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Lamiales

The order Lamiales is a taxon in the asterid group of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It includes approximately 11,000 species divided into about 10 families. Well-known members of this order include the lavender, the lilac, the olive, the jasmine, the ash tree, the teak, the snapdragon, and a number of table herbs such as mint, basil, and rosemary. Characteristics Species in this order typically have the following characteristics, although there are exceptions to all of them: superior ovary composed of two fused carpels five petals fused into a tube bilaterally symmetrical, often bilabiate corollas four (or fewer) fertile stamens Taxonomic history Lamiales formerly had a restricted circumscription (e.g., by Arthur Cronquist) that included the major families Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Verbenaceae, and Boraginaceae plus a few smaller families. Recent phylogenetic work has shown that Lamiales is polyphyletic with respect to order Scrophulariales and the two groups are now usually combined in a single order that also includes the former orders Hippuridales and Plantaginales. Lamiales has become the preferred name for this much larger combined group. The placement of Boraginaceae is unclear but phylogenetic work shows that this family does not belong in Lamiales. Also, the circumscription of family Scrophulariaceae, formerly a paraphyletic group defined primarily by plesiomorphic characters and from within which numerous other families of the Lamiales were derived, has been radically altered to create a number of smaller, better-defined and putatively monophyletic families. External links Lamiales A parsimony analysis of the Asteridae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences Distintegration of the Scrophulariaceae (deals with relationships throughout Lamiales) http://www.itis.usda.gov of 2002-05-31 TSN: 500018 L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. http://delta-intkey.com http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/vascular/acanth.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52e.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52efam.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.science.siu.edu/parasitic-plants/Relation-Scroph.html http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/web.dbs/genlist.html 2002-09-06

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Carbohydrate

Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. It is composed of a molecule of D-galactose and a molecule of D-glucose bonded by a β-1-4 glycosidic linkage. Carbohydrates or saccharides are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (eg: starch, glycogen) and structural components (eg: cellulose in plants and chitin). Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Carbohydrates make up most of the organic matter on Earth because of their extensive roles in all forms of life. First, carbohydrates serve as energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates. Second, ribose and deoxyribose sugars form part of the structural framework of RNA and DNA. Third, polysaccharides are structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria and plants. In fact, cellulose, the main constituent of plant cell walls, is one of the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere. Fourth, carbohydrates are linked to many proteins and lipids, where they play key roles in mediating interactions among cells and interactions between cells and other elements in the cellular environment. Chemically, carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. The general stoichiometric formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C·H2O)n, where n is any number of three or greater; however, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (eg: uronic acids, deoxy-sugars such as fucose), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates. Matthews, C. E.; K. E. Van Holde; K. G. Ahern (1999) Biochemistry. 3rd edition. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-3066-6 Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in almost limitless ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of carbohydrates very often end in the suffix -ose. Monosaccharides D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6. The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group, and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H2O)n, where n is any number of three or greater. Classification of monosaccharides The α and β anomers of glucose. Note the position of the anomeric carbon (red or green) relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they are either on the opposite sides (α), or the same side (β). Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone). Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereocenters with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. The aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H2O)6, of which all but two of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 24 = 16 possible stereoisomers. In the case of glyceraldehyde, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers. 1,3-dihydroxyacetone, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehyde, is a symmetric molecule with no stereocenters). The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. Because D sugars are biologically far more common, the D is often omitted Conformation |Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form. The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form. During the conversion from straight-chain form to cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a chiral center with two possible configurations: the oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers are called anomers. In the α anomer, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CH2OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH2OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the β anomer. You can remember that the β anomer is cis by the mnemonic, "It's always better to βe up". Because the ring and straight-chain forms readily interconvert, both anomers exist in equilibrium. Use in living organisms Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to more space efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. Disaccharides Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right). Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose, and fructose is a furanose How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose. The -oside suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond. Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellulobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin. Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between two and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary according to personal opinion. Examples of oligosaccharides include the disaccharides mentioned above, the trisaccharide raffinose and the tetrasaccharide stachyose. Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational modification. Such posttranslational modifications include the Lewis and ABO oligosaccharides responsible for blood group classifications and so of tissue incompatibilities, the alpha-Gal epitope responsible for hyperacute rejection in xenotransplanation, and O-GlcNAc modifications. Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymers. Their function in living organisms is usually either structure or storage related. Starch (a polymer of glucose) is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, sometimes called 'animal starch'. Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is claimed to be the most abundant organic molecule on earth. N.A.Campbell (1996) Biology (4th edition). Benjamin Cummings NY. p.23 ISBN 0-8053-1957-3 It has many uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon (via the viscose process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin's structure has a similar structure, but has nitrogen containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical threads. Other polysaccharides include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, mannan, fucoidan, and galactomannan. Nutrition Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates Foods high in carbohydrates include breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran, rice and cereals. Most such foods are high in starch. Carbohydrates require less water to digest than proteins or fats and are the most common source of energy in living things. Proteins and fat are necessary building components for body tissue and cells and are also a source of energy for most organisms. Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients in humans: the body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats Is dietary carbohydrate essential for human nutrition? - Westman 75 (5): 951 - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition A High-Protein, High-Fat, Carbohydrate-Free Diet Reduces Energy Intake, Hepatic Lipogenesis, and Adiposity in Rats - Pichon et al. 136 (5): 1256 - Journal of Nutrition . However, the brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat and need glucose for energy; the body can make some glucose from a few of the amino acids in protein and also from the glycerol backbone in triglycerides. Carbohydrate contains 3.75 and proteins 4 calories per gram, respectively, while fats contain 9 calories per gram. In the case of protein, this is somewhat misleading as only some amino acids are usable for fuel. Likewise, in humans, only some carbohydrates are usable for fuel; many monosaccharides and some disaccharides. Other carbohydrate types can be used, but only with the assistance of gut bacteria. Ruminants and termites can even process cellulose, which is indigestible to other organisms. Based on the effects on risk of heart disease and obesity, the Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of dietary energy from carbohydrates. Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Page 769. ISBN 0-309-08537-3 The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. Pages 55-56. ISBN 92-4-120916-X Classification Carbohydrates can be classified as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the Senate Select Committee publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains". Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), Carbohydrates in human nutrition, chapter 1. ISBN 92-5-104114-8. Dietary guidelines generally recommend that complex carbohydrates, and such nutrient-rich simple carbohydrate sources such as fruit (glucose or fructose) and dairy products (lactose) make up the bulk of carbohydrate consumption. This excludes such sources of simple sugars as candy and sugary drinks. The USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 dispensed with the simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole grains. DHHS and USDA, Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, Chapter 7 Carbohydrates The glycemic index and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity of their effect on blood glucose levels. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method which ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. Metabolism Catabolism Catabolism is the metabolic reaction cells undergo in order to extract energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: Glycolysis Citric acid cycle Oligo/polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called Glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present. For instance, neither horses nor humans nor cats can digest and use cellulose, but ruminants and termites can. Carbohydrate chemistry Carbohydrates are reactants in many organic reactions. For example: Carbohydrate acetalisation Cyanohydrin reaction Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation Amadori rearrangement Nef reaction Wohl degradation Koenigs-Knorr reaction See also Biochemistry Bioplastic Gluconeogenesis Glycolipid Glycoprotein Low-carbohydrate diet No-carbohydrate diet Macromolecules Nutrition Pentose phosphate pathway Photosynthesis Sugar References Footnotes α. Means 'hydrates of carbon' β. The word comes from the Greek σάκχαρον, sákcharon, meaning "sugar") External links Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime) IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature Carbohydrates detailed Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Consortium for Functional Glycomics

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East_Germany

