, and Alaska to the northwest. With an estimated population of over 5.6 million as of 2024, it is Canada's third-most populous province . The capital of British Columbia is Victoria , while the province's largest city is Vancouver . Vancouver and its suburbs together make up the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada , with the 2021 census recording 2.6 million people in Metro Vancouver . ] British Columbia is Canada's third-largest province in terms of total area, after Quebec and Ontario. ] The first known human inhabitants of the area settled in British Columbia at least 10,000 years ago. Such groups include the Coast Salish , Tsilhqotʼin , and Haida peoples, among many others. One of the earliest British settlements in the area was Fort Victoria , established in 1843, which gave rise to the city of Victoria, the capital of the Colony of Vancouver Island . The Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866) was subsequently founded by Richard Clement Moody , ] and by the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment , in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . Moody selected the site for and founded the mainland colony's capital New Westminster . ] ] ] The colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia were incorporated in 1866, subsequent to which Victoria became the united colony's capital. In 1871, British Columbia entered Confederation as the sixth province of Canada, in enactment of the British Columbia Terms of Union . British Columbia is a diverse and cosmopolitan province, drawing on a plethora of cultural influences from its British Canadian , European , and Asian diasporas , as well as the Indigenous population . Though the province's ethnic majority originates from the British Isles , many British Columbians also trace their ancestors to continental Europe , East Asia , and South Asia . ] Indigenous Canadians constitute about 6 percent of the province's total population. ] Christianity is the largest religion in the region, though the majority of the population is non-religious. ] ] English is the common language of the province, although Punjabi , Mandarin Chinese , and Cantonese also have a large presence in the Metro Vancouver region. The Franco-Columbian community is an officially recognized linguistic minority, and around one percent of British Columbians claim French as their mother tongue . ] British Columbia is home to at least 34 distinct Indigenous languages . ] Major sectors of British Columbia's economy
around one percent of British Columbians claim French as their mother tongue . ] British Columbia is home to at least 34 distinct Indigenous languages . ] Major sectors of British Columbia's economy include forestry , mining , filmmaking and video production , tourism , real estate , construction , wholesale , and retail . Its main exports include lumber and timber , pulp and paper products, copper , coal , and natural gas . ] British Columbia exhibits high property values and is a significant centre for maritime trade : ] the Port of Vancouver is the largest port in Canada and the most diversified port in North America . ] Although less than 5 percent of the province's territory is arable land , significant agriculture exists in the Fraser Valley and Okanagan due to the warmer climate. ] British Columbia is home to 45% of all publicly listed companies in Canada. ] The province's name was chosen by Queen Victoria , when the Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866) , i.e., "the Mainland", became a British colony in 1858. ] It refers to the Columbia District , the British name for the territory drained by the Columbia River , in southeastern British Columbia, which was the namesake of the pre- Oregon Treaty Columbia Department of the Hudson's Bay Company . Queen Victoria chose British Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from the United States' ("American Columbia" or "Southern Columbia"), which became the Oregon Territory on August 8, 1848, as a result of the treaty. ] Ultimately, the Columbia in the name British Columbia is derived from the name of the Columbia Rediviva , an American ship which lent its name to the Columbia River and later the wider region; ] the Columbia in the name Columbia Rediviva came from the name Columbia for the New World or parts thereof , a reference to Christopher Columbus . The governments of Canada and British Columbia recognize Colombie-Britannique as the French name for the province. ] ] British Columbia is bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean and the American state of Alaska , to the north by Yukon and the Northwest Territories , to the east by the province of Alberta , and to the south by the American states of Washington , Idaho , and Montana . The southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, although its history is tied with lands as far south as California . British Columbia's land area is 944,735 square kilometres (364,800 sq mi). British Columbia's rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres (17,000 mi), and includes deep, mountainous fjords and about 6,000 islands, most of which are uninhabited. It is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbia's highest mountain is Mount Fairweather ; the highest mountain entirely within the province is Mount Waddington . British Columbia's capital is Victoria , located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island . Only a narrow strip of Vancouver
the highest mountain entirely within the province is Mount Waddington . British Columbia's capital is Victoria , located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island . Only a narrow strip of Vancouver Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated. Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by temperate rainforest . The province's most populous city is Vancouver, which is at the confluence of the Fraser River and Georgia Strait , in the mainland's southwest corner (an area often called the Lower Mainland ). By land area, Abbotsford is the largest city. Vanderhoof is near the geographic centre of the province. ] The Coast Mountains and the Inside Passage 's many inlets provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and ecotourism industry. 75 percent of the province is mountainous (more than 1,000 m above sea level ); 60 percent is forested; and only about 5 percent is arable. The province's mainland away from the coastal regions is somewhat moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Terrain ranges from dry inland forests and semi-arid valleys, to the range and canyon districts of the Central and Southern Interior , to boreal forest and subarctic prairie in the Northern Interior. High mountain regions both north and south have subalpine flora ] and subalpine climate . The Okanagan wine area , extending from Vernon to Osoyoos at the United States border, is one of several wine and cider -producing regions in Canada. Other wine regions in British Columbia include the Cowichan Valley on Vancouver Island and the Fraser Valley . The Southern Interior cities of Kamloops and Penticton have some of the warmest and longest summer climates in Canada (while higher elevations are cold and snowy), although their temperatures are often exceeded north of the Fraser Canyon , close to the confluence of the Fraser and Thompson rivers, where the terrain is rugged and covered with desert-type flora. Semi-desert grassland is found in large areas of the Interior Plateau , with land uses ranging from ranching at lower altitudes to forestry at higher ones. The northern, mostly mountainous, two-thirds of the province is largely unpopulated and undeveloped, except for the area east of the Rockies , where the Peace River Country contains BC's portion of the Canadian Prairies , centred at the city of Dawson Creek . British Columbia is considered part of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion , along with the American states of Alaska, Idaho, (western) Montana, Oregon , Washington, and (northern) California . ] ] Because of the many mountain ranges and rugged coastline, British Columbia's climate varies dramatically across the province. Coastal southern British Columbia has a mild and rainy climate influenced by the North Pacific Current . Most of the region is classified as oceanic , though pockets of warm-summer Mediterranean
Coastal southern British Columbia has a mild and rainy climate influenced by the North Pacific Current . Most of the region is classified as oceanic , though pockets of warm-summer Mediterranean climate also exist in the far-southern parts of the coast. Precipitation averages above 1,000 mm (39 in) in almost all of the coastal region, and Hucuktlis Lake on Vancouver Island receives an average of 6,903 mm (271.8 in) of rain annually. Due to the blocking presence of successive mountain ranges, the climate of some of the interior valleys of the province (such as the Thompson, parts of the Fraser Canyon, the southern Cariboo and parts of the Okanagan) is semi-arid with certain locations receiving less than 250 millimetres (10 in) in annual precipitation. The annual mean temperature in the most populated areas of the province is up to 12 °C (54 °F), the mildest anywhere in Canada. The valleys of the Southern Interior have short winters with only brief bouts of cold or infrequent heavy snow, while those in the Cariboo , in the Central Interior , are colder because of increased altitude and latitude, but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar latitudes elsewhere in Canada. Outside of the driest valleys, the Southern and Central Interior generally have a humid continental climate with widely variable precipitation. For example, the average daily low in Prince George (roughly in the middle of the province) in January is −12 °C (10 °F). ] Small towns in the southern interior with high elevation such as Princeton are typically colder and snowier than cities in the valleys. ] Heavy snowfall occurs in all elevated mountainous terrain providing bases for skiers in both south and central British Columbia. Annual snowfall on highway mountain passes in the southern interior rivals some of the snowiest cities in Canada, ] and freezing rain and fog are sometimes present on such roads as well. ] This can result in hazardous driving conditions, as people are usually travelling between warmer areas such as Vancouver or Kamloops , and may be unaware that the conditions may be slippery and cold. ] Winters are generally severe in the Northern Interior which is generally in the subarctic climate zone, but even there, milder air can penetrate far inland. The coldest temperature in British Columbia was recorded in Smith River , where it dropped to −58.9 °C (−74.0 °F) on January 31, 1947, ] one of the coldest readings recorded anywhere in North America. Atlin in the province's far northwest, along with the adjoining Southern Lakes region of Yukon , get midwinter thaws caused by the Chinook effect, which is also common (and much warmer) in more southerly parts of the Interior. During winter on the coast, rainfall , sometimes relentless heavy rain, dominates because of consistent barrages of cyclonic low-pressure systems from the North Pacific. Average snowfall on the coast during a normal winter is between 25 and 50 centimetres (10 and 20 in), but on
because of consistent barrages of cyclonic low-pressure systems from the North Pacific. Average snowfall on the coast during a normal winter is between 25 and 50 centimetres (10 and 20 in), but on occasion (and not every winter) heavy snowfalls with more than 20 centimetres (8 in) and well below freezing temperatures arrive when modified arctic air reaches coastal areas, typically for short periods, and can take temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F), even at sea level. Arctic outflow winds can occasionally result in wind chill temperatures at or even below −17.8 °C (0.0 °F). citation needed ] While winters are very wet, coastal areas are generally milder and dry during summer under the influence of stable anti-cyclonic high pressure. Southern Interior valleys are hot in summer; for example, in Osoyoos , the July maximum temperature averages 31.7 °C (89.1 °F), making it the hottest month of any location in Canada; this hot weather sometimes spreads towards the coast or to the far north of the province. Temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in the lower elevations of valleys in the Interior during mid-summer, with the record high of 49.6 °C (121.3 °F) being held in Lytton on June 29, 2021, during a record-breaking heat wave that year . ] The extended summer dryness often creates conditions that spark forest fires, from dry-lightning or man-made causes. Many areas of the province are often covered by a blanket of heavy cloud and low fog during the winter months, in contrast to abundant summer sunshine. Annual sunshine hours vary from 2200 near Cranbrook and Victoria to less than 1300 in Prince Rupert , on the North Coast just south of Southeast Alaska . The exception to British Columbia's wet and cloudy winters is during the El Niño phase. During El Niño events, the jet stream is much farther south across North America, making the province's winters milder and drier than normal. Winters are much wetter and cooler during the opposite phase, La Niña . There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflect the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 provincial heritage sites, 6 National Historic Sites of Canada , 4 national parks and 3 national park reserves. 12.5 percent of the province's area (114,000 km 2 or 44,000 sq mi) is considered protected under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas. British Columbia contains seven of Canada's national parks and National Park Reserves: British Columbia contains a large number of provincial parks , run by BC Parks under the aegis of the Ministry of Environment. British Columbia's provincial parks system is the second largest parks system in Canada, the largest being Canada's National Parks system. Another tier of parks in British Columbia are regional parks , which are maintained and run by the province's regional districts . The Ministry of Forests
being Canada's National Parks system. Another tier of parks in British Columbia are regional parks , which are maintained and run by the province's regional districts . The Ministry of Forests operates forest recreation sites. In addition to these areas, over 47,000 square kilometres (18,000 sq mi) of arable land are protected by the Agricultural Land Reserve . Much of the province is undeveloped, so populations of many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in British Columbia. ] Watching animals of various sorts, including a very wide range of birds, has long been popular. Bears ( grizzly , black —including the Kermode bear or spirit bear) live here, as do deer , elk , moose , caribou , big-horn sheep , mountain goats , marmots , beavers , muskrats , coyotes , wolves , mustelids (such as wolverines , badgers and fishers ), cougars , eagles , ospreys , herons , Canada geese , swans , loons , hawks , owls , ravens , harlequin ducks , and many other sorts of ducks. Smaller birds ( robins , jays , grosbeaks , chickadees , and so on) also abound. ] Murrelets are known from Frederick Island, a small island off the coast of Haida Gwaii . ] Many healthy populations of fish are present, including salmonids such as several species of salmon , trout , steelhead , and char . Besides salmon and trout, sport-fishers in BC also catch halibut , bass , and sturgeon . On the coast, harbour seals and river otters are common. ] Cetacean species native to the coast include the orca , humpback whale , grey whale , harbour porpoise , Dall's porpoise , Pacific white-sided dolphin and minke whale . Some endangered species in British Columbia are: Vancouver Island marmot , spotted owl , American white pelican , and badgers. White spruce or Engelmann spruce and their hybrids occur in 12 of the 14 biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia . ] Common types of trees present in BC's forests include western redcedar , yellow-cedar , Rocky Mountain juniper , lodgepole pine , ponderosa or yellow pine , whitebark pine , limber pine , western white pine , western larch , tamarack , alpine larch , white spruce , Engelmann spruce , Sitka spruce , black spruce , grand fir , Amabilis fir , subalpine fir , western hemlock , mountain hemlock , Douglas-fir , western yew , Pacific dogwood , bigleaf maple , Douglas maple , vine maple , arbutus , black hawthorn , cascara , Garry oak , Pacific crab apple , choke cherry , pin cherry , bitter cherry , red alder , mountain alder , paper birch , water birch , black cottonwood , balsam poplar , trembling aspen . First Nations peoples of British Columbia used plants for food, and to produce material goods like fuel and building products. Plant foods included berries, and roots like camas . ] Environment Canada subdivides British Columbia into six ecozones : The area now known as British Columbia is home to First Nations groups that have a deep history with a significant number of indigenous languages.