The German Democratic Republic (GDR; , DDR; more commonly known in English as East Germany) was a self-declared socialist state (but often referred to in the West as a "communist state") in the Eastern Bloc created in the Soviet Zone of occupied Germany and the Soviet sector of occupied Berlin. The German Democratic Republic existed from 7 October 1949 until 3 October 1990, when its re-established states acceded to the adjacent Federal Republic of Germany, thus producing the current form of the state of Germany. In 1955, the Soviet Union declared that the Republic was fully sovereign. However, Soviet occupation troops remained in East German territory, based on the four-power Potsdam Agreement, while British, Canadian, French and American forces remained in the Federal Republic of Germany in the West. Berlin, completely surrounded by East German territory, was similarly divided with British, French and U.S. garrisons in West Berlin and Soviet forces in East Berlin. Berlin in particular became the focal point of Cold War tensions. East Germany was a member of the Warsaw Pact and a close ally of the Soviet Union. Following the initial opening of sections of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989, new elections were held on 18 March 1990, and the governing party, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, lost its majority in the Volkskammer (the East German parliament) soon after. On 23 August, the Volkskammer decided that the Republic would recreate the five pre-war states (which had been dissolved in 1952), which would join the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990. As a result of the reunification on that date, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist. Ernst Thälmann Island off the coast of Cuba, which could be regarded as part of East Germany is not covered by the Unification Treaty. So one could argue, the GDR still exists on this island, albeit without population. History See also History of Germany At the Potsdam Conference the Allies de-facto annexed the provinces and regions of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line. Before the end of World War II, the region that later would be known as East Germany was actually situated in the center of the German state and therefore was known as "Mitteldeutschland" (Central or Middle Germany). To the east of the Oder and Neisse rivers were the extensive Prussian provinces of Pomerania, East Prussia, West Prussia, Posen, Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia, and the eastern Neumark of Brandenburg. During World War II, Allied leaders decided at the Yalta Conference that the post-war Polish border would be moved westward to the Oder-Neisse line to compensate Poland for the loss of its eastern territories to the Soviet Union. As a result, Germany lost most of its eastern provinces, and the former "Middle Germany" was now the de facto eastern limit of the German nation. Discussions at Yalta and Potsdam also outlined the planned occupation and administration of post-war Germany under a four-power Allied Control Council, or ACC, composed of the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. At the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945, following the end of fighting in Europe, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union decided to divide Germany into four occupation zones. Each country would control a part of Germany until its sovereignty was restored. The Länder (states) of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, fell in the Soviet Zone of Germany (in German: Sowjetische Besatzungszone, or SBZ). Soviet objections to economic and political changes in western (US, UK, and French) occupation zones led to Soviet withdrawal from the ACC in 1948 and subsequent evolution of the SBZ into East Germany, including the Soviet sector of Berlin. Concurrently, the Western occupation zones consolidated to form West Germany (or the Federal Republic of Germany, FRG). Three German states and divided Berlin in late 1949. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) consists of the American, British and French Zones (without the Saarland). The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) is formed from the Soviet Zone. Officially, both the western Allies and the Communists committed to maintaining a unified Germany after the war in the Potsdam Agreement, at least on paper. The 1952 Stalin Note proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but the United States and its allies rejected the offer. Stalin died in early 1953. Though powerful Soviet politician Lavrenty Beria briefly pursued the idea of German unification once more following Stalin's death, he was arrested and removed from office in a coup d'etat in mid-1953. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, firmly rejected the idea of handing eastern Germany over to be annexed, marking the end of any serious consideration of the unification idea until the collapse of the Communist East German government in late 1989. Just as Germany was divided after the war, Berlin, the former capital of Germany, was divided into four sectors. East Germany and the rest of the Eastern bloc considered East Berlin to be the capital of East Germany, although the legality of this was disputed by the western Allies, as the entire city was formally considered an occupied territory governed by martial law through the Allied Control Council. In practice, the Allied Control Council quickly became moot as the Cold War intensified, and the eastern government ignored the technical legal restrictions on how East Berlin could be used. Conflict over the status of West Berlin led to the Berlin Blockade, when the Soviet government prohibited overland transit between the western zones of Germany and West Berlin, prompting the massive Berlin Airlift. At the end of the war, Soviet authorities forcibly unified members of the Communist Party of Germany and Social Democratic Party in the Socialist Unity Party (SED), which swept to victory in 1946 elections with the help of Soviet pressure and propaganda about the Nazi atrocities. All property and industry was nationalized under their government, and the German Democratic Republic was declared on October 7, 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the SED power over a National Front among the different political parties, with "unity lists" put forth by the SED which ensured their control. The first leader of East Germany was Wilhelm Pieck, the first (and as it turned out, only) President of the Republic. However, after 1950 the real power rested with Walter Ulbricht, first secretary of the Socialist Unity Party, the ruling Communist party. Until 1952, the GDR consisted of the German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Saxony and the capital, East Berlin. These divisions roughly corresponded to prewar states (Länder) and provinces (Provinzen) in the area of Eastern Germany administered by the Soviet Union under the terms of the postwar Potsdam Agreement. Two small remnants of states annexed by Poland after the war (Pomerania and Lower Silesia) remained in the GDR and were attached to neighboring territories. In the administrative reform of 1952, the states were abolished and replaced with 14 smaller districts. The districts were named after their capitals: Rostock, Neubrandenburg, Schwerin, Potsdam, Frankfurt (Oder), Magdeburg, Cottbus, Halle, Leipzig, Erfurt, Dresden, Karl-Marx-Stadt (named Chemnitz until 1953 and again after 1990), Gera, and Suhl. East Berlin was recognized as a district in 1961. On 16 June 1953, following a production quota increase of 10 percent for workers building East Berlin's new boulevard the Stalinallee, (today's Karl-Marx-Allee), demonstrations by disgruntled workers broke out in East Berlin. The next day the protests spread across East Germany with more than a million on strike and demonstrations in 700 communities. Fearing revolution the government requested the aid of Soviet occupation troops and on the morning of the 18th tanks and soldiers were dispatched who dealt harshly with protesters. The result was some fifty deaths and a wave of arrests and jail sentences numbering over 10,000. East Berlin 17 June 1953: Stones Against Tanks, Deutsche Welle, Accessed 2007-05-16 Transit between West and East Berlin was relatively free at the time, meaning that the protests and the harsh Soviet reaction unfolded in full view of many western observers. See Uprising of 1953 in East Germany. Soviet war reparations, extracted entirely from the eastern occupation zone, had a substantial impact on the East German economy. During the early stages of the occupation (in particular 1945 and 1946), the Red Army seized around a third of the industrial equipment from eastern Germany to be shipped back to the Soviet Union, with a further $10bn in reparations extracted by the early 1950s in the form of agricultural and industrial products. Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 167-9 The increasing economic prosperity of West Germany led large numbers of East Germans to flee to the West. Since the 1940s, East Germans had been leaving the Soviet zone of Germany to emigrate to the west. The ongoing emigration of East Germans further strained the East German economy. The border between the two German states was largely closed by the mid-1950s (see Inner German border). Due to the lure of higher salaries in the West and political oppression in the East, many skilled workers (such as doctors) crossed into the West, causing a 'brain drain' in the East. However, on the night of 13 August 1961, East German troops sealed the border between West and East Berlin and started to build the Berlin Wall, literally and physically enclosing West Berlin. Travel was greatly restricted into, and out of, East Germany. A highly effective security force called the Stasi monitored the lives of East German citizens to suppress dissenters through its network of informants and agents. In 1971, Ulbricht was forced out as head of state under Soviet pressure, and replaced by Erich Honecker. Ulbricht had experimented with a few reforms, but Honecker tightened the reins and imposed a new constitution that used the word "German" sparingly and defined the country as a "republic of workers and peasants." East Germany was generally regarded as the most economically advanced member of the Warsaw Pact. Until the 1970s, West Germany regarded East Germany as an illegally constituted state, and under the Hallstein Doctrine refused to have diplomatic relations with any country (except the Soviet Union) that recognized East Germany as a separate country. In the early 1970s, Ostpolitik led by Willy Brandt led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalize relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. Competition with the West was also conducted on a sporting level. East German athletes dominated several Olympic disciplines. Of special interest was the only football match ever to occur between West and East Germany, a first round match during the 1974 World Cup. Though West Germany was the host and the eventual champion, East beat West 1-0. In 1989, following widespread public anger over the results of local government elections that spring, many citizens applied for exit visas, or left the country illegally. In August 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and unsealed its border and more than 13,000 people left East Germany by crossing the "green" border via Czechoslovakia into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany. The Berlin Wall (1961–1989) German Notes, Accessed 2006-10-24 Many others demonstrated against the ruling party, especially in the city of Leipzig. Kurt Masur, the conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra led local negotiations with the government, and held town meetings in the concert hall. Darnton, Robert, Berlin Journal (New York, 1992, W.W. Norton) pp.98–99 The demonstrations eventually led Erich Honecker to resign in October, and he was replaced by a slightly more liberal Communist, Egon Krenz. On 9 November 1989, a few sections of the Berlin Wall were opened, resulting in thousands of East Germans crossing into West Berlin and West Germany for the first time. Soon, the governing party of East Germany resigned. Although there were some small attempts to create a permanent, democratic East Germany, these were soon overwhelmed by calls for unification with West Germany. After some negotiations (2+4 Talks, involving the two German states and the former Allied Powers United States, France, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union), conditions for German unification were agreed upon. East Germany recreated the original five states that had been abolished in 1952. On 3 October 1990, the five East German states officially joined the Federal Republic of Germany, while East and West Berlin united as a third city-state (in the same manner as Bremen and Hamburg). To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and West Germany (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The Eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. Politics The SED emblem represented the handshake between Communist Wilhelm Pieck and Social Democrat Otto Grotewohl when their parties merged in 1946 Political organization The ruling political party in East Germany was the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED). It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone. The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to supporting a democratic form of government in Germany, and, unlike some Warsaw Pact countries, other political parties were permitted. All parties operating in East Germany were obliged to join the National Front of Democratic Germany, ostensibly a united coalition of anti-fascist political parties. It was completely controlled by the SED. Members included: Christlich-Demokratische Union Deutschlands (Christian Democratic Union of Germany, CDU), merged with the West-German CDU after reunification Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands (Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany, DBD). This party was of special importance because of farmers' role in the economy. The party merged with the West German CDU after reunification. Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands (Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, LDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (National Democratic Party of Germany, NDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification. Elections took place to a parliament called the Volkskammer, but were effectively controlled by the SED/state hierarchy, as Hans Modrow has noted. Elections were held in less-than-secret conditions, with voters given the choice of approving or rejecting "unity lists" put forward by the National Front. As was the case in most Communist countries, approval rates of 90 percent or more were routine. Palast der Republik, the seat of the Volkskammer The Volkskammer also included representatives from the mass organisations like the Free German Youth (Freie Deutsche Jugend or FDJ), or the Free German Trade Union Federation. In an attempt to include women in the political life of East Germany, there was a Democratic Women's Federation of Germany, with seats in the Volkskammer. Important non-parliamentary mass organisations in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association (Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund or DTSB), and People's Solidarity (Volkssolidarität, an organisation for the elderly). Another society of note was the Society for German-Soviet Friendship. A highly effective secret police force called the Stasi infiltrated and reported on most private activity in East Germany, limiting opportunity for non-sanctioned political organisation. All formal organisations except for churches were directly controlled by the East German government. Churches were permitted to operate more or less free from government control, as long as they abstained from political activity. Following German reunification, the SED was renamed the "Party of Democratic Socialism" (PDS) which subsequently merged with the West German WASG to form the Left Party (Die Linke). The Left Party continues to be a political force in many parts of Germany, albeit drastically less powerful than the SED. Persons of note in East Germany Political representatives Hermann Axen, editor-in-chief of the SED paper "Neues Deutschland" 1956–1978, SED secretary for international relations 1966-1989 Johannes R. Becher, first minister for culture 1954–1958, wrote the lyrics of the national anthem Hilde Benjamin, Vice President of the GDR Supreme Court 1949–1953, Minister of Justice 1953–1967, dubbed "red guillotine" for her relentless persecution of political opponents Otto Grotewohl, Chairman of the East German SPD 1945–1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946–1954; Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1949–1964 Erich Honecker, General Secretary of the SED Central Committee 1971–1989; Chairman of the Council of State 1976–1989 Margot Honecker née Feist, minister for education 1963–1989 Heinz Kessler, Minister of Defence 1985–1989 (deputy minister since 1957) Egon Krenz, General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and chairman of Council of State from October to December 1989; he had been Honnecker's deputy and "crown prince" since 1983 Erich Mielke, Minister of State Security 1957–1989 Günter Mittag, SED secretary for economics 1962–1973, 1976–1989 Hans Modrow, SED district secretary for Dresden 1973–1989, last SED prime minister November 1989 – March 1990 Wilhelm Pieck, Chairman of the East German KPD 1945–1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946–1954; State President 1949–1960 Günter Schabowski, SED district secretary for Berlin 1985–1989; as party spokesperson he caused the fall of the Berlin wall Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski, head of the department of "commercial coordination" in the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Karl Schirdewan, SED secretary 1953–1958, dismissed for "faction building" Horst Sindermann, Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1973–1976; president of parliament 1976–1989 Karl-Eduard von Schnitzler, telecaster on East German television, infamous for his propaganda programme "Der schwarze Kanal" Willi Stoph, Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) 1964–1973 and 1976–1989; Chairman of the Council of State 1973–1976 Harry Tisch, head of the Free German Trade Union Federation 1975–1989 Walter Ulbricht, General Secretary of the SED Central Committee 1950–1971; Chairman of the Council of State 1960–1973) Markus "Mischa" Wolf, head of the GDR's foreign intelligence department 1952–1986 Other notable East Germans Culture Johannes R. Becher, East German poet and politician (writer of the national anthem of the GDR) Jurek Becker, writer ("Jacob the Liar") Frank Beyer, film director Wolf Biermann, singer/songwriter and dissident, citizenship withdrawn in 1976 when he was on tour in West Germany Thomas Brasch, writer, poet and dramatist Bertolt Brecht, dramatist, poet and director, reopened the "Berliner Ensemble" in 1949, moved back to East Germany from America after persecution by House Un-American Activities Committee. Ernst Busch (1900–1980), actor and singer Hanns Eisler, composer (national anthem of the GDR) Fritz Geißler, composer Erwin Geschonneck, actor ("Jacob the Liar") Peter Hacks, dramatist John Heartfield, photographer Bernhard Heisig, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Gustav Just, journalist Hermann Kant, writer ("Der Aufenthalt") Manfred Krug, actor and jazz singer Kurt Masur, conductor and political activist Wolfgang Mattheuer, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Armin Mueller-Stahl, actor Heiner Müller, writer and dramatist, worked with the director Benno Besson at Volksbühne Erwin Strittmatter, writer ("Der Laden") Werner Tübke, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Christa Wolf, writer ("Kassandra") Paul Van Dyk, DJ & Artist Politics Rudolf Bahro, journalist and politician Ibrahim Böhme, first chairman of the East German Social Democrats in 1989–1990, resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer Bärbel Bohley, opposition figure (co-founders of the Initiative for Peace and Human Rights and the New Forum) Rainer Eppelmann, Protestant pastor and opposition figure, minister for defence and disarmament from March to October 1990 Gregor