subdivides British Columbia into six ecozones : The area now known as British Columbia is home to First Nations groups that have a deep history with a significant number of indigenous languages. There are more than 200 First Nations in BC. Prior to contact (with non-Aboriginal people), human history is known from oral histories, archaeological investigations, and from early records from explorers encountering societies early in the period. The arrival of Paleoindians from Beringia took place between 20,000 and 12,000 years ago. ] Hunter-gatherer families were the main social structure from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. ] The nomadic population lived in non-permanent structures foraging for nuts, berries and edible roots while hunting and trapping larger and small game for food and furs. ] Around 5,000 years ago individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally. Coast Salish peoples had complex land management practices linked to ecosystem health and resilience. Forest gardens on Canada's northwest coast included crabapple, hazelnut, cranberry, wild plum, and wild cherry species. ] Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization with a more sedentary lifestyle . ] These indigenous populations evolved over the next 5,000 years across a large area into many groups with shared traditions and customs. To the northwest of the province are the peoples of the Na-Dene languages , which include the Athapaskan-speaking peoples and the Tlingit , who live on the islands of southern Alaska and northern British Columbia. The Na-Dene language group is believed to be linked to the Yeniseian languages of Siberia: ] the Dene of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America. ] The Interior of British Columbia is home to the Salishan language groups such as the Shuswap (Secwepemc) , Okanagan and Athabaskan language groups, primarily the Dakelh (Carrier) and the Tsilhqotʼin . ] The inlets and valleys of the British Columbia coast shelter large, distinctive populations, such as the Haida , Kwakwakaʼwakw and Nuu-chah-nulth , sustained by the region's abundant salmon and shellfish. ] These peoples developed complex cultures dependent on the western red cedar that included wooden houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved potlatch items and totem poles . ] Contact with Europeans brought a series of devastating epidemics of diseases the people had no immunity to. ] The population dramatically collapsed, culminating in the 1862 smallpox outbreak in Victoria that spread throughout the coast. European settlement did not bode well for the remaining native population of British Columbia. Colonial officials deemed colonists could make better use of the land than the First Nations people, and thus the land should be owned by the colonists. ] : 120 To ensure colonists would be able to settle properly and make use of the land, First Nations were forcibly
than the First Nations people, and thus the land should be owned by the colonists. ] : 120 To ensure colonists would be able to settle properly and make use of the land, First Nations were forcibly relocated onto reserves , which were often too small to support their way of life. ] : 120–121 By the 1930s, British Columbia had over 1500 reserves. ] : 121 Lands now known as British Columbia were added to the British Empire during the 19th century. Colonies originally begun with the support of the Hudson's Bay Company (Vancouver Island, the mainland) were amalgamated, then entered Confederation as British Columbia in 1871 as part of the Dominion of Canada. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30 percent of the Pacific Northwest First Nations . ] This devastating epidemic was the first in a series; the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic killed about half to two-thirds of the native population of what became British Columbia. ] ] ] The arrival of Europeans began around the mid-18th century, as fur traders entered the area to harvest sea otters . While it is thought Sir Francis Drake may have explored the British Columbian coast in 1579, it was Juan Pérez who completed the first documented voyage, which took place in 1774. Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra explored the coast in 1775. In doing so, Pérez and Quadra reasserted the Spanish claim for the Pacific coast , first made by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513. The explorations of James Cook in 1778 and George Vancouver in 1792 and 1793 established British jurisdiction over the coastal area north and west of the Columbia River. In 1793, Sir Alexander Mackenzie was the first European to journey across North America overland to the Pacific Ocean, inscribing a stone marking his accomplishment on the shoreline of Dean Channel near Bella Coola . His expedition theoretically established British sovereignty inland, and a succession of other fur company explorers charted the maze of rivers and mountain ranges between the Canadian Prairies and the Pacific. Mackenzie and other explorers—notably John Finlay , Simon Fraser , Samuel Black , and David Thompson —were primarily concerned with extending the fur trade , rather than political considerations. citation needed ] In 1794, by the third of a series of agreements known as the Nootka Conventions , Spain conceded its claims of exclusivity in the Pacific. This opened the way for formal claims and colonization by other powers, including Britain, but because of the Napoleonic Wars , there was little British action on its claims in the region until later. The establishment of trading posts by the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), effectively established a permanent British presence in the region. The Columbia District was broadly defined as being south of 54°40 north latitude, (the southern limit of Russian America ), north of Mexican-controlled California, and west of the Rocky Mountains . It was, by the Anglo-American Convention
as being south of 54°40 north latitude, (the southern limit of Russian America ), north of Mexican-controlled California, and west of the Rocky Mountains . It was, by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 , under the "joint occupancy and use" of citizens of the United States and subjects of Britain (which is to say, the fur companies). ] This co-occupancy was ended with the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The major supply route was the York Factory Express between Hudson Bay and Fort Vancouver . Some of the early outposts grew into settlements, communities, and cities. Among the places in British Columbia that began as fur trading posts are Fort St. John (established 1794); Hudson's Hope (1805); Fort Nelson (1805); Fort St. James (1806); Prince George (1807); Kamloops (1812); Fort Langley (1827); Fort Victoria (1843); Yale (1848); and Nanaimo (1853). Fur company posts that became cities in what is now the United States include Vancouver, Washington ( Fort Vancouver ), formerly the "capital" of Hudson's Bay operations in the Columbia District, Colville, Washington and Walla Walla, Washington (old Fort Nez Percés ). With the amalgamation of the two fur trading companies in 1821, modern-day British Columbia existed in three fur trading departments. The bulk of the central and northern interior was organized into the New Caledonia district, administered from Fort St. James. The interior south of the Thompson River watershed and north of the Columbia was organized into the Columbia District, administered from Fort Vancouver on the lower Columbia River. The northeast corner of the province east of the Rockies, known as the Peace River Block, was attached to the much larger Athabasca District , headquartered in Fort Chipewyan , in present-day Alberta. Until 1849, these districts were a wholly unorganized area of British North America under the de facto jurisdiction of HBC administrators; however, unlike Rupert's Land to the north and east, the territory was not a concession to the company. Rather, it was simply granted a monopoly to trade with the First Nations inhabitants. All that was changed with the westward extension of American exploration and the concomitant overlapping claims of territorial sovereignty, especially in the southern Columbia Basin (within present day Washington and Oregon ). In 1846, the Oregon Treaty divided the territory along the 49th parallel to the Strait of Georgia , with the area south of this boundary (excluding Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands ) transferred to sole American sovereignty. The Colony of Vancouver Island was created in 1849, with Victoria designated as the capital. New Caledonia, as the whole of the mainland rather than just its north-central Interior came to be called, continued to be an unorganized territory of British North America, "administered" by individual HBC trading post managers. With the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted the colonial office to
of British North America, "administered" by individual HBC trading post managers. With the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted the colonial office to designate the mainland as the Colony of British Columbia. When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Richard Clement Moody was hand-picked by the Colonial Office , under Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton , to establish British order and to transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west" ] and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific". ] Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police forc
Saskatchewan ( ⓘ sə- SKATCH -(ə-)wən , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Canadian French : ] ) is a province in Western Canada . It is bordered on the west by Alberta , on the north by the Northwest Territories , on the east by Manitoba , to the northeast by Nunavut , and to the south by the United States ( Montana and North Dakota ). Saskatchewan and Alberta are the only landlocked provinces of Canada. In 2024, Saskatchewan's population was estimated at 1,239,865. ] Nearly 10% of Saskatchewan's total area of 651,900 km 2 (251,700 sq mi) is fresh water, mostly rivers, reservoirs, and lakes . Residents live primarily in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Roughly half live in the province's largest city, Saskatoon , or the provincial capital, Regina . Other notable cities include Prince Albert , Moose Jaw , Yorkton , Swift Current , North Battleford , Estevan , Weyburn , Melfort , and the border city of Lloydminster . ] English is the primary language of the province, with 82.4% of Saskatchewanians speaking English as their first language . ] Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous peoples . Europeans first explored the area in 1690 and first settled in the area in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories , which had until then included most of the Canadian Prairies . In the early 20th century, the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy; North America's first social-democratic government was elected in 1944 . The province's economy is based on agriculture , mining , and energy . Saskatchewan is presently governed by Premier Scott Moe , the leader of the Saskatchewan Party , which has been in power since 2007. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a historic land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan . ] The First Nations received compensation which they could use to buy land on the open market for the bands. They have acquired about 3,079 km 2 (761,000 acres; 1,189 sq mi), new reserve lands under this process. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas, including Regina and Saskatoon. ] The name of the province is derived from the Saskatchewan River . The river is known as ᑭᓯᐢᑳᒋᐘᓂ ᓰᐱᐩ kisiskāciwani-sīpiy ("swift flowing river") in the Cree language . ] Anthony Henday's spelling was Keiskatchewan , with the modern rendering, Saskatchewan , being officially adopted in 1882, when a portion of the present-day province was designated a provisional district of the North-West Territories . ] Saskatchewan is the only province without a natural border . As its borders follow geographic lines of longitude and latitude , the province is roughly a quadrilateral , or a
Territories . ] Saskatchewan is the only province without a natural border . As its borders follow geographic lines of longitude and latitude , the province is roughly a quadrilateral , or a shape with four sides. However, the southern border on the 49th parallel and the northern border on the 60th parallel curve to the left as one proceeds east, as do all parallels in the Northern Hemisphere. Additionally, the eastern boundary of the province follows range lines and correction lines of the Dominion Land Survey , laid out by surveyors prior to the Dominion Lands Act homestead program (1880–1928). Saskatchewan is part of the western provinces and is bounded on the west by Alberta , on the north by the Northwest Territories , on the north-east by Nunavut , on the east by Manitoba , and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota . Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features (i.e. they are all parallels and meridians). Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces. The overwhelming majority of Saskatchewan's population is in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel . Saskatchewan contains two major natural regions: the boreal forest in the north and the prairies in the south. They are separated by an aspen parkland transition zone near the North Saskatchewan River on the western side of the province, and near to south of the Saskatchewan River on the eastern side. Northern Saskatchewan is mostly covered by forest except for the Lake Athabasca Sand Dunes , the largest active sand dunes in the world north of 58°, and adjacent to the southern shore of Lake Athabasca . Southern Saskatchewan contains another area with sand dunes known as the "Great Sand Hills" covering over 300 km 2 (120 sq mi). The Cypress Hills , in the southwestern corner of Saskatchewan and Killdeer Badlands ( Grasslands National Park ), are areas of the province that were unglaciated during the last glaciation period, the Wisconsin glaciation . The province's highest point, at 1,392 m (4,567 ft), is in the Cypress Hills less than 2 km (1.2 mi) from the provincial boundary with Alberta. ] The lowest point is the shore of Lake Athabasca , at 213 m (699 ft). The province has 14 major drainage basins made up of various rivers and watersheds draining into the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico . ] Saskatchewan receives more hours of sunshine than any other Canadian province. ] The province lies far from any significant body of water. This fact, combined with its northerly latitude, gives it a warm summer, corresponding to its humid continental climate ( Köppen type Dfb ) in the central and most of the eastern parts of the province, as well as the Cypress Hills ; drying off to a semi-arid steppe climate (Köppen type BSk ) in the southwestern part of the province. Drought can affect agricultural areas during long periods
as well as the Cypress Hills ; drying off to a semi-arid steppe climate (Köppen type BSk ) in the southwestern part of the province. Drought can affect agricultural areas during long periods with little or no precipitation at all. The northern parts of Saskatchewan – from about La Ronge northward – have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc ) with a shorter summer season. Summers can get very hot, sometimes above 38 °C (100 °F) during the day, and with humidity decreasing from northeast to southwest. Warm southern winds blow from the plains and intermontane regions of the Western United States during much of July and August, very cool or hot but changeable air masses often occur during spring and in September. Winters are usually bitterly cold, with frequent Arctic air descending from the north. ] with high temperatures not breaking −17 °C (1 °F) for weeks at a time. Warm chinook winds often blow from the west, bringing periods of mild weather. Annual precipitation averages 30 to 45 centimetres (12 to 18 inches) across the province, with the bulk of rain falling in June, July, and August. ] Saskatchewan is one of the most tornado -active parts of Canada , averaging roughly 12 to 18 tornadoes per year, some violent. In 2012, 33 tornadoes were reported in the province. The Regina Cyclone took place in June 1912 when 28 people died in an F4 Fujita scale tornado. Severe and non-severe thunderstorm events occur in Saskatchewan, usually from early spring to late summer. Hail, strong winds and isolated tornadoes are a common occurrence. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Saskatchewan was in July 1937 when the temperature rose to 45 °C (113 °F) in Midale and Yellow Grass . The coldest ever recorded in the province was −56.7 °C (−70.1 °F) in Prince Albert , north of Saskatoon, in February 1893. The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province. There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan's boreal forests ] (as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress, stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies as early as 1988 (Williams, et al., 1988) have shown climate change will affect agriculture, ] the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops, is less clear. Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature. ] The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , "The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan", in June 2007. Saskatchewan has been populated by various indigenous peoples of North America , including members of the Sarcee , Niitsitapi , Atsina , Cree , Saulteaux , Assiniboine (Nakoda), and Sioux . The first known European to enter Saskatchewan was Henry Kelsey from England in 1690, who travelled up the Saskatchewan River in hopes of trading fur with the region's
(Nakoda), and Sioux . The first known European to enter Saskatchewan was Henry Kelsey from England in 1690, who travelled up the Saskatchewan River in hopes of trading fur with the region's indigenous peoples. Fort La Jonquière and Fort de la Corne were first established in 1751 and 1753 by early French explorers and traders. The first permanent European settlement was a Hudson's Bay Company post at Cumberland House , founded in 1774 by Samuel Hearne . ] The southern part of the province was part of Spanish Louisiana from 1762 until 1802. ] In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase transferred from France to the United States part of what is now Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1818, the U.S. ceded the area to Britain. Most of what is now Saskatchewan was part of Rupert's Land and controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company, which claimed rights to all watersheds flowing into Hudson Bay , including the Saskatchewan River , Churchill , Assiniboine , Souris , and Qu'Appelle River systems. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, scientific expeditions led by John Palliser and Henry Youle Hind explored the prairie region of the province. In 1870, Canada acquired the Hudson's Bay Company's territories and formed the North-West Territories to administer the vast territory between British Columbia and Manitoba . The Crown also entered into a series of numbered treaties with the indigenous peoples of the area, which serve as the basis of the relationship between First Nations , as they are called today, and the Crown. Since the late twentieth century, land losses and inequities as a result of those treaties have been subject to negotiation for settlement between the First Nations in Saskatchewan and the federal government, in collaboration with provincial governments. In 1876, following their defeat of United States Army forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana Territory in the United States, the Lakota Chief Sitting Bull led several thousand of his people to Wood Mountain . Survivors and descendants founded Wood Mountain Reserve in 1914. The North-West Mounted Police set up several posts and forts across Saskatchewan, including Fort Walsh in the Cypress Hills, and Wood Mountain Post in south-central Saskatchewan near the United States border. Many Métis people, who had not been signatories to a treaty, had moved to the Southbranch Settlement and Prince Albert district north of present-day Saskatoon following the Red River Rebellion in Manitoba in 1870. In the early 1880s, the Canadian government refused to hear the Métis' grievances, which stemmed from land-use issues. Finally, in 1885, the Métis, led by Louis Riel , staged the North-West Rebellion and declared a provisional government. They were defeated by a Canadian militia brought to the Canadian prairies by the new Canadian Pacific Railway. Riel, who surrendered and was convicted of treason in a packed Regina courtroom, was hanged on November 16, 1885. Since then, the government has recognized the Métis as
new Canadian Pacific Railway. Riel, who surrendered and was convicted of treason in a packed Regina courtroom, was hanged on November 16, 1885. Since then, the government has recognized the Métis as an aboriginal people with status rights and provided them with various benefits. The national policy set by the federal government, the Canadian Pacific Railway , the Hudson's Bay Company and associated land companies encouraged immigration. The Dominion Lands Act of 1872 permitted settlers to acquire one-quarter of a square mile of land to homestead and offered an additional quarter upon establishing a homestead. In 1874, the North-West Mounted Police began providing police services. In 1876, the North-West Territories Act provided for appointment, by the Ottawa, of a Lieutenant Governor and a Council to assist him. ] Highly optimistic advertising campaigns promoted the benefits of prairie living. Potential immigrants read leaflets that described Canada as a favourable place to live and downplayed the need for agricultural expertise. Ads in The Nor'-West Farmer by the Commissioner of Immigration implied that western land held water, wood, gold, silver, iron, copper, and cheap coal for fuel, all of which were readily at hand. The reality was far harsher, especially for the first arrivals who lived in sod houses . However eastern money poured in and by 1913, long term mortgage loans to Saskatchewan farmers had reached $65 million. ] The dominant groups comprised British settlers from eastern Canada and Britain, who comprised about half of the population during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They played the leading role in establishing the basic institutions of plains society, economy and government. ] Gender roles were sharply defined. Men were primarily responsible for breaking the land; planting and harvesting; building the house; buying, operating and repairing machinery; and handling finances. At first, there were many single men on the prairie, or husbands whose wives were still back east, but they had a hard time. They realized the need for a wife. In 1901, there were 19,200 families, but this surged to 150,300 families only 15 years later. Wives played a central role in settlement of the prairie region. Their labour, skills, and ability to adapt to the harsh environment proved decisive in meeting the challenges. They prepared bannock, beans and bacon, mended clothes, raised children, cleaned, tended the garden, helped at harvest time and nursed everyone back to health. While prevailing patriarchal attitudes, legislation, and economic principles obscured women's contributions, the flexibility exhibited by farm women in performing productive and nonproductive labour was critical to the survival of family farms, and thus to the success of the wheat economy. ] ] On September 1, 1905, Saskatchewan became a province, with inauguration day held on September 4. Its political leaders at the time proclaimed its destiny was to become Canada's
the wheat economy. ] ] On September 1, 1905, Saskatchewan became a province, with inauguration day held on September 4. Its political leaders at the time proclaimed its destiny was to become Canada's most powerful province. Saskatchewan embarked on an ambitious province-building program based on its Anglo-Canadian culture and wheat production for the export market. Population quintupled from 91,000 in 1901 to 492,000 in 1911, thanks to heavy immigration of farmers from Ukraine, U.S., Germany and Scandinavia. Efforts were made to assimilate the newcomers to British Canadian culture and values. ] In the 1905 provincial elections, Liberals won 16 of 25 seats in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan government bought out Bell Telephone Company in 1909, with the government owning the long-distance lines and left local service to small companies organized at the municipal level. ] Premier Walter Scott preferred government assistance to outright ownership because he thought enterprises worked better if citizens had a stake in running them; he set up the Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator Company in 1911. Despite pressure from farm groups for direct government involvement in the grain handling business, the Scott government opted to loan money to a farmer-owned elevator company. Saskatchewan in 1909 provided bond guarantees to railway companies for the construction of branch lines, alleviating the concerns of farmers who had trouble getting their wheat to market by waggon. ] The Saskatchewan Grain Growers Association , was the dominant political force in the province until the 1920s; it had close ties with the governing Liberal party. In 1913, the Saskatchewan Stock Growers Association was established with three goals: to watch over legislation; to forward the interests of the stock growers in every honourable and legitimate way; and to suggest to parliament legislation to meet changing conditions and requirements. ] Immigration peaked in 1910, and in spite of the initial difficulties of frontier life – distance from towns, sod homes, and backbreaking labour – new settlers established a European-Canadian style of prosperous agrarian society . The long-term prosperity of the province depended on the world price of grain, which headed steadily upward from the 1880s to 1920, then plunged down. Wheat output was increased by new strains, such as the " Marquis wheat " strain which matured 8 days sooner and yielded 7 more bushels per acre (0.72 m 3 /ha) than the previous standard, " Red Fife ". The national output of wheat soared from 8 million imperial bushels (290,000 m 3 ) in 1896, to 26 × 10 ^ 6 imp bu (950,000 m 3 ) in 1901, reaching 151 × 10 ^ 6 imp bu (5,500,000 m 3 ) by 1921. ] Urban reform movements in Regina were based on support from business and professional groups. City planning, reform of local government, and municipal ownership of utilities were more widely supported by these two groups, often through such organizations as the Board of Trade.