Gysi, lawyer to artists, chairman of the SED/PDS November 1989–1998 Wolfgang Harich, intellectual and East German dissident (sentenced to prison for counterrevolutionary activities) Robert Havemann, communistic resistance fighter in World War 2 and East German dissident (was put under house arrest from 1976 until his death in 1982) Walter Janka, communist resistance fighter in WW2 and East German dissident (sentenced in 1957 for "counterrevolutionary activities") Lothar de Maizière, first (and only) freely elected prime minister, from April to 3 October 1990 and Federal Minister for Special Affairs of Germany from 3 October 1990 (but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer) Markus Meckel, Protestant pastor, deputy chairman of the East German Social Democrats 1989–1990, GDR foreign minister from April to August 1990 Wolfgang Schnur, lawyer to dissidents, opposition politician (Democratic Awakening in 1990, but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer) Science Manfred von Ardenne, physicist and inventor Klaus Fuchs, Nuclear physicist and spy Sigmund Jähn, cosmonaut, first German in space Peggy Jungke, east German scientist Sport Uwe Ampler, racing cyclist Karin Büttner-Janz, gymnast Ernst Degner, Grand Prix motorcycle road racer Uwe Raab, racing cyclist Olaf Ludwig, racing cyclist Jürgen Sparwasser, football player Katarina Witt, figure skater Major cities in East Germany (With est. 1988 populations) Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (English: Berlin, Capital of the GDR) (1,200,000) Leipzig* (556,000) Dresden* (520,000) Karl-Marx-Stadt* (317,000) Magdeburg* (290,000) Rostock* (250,000) Halle (Saale)* (236,000) Erfurt* (215,000) Potsdam* (140,000) Gera* (131,000) Schwerin* (130,000) Cottbus* (125,000) Zwickau (120,000) Jena (107,000) Dessau (105,000) * "Bezirksstadt" (centre of district) Military Soldiers of the Nationale Volksarmee marching at a changing-of-the-guard ceremony in Berlin. Like all Soviet bloc countries, East Germany had its own armed forces, known as the Nationale Volksarmee (National People's Army - NVA) with four branches of service. Since East Germany was at the frontline of the Cold War, the GDR's military was considered to be the most advanced in the whole Warsaw Pact, excluding the Soviet Union. It was battle ready at all times, ready to be mobilized in a future war with NATO. The NVA was divided into the following four branches: Army (Landstreitkräfte) Navy (Volksmarine - People's Navy) Air Force/Air Defence (Luftstreitkräfte/Luftverteidigung) Border Troops of the GDR (Grenztruppen der DDR) In addition, the GDR possessed various paramilitary forces in reserve in case war broke out, such as the "Combat Groups of the Working Class" (Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse) and in some cases, the Stasi. All young East German men had to join the NVA. Attendance was compulsory for 18 months, except for serious medical reasons. As an alternative to military service for conscientious objectors, the so-called Baueinheiten (construction units) were created in 1964 under pressure from the national Protestant church. However, service in the Baueinheiten was strongly discouraged; these soldiers were subjected to various forms of harassment during their service, and there were also consequences after their term of service was complete - e.g., denial or difficulty in obtaining admission to higher education, etc. East Germany alone offered alternative service for COs among Eastern Bloc countries. Administrative divisions Subdivisions of the German Democratic Republic from 1952 In 1952, as part of the reforms designed to centralize power in the hands of the SED's Politbüro, the five Länder of East Germany were abolished, and East Germany was divided into fifteen Bezirke (districts), each named after the largest city: the northern Land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was divided between the Bezirke Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg; Brandenburg (surrounding Berlin) was reorganized into the Bezirke of Potsdam, Frankfurt (Oder) and Cottbus; Saxony-Anhalt split into the Bezirke of Halle and Magdeburg; the south-western Land Thuringia became the Bezirke of Erfurt, Gera and Suhl; finally, the south-eastern Land Saxony was divided between Leipzig, Dresden and Karl-Marx-Stadt (formerly and following the GDR's collapse again known as Chemnitz). The GDR capital, East Berlin formed the 15th Bezirk, though it retained a special legal status in the GDR until 1968, when East Berliners voted with the rest of the GDR to approve the draft of the new constitution. From this point onwards, irrespective of the Four Power Status and the western allies' objections that East Berlin was merely the Soviet occupied sector of the German capital, East Berlin was treated as a Bezirk like any other. Demographics The East German population declined steadily throughout its existence, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990. Around 4 million of the 1948 population had been expelled from the former German territories beyond East Germany's eastern border. East Germany : country population This was primarily a result of emigration – about one quarter of East Germans left the country. Germany Population - Historical Background Economy Economic activity in the GDR. East Germany's economy had a poor start in the aftermath of World War II's devastation. During 1945 and 1946 the Soviet Army had dismantled train lines and factories. By the early 1950s the Soviet Union had seized reparations in form of agricultural and industrial products and demanded further heavy reparation payments. Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 167-9 Furthermore, Lower Silesia, which contained coal mines, and Stettin, a prominent natural port, were given to Poland. Like other East European socialist states, East Germany had a centrally planned economy, similar to the one in the former Soviet Union, in contrast to the market economies or mixed economies of most Western states. The GDR became a member of the COMECON trading block in 1950. The state established production targets and prices and allocated resources, codifying these decisions in a comprehensive plan or set of plans. The means of production were almost entirely state owned. In 1985, for example, state-owned enterprises or collectives earned 96.7 percent of total net national income. To secure constant prices for inhabitants, the state bore 80% of costs of basic supplies, from bread to housing. The per capita income in 1984 was an estimated $9,800 (approximately $21,000 in 2008 dollars), though the currency conversion used to create this figure is difficult to conduct. In 1976 average annual GDP growth was roughly 5.9%. Examples of products exported were cameras under the Praktica brand, automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg and IFA brands, hunting rifles, sextants and watches. To the East German consumer, there were always shortages. Until 1960s there were shortages of basic products like sugar and coffee, although there were some disparities; whilst coffee stayed expensive (approx. 