groups. City planning, reform of local government, and municipal ownership of utilities were more widely supported by these two groups, often through such organizations as the Board of Trade. Church-related and other altruistic organizations generally supported social welfare and housing reforms; these groups were generally less successful in getting their own reforms enacted. ] The province responded to the First World War in 1914 with patriotic enthusiasm and enjoyed the resultant economic boom for farms and cities alike. Emotional and intellectual support for the war emerged from the politics of Canadian national identity, the rural myth, and social gospel progressivism The Church of England was especially supportive. However, there was strong hostility toward German-Canadian farmers. ] Recent Ukrainian immigrants were enemy aliens because of their citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A small fraction were taken to internment camps. Most of the internees were unskilled unemployed labourers who were imprisoned "because they were destitute, not because they were disloyal". ] ] The price of wheat tripled and acreage seeded doubled. The wartime spirit of sacrifice intensified social reform movements that had predated the war and now came to fruition. Saskatchewan gave women the right to vote in 1916 and at the end of 1916 passed a referendum to prohibit the sale of alcohol. In the late 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan , imported from the United States and Ontario, gained brief popularity in nativist circles in Saskatchewan and Alberta. The Klan, briefly allied with the provincial Conservative party because of their mutual dislike for Premier James G. "Jimmy" Gardiner and his Liberals (who ferociously fought the Klan), enjoyed about two years of prominence. It declined and disappeared, subject to widespread political and media opposition, plus internal scandals involving the use of the organization's funds. In 1970, the first annual Canadian Western Agribition was held in Regina. This farm-industry trade show, with its strong emphasis on livestock, is rated as one of the five top livestock shows in North America, along with those in Houston , Denver , Louisville and Toronto . The province celebrated the 75th anniversary of its establishment in 1980, with Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon , presiding over the official ceremonies. ] ] In 2005, 25 years later, her sister, Queen Elizabeth II , attended the events held to mark Saskatchewan's centennial. ] Since the late 20th century, First Nations have become more politically active in seeking justice for past inequities, especially related to the taking of indigenous lands by various governments. The federal and provincial governments have negotiated on numerous land claims, and developed a program of "Treaty Land Entitlement", enabling First Nations to buy land to be taken into reserves with money from settlements of claims. "In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed an historic land
"Treaty Land Entitlement", enabling First Nations to buy land to be taken into reserves with money from settlements of claims. "In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed an historic land claim agreement with Saskatchewan First Nations. Under the Agreement, the First Nations received money to buy land on the open market. As a result, about 761,000 acres have been turned into reserve land and many First Nations continue to invest their settlement dollars in urban areas", including Saskatoon. The money from such settlements has enabled First Nations to invest in businesses and other economic infrastructure. ] In June 2021, a graveyard containing the remains of 751 unidentified people was found at the former Marieval Indian Residential School , part of the Canadian Indian residential school system . ] Languages of Saskatchewan (2016): ] Indigenous and visible minority identity (2021): ] According to the 2011 Canadian census , the largest ethnic group in Saskatchewan is German (28.6%), followed by English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French ( Fransaskois ) (12.2%), First Nations (12.1%), Norwegian (6.9%), and Polish (5.8%). ] As of the 2021 Canadian census , the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (1,094,785 or 99.24%), French (52,065 or 4.72%), Tagalog (36,125 or 3.27%), Cree (24,850 or 2.25%), Hindi (15,745 or 1.43%), Punjabi (13,310 or 1.21%), German (11,815 or 1.07%), Mandarin (11,590 or 1.05%), Spanish (11,185 or 1.01%), and Ukrainian (10,795 or 0.98%). ] The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. According to the 2021 census , religious groups in Saskatchewan included: ] Historically, Saskatchewan's economy was primarily associated with agriculture , with wheat being the precious symbol on the province's flag. Increasing diversification has resulted in agriculture, forestry , fishing , and hunting only making up 8.9% of the province's GDP in 2018. Saskatchewan grows a large portion of Canada's grain. ] In 2017, the production of canola surpassed the production of wheat , which is Saskatchewan's most familiar crop and the one most often associated with the province. The total net income from farming was $3.3 billion in 2017, which was $0.9 billion less than the income in 2016. ] Other grains such as flax , rye , oats , peas , lentils , canary seed, and barley are also produced in the province. Saskatchewan is the world's largest exporter of mustard seed. ] Beef cattle production by a Canadian province is only exceeded by Alberta. In the northern part of the province, forestry is also a significant industry. ] Mining is a major industry in the province, with Saskatchewan being the world's largest exporter of potash and uranium . ] Oil and natural gas production is also a very important part of Saskatchewan's economy, although the oil industry is larger. Among Canadian provinces, only Alberta exceeds Saskatchewan in overall oil
Oil and natural gas production is also a very important part of Saskatchewan's economy, although the oil industry is larger. Among Canadian provinces, only Alberta exceeds Saskatchewan in overall oil production. ] Heavy crude is extracted in the Lloydminster-Kerrobert-Kindersley areas. Light crude is found in the Kindersley-Swift Current areas as well as the Weyburn-Estevan fields. Natural gas is found almost entirely in the western part of Saskatchewan, from the Primrose Lake area through Lloydminster, Unity, Kindersley, Leader, and around Maple Creek areas. ] A list of the companies includes The Nutrien , Federated Cooperatives Ltd. and IPSCO . ] Major Saskatchewan-based Crown corporations are Saskatchewan Government Insurance (SGI), SaskTel , SaskEnergy (the province's main supplier of natural gas), SaskPower , and Saskatchewan Crop Insurance Corporation (SCIC). Bombardier runs the NATO Flying Training Centre at 15 Wing, near Moose Jaw . Bombardier was awarded a long-term contract in the late 1990s for $2.8 billion from the federal government for the purchase of military aircraft and the running of the training facility. SaskPower since 1929 has been the principal supplier of electricity in Saskatchewan, serving more than 451,000 customers and managing $4.5 billion in assets. SaskPower is a major employer in the province with almost 2,500 permanent full-time staff in 71 communities. Publicly funded elementary and secondary schools in the province are administered by twenty-seven school divisions . Public elementary and secondary schools either operate as secular or as a separate schools . Nearly all school divisions, except one operate as an English first language school board. The Division scolaire francophone No. 310 is the only school division that operates French first language schools. In addition to elementary and secondary schools, the province is also home to several post-secondary institutions. The first education on the prairies took place within the family groups of the First Nations and early fur trading settlers. There were only a few missionary or trading post schools established in Rupert's Land – later known as the North West Territories . The first 76 North-West Territories school districts and the first Board of Education meeting formed in 1886. The pioneering boom formed ethnic bloc settlements . Communities were seeking education for their children similar to the schools of their homeland. Log cabins , and dwellings were constructed for the assembly of the community, school, church, dances and meetings. The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties and the success of farmers in proving up on their homesteads helped provide funding to standardize education. ] Textbooks, normal schools for educating teachers, formal school curricula and state of the art school house architectural plans provided continuity throughout the province. English as the school language helped to provide economic stability because one community could
and state of the art school house architectural plans provided continuity throughout the province. English as the school language helped to provide economic stability because one community could communicate with another and goods could be traded and sold in a common language. The number of one-room schoolhouse districts across Saskatchewan totalled approximately 5,000 at the height of this system of education in the late 1940s. ] Following World War II, the transition from many one-room schoolhouses to fewer and larger consolidated modern technological town and city schools occurred as a means of ensuring technical education. School buses, highways, and family vehicles create ease and accessibility of a population shift to larger towns and cities. Combines and tractors mean the farmer could manage more than a quarter section of land, so there was a shift from family farms and subsistence crops to cash crops grown on many sections of land. School vouchers have been newly proposed as a means of allowing competition between rural schools and making the operation of cooperative schools practicable in rural areas. Saskatchewan's Ministry of Health is responsible for policy direction, sets and monitors standards, and provides funding for regional health authorities and provincial health services. Saskatchewan's health system is a single-payer system . Medical practitioners in Saskatchewan are independent contractors. They remit their accounts to the publicly funded Saskatchewan Medical Care Insurance Plan, which pays the accounts. Patients do not pay anything to their doctors or hospitals for medical care. ] In 1944, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), a left-wing agrarian and labour party, won the provincial election in Saskatchewan and formed the first socialist government in North American history. Repeatedly re-elected, the CCF campaigned in the early 1960s on the theme of universal health coverage and, after winning the election again, implemented it, the first in Canada. However, it was fiercely opposed by the province's doctors' union, which went on a massive strike the day the new system came into effect. Supported by the Saskatchewan Chamber of Commerce, most newspapers and the right-wing Keep Our Doctors movement, the doctors' union ran an effective communications campaign portraying the universal health care system as a communist scheme that would spread disease. The strike, which had become very unpopular because of the outrageous rhetoric of some of its leaders (one of them had called for bloodshed), finally ended after a few weeks, and universal health coverage was adopted by the whole country five years later. ] Saskatchewan has the same form of government ] as the other Canadian provinces with a
Manitoba ( ⓘ MAN -ih- TOH -bə ) is a province of Canada at the longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's fifth-most populous province , with a population of 1,342,153 as of 2021. ] Manitoba has a widely varied landscape, from arctic tundra and the Hudson Bay coastline in the north to dense boreal forest , large freshwater lakes , and prairie grassland in the central and southern regions. Indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years. In the early 17th century, English and French fur traders began arriving in the area and establishing settlements. The Kingdom of England secured control of the region in 1673 and created a territory named Rupert's Land , which was placed under the administration of the Hudson's Bay Company . Rupert's Land, which included all of present-day Manitoba, grew and evolved from 1673 until 1869 with significant settlements of Indigenous and Métis people in the Red River Colony . Negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba commenced in 1869, but deep disagreements over the right to self-determination led to an armed conflict, known as the Red River Rebellion , between the federal government and the people (particularly Métis) of the Red River Colony. The resolution of the conflict and further negotiations led to Manitoba becoming the fifth province to join Canadian Confederation , when the Parliament of Canada passed the Manitoba Act on 15 July 1870. Manitoba's capital and largest city is Winnipeg , the sixth most populous municipality in Canada. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba and the Provincial Court . Four of the province's five universities, all four of its professional sports teams, and most of its cultural activities (including Festival du Voyageur and Folklorama ) are located in Winnipeg. The city has an international airport as well as train and bus stations; a Canadian Forces base , CFB Winnipeg , operates from the airport and is the regional headquarters of the North American Aerospace Defense Command . The name Manitoba possibly derives from either Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwe manidoobaa , both meaning ' straits of Manitou , the Great Spirit ' . ] Alternatively, it may be from the Assiniboine minnetoba , meaning ' Lake of the Prairie ' ] ] (the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies ). The name was chosen by Thomas Spence for the new republic he proposed for the area south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel preferred the name over the proposed alternative of "Assiniboia". It was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act, 1870 . ] Modern-day Manitoba was inhabited by the First Nations people shortly after the last ice age glaciers retreated in the southwest about 10,000 years ago; the first exposed land was the Turtle Mountain area. ] The Ojibwe , Cree , Dene , Sioux , Mandan , and Assiniboine peoples founded settlements, and other tribes entered the area to trade. In Northern Manitoba, quartz
land was the Turtle Mountain area. ] The Ojibwe , Cree , Dene , Sioux , Mandan , and Assiniboine peoples founded settlements, and other tribes entered the area to trade. In Northern Manitoba, quartz was mined to make arrowheads . The first farming in Manitoba was along the Red River, where corn and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans. ] In 1611, Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay, where he was abandoned by his crew. ] Thomas Button travelled this area in 1612 in an unsuccessful attempt to find and rescue Hudson. ] When the British ship Nonsuch sailed into Hudson Bay in 1668–1669, she became the first trading vessel to reach the area; that voyage led to the formation of the Hudson's Bay Company, to which the British government gave absolute control of the entire Hudson Bay watershed. This watershed was named Rupert's Land, after Prince Rupert , who helped to subsidize the Hudson's Bay Company. ] York Factory was founded in 1684 after the original fort of the Hudson's Bay Company, Fort Nelson (built in 1682), was destroyed by rival French traders. ] Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye , visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s to help open the area for French exploration and trade. ] As French explorers entered the area, a Montreal -based company, the North West Company , began trading with the local Indigenous people. Both the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company built fur-trading forts; the two companies competed in southern Manitoba, occasionally resulting in violence, until they merged in 1821 (the Hudson's Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg preserve the history of this era). ] Great Britain secured the territory in 1763 after their victory over France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War , better known as the French and Indian War in North America; lasting from 1754 to 1763. The founding of the first agricultural community and settlements in 1812 by Lord Selkirk , north of the area which is now downtown Winnipeg, led to conflict between British colonists and the Métis. ] Twenty colonists, including the governor, and one Métis were killed in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816. ] Rupert's Land was ceded to Canada by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and incorporated into the Northwest Territories; a lack of attention to Métis concerns caused Métis leader Louis Riel to establish a local provisional government which formed into the Convention of Forty and the subsequent elected Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia on 9 March 1870. ] ] This assembly subsequently sent three delegates to Ottawa to negotiate with the Canadian government . This resulted in the Manitoba Act and that province's entry into Confederation . Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald introduced the Manitoba Act in the House of Commons of Canada , the bill was given Royal Assent and Manitoba was brought into Canada as a province in 1870. ] Louis Riel was pursued by
A. Macdonald introduced the Manitoba Act in the House of Commons of Canada , the bill was given Royal Assent and Manitoba was brought into Canada as a province in 1870. ] Louis Riel was pursued by British army officer Garnet Wolseley because of the rebellion, and Riel fled into exile. ] The Canadian government blocked the Métis' attempts to obtain land promised to them as part of Manitoba's entry into confederation. Facing racism from the new flood of white settlers from Ontario, large numbers of Métis moved to what would become Saskatchewan and Alberta . ] Numbered Treaties were signed in the late 19th century with the chiefs of First Nations that lived in the area. They made specific promises of land for every family. As a result, a reserve system was established under the jurisdiction of the federal government . ] The prescribed amount of land promised to the native peoples was not always given; this led Indigenous groups to assert rights to the land through land claims , many of which are still ongoing. ] The original province of Manitoba was a square one-eighteenth of its current size, and was known colloquially as the "postage stamp province". ] Its borders were expanded in 1881, taking land from the Northwest Territories and the District of Keewatin , but Ontario claimed a large portion of the land; the disputed portion was awarded to Ontario in 1889. Manitoba grew to its current size in 1912, absorbing land from the Northwest Territories to reach 60°N, uniform with the northern reach of its western neighbours Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia . ] The Manitoba Schools Question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory. The Catholic Franco-Manitobans had been guaranteed a state-supported separate school system in the original constitution of Manitoba, but a grassroots political movement among English Protestants from 1888 to 1890 demanded the end of French schools. In 1890, the Manitoba legislature passed a law removing funding for French Catholic schools . ] The French Catholic minority asked the federal government for support; however, the Orange Order and other anti-Catholic forces mobilized nationwide to oppose them. ] The federal Conservatives proposed remedial legislation to override Manitoba, but they were blocked by the Liberals , led by Wilfrid Laurier . ] Once elected Prime Minister in 1896, Laurier implemented a compromise stating Catholics in Manitoba could have their own religious instruction for 30 minutes at the end of the day if there were enough students to warrant it, implemented on a school-by-school basis. ] By 1911, Winnipeg was the third largest city in Canada, and remained so until overtaken by Vancouver in the 1920s. ] A boomtown, it grew quickly around the start of the 20th century, with outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success. ] The drop in growth in the second half of the decade was a result of the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, which reduced reliance on
outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success. ] The drop in growth in the second half of the decade was a result of the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, which reduced reliance on transcontinental railways for trade, as well as a decrease in immigration due to the outbreak of the First World War . ] Over 18,000 Manitoba residents enlisted in the first year of the war; by the end of the war, 14 Manitobans had received the Victoria Cross . ] During the First World War, Nellie McClung started the campaign for women's votes. On January 28, 1916, the vote for women was legalized. Manitoba was the first province to allow women to vote in provincial elections. This was two years before Canada as a country granted women the right to vote. ] After the First World War ended, severe discontent among farmers (over wheat prices) and union members (over wage rates) resulted in an upsurge of radicalism , coupled with a polarization over the rise of Bolshevism in Russia . ] The most dramatic result was the Winnipeg general strike of 1919. It began on 15 May and collapsed on 25 June 1919; as the workers gradually returned to their jobs, the Central Strike Committee decided to end the movement. ] Government efforts to violently crush the strike, including a Royal North-West Mounted Police charge into a crowd of protesters that resulted in multiple casualties and one death, had led to the arrest of the movement's leaders. ] In the aftermath, eight leaders went on trial, and most were convicted on charges of seditious conspiracy , illegal combinations, and seditious libel ; four were deported under the Canadian Immigration Act . ] The Great Depression (1929– c. 1939 ) hit especially hard in Western Canada , including Manitoba. The collapse of the world market combined with a steep drop in agricultural production due to drought led to economic diversification, moving away from a reliance on wheat production. ] The Manitoba Co-operative Commonwealth Federation , forerunner to the New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP), was founded in 1932. ] Canada entered the Second World War in 1939. Winnipeg was one of the major commands for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan to train fighter pilots, and there were air training schools throughout Manitoba. Several Manitoba-based regiments were deployed overseas, including Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry . In an effort to raise money for the war effort, the Victory Loan campaign organized " If Day " in 1942. The event featured a simulated Nazi invasion and occupation of Manitoba, and eventually raised over C$ 65 million. ] Winnipeg was inundated during the 1950 Red River Flood and had to be partially evacuated. In that year, the Red River reached its highest level since 1861 and flooded most of the Red River Valley. The damage caused by the flood led then-Premier Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway ; it was completed in 1968 after six years of excavation.
the Red River Valley. The damage caused by the flood led then-Premier Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway ; it was completed in 1968 after six years of excavation. Permanent dikes were erected in eight towns south of Winnipeg, and clay dikes and diversion dams were built in the Winnipeg area. In 1997, the " Flood of the Century " caused over C$400 million in damages in Manitoba, but the floodway prevented Winnipeg from flooding. ] In 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to pass the Meech Lake Accord , a series of constitutional amendments to persuade Quebec to endorse the Canada Act 1982 . Unanimous support in the legislature was needed to bypass public consultation. Cree politician Elijah Harper opposed because he did not believe First Nations had been adequately involved in the Accord's process, and thus the Accord failed. ] Glen Murray , elected in Winnipeg in 1998, became the first openly gay mayor of a large North American city. ] The province was impacted by major flooding in 2009 and 2011 . ] In 2004, Manitoba became the first province in Canada to ban indoor smoking in public places. ] In 2013, Manitoba was the second province to introduce accessibility legislation, protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. ] Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west, the territory of Nunavut to the north, and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a high volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg and then north down the Nelson River into Hudson Bay. This basin's rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, and east into Ontario. Major watercourses include the Red , Assiniboine , Nelson, Winnipeg , Hayes , Whiteshell and Churchill rivers . Most of Manitoba's inhabited south has developed in the prehistoric bed of Glacial Lake Agassiz . This region, particularly the Red River Valley , is flat and fertile; receding glaciers left hilly and rocky areas throughout the province. ] The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, ] covering approximately 15.6 percent or 101,593 square kilometres (39,225 sq mi) of its surface area. ] Manitoba's major lakes are Lake Manitoba , Lake Winnipegosis , and Lake Winnipeg , the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. ] A total of 29,000 square kilometres (11,000 sq mi) of traditional First Nations lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipeg's east side were officially designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site known as Pimachiowin Aki in 2018. ] Baldy Mountain is the province's highest point at 832 metres (2,730 ft) above sea level , ] and the Hudson Bay coast is the lowest at sea level. Riding Mountain , the Pembina Hills , Sandilands Provincial Forest , and the Canadian Shield are also upland regions. Much of the province's sparsely inhabited north and east lie
lowest at sea level. Riding Mountain , the Pembina Hills , Sandilands Provincial Forest , and the Canadian Shield are also upland regions. Much of the province's sparsely inhabited north and east lie on the irregular granite Canadian Shield, including Whiteshell , Atikaki , and Nopiming Provincial Parks . ] Extensive agriculture is found only in the province's southern areas, although there is grain farming in the Carrot Valley Region (near The Pas ). Around 11 percent of Canada's farmland is in Manitoba. ] Manitoba has an extreme continental climate . Temperatures and precipitation generally decrease from south to north and increase from east to west. ] Manitoba is far from the moderating influences of mountain ranges or large bodies of water. Because of the generally flat landscape, it is exposed to cold Arctic high-pressure air masses from the northwest during January and February. In the summer, air masses sometimes come out of the Southern United States , as warm humid air is drawn northward from the Gulf of Mexico . ] Temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F) numerous times each summer, and the combination of heat and humidity can bring the humidex value to the mid-40s. ] Carman, Manitoba , recorded the second-highest humidex ever in Canada in 2007, with 53.0. ] According to Environment Canada , Manitoba ranked first for clearest skies year round and ranked second for clearest skies in the summer and for the sunniest province in the winter and spring. ] Southern Manitoba (including the city of Winnipeg), falls into the humid continental climate zone (Köppen Dfb). This area is cold and windy in the winter and often has blizzards because of the open landscape. Summers are warm with a moderate length. This region is the most humid area in the prairie provinces, with moderate precipitation. Southwestern Manitoba, though under the same climate classification as the rest of Southern Manitoba, is closer to the semi-arid interior of Palliser's Triangle . The area is drier and more prone to droughts than other parts of southern Manitoba. ] This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards due to the openness of the Canadian Prairie landscape. ] Summers are generally warm to hot, with low to moderate humidity. ] Southern parts of the province, just north of Tornado Alley , experience tornadoes , with 16 confirmed touchdowns in 2016. In 2007, on 22 and 23 June, numerous tornadoes touched down, the largest an F5 tornado that devastated parts of Elie (the strongest recorded tornado in Canada). ] The province's northern sections (including the city of Thompson ) fall in the subarctic climate zone ( Köppen climate classification Dfc ). This region features long and extremely cold winters and brief, warm summers with little precipitation. ] Overnight temperatures as low as −40 °C (−40 °F) occur on several days each winter. ] Manitoba natural communities may be grouped within five ecozones: boreal plains , prairie , taiga shield , boreal shield
temperatures as low as −40 °C (−40 °F) occur on several days each winter. ] Manitoba natural communities may be grouped within five ecozones: boreal plains , prairie , taiga shield , boreal shield and Hudson plains . Three of these—taiga shield, boreal shield and Hudson plain—contain part of the Boreal forest of Canada which covers the province's eastern, southeastern, and northern reaches. ] Forests make up about 263,000 square kilometres (102,000 sq mi), or 48 percent, of the province's land area. ] The forests consist of pines ( Jack Pine , Red Pine , Eastern White Pine ), spruces ( White Spruce , Black Spruce ), Balsam Fir , Tamarack (larch) , poplars ( Trembling Aspen , Balsam Poplar ), birches ( White Birch , Swamp Birch ) and small pockets of Eastern White Cedar . ] Two sections of the province are not dominated by forest. The province's northeast corner bordering Hudson Bay is above the treeline and considered tundra . The tallgrass prairie once dominated the south-central and southeastern regions, including the Red River Valley. Mixed grass prairie is found in the southwestern region. Agriculture has replaced much of the natural vegetation but prairie can still be found in parks and protected areas; some are notable for the presence of the endangered western prairie fringed orchid . ] ] Manitoba is especially noted for its northern polar bear population; Churchill is commonly referred to as the "Polar Bear Capital". ] In the waters off the northern coast of the province are numerous marine species, including the beluga whale . Other populations of animals, including moose , white-tailed deer , mule deer , black and brown bears , coyote , cougar , red fox , Canada lynx , and grey wolf , are distributed throughout the province, especially in the provincial and national parks . There is a large population of red-sided garter snakes near Narcisse ; the overwintering dens there are seasonally home to the world's largest concentration of snakes. ] Manitoba's bird diversity is enhanced by its position on two major migration routes, with 392 confirmed identified species; 287 of these nesting within the province. ] These include the great grey owl , the province's official bird, and the endangered peregrine falcon . ] Manitoba's lakes host 18 species of game fish, particularly species of trout , pike , and goldeye , as well as many smaller fish. ] At the 2021 census, Manitoba had a population of 1,342,153, ] more than half of which is in Winnipeg. ] Although initial colonization of the province revolved mostly around homesteading, the last century has seen a shift towards urbanization; Manitoba is the only Canadian province with over fifty-five percent of its population in a single city. ] The largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English (16.1%), followed by Scottish (14.5%), German (13.6%), Ukrainian (12.6%), Irish (11.0%), French (9.3%), Canadian (8.4%), Filipino (7.0%), Métis (6.8%), Polish (6.0%), First Nations (4.5%), Mennonite (3.9%),
followed by Scottish (14.5%), German (13.6%), Ukrainian (12.6%), Irish (11.0%), French (9.3%), Canadian (8.4%), Filipino (7.0%), Métis (6.8%), Polish (6.0%), First Nations (4.5%), Mennonite (3.9%), Russian (3.7%), Dutch (3.3%), Indian (3.0%), and Icelandic (2.4%). ] Indigenous peoples (including Métis) are Manitoba's fastest-growing ethnic group, representing 13.6 percent of Manitoba's population as of 2001 (some reserves refused to allow census-takers to enumerate their populations or were otherwise incompletely counted). ] ] Gimli, Manitoba is home to the largest Icelandic community outside of Iceland . ] As of the 2021 Canadian Census , the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (1,288,950 or 98.6%), French (111,790 or 8.55%), Tagalog (73,440 or 5.62%), Punjabi (42,820 or 3.28%), German (41,980 or 3.21%), ] Hindi (26,980 or 2.06%), Spanish (23,435 or 1.79%), Mandarin (16,765 or 1.28%), Cree (16,115 or 1.23%), ] and Plautdietsch (15,055 or 1.15%). ] ] The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. Most Manitobans belong to a Christian denomination: on the 2021 census, 54.2% reported being Christian, followed by 2.7% Sikh , 2.0% Muslim, 1.4% Hindu, 0.9% Jewish, and 0.8% Indigenous spirituality . ] 36.7% reported no religious affiliation. ] The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents were the Roman Catholic Church with 21.2%; the United Church of Canada with 5.8%; and the Anglican Church of Canada with 3.3%. ] Manitoba has a moderately strong economy based largely on natural resources. Its Gross Domestic Product was C$50.834 billion in 2008. ] The province's economy grew 2.4 percent in 2008, the third consecutive year of growth. ] The average individual income in Manitoba in 2006 was C$25,100 (compared to a national average of C$26,500), ranking fifth-highest among the provinces. ] As of October 2009, Manitoba's unemployment rate was 5.8 percent. ] Manitoba's economy relies heavily on agriculture, tourism, electricity, oil, mining, and forestry. Agriculture is vital and is found mostly in the southern half of the province, although grain farming occurs as far north as The Pas. The most common agricultural activity is cattle husbandry, followed by assorted grains and oilseed . ] Manitoba is the nation's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans, ] and one of the leading sources of potatoes. Portage la Prairie is a major potato processing centre. ] Richardson International , one of the largest oat mills in the world, also has a plant in the municipality . ] Manitoba's largest employers are government and government-funded institutions, including crown corporations and services like hospitals and universities . Major private-sector employers are The Great-West Life Assurance Company , Cargill Ltd. , and Richardson International. ] Manitoba also has large manufacturing and tourism sectors. Churchill's Arctic wildlife is a major tourist attraction; the town is a world capital for polar
Ltd. , and Richardson International. ] Manitoba also has large manufacturing and tourism sectors. Churchill's Arctic wildlife is a major tourist attraction; the town is a world capital for polar bear and beluga whale watchers. ] Manitoba is the only province with an Arctic deep-water seaport, at Churchill. ] In January 2018, the Canadian Federation of Independent Business claimed Manitoba was the most improved province for tackling red tape . ] Manitoba's early economy depended on mobility and living off the land. Indigenous Nations (Cree, Ojibwa, Dene, Sioux and Assiniboine) followed herds of bison and congregated to trade among themselves at key meeting places throughout the province. After the arrival of the first European traders in the 17th century, the economy centred on the trade of beaver pelts and other furs. ] Diversification of the economy came when Lord Selkirk brought the first agricultural settlers in 1811, ] though the triumph of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) over its competitors ensured the primacy of the fur trade over widespread agricultural colonization. ] HBC control of Rupert's Land ended in 1868; when Manitoba became a province in 1870, all land became the property of the federal government, with homesteads granted to settlers for farming. ] Transcontinental railways were constructed to simplify trade. Manitoba's economy depended mainly on farming, which persisted until drought and the Great Depression led to further diversification. ] CFB Winnipeg is a Canadian Forces Base at the Winnipeg International Airport. The base is home to flight operations support divisions and several training schools, as well as the 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters. ] 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based at CFB Winnipeg; the Wing has three squadrons and six schools. ] It supports 113 units from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan/Alberta border, and from the 49th parallel north to the high Arctic . 17 Wing acts as a deployed operating base for CF-18 Hornet fighter–bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region. ] The two 17 Wing squadrons based in the city are: the 402 ("City of Winnipeg" Squadron), which flies the Canadian designed and produced de Havilland Canada CT-142 Dash 8 navigation trainer in support of the 1 Canadian Forces Flight Training School's Air Combat Systems Officer and Airborne Electronic Sensor Operator training programs (which trains all Canadian Air Combat Systems Officer); ] and the 435 ("Chinthe" Transport and Rescue Squadron), which flies the Lockheed C-130 Hercules tanker/transport in airlift search and rescue roles, and is the only Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct air-to-air refuelling of fighter aircraft. ] Canadian Forces Base Shilo (CFB Shilo) is an Operations and Training base of the Canadian Forces 35 kilometres (22 mi) east of Brandon. During the 1990s, Canadian Forces Base Shilo was designated as an Area Support Unit, acting as a local base of operations for
base of the Canadian Forces 35 kilometres (22 mi) east of Brandon. During the 1990s, Canadian Forces Base Shilo was designated as an Area Support Unit, acting as a local base of operations for Southwest Manitoba in times of military and civil emergency. ] CFB Shilo is the home of the 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery , both battalions of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group , and the Royal Canadian Artillery . The Second Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2 PPCLI), which was originally stationed in Winnipeg (first at Fort Osborne, then in Kapyong Barracks), has operated out of CFB Shilo since 2004. CFB Shilo hosts a training unit, 3rd Canadian Division Training Centre. It serves as a base for support units of 3rd Canadian Division , also including 3 CDSG Signals Squadron, Shared Services Unit (West), 11 CF Health Services Centre, 1 Dental Unit, 1 Military Police Regiment, and an Integrated Personnel Support Centre. The base houses 1,700 soldiers. ] After the control of Rupert's Land was passed from Great Britain to the Government of Canada in 1869, Manitoba attained full-fledged rights and responsibilities of self-government as the first Canadian province carved out of Rupert's Land . ] The [Legislative Assembly o
Quebec ] ( French : Québec ] ⓘ ) ] is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada . It is the largest province by area ] and the second-largest by population , as well as the northernmost province in Canada. With an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of borders, ] ] in North America , Quebec is located in Central Canada . The province shares land borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast and a coastal border with the territory of Nunavut . It is bathed up north by James Bay , Hudson Bay , Hudson Strait , Ungava Bay , Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and in the south, it shares a border with the United States . ] The majority of the population of Quebec lives in the St. Lawrence River valley, ] between its most populous city, Montreal , Trois-Rivières and the provincial capital, Quebec . Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the French colony of Canada and was the most developed colony in New France . Following the Seven Years' War , Canada became a British colony , first as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then Lower Canada (1791–1841), and lastly part of the Province of Canada (1841–1867) as a result of the Lower Canada Rebellion . It was confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick in 1867. Until the early 1960s , the Catholic Church played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec in l'État québécois (the public authority of Quebec). The Government of Quebec functions within the context of a Westminster system and is both a liberal democracy and a constitutional monarchy . The Premier of Quebec acts as head of government . Independence debates have played a large role in Quebec politics . Quebec society's cohesion and specificity is based on three of its unique statutory documents: the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms , the Charter of the French Language , and the Civil Code of Quebec . Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada, law in Quebec is mixed: private law is exercised under a civil-law system, while public law is exercised under a common-law system. Quebec's official language is French; Québécois French is the regional variety . Quebec is the only Francophone -majority province. The economy of Quebec is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of aeronautics , where it is the 6th largest worldwide seller, ] hydroelectricity , mining, pharmaceuticals , aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing maple syrup , for its comedy , and for making hockey one of the most popular sports in Canada . It is also renowned for its culture ; the province produces literature , music , films , TV shows , festivals , and more. The name Québec comes from
hockey one of the most popular sports in Canada . It is also renowned for its culture ; the province produces literature , music , films , TV shows , festivals , and more. The name Québec comes from an Algonquin word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'. ] The name originally referred to the area around Quebec City where the Saint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling included Québecq and Kébec . ] French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the administrative seat for New France . ] The Paleo-Indians , theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted roughly 11,000 years ago. ] ] From them, many ethnocultural groups emerged. By the European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven Indigenous peoples : the Inuit and ten First Nations – the Abenakis , Algonquins (or Anichinabés), Atikamekw , Cree , Huron-Wyandot , Maliseet , Miꞌkmaqs , Iroquois , Innu and Naskapis . ] Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing. ] Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays. ] In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . ] Around 1522–23, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name New France for northeast North America. ] In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, Jacques Cartier became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in Gaspé on July 24, 1534. ] In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of Stadacona and named the village and its surrounding territories Canada (from kanata , 'village' in Iroquois ). Cartier returned to France with about 10 St. Lawrence Iroquoians , including Chief Donnacona . In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval ; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom. ] After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and religious wars. ] Around 1580, the rise of the fur trade reignited French interest; New France became a colonial trading post . ] In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous
Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British". ] Thus also began French military support to the Algonquian and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the Iroquois Wars and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s. ] In 1608, Samuel de Champlain ] returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King Henry IV , he founded the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions. ] The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing. ] Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City. Coureurs des bois and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts. ] ] The Compagnie des Cent-Associés , which had been granted a royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system , and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics. ] In 1629, Quebec City surrendered , without battle, to English privateers during the Anglo-French War ; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Trois-Rivières was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634. ] Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now Montreal) in 1642. In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada to King Louis XIV , who made New France into a royal province of France. ] New France was now a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of New France from Quebec City. A governor-general , governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance. ] The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as " Canadiens " or " Habitants ". Though there was little immigration, ] the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates. ] ] In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men. ] To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ( King's Daughters ) to the colony. ] In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700. ] New France's territory grew to extend from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico , and would encompass the Great Lakes . ] In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded the Great Peace of Montreal , which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively
the Great Lakes . ] In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded the Great Peace of Montreal , which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars. ] From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the French and Indian Wars by Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec. ] The first three were King William's War (1688–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht , the Duke of Orléans ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to Great Britain, but retained Île Saint-Jean , and Île-Royale where the Fortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 Acadians . ] ] In the siege of Louisbourg (1745) , the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions. ] The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the Seven Years' War ("The War of the Conquest " in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763. ] ] In 1754, tensions escalated for control of the Ohio Valley , as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists. ] In 1754, George Washington launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen , the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor Charles Lawrence and Officer Robert Monckton ordered the forceful explusion of the Acadians . In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe besieged and captured the Fortress of Louisbourg. ] This allowed him to control access to the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the Cabot Strait . In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from Île d'Orléans . ] Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . After a British victory, the king's lieutenant and Lord of Ramezay concluded the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec . During the spring of 1760, the Chevalier de Lévis besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the Battle of Sainte-Foy . However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the Battle of Restigouche marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony. Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8, 1760. While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a British military regime led by Governor James Murray . ] In 1762, Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill . France secretly ceded the western part of
military regime led by Governor James Murray . ] In 1762, Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill . France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta to Spain via the Treaty of Fontainebleau . On February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris concluded the war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain. ] Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic clergy in refusing to take an oath to the British Crown . ] The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation . ] After the British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the Royal Proclamation . ] The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the British Empire and circumscribed to a region of the St. Lawrence Valley and Anticosti Island called the Province of Quebec . With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens might support what would become the American Revolution . To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the Quebec Act ] of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their civil customs , return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, Illinois Country and the Indian Territory . ] As early as 1774, the Continental Congress of the separatist Thirteen Colonies attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, its military troops failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its Invasion of Quebec in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with the Americans in the Saratoga campaign of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size. Some United Empire Loyalists from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions. ] Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the Constitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the Ottawa River : Upper Canada to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with
the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to Rupert's Land , and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the War of 1812 , Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of the Chateauguay . This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada. Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada , who represented the people, came into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its appointed representatives . Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the Parti canadien . In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its 92 resolutions , political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the British monarchy . Discontentment intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, and the Lower Canada Rebellion began in 1837. ] In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the Patriotes . They made a Declaration of Independence in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination. ] Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and Upper Canada . The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle, the Battle of Saint-Denis . However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the Battle of Saint-Charles , and defeat in the Battle of Saint-Eustache . ] In response to the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare a report offering a solution to the British Parliament. ] Durham recommended that Canadiens be culturally assimilated , with English as their only official language. To do this, the British passed the Act of Union 1840 , which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the Province of Canada . Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated Canada East , and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated Canada West . This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time,
in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on "Representation by Population" . The British population began to use the term " Canadian ", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with their ethnic community under the name " French Canadian " as they were a "French of Canada". ] As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the Clique du Château , an exodus of Canadiens towards New England began and went on for the next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the Grande Hémorragie and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the revenge of the cradle policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal. ] Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses Bill , a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838. ] This bill, resulting from the Baldwin - La Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of responsible government . ] In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was adopted. ] ] ] In 1864, negotiations began for Canadian Confederation between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the Charlottetown Conference and Quebec Conference . After having fought as a Patriote, George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the Quebec Resolutions , the foundation for Canadian Confederation. ] Recognized as a Father of Confederation , he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status. Following the London Conference of 1866 , the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the British North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding
Conference of 1866 , the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the British North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. These last two came from splitting the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first premier . From Confederation until World War I, the Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, French, the Catholic Church and rural life. Events such as the North-West Rebellion , the Manitoba Schools Question and Ontario's Regulation 17 turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. ] Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of Henri Bourassa , symbols of national pride were developed, like the Flag of Carillon , and " O Canada " – a patriotic song composed for Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day . Many organizations went on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the caisses populaires Desjardins in 1900, the Club de hockey Canadien in 1909, Le Devoir in 1910, the Congress on the French language in Canada in 1912, and L'Action nationale in 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the Parti national out of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of Louis Riel . ] In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 , which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. ] This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labour force. ] In 1910, Armand Lavergne passed the Lavergne Law , the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec. ] Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in the federal elections of 1911 . In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912 , which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava . ] This extended the borders of Quebec northward to the Hudson Strait . When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement
not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on August 29, 1917. ] French Canadians protested in what is now called the Conscription Crisis of 1917 , which led to the Quebec riot fr ] . ] In 1919, the prohibition of spirits was enacted following a provincial referendum . ] But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to the Alcoholic Beverages Act which created the Commission des liqueurs du Québec . ] In 1927, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador . However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in a boundary dispute which remains ongoing . The Statute of Westminster 1931 was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of the Dominions – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the Commonwealth . ] In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the Great Depression because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32 the unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the secours directs – the ancestor to Canada's Employment Insurance . ] French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were against conscription, while 80% or more were for conscription in every other province, the federal government passed Bill 80 for overseas service. Protests exploded and the Bloc Populaire emerged to fight conscription. ] The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the " Two Solitudes ". In the wake of the conscription crisis, Maurice Duplessis of the Union Nationale ascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as the Grande Noirceur . He focused on defending provincial autonomy , Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire liberalism instead of the emerging welfare state . ] However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, the baby boom , workers' conflicts , electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class , the rural exodus and
and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, the baby boom , workers' conflicts , electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class , the rural exodus and urbanization , expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation o
Public auto insurance is a government-owned and -operated system of compulsory automobile insurance used in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , and Quebec . It is based on the idea that if motorists are compelled to purchase auto insurance by the government, the government ought to ensure motorists pay fair premiums and receive high-quality coverage. Governments across the country have used various insurance schemes from full tort to full no-fault in pursuit of that goal. Public auto insurers in Canada have historically operated on a not-for-profit basis. The exception is the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC), which had its enabling legislation amended in 2010 to allow the provincial government to compel it to pay dividends into the provincial treasury. ] Arguments over public versus private provision of auto insurance often revolve around price and treatment of claimants. Ultimately, the question of which system is more efficient remains an open one. The principled arguments for private insurance turn on the 'disciplining' effect of market competition. With regard to price, proponents of private insurance argue that an open and competitive market for auto insurance would force providers to be cost-efficient and to compete on price, therefore resulting in lower premiums. However, those in favour of public insurance provision argue that, since private companies would also have to make profits for their owners, a non-profit entity would be more likely to have low premiums. With regard to claimants themselves, proponents of private insurance argue that competition will force private insurers to treat claimants as fairly as possible, since insureds will simply change providers if they feel mistreated. The counterargument to this is, given that all private insurers have similar profit pressures, they will all be similarly reluctant to pay benefits in order to increase their profit margins, thus resulting in insureds being poorly served no matter which insurer they choose – whereas a public insurer operating on a long-run break-even basis would have more flexibility to fully compensate claimants. On an empirical level, cost comparisons across jurisdictions are difficult for several reasons. First, different jurisdictions use different insurance models. British Columbia, for example, uses a tort model with some no-fault accident benefits; Saskatchewan offers consumers a choice between no-fault and tort policies; Manitoba uses a no-fault model with the option to sue for economic damages in excess of no-fault benefits; and Québec uses a pure no-fault model with no option to sue. ] Second, mandated minimum levels of coverage and benefits can vary widely, even between provinces that use similar insurance models. Third, what is covered within a given category, such as medical benefits, may also differ between jurisdictions. Fourth, different parts of the country differ in areas such as demographics and
Third, what is covered within a given category, such as medical benefits, may also differ between jurisdictions. Fourth, different parts of the country differ in areas such as demographics and weather, which may affect the costs of claims as well as accident frequency. Lastly, comparisons with other countries – and the United States in particular – are difficult since Canada's public healthcare system covers medical costs that would otherwise often be borne by auto insurers. Because of this, it is difficult to conduct accurate comparisons of premiums across the country. An analysis that does not disclose its methodology, or that uses premium data drawn from multiple outside sources, is likely to be unreliable. As would be expected, these complicating factors have resulted in various comparative studies of premiums across the country reaching different conclusions. For example, studies by the Consumers' Association of Canada found that rates in the four public-provision provinces are lower than in provinces that use a private auto insurance system. ] On the other hand, the Fraser Institute , a right-wing think-tank, released a survey in 2011 which concluded that the highest auto insurance rates in Canada were paid in Ontario, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, of which the latter three operate public insurers. ] better source needed ] More recently, a 2015 Deloitte analysis conducted for Manitoba Public Insurance (MPI) found that the four provinces with public provision have the cheapest insurance rates. ] The Insurance Corporation of British Columbia was created in 1973 by the NDP government of premier Dave Barrett . While it was initially opposed by the opposition Social Credit Party , ICBC became popular with the public and its continued existence has been supported by the government of the day ever since. ] ] ICBC initially held a monopoly on all auto insurance, but in 1977, the provincial government opened up the optional insurance market. ] Despite the entrance of several firms in the 1980s, 87% of British Columbians who bought additional coverage did so from ICBC in 2003. ] Since its inception, ICBC's mandate has changed several times. Initially, it was responsible for only insurance, but at various points since its creation it has also been responsible for social programs such as the CounterAttack anti-impaired driving initiative, traffic safety initiatives, vehicle and driver licensing, commercial transport and compliance, fine collection, and driver education. ] In 2010, ICBC's enabling legislation, the Insurance Corporation Act , was amended by Christy Clark 's British Columbia Liberal government to allow the Cabinet Committee to compel ICBC to pay specified dividends into the provincial treasury. Over the next several years, that has arguably had a large negative impact on ICBC's financial position and been pointed to as the underlying cause of ICBC's forecast for dramatic rate increases totalling over 40%. ] In 2021, ICBC
has arguably had a large negative impact on ICBC's financial position and been pointed to as the underlying cause of ICBC's forecast for dramatic rate increases totalling over 40%. ] In 2021, ICBC moved over from tort coverage to no-fault coverage. Manitoba Public Insurance (MPI) was created in 1971 by an NDP government under the leadership of Edward Schreyer . It had featured prominently in his campaign platform for the 1969 election. ] It is a non-profit Crown corporation that operates on a pure no-fault model. ] In 1978, the Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque created the Régie de l'assurance automobile du Québec (RAAQ). In 1990, the RAAQ became the Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ). ] In Quebec, public auto insurance is limited to coverage of personal injuries while damage to property is covered by private insurers. ] Created in 1945 by Tommy Douglas 's CCF government, Saskatchewan Government Insurance is the oldest public auto insurer in Canada. ] Saskatchewan is the only province in Canada that offers motorists a choice between no-fault and tort systems of insurance. Although a choice, majority of the people are unaware of it. By default, all Sask residents are enrolled into the no-fault systems, unless someone wishes to switch their coverage over to tort. Out of province residents who are found partially or fully responsible for an accident in Saskatchewan can be pursued legally for non-economic damages by the Saskatchewan victim even if they have no-fault coverage. There is no cap on minor injury benefits, and SGI does not mandate for their claimants to go for an eventual assessment to a doctor of their choice; which is a common practice in other provinces in an attempt to 86 the benefits being extended. Other provinces have considered introducing a public auto insurance system. The Ontario New Democratic Party won the 1990 provincial election on a platform that included public auto insurance. After assuming office, Premier Bob Rae appointed Peter Kormos , one of the most vocal proponents of public insurance, as the minister responsible for bringing forward the policy. ] With the onset of the recession, however, both business and labour groups expressed concern about layoffs and lost revenues. ] The government dropped the policy in 1991, which was one reason for its loss of power in 1995. citation needed ] Public auto insurance has also been considered in New Brunswick after private insurance rates nearly doubled from 2003 to 2005 but was ultimately rejected by the provincial government. ] It was also an issue in Nova Scotia during its 2003 provincial election and remained in the platform of the official opposition , the Nova Scotia New Democratic Party during the 2006 election campaign. ] However, it did not appear in the NDP platform in the 2009 campaign, and during the NDP's majority government, it failed to introduce a public insurance scheme. Public auto insurance was also under consideration by the
appear in the NDP platform in the 2009 campaign, and during the NDP's majority government, it failed to introduce a public insurance scheme. Public auto insurance was also under consideration by the Newfoundland and Labrador Progressive Conservative government of Danny Williams in 2004 as a "last resort" when private insurance firms threatened to pull out of the province in response to legislation rolling back premiums. ]
Canada is a country in North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean , making it the world's second-largest country by total area , with the world's longest coastline . Its border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. It is a sparsely inhabited country of just over 41 million people, the vast majority residing south of the 55th parallel in urban areas . Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto , Montreal , and Vancouver . Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts , France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation , Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , and culminating in the Canada Act 1982 , which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition . The country's head of government is the prime minister , who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general , representing the monarch of Canada , the ceremonial head of state . The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and gender equality. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration . Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history , economy , and culture . A developed country , Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Recognized as a middle power , Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries . Canada is part of multiple international organizations and forums . While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada , the name is now accepted as coming from the St.