1US$ for 200g), rolls were less then a cent. The lead time for a new Wartburg was around 13 years in 1989. East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or other access to hard currency), and the necessary Staatsbank foreign currency account, could buy both Western products and East German products only intended for export at the Intershop. Other ways of accessing rare consumer goods was through the Danish company Jauerfood, or via the mail-order gift company Genex. The Trabant was the most important car manufactured in the DDR. The ultimate directing force in the economy, as in every aspect of the society, was the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED), particularly its top leadership. The party exercised its leadership role formally during the party congress, when it accepted the report of the general secretary, and when it adopted the draft plan for the upcoming five-year period. The private sector of the economy was small but not entirely insignificant. In 1985 about 2.8 percent of the net national product came from private enterprises. The private sector included private farmers and gardeners; independent craftsmen, wholesalers, and retailers; and individuals employed in so-called free-lance activities (artists, writers, and others). Although self-employed, such individuals were strictly regulated; in some cases the tax rate exceeded 90%. In 1985, for the first time in many years, the number of individuals working in the private sector increased slightly. According to East German statistics, in 1985 there were about 176,800 private entrepreneurs, an increase of about 500 over 1984. Certain private sector activities were quite important to the system because those craftsmen provided scarce spare parts, the production of which was a common shortcoming of the GDR's planned economy. Culture Music Artists were expected to sing songs only in German at first, which changed with the end of the sixties. This seemed a logical constraint by the Party leaders but it was rather unpopular among young people. There were strict rules that regulated that all artistic activity ought to be censored for any open or implied anti-socialist tendencies. The band Renft, for example, was prone to political misbehaviour, which eventually led to its split. The Puhdys and Karat were some of the most popular mainstream bands, managing to hint at critical thoughts in their lyrics without being explicit. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as Neues Leben and Magazin. Other popular rock bands were Wir, Dean Reed, City, Silly and Pankow. Most of these artists recorded on the state-owned AMIGA label. Influences from the West were heard everywhere, because TV and radio that came from the Klassenfeind (class enemy, meaning "enemy of the working class") could be received in many parts of the East, too (a notorious exception being Dresden, with its geographically disadvantageous position in the Elbe valley, giving it the nickname of “Valley of the Clueless” -although limited reception of Western radio was still possible there). The Western influence led to the formation of more "underground" groups with a decisively western-oriented sound. A few of these bands were Die Skeptiker, Die Art and Feeling B. Additionally, hip hop culture reached the ears of the East German youth. With videos such as Beat Street and Wild Style, young East Germans were able to develop a hip hop culture of their own. Brown, Timothy S. “‘Keeping it Real’ in a Different ‘Hood: (African-) Americanization and Hip-hop in Germany.” In The Vinyl Ain’t Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, pp.137-150. London; A East Germans accepted hip hop as more than just a music form. The entire street culture surrounding rap entered the region and became an outlet for oppressed youth. Elfein, Dietmar. From Krauts with Atittudes to Turks with Attitudes: Some a Aspects of Hip-Hop History in Germany. pp.225-265 Popular Music vol. 17:3. October 1998. Classical music was highly supported, so that there existed over 50 classical symphony orchestras in a country with a population of about 16 million. See also: Thomanerchor Leipzig Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden Berliner Sinfonie Orchester Staatsoper Unter den Linden Berlin Johann Sebastian Bach was born in East German territory and his birthplace in Eisenach was turned into a museum of his life, which, among other things, included more than 300 instruments from Bach's life. In 1980 this museum was receiving more than 70,000 visitors annually. In Leipzig, an enormous archive with recordings of all of Bach's music was compiled, along with many historical documents and letters both to and from him. Every other year, school children from across East Germany gathered for a Bach competition held in East Berlin. Every four years an international Bach competition for keyboard and strings was held. Theatre East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm with his Berliner Ensemble. Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a "Working Class Theatre", played for the working class by the working class. After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's heritage. Heinz Kahlau, Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall were considered to be among Bertolt Brecht's scholars and followers. In the 1950s the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with "The Dragon" by Jewgenij Schwarz. In the 1960s, he became the Intendant of the Volksbühne often working with Heiner Müller. After 1975 many artists left the GDR due to increasing censorship. A parallel theatre scene sprung up, creating theatre "outside of Berlin" in which artists played at provincial theatres. For example Peter Sodann founded the neues theater in Halle/Saale and Frank Castorf at the theater Anklam. Theatre and Cabaret had high status in the GDR, which allowed it to be very pro-active. This often brought it into confrontation with the State. Benno Besson once said: "In contrast to artists in the west, they took us seriously, we had a bearing." Important theatres: Deutsches Theater Deutsches Theater: Home Berliner Ensemble Das BE - ein Theater