is part of multiple international organizations and forums . While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada , the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata , meaning "village" or "settlement". ] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona . ] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); ] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada . ] From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. ] Following the British conquest of New France , this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791. ] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada . These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. ] Upon Confederation in 1867 , Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title. ] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth". ] The Canada Act 1982 , which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada . Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day . ] The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. ] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. ] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. ] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. ] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , ] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity. ] The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 ] and two million, ] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . ] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. ] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases
] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. ] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases , to which they had no natural immunity, ] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency. ] Although not without conflict, European Canadians ' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. ] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade . ] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties. ] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society. ] Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. ] A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008. ] This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide , ] settlement agreements , ] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women . ] It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson . ] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland . ] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England . ] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I . ] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. ] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia. ] In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert , by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I , founded St John's, Newfoundland , as the first North American English seasonal camp . ] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. ] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and
American English seasonal camp . ] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. ] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). ] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes , while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes , Hudson Bay , and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana . ] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade. ] The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. ] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War . ] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. ] The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. ] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island ) became a separate colony in 1769. ] To avert conflict in Quebec , the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley . ] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. ] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. ] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution . ] After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. ] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists , the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick , as Canada's first city. ] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791
which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick , as Canada's first city. ] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec ) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario ), granting each its own elected legislative assembly. ] The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom . Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. ] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. ] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic -speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances . ] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891. ] The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837 . ] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. ] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. ] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute , extending the border westward along the 49th parallel . This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858) . ] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border. ] Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario , Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. ] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories , where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. ] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, ] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. ] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. ] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US. ] To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway ), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement
immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway ), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory. ] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to " Indian reserves ", ] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements . ] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. ] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. ] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. ] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights. ] Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War . ] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps , which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. ] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. ] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. ] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, ] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , affirmed Canada's independence. ] The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. ] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas ) in the 1940s and 1950s. ] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI , seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence. ] The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War . ] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid , the Allied invasion of Italy , the Normandy landings , the Battle of Normandy , and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. ] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while
failed 1942 Dieppe Raid , the Allied invasion of Italy , the Normandy landings , the Battle of Normandy , and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. ] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany . ] The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China , and the Soviet Union . ] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy. ] The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. ] After two referendums , Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province. ] Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity , marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, ] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, ] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. ] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare , the Canada Pension Plan , and Canada Student Loans ; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions. ] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982 , the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . ] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy . ] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government. ] At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. ] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, ] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. ] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. ] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. ] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation. ] In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation. ] In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; ] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; ] and the Oka Crisis of 1990, ] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups. ] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars , ] and in Somalia , resulting in an incident that has been described as " the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military ". ] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 , resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s. ] In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War ] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. ] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption. ] In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools . ] Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture . ] By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country . ] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth , due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes . ] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km 2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. ] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). ] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States —spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi) ] —Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark ) to the northeast, on Hans Island , ] and a maritime boundary with France 's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast. ] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert , on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island —latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. ] Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield , the interior plains , the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands , the Appalachian region , the Western Cordillera , Hudson Bay Lowlands , and the Arctic Archipelago . ]
regions: the Canadian Shield , the interior plains , the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands , the Appalachian region , the Western Cordillera , Hudson Bay Lowlands , and the Arctic Archipelago . ] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains , and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. ] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. ] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km 2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water . ] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies , the Coast Mountains , and the Arctic Cordillera . ] Canada is geologically active , having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes . ] Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate , where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F ), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills . ] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). ] Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost . The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a
Newfoundland and Labrador ( NEW -fən(d)-lənd ... LAB -rə-dor, -⁠land ... , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} locally NEW -fən- LAND ... ; French : Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador ; frequently abbreviated as NL ) is the easternmost province of Canada , in the country's Atlantic region . The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region of Labrador , having a total size of 405,212 km 2 (156,453 sq mi). As of 2024 the population of Newfoundland and Labrador was estimated to be 545,247. ] The island of Newfoundland (and its smaller neighbouring islands) is home to around 94 per cent of the province's population, with more than half residing in the Avalon Peninsula . Labrador shares a land border with both the province of Quebec and the territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island . The French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon lies about 20 km (12 mi) west of the Burin Peninsula . According to the 2016 census, 97.0% of residents reported English as their native language, making Newfoundland and Labrador Canada's most linguistically homogeneous province. Much of the population is descended from English and Irish settlers, with the majority immigrating from the early 17th century to the late 19th century. ] ] ] St. John's , the capital and largest city of Newfoundland and Labrador, is Canada's 22nd-largest census metropolitan area and home to about 40% of the province's population. St. John's is the seat of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador as well as the province's highest court, the Newfoundland and Labrador Court of Appeal . Until 1949, the Dominion of Newfoundland was a separate dominion in the British Empire. In 1933, the House of Assembly of the self-governing dominion voted to dissolve itself and to hand over administration of Newfoundland and Labrador to the British-appointed Commission of Government . This followed the suffering caused by the Great Depression and Newfoundland's participation in the First World War . On March 31, 1949, it became the 10th and most recent province to join the Canadian Confederation as "Newfoundland". On December 6, 2001, the Constitution of Canada was amended to change the province's name from "Newfoundland" to "Newfoundland and Labrador". The name "New founde lande" was uttered by King Henry VII about the land explored by Sebastian and John Cabot . In Portuguese , it is Terra Nova (while the province's full name is Terra Nova e Labrador ), which literally means "new land" and is also the French name for the province's island region ( Terre-Neuve ). The name "Terra Nova" is in wide use on the island (e.g. Terra Nova National Park ). The influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador . ]
Nova National Park ). The influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador . ] Labrador's name in the Inuttitut Inuktitut name is Ikkarumikluak ( ᐃᒃᑲᕈᒥᒃᓗᐊᒃ ), meaning "place of many shoals". Newfoundland and Labrador's Inuttitut / Inuktitut name is Ikkarumikluak aamma Nunatsuak . Terre-Neuve et Labrador is the French name used in the Constitution of Canada. However, French is not widely spoken in Newfoundland and Labrador and is not an official language at the provincial level. On April 29, 1999, the government of Brian Tobin passed a motion in the Newfoundland House of Assembly requesting the federal government amend the Newfoundland Act to change the province's name to "Newfoundland and Labrador". A resolution approving the name change was put forward in the House of Commons in October 2001, introduced by Tobin who had moved to federal politics. Tobin's successor as premier Roger Grimes stated: "The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador is firmly committed to ensuring official recognition of Labrador as an equal partner in this province, and a constitutional name change of our province will reiterate that commitment". ] Following approval by the House of Commons and the Senate, Governor-General Adrienne Clarkson officially proclaimed the name change on December 6, 2001. ] Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, situated in the northeastern region of North America . ] The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical parts: Labrador, connected to mainland Canada, and Newfoundland, an island in the Atlantic Ocean . ] The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands. ] The highest point of the province is Mount Caubvick with the highest point on Newfoundland being Cabox . Newfoundland has a roughly triangular shape. Each side is about 400 km (250 mi) long, and its area is 108,860 km 2 (42,030 sq mi). ] Newfoundland and its neighbouring small islands (excluding French possessions) have an area of 111,390 km 2 (43,010 sq mi). ] Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N. ] ] Labrador is also roughly triangular in shape: the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula . Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, and the rest belongs to Quebec. Most of Labrador's southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labrador's extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a short border with Nunavut on Killiniq Island . Labrador also has a maritime border with Greenland . Labrador's land area (including associated small islands) is 294,330 km 2 (113,640 sq mi). ] Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4.06 per cent of Canada's area, ] with a total area of 405,720 km 2 (156,650 sq mi). ] Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield , a vast area of ancient
and Labrador make up 4.06 per cent of Canada's area, ] with a total area of 405,720 km 2 (156,650 sq mi). ] Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield , a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock making up much of northeastern North America . Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland. Gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, ] and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site . The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains . ] The north-south extent of the province (46°36′N to 60°22′N), prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province. ] Newfoundland, in broad terms, has a cool summer subtype, with a humid continental climate attributable to its proximity to water — no part of the island is more than 100 km (62 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean . ] However, Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate, and southern Labrador has a subarctic climate . ] Newfoundland and Labrador contain a range of climates and weather patterns, including frequent combinations of high winds, snow, rain, and fog, conditions that regularly made travel by road, air, or ferry challenging or impossible. ] Monthly average temperatures, rainfall levels, and snowfall levels for four locations are shown in the attached graphs. St. John's represents the east coast, Gander the interior of the island, Corner Brook the west coast of the island and Wabush the interior of Labrador. Climate data for 56 places in the province is available from Environment Canada . ] The data for the graphs is the average over 30 years. Error bars on the temperature graph indicate the range of daytime highs and night time lows. Snowfall is the total amount that fell during the month, not the amount accumulated on the ground. This distinction is particularly important for St. John's, where a heavy snowfall can be followed by rain, so no snow remains on the ground. Surface water temperatures on the Atlantic side reach a summer average of 12 °C (54 °F) inshore and 9 °C (48 °F) offshore to winter lows of −1 °C (30 °F) inshore and 2 °C (36 °F) offshore. ] Sea temperatures on the west coast are warmer than Atlantic side by 1–3 °C (approximately 2–5 °F). The sea keeps winter temperatures slightly higher and summer temperatures a little lower on the coast than inland. ] The maritime climate produces more variable weather, ample precipitation in a variety of forms, greater humidity , lower visibility, more clouds, less sunshine, and higher winds than a continental climate. ] Human habitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back about 9,000 years. ] The Maritime Archaic peoples were sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic . ] They prospered along the Atlantic Coast of North America from about 7000 BC to 1500 BC. ] Their settlements
9,000 years. ] The Maritime Archaic peoples were sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic . ] They prospered along the Atlantic Coast of North America from about 7000 BC to 1500 BC. ] Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. ] They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert , a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine . ] The southern branch of these people was established on the north peninsula of Newfoundland by 5,000 years ago. ] The Maritime Archaic period is best known from a mortuary site in Newfoundland at Port au Choix . ] The Maritime Archaic peoples were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset culture (Late Paleo-Eskimo ) who also occupied Port au Choix. The number of their sites discovered on Newfoundland indicates they may have been the most numerous Aboriginal people to live there. They thrived from about 2000 BC to 800 AD. Many of their sites were on exposed headlands and outer islands. They were more oriented to the sea than earlier peoples, and had developed sleds and boats similar to kayaks . They burned seal blubber in soapstone lamps. ] Many of these sites, such as Port au Choix , recently excavated by Memorial archaeologist, Priscilla Renouf, are quite large and show evidence of a long-term commitment to place. Renouf has excavated huge amounts of harp seal bones at Port au Choix, indicating that this place was a prime location for the hunting of these animals. ] The people of the Dorset culture (800 BC – 1500 AD) were highly adapted to a cold climate, and much of their food came from hunting sea mammals through holes in the ice. ] The massive decline in sea ice during the Medieval Warm Period would have had a devastating effect upon their way of life. ] The appearance of the Beothuk culture is believed to be the most recent cultural manifestation of peoples who first migrated from Labrador to Newfoundland around 1 AD. ] The Inuit , found mostly in Labrador, are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule people , who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 AD and spread eastwards across the High Arctic tundra reaching Labrador around 1300–1500. ] Researchers believe the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies that gave the expanding Inuit an advantage. ] The inhabitants eventually organized themselves into small bands of a few families, grouped into larger tribes and chieftainships . The Innu are the inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan , i.e. most of what is now referred to as northeastern Quebec and Labrador. Their subsistence activities were historically centered on hunting and trapping caribou , deer and small game. ] Coastal clans also practiced agriculture, fished and managed maple sugar bush. ] The Innu engaged in tribal warfare along the coast of Labrador with Inuit groups that had large populations. ] The Miꞌkmaq of southern Newfoundland spent most of their time on the shores harvesting seafood;
engaged in tribal warfare along the coast of Labrador with Inuit groups that had large populations. ] The Miꞌkmaq of southern Newfoundland spent most of their time on the shores harvesting seafood; during the winter they would move inland to the woods to hunt. ] Over time, the Miꞌkmaq and Innu divided their lands into traditional "districts". Each district was independently governed and had a district chief and a council. The council members were band chiefs, elders and other worthy community leaders. ] In addition to the district councils, the Miꞌkmaq tribes also developed a Grand Council or Santé Mawiómi , which according to oral tradition was formed before 1600. ] By the time European contact with Newfoundland began in the early 16th century, the Beothuk were the only indigenous group living permanently on the island. ] Unlike other groups in the Northeastern area of the Americas, the Beothuk never established sustained trading relations with European settlers. Their interactions were sporadic, and they largely attempted to avoid contact. ] The establishment of English fishing operations on the outer coastline of the island, and their later expansion into bays and inlets, cut off access for the Beothuk to their traditional sources of food. ] ] ] In the 18th century, as the Beothuk were driven further inland by these encroachments, violence between Beothuk and settlers escalated, with each retaliating against the other in their competition for resources. By the early 19th century, violence, starvation, and exposure to tuberculosis had decimated the Beothuk population, and they were extinct by 1829. ] The oldest confirmed accounts of European contact date from a thousand years ago as described in the Viking (Norse) Icelandic Sagas . Around the year 1001, the sagas refer to Leif Erikson landing in three places to the west, ] the first two being Helluland (possibly Baffin Island ) and Markland (possibly Labrador ). ] ] ] Leif's third landing was at a place he called Vinland (possibly Newfoundland). ] Archaeological evidence of a Norse settlement was found in L'Anse aux Meadows , Newfoundland , which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1978. ] ] There are several other unconfirmed accounts of European discovery and exploration, one tale of men from the Channel Islands being blown off course in the late 15th century into a strange land full of fish, ] and another from Portuguese maps that depict the Terra do Bacalhau , or land of codfish , west of the Azores . The earliest, though, is the Voyage of Saint Brendan , the fantastical account of an Irish monk who made a sea voyage in the early 6th century. While the story became a part of myth and legend, some historians believe it is based on fact. ] ] ] In 1496, John Cabot obtained a charter from English King Henry VII to "sail to all parts, countries and seas of the East, the West and of the North, under our banner and ensign and to set up our banner on any new-found-land" and on June 24,
English King Henry VII to "sail to all parts, countries and seas of the East, the West and of the North, under our banner and ensign and to set up our banner on any new-found-land" and on June 24, 1497, landed in Cape Bonavista . Historians disagree on whether Cabot landed in Nova Scotia in 1497 or in Newfoundland, or possibly Maine, if he landed at all, but the governments of Canada and the United Kingdom recognise Bonavista as being Cabot's "official" landing place. In 1499 and 1500, Portuguese mariners João Fernandes Lavrador and Pero de Barcelos explored and mapped the coast, the former's name appearing as "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period. ] Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas , the Portuguese Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the area John Cabot visited in 1497 and 1498. ] Subsequently, in 1501 and 1502, the Corte-Real brothers , Miguel and Gaspar , explored Newfoundland and Labrador, claiming them as part of the Portuguese Empire . ] ] In 1506, king Manuel I of Portugal created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters. ] João Álvares Fagundes and Pero de Barcelos established seasonal fishing outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521, and older Portuguese settlements may have existed. ] Sir Humphrey Gilbert , provided with letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I , landed in St. John's in August 1583, and formally took possession of the island. ] ] Sometime before 1563, Basque fishermen, who had been fishing cod shoals off Newfoundland's coasts since the beginning of the sixteenth century, founded Plaisance (today Placentia ), a seasonal haven which French fishermen later used. In the Newfoundland will of the Basque seaman Domingo de Luca, dated 1563 and now in an archive in Spain, he asks "that my body be buried in this port of Plazençia in the place where those who die here are usually buried". This will is the oldest-known civil document written in Canada. ] ] Twenty years later, in 1583, Newfoundland became England's first possession in North America and one of the earliest permanent English colonies in the New World ] when Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed it for Elizabeth I . European fishing boats had visited Newfoundland continuously since Cabot's second voyage in 1498 and seasonal fishing camps had existed for a century prior. Fishing boats originated from Basque country, England, France, and Portugal. In 1585, during the initial stages of Anglo-Spanish War , Bernard Drake led a devastating raid on the Spanish and Portuguese fisheries. This provided an opportunity to secure the island and led to the appointment of Proprietary Governors to establish colonial settlements on the island from 1610 to 1728. John Guy became governor of the first settlement at Cuper's Cove . Other settlements included Bristol's Hope , Renews , New Cambriol , South Falkland and Avalon (which became a province in 1623). The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638. Explorers
Hope , Renews , New Cambriol , South Falkland and Avalon (which became a province in 1623). The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638. Explorers quickly realized the waters around Newfoundland had the best fishing in the North Atlantic. ] need quotation to verify ] By 1620, 300 fishing boats worked the Grand Banks , employing some 10,000 sailors; many continuing to come from the Basque Country , Normandy, or Brittany. They dried and salted cod on the coast and sold it to Spain and Portugal. Heavy investment by Sir George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore , in the 1620s in wharves, warehouses, and fishing stations failed to pay off. French raids hurt the business, and the weather was terrible, so he redirected his attention to his other colony in Maryland . ] After Calvert left, small-scale entrepreneurs such as Sir David Kirke made good use of the facilities. ] Kirke became the first governor of Newfoundland in 1638. A triangular trade with New England, the West Indies, and Europe gave Newfoundland an important economic role. ] By the 1670s, there were 1,700 permanent residents and another 4,500 in the summer months. ] This trade relied upon the labour of enslaved people of African descent. ] ] ] Salted cod from Newfoundland was used to feed the enslaved persons of African descent on plantations in the West Indies . ] ] ] Products typically associated with Newfoundland such as molasses and rum ( Screech ), were produced by the enslaved persons of African descent on plantations in the West Indies, and shipped to Newfoundland and England on merchant ships. ] Some merchants in Newfoundland enslaved persons of African descent such as St. John's merchant, Thomas Oxford. ] John Ryan , merchant and publisher of the Royal Gazette and Newfoundland Advertiser, who resided in New Brunswick and Newfoundland, freed his enslaved servant Dinah, upon his death in Newfoundland in 1847, notably after the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 . ] ] Notably, the Kirke brothers who were merchants in the triangular trade, brought Olivier Le Jeune to New France, where he was sold in 1629. ] In 1655, France appointed a governor in Plaisance (Placentia), the former Basque fishing settlement, thus starting a formal French colonization period in Newfoundland ] as well as a period of periodic war and unrest between England and France in the region. The Miꞌkmaq, as allies of the French, were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst and fought alongside them against the English. English attacks on Placentia provoked retaliation by New France explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville who during King William's War in the 1690s, destroyed nearly every English settlement on the island. The entire population of the English colony was either killed, captured for ransom, or sentenced to expulsion to England, with the exception of those who withstood the attack at Carbonear Island and those in the then remote Bonavista . After France lost
killed, captured for ransom, or sentenced to expulsion to England, with the exception of those who withstood the attack at Carbonear Island and those in the then remote Bonavista . After France lost political control of the area after the Siege of Port Royal in 1710 , the Miꞌkmaq engaged in warfare with the British throughout Dummer's War (1722–1725), King George's War (1744–1748), Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) and the French and Indian War (1754–1763). The French colonization period lasted until the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession : France ceded to the British its claims to Newfoundland (including its claims to the shores of Hudson Bay ) and to the French possessions in Acadia . Afterward, under the supervision of the last French governor, the French population of Plaisance moved to Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island ), part of Acadia which remained then under French control. In the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), France had acknowledged British ownership of the island. However, in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), control of Newfoundland once again became a major source of conflict between Britain, France and Spain, who all pressed for a share in the valuable fishery there. Britain's victories around the globe led William Pitt to insist nobody other than Britain should have access to Newfoundland. The Battle of Signal Hill was fought on September 15, 1762, and was the last battle of the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War . A British force under Lieutenant Colonel William Amherst recaptured St. John's , ] which the French had seized three months earlier in a surprise attack. From 1763 to 1767, James Cook made a detailed survey of the coasts of Newfoundland and southern Labrador while commander of HMS Grenville . (The following year, 1768, Cook began his first circumnavigation of the world .) In 1796, a Franco-Spanish expedition again succeeded in raiding the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, destroying many of the settlements. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), French fishermen gained the right to land and cure fish on the "French Shore" on the western coast. (They had a permanent base on the nearby St. Pierre and Miquelon islands; the French gave up their French Shore rights in 1904.) In 1783, the British signed the Treaty of Paris with the United States that gave American fishermen similar rights along the coast. These rights were reaffirmed by treaties in 1818, 1854 and 1871, and confirmed by arbitration in 1910. The founding proprietor of the Province of Avalon , George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore , intended that it should serve as a refuge for his persecuted Roman Catholic co-religionists. But like his other colony in the Province of Maryland on the American mainland, it soon passed out of the Calvert family's control. The majority Catholic population that developed, thanks to Irish immigration , in St. John's and the Avalon Peninsula , was subjected to same disabilities that applied
the Calvert family's control. The majority Catholic population that developed, thanks to Irish immigration , in St. John's and the Avalon Peninsula , was subjected to same disabilities that applied elsewhere under the British Crown. On visiting St. John's in 1786, Prince William Henry (the future King William IV ) noted that "there are ten Roman Catholics to one Protestant", ] and he counselled against any measure of Catholic relief. ] Following news of rebellion in Ireland , in June 1798, Governor Vice-Admiral Waldegrave cautioned London that the English constituted but a "small proportion" of the locally raised Regiment of Foot . In an echo of an earlier Irish conspiracy during the French occupation of St. John's in 1762, in April 1800, the authorities had reports that upwards of 400 men had taken an oath as United Irishmen , and that eighty soldiers were committed to killing their officers and seizing their Anglican governors at Sunday service. ] The abortive mutiny , for which for which eight men (denounced by Catholic Bishop James Louis O'Donel as "favourers of the infidel French") ] were hanged, may have been less a United Irish plot, than an act of desperation in the face of brutal living conditions and officer tyranny. Many of the Irish reserve soldiers were forced to remain on duty, unable to return to the fisheries that supported their families. ] ] Yet the Newfoundland Irish would have been aware of the agitation in the homeland for civil equality and political rights. ] There were reports of communication with United men in Ireland from before '98 rebellion; ] of Thomas Paine 's pamphlets circulating in St. John's; ] and, despite the war with France, of hundreds of young County Waterford men still making a seasonal migration to the island for the fisheries, among them defeated rebels, said to have "added fuel to the fire" of local grievance. ] When news reached Newfoundland in May 1829 that the UK Parliament had finally conceded Catholic emancipation , the locals assumed that Catholics would now pass unhindered into the ranks of public office and enjoy equality with Protestants. There was a celebratory parade and mass in St. John's, and a gun salute from vessels in the harbour. But the attorney general and supreme court justices determined that as Newfoundland was a colony, and not a province of the United Kingdom , the Roman Catholic Relief Act did not apply. The discrimination was a matter of local ordinance. ] It was not until May 1832 that the British Secretary of State for the Colonies formally stated that a new commission would be issued to Governor Cochrane to remove any and all Roman Catholic disabilities in Newfoundland. ] By then Catholic emancipation was bound up (as in Ireland) with the call for home rule . After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, France and other nations re-entered the fish trade and an abundance of cod glutted international markets. Prices dropped, competition increased, and the colony's profits
the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, France and other nations re-entered the fish trade and an abundance of cod glutted international markets. Prices dropped, competition increased, and the colony's profits evaporated. A string of harsh winters between 1815 and 1817 made living conditions even more difficult, while fires at St. John's in 1817 left thousands homeless. ] At the same time a new wave of immigration from Ireland increased the Catholic population. In these circumstances much of the English and Protestant proprietor class tended to shelter behind the appointed, and Anglican, "naval government". ] A broad home-rule coalition of Irish community leaders and ( Scottish and Welsh ) Methodists formed in 1828. Expressing, initially, the concerns of a new middle class over taxation, it was led by William Carson, a Scottish physician, and Patrick Morris, an Irish merchant. In 1825, the British government granted Newfoundland and Labrador official colonial status and appointed Sir Thomas Cochrane as its first civil governor. Partly carried by the wave of reform in Britain, a colonial legislature in St. John's, together with the promise of Catholic emancipation, followed in 1832. Carson made his goal for Newfoundland clear: "We shall rise into a national existence, having a national character, a nation's feelings, assuming that rank among our neighbours which the political situation and the extent of our island demand". ] Standing as Liberals , the reformers sought to break the Anglican monopoly on government patronage and to tax the fisheries to fund the judiciary, road-building projects, and other expenses. They were opposed by the Conservatives (the "Tories"), who largely represented the Anglican establishment and mercantile interests. While Tories dominated the governor's appointed Executive Council, Liberals generally held the majority of
In its broadest sense, no-fault insurance is any type of insurance contract under which the insured party is indemnified by their own insurance company for losses, regardless of the source of the cause of loss. In this sense, it is similar to first-party coverage . The term "no-fault" is most commonly used in the United States, Australia, and Canada when referring to state or provincial automobile insurance laws where a policyholder and their passengers are reimbursed by the policyholder's own insurance company without proof of fault, and are restricted in their right to seek recovery through the civil-justice system for losses caused by other parties. citation needed ] No-fault insurance has the goal of lowering premium costs by avoiding expensive litigation over the causes of the collision, while providing quick payments for injuries or loss of property. However, there are other forms of no-fault insurance. For example, in the United States, most workers' compensation funds typically are run as no-fault systems. This is supposed to simplify the injured worker's claim, since they do not need to prove that someone's negligence caused their illness or injuries. ] No-fault systems generally exempt individuals from the usual liability for causing bodily injury if they do so in a car collision; when individuals purchase "liability" insurance under those regimes, the insurance covers bodily injury to the insured party and their passengers in a car collision, regardless of which party would be liable under ordinary legal tort rules. Some no-fault systems often grant "set" or "fixed" compensation for certain injuries regardless of the unique aspects of the injury or the injured party, but this is not universally true. Proponents of no-fault insurance argue that automobile collisions are inevitable and that at-fault drivers are not necessarily higher risk and should not necessarily be punished; moreover, they note that the presence of liability insurance insulates reckless or negligent drivers from financial disincentives of litigation; also, uninsured motorists often can't and won't end up paying for their liability, so in regions with many uninsured motorists, no-fault systems may make more sense; furthermore, traditional insurance is regressive because drivers of inexpensive cars are liable for damage to any car, no matter its value, even though they themselves add only a small amount of liability to the pool with their less valuable cars. Critics of no-fault argue that dangerous drivers not paying for the damage they cause encourages risky behavior, with only raised premiums and a higher risk rating as the potential consequence, and no jury awards or legal settlements. Detractors of no-fault also point out that legitimate victims with subtle handicaps find it difficult to seek recovery under no-fault. Another criticism is that some no-fault jurisdictions have among the highest automobile-insurance premiums in the country, but this may be more a
find it difficult to seek recovery under no-fault. Another criticism is that some no-fault jurisdictions have among the highest automobile-insurance premiums in the country, but this may be more a matter of effect than cause: the financial savings from no-fault may simply make it more popular in areas with higher automobile-collision risk, or high insurance rates may cause more drivers to go uninsured, increasing the attraction of a no-fault system. The number of traffic collisions causing fatalities and debilitating injuries had become by the mid-1960s the source of a litigation explosion that was "straining (and in some areas overwhelming) the judicial machinery." ] Much legal thinking in academia was devoted to the question of whether the tort system should be replaced with another method of allocating risks of loss from collisions. ] Empirical analyses were published showing the financial impact of automobile collisions. ] The first comprehensive legislative proposal was put forward by Professors Robert E. Keeton of Harvard Law School and Jeffrey O'Connell , then of the University of Illinois, in a law review article published in the Harvard Law Review, ] which consisted of two chapters of the book that they would publish the following year. ] The Keeton-O'Connell plan provided that all automobile owners would be required to purchase a new form of insurance, called "basic protection coverage," under which a victim has recourse for his net economic loss against the insurer of his own car, his host's car or, if the victim is a pedestrian, any car involved. Fault is not required to be shown except for of damages in excess of $10,000 for bodily injury, the deductible of $100 for bodily injury and property damage. Recoverable loss under this type of policy does not include pain and suffering and is reduced by damages recovered from other sources. The proposal generated immense discussion in legal and insurance publications with some concluding it was too "revolutionary." ] In 1967 Massachusetts state representative Michael Dukakis , a 1960 graduate of Harvard Law School, introduced a modified version of the Keeton-O'Connell plan in the Massachusetts legislature. The scheme was adopted in 1970. ] The law was challenged in court for claimed violations of numerous state and federal constitutional provisions. The scheme was defended by the state attorney general and also Harvard Law School professors Archibald Cox and Philip Heymann in an amicus curiae brief. The Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts overruled the objections in a unanimous decision. ] The decision opened the way for widespread adoption of no-fault automobile insurance schemes, a development that was encouraged by the federal Department of Transportation . ] Most U.S. states have a "traditional tort " liability system for auto insurance in which recovery is governed by principles of provable negligence. However, twelve U.S. states and the Commonwealth territory of Puerto Rico
a "traditional tort " liability system for auto insurance in which recovery is governed by principles of provable negligence. However, twelve U.S. states and the Commonwealth territory of Puerto Rico require policyholders to operate under a "no-fault" scheme in which individuals injured in automobile collisions are limited in their ability to seek recovery from other drivers or vehicle owners involved in a collision. ] An additional 8 states have an "add-on" system in which the insured party retains the right to sue. ] In 2012, RAND Corporation published a study which found that costs were higher in no-fault systems. ] In the case of economic (medical and wage-loss) damages, most no-fault systems permit injured parties to seek recovery only for damages that are not covered by available first-party insurance benefits. In the case of non-economic (pain-and-suffering) damages, most no-fault systems permit injured parties to seek compensation only in cases of exceptionally "serious" injury, which can be defined in either of two ways: In terms of damages to vehicles and their contents, those claims are still based on fault. No-fault systems focus solely on issues of compensation for bodily injury, and such policies pay the medical bills for drivers and their companions no matter whose fault the collision was. In three U.S. states – Kentucky , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania – policyholders are permitted to choose between traditional tort and no-fault recovery regimes. Under such systems, known as "choice" or "optional" no-fault, policyholders must select between "full tort” and "limited tort" (no-fault) options at the time the policy is written or renewed; once the policy terms are set forth an insured party may not change his/her mind without rewriting the policy. In both Kentucky and New Jersey, policyholders who do not make an affirmative choice in favor of either full tort or limited tort are assigned the no-fault option, while in Pennsylvania the full-tort option is the default. In states where there is a choice of coverage, most consumers choose traditional tort regimes because the cost of the no-fault regime is more expensive. 24 states originally enacted no-fault laws in some form between 1970 and 1975; several of them have repealed their no-fault laws over time. Colorado repealed its no-fault system in 2003. Florida 's no-fault system sunsetted on 1 October 2007, but the Florida legislature passed a new no-fault law which took effect 1 January 2008. Michigan's no-fault system is relatively uncommon. Before 2019, drivers had to purchase personal injury protection insurance that included unlimited, lifetime medical coverage. While this system protected people with catastrophic injuries, many consumers complained about the high insurance premiums associated with this system. ] In 2019, the Michigan Legislature changed the state’s no-fault auto insurance law so that drivers will no longer be required to purchase unlimited medical coverage. ]
associated with this system. ] In 2019, the Michigan Legislature changed the state’s no-fault auto insurance law so that drivers will no longer be required to purchase unlimited medical coverage. ] Instead, under the PIP Choice system that was enacted, drivers have the choice of selecting medical coverage with limits of $50,000 (for drivers on Medicaid), $250,000, $500,000 and unlimited. Drivers on Medicare may be eligible to forgo all No-Fault medical coverage. The goal of the no-fault changes was to lower premiums for drivers and, thus, make car insurance more affordable. However, Michigan’s average annual auto insurance rates are still the highest in the country - and Detroit has the highest rates of any city in the U.S. ] Additionally, Michigan's no-fault reforms reduced compensation to some caregivers, which made it difficult for some catastrophically injured crash victims to access care from their auto insurance policy. Health insurance also covers the care of crash victims if auto insurance is either not existent or doesn't have enough coverage to pay claims. ] In addition to loosening its coverage rules and changing compensation for caregivers, the 2019 laws also made widespread changes to medical reimbursement rates, commonly referred to as the "fee schedules." The law did not expressly address whether the new few schedules should be applied retroactively. In 2019, a group of stakeholders filed a lawsuit, arguing that the 2019 no-fault law's fee schedule should not be applied retroactively. ] Attorneys have argued that the failure to include a "grandfather clause" in the 2019 law “punishes car accident victims and medical providers by leaving them subject to restrictions they never agreed to such as coverage limitations and a medical fee schedule whose reductions on reimbursement rates will deny them access to necessary medical care and treatment.” ] As of January, 2023, the case was currently pending before the Michigan Supreme Court. ]
Saskatchewan Government Insurance ( SGI ) is a Canadian insurance company and a Crown corporation wholly owned by the Government of Saskatchewan . SGI's operations consist of the Saskatchewan Auto Fund , the compulsory public auto insurance program for Saskatchewan , and its property and casualty insurance division sells additional automobile and property insurance products in five Canadian provinces under the trade name SGI Canada . ] SGI also operates the driver licensing and motor vehicle registration system for Saskatchewan as part of its oversight of the Auto Fund. The Auto Fund is financially self-sustaining, operating on a break-even basis over time. The Saskatchewan Auto Fund does not receive money from or pay dividends to the government. Under the SGI Canada brand, SGI sells property and casualty insurance on properties such as homes, farms, businesses and automobile insurance in five Canadian provinces . It operates as SGI Canada in Saskatchewan ; SGI Canada Insurance Services Ltd. in Manitoba , Alberta , British Columbia , Ontario ; and Coachman Insurance Company in Ontario . SGI was created by the first avowedly socialist government in North America elected in 1944, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (later renamed New Democratic Party ). Under Premier Tommy Douglas , the government began to involve itself in many sectors of the economy, including insurance . The rationale was put forth that Saskatchewan residents were being taken advantage of by companies owned outside the province who set rates too high. Also, at least 90 per cent of the insurance in the province was written by companies established in Eastern Canada. ] Thus the institution of a publicly owned insurance company was justified by the government on both philosophical and economic grounds. Working out of the Saskatchewan Legislative Building , Michael Allore, the first president, sold the first policy – Fire Policy Number 1 – to Minister O. W. Valleau on May 1, 1945, and appointed its first broker, Oscar Sawby of Maple Creek , on May 17. By the end of 1945, SGI had 60 employees and a small network of private, independent insurance brokers located across the province selling insurance on behalf of the corporation. The introduction of a state-run automobile insurance was controversial. For the first few years of its existence, other provinces refused to recognize SGI policies as legitimate. One result of such non-recognition was that SGI-insured drivers involved in a collision in Manitoba were either detained or required to post a bond because Manitoban authorities essentially considered them to be "uninsured" drivers. ] SGI and SGI CANADA are governed by The Saskatchewan Government Insurance Act , 1980 , and The Automobile Accident Insurance Act , and are subject to the provisions of The Crown Corporations Act , 1993 , which gives the Crown Investments Corporation , the holding company for Saskatchewan's commercial Crown corporations, the broad authority to set the
provisions of The Crown Corporations Act , 1993 , which gives the Crown Investments Corporation , the holding company for Saskatchewan's commercial Crown corporations, the broad authority to set the direction of the corporation. Where required by legislation or policy directive, SGI submits performance management and investment decisions for review and approval by CIC and the provincial cabinet (government). Through its chair, who is an outside director, the SGI Board of Directors is accountable to the Minister Responsible for SGI. The minister functions as a link between the corporation and CIC and cabinet, as well as the provincial legislature. The board of directors is responsible for setting direction, monitoring and reporting achievement, and analyzing, evaluating and taking corrective action for the corporation. The board is responsible for the stewardship of the corporation in general terms. In meeting this responsibility, the board works with management to develop and approve the corporation's strategic plan, operating goals, annual budget and business plans. It participates in identifying business risk and overseeing the implementation of appropriate systems to achieve a balance between the risks incurred and potential returns. The board of directors is appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council. The board consists of ten external directors. Both the chair and vice-chair of the board are external directors. SGI employs approximately 2,400 people and works with a network of almost 300 independent insurance brokers and about 450 motor licence issuers in Saskatchewan, as well as numerous brokers in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba and Ontario. In October 2008, SGI was named one of " Canada's Top 100 Employers " by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine. Later that month, SGI was named one of Saskatchewan's Top Employers , which was announced by the Saskatoon StarPhoenix and Regina Leader-Post newspapers. ] SGI's head office is in downtown Regina , Saskatchewan . It also operates 20 claims centres in 13 Saskatchewan communities, has branch offices in Winnipeg , Edmonton and Toronto, and five salvage locations (auto wrecker, used parts).
In an insurance policy, the deductible (in British English, the excess ) is the amount paid out of pocket by the policy holder before an insurance provider will pay any expenses. ] In general usage, the term deductible may be used to describe one of several types of clauses that are used by insurance companies as a threshold for policy payments. Deductibles are typically used to deter the large number of claims that a consumer can be reasonably expected to bear the cost of. By restricting its coverage to events that are significant enough to incur large costs, the insurance firm expects to pay out slightly smaller amounts much less frequently, incurring much higher savings. citation needed ] As a result, insurance premiums are typically cheaper when they involve higher deductibles. For example, health insurance companies offer plans with high premiums and low deductibles, or plans with low premiums and high deductibles. One plan may have a premium of $1,087 a month with a $6,000 deductible, while a competitive plan may have a premium of $877 a month with a $12,700 deductible. The consumer with the $6,000 deductible will have to pay $6,000 in health care costs before the insurance plan pays anything. The consumer with the $12,700 deductible will have to pay $12,700. ] Deductibles are normally provided as clauses in an insurance policy that dictate how much of an insurance-covered expense is borne by the policyholder. They are normally quoted as a fixed quantity and are a part of most policies covering losses to the policy holder. The insurer then becomes liable for claimable expenses that exceed this amount (subject to the maximum sum claimable indicated in the contract). Depending on the policy, the deductible may apply per covered incident, or per year. For policies where incidents are not easy to delimit (health insurance, for example), the deductible is typically applied per year. Several deductibles can be set by the insurer based on the cause of the claim. For example, a single housing insurance policy may contain multiple deductible amounts for loss or damage arising from theft, fire, natural calamities, evacuation, etc. There are also deductible reimbursement programs that reimburse a deductible in the event of an automobile, home, boat/yacht or health insurance claim. A deductible should not be confused with a franchise. A deductible represents a part of the expense for which the insurer is not liable, but the franchise is a pure threshold beyond which liability for the entire expense is transferred to the insurer. For example, with a franchise of $20,000, a claim of $19,900 is borne entirely by the policyholder, and a claim of $20,100 is borne entirely by the insurer. An excess can refer to one of two very different insurance terms. Excess post-hospitalization is the extra costs borne by the insured over the maximum coverage that the insurance company pays. This terminology is especially common in areas of insurance sensitive to loss
post-hospitalization is the extra costs borne by the insured over the maximum coverage that the insurance company pays. This terminology is especially common in areas of insurance sensitive to loss (like liability insurance ) and is addressed by the insurance market through excess line insurance companies through mechanisms such as excess insurance , gap insurance , and umbrella insurance . Excess pre-hospitalization is an insurance exception that is often interchangeably but wrongly referred to also as an excess or a deductible . It is "the first amount of the claim which the insured has to bear. If the insured has an excess of $500 and the total repair costs $3,000, then the insured has to pay $500 while the insurer pays the remaining $2,500." ] Note that this different meaning does not apply to the British meaning of the term. In a typical automobile insurance policy, a deductible applies to claims arising from damage to or loss of the policyholder's own vehicle whether the damage or loss is caused by accidents for which the holder is responsible or by vandalism or theft . Depending on the policy, the deductible may differ by the type of expense incurred that triggers the insurance claim. ] Third-party liability coverages including auto liability, general liability, garage keepers, inland marine, professional liability and workers compensation are also written with deductibles. the deductibles on commercial liability policies are known as third-party deductibles or liability deductibles. Because the insured and claimant are not the same entity, insurers cannot pay the claim minus the deductible. That creates a receivable owed from the insured to the insurer. The complexity of identifying these third-party deductible receivables often causes many to be missed by the insurer and millions of dollars to go uncollected. ] An insured has the option to accept an appearance allowance that can be used towards their deductible. Appearance allowances help manage repair costs by allowing for the insured to choose not to fix expensive parts that have minor damage and using the money towards their deductible. ] Most health insurance policies and some travel insurance policies have deductibles as well. The type of health insurance deductibles can also vary, as individual amounts and family amounts. The nature of medical treatment makes the insured often face multiple medical expenses spread over several days for a single illness or injury. Therefore, health insurance deductibles often tend to be imposed on a term basis (e.g. annually), rather than a per visit threshold. ] However, major medical insurance policies may have a per visit excess, which often does not cover the cost of routine visits to a GP unless it is certified to be a part of a continuous treatment, and the bills can be collated in a single claim. Industrial risks commonly have the deductible expressed as a percentage of the loss, often though not always with a minimum and maximum amount.

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