für Zeitgenossen Volksbühne Volksbühne Berlin Maxim Gorki Theater www.gorki.de Cinema In the GDR, the movie industry was very active. The head-group for film-productions was the DEFA DEFA - Stiftung - Home , Deutsche Film AG, which was subdivided in different local groups, for example Gruppe Berlin, Gruppe Babelsberg or Gruppe Johannisthal, where the local teams shot and produced films. Besides folksy movies, the movie-industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies ("Das kalte Herz", film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy-tales and modern productions such as "Das Schulgespenst"). Frank Beyer's "Jakob der Lügner" (Jacob the Liar; about persecution of Jews in Third Reich) and, "Fünf Patronenhülsen"(Five Bullet Shells) about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous. Movies about problems of everyday life such as "Die Legende von Paul und Paula" (directed by Heiner Carow) and "Solo Sunny" (directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase) were also very popular. The film industry was remarkable for its production of Ostern, or Western-like movies. Indians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the American westerns of the time, where Indians were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed as the villains. Yugoslavians were often cast as the Indians, due to the small number of American Indians in eastern Europe. Gojko Mitić was well-known in these roles, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief ("Die Söhne der großen Bärin" directed by Josef Mach). He became an honorary Sioux chief when he visited the United States of America in the 90s and the television crew accompanying him showed the tribe one of his movies. American actor and singer Dean Reed, an expatriate who lived in East Germany, also starred in several films. These films were part of the phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of America. See also Spaghetti Western and the West German Winnetou films (adaptations of novels of Karl May). Because of censorship a certain number of very remarkable movies were forbidden at this time and reissued after the Wende in 1990. Examples are "Spur der Steine" (directed by Frank Beyer) and "Der geteilte Himmel" (directed by Konrad Wolf). Cinemas in the GDR also showed foreign films. Czechoslovak and Polish productions were more common, but also certain western movies were shown, but the numbers were limited because it cost foreign exchange to buy the licences. Further, movies representing or glorifying capitalistic ideology were not bought. Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish "Olsen Gang" or movies with the French comedian Louis de Funès. Jazz Sports For a small country, the people of East Germany achieved some remarkable results in many sports including cycling, weightlifting, swimming, track and field, boxing, skating and other winter sports. One reason for the success was the leadership of Dr. Manfred Hoeppner which started in the late 1960s. Another supporting reason was Anabolic steroid doping, which has been the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years Hartgens and Kuipers (2004), p. 515 and is now banned by all major sporting bodies. It allowed East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in the following two decades, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records. Tagliabue, John. - "Political Pressure Dismantles East German Sports Machine" - New York Times - 12 February 1991 | Janofsky, Michael. - "OLYMPICS; Coaches Concede That Steroids Fueled East Germany's Success in Swimming" - New York Times - 3 December 1991 | Kirschbaum, Erik. - "East German dope still leaves tracks" - Rediff from Reuters - 15 September 2000 | Ungerleider, Steven (2001). Faust's Gold: Inside The East German Doping Machine. Thomas Dunne Books ISBN 0312269773 | "Little blue pills and a lot of gold..." - Shorel.com | Culture & Lifestyle: "Sports Doping Statistics Reach Plateau in Germany" - Deutsche Welle - 26 February 2003 | "The East German Doping Machine" - International Swimming Hall of Fame | Culture & Lifestyle: "East Germany's Doping Legacy Returns" - Deutsche Welle - 10 January 2004 | Longman, Jere. - "East German Steroids' Toll: 'They Killed Heidi'" - New York Times - 26 January 2004 | Harding, Luke. - "Forgotten victims of East German doping take their battle to court" - The Guardian - 1 November 2005 | Jackson, Guy. Winning at Any Cost?: "Doping for glory in East Germany" - UNESCO - September 2006 | "Ex-East German athletes compensated for doping" - Associated Press - (c/o ESPN) - 13 December 2006 | "East German doping victims to get compensation" - Associated Press - (c/o CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) - 13 December 2006 | Starcevic, Nesha. - "East German doping victims to get compensation" - Associated Press - (c/o San Diego Union-Tribune) - 13 December 2006 | "Germany completes $4.1M payout to doping victims" - USA Today - 11 October 2007 | "East Germany’s Secret Doping Program" - Secrets of the Dead - Thirteen/WNET - 7 May 2008 Another factor for success was the furtherance-system for young people in GDR. When some children were aged around 6 until 10 years old (or older) sport-teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain talents in every pupil. For older pupils it was possible to attend grammar-schools with a focus on sports (for example sailing, football and swimming). This policy was also used for talented pupils with regard to music or mathematics. Sports clubs were highly subsidized, especially sports in which it was possible to get international fame. For example, the major leagues for ice hockey and basketball just included each 2 teams (excluding the school and university sport). Football (soccer) was the most popular sport. Club football sides like Dynamo Dresden, 1. FC Magdeburg, FC Carl Zeiss Jena, 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo did have some success in European competition. Many East German players became integral parts of the reunified national football team, for example Matthias Sammer and Ulf Kirsten. Other sports enjoyed great popularity like figure skating, especially because of sportswomen like Katharina Witt. East Germans patriotically supported their athletes to success in international competitions for similar reasons as those in other countries, and this no doubt played its part in the success that state enjoyed. However, as with other Soviet states, a widely held perception existed that international athletic success advertised their political and economic system to a worldwide audience. In the special case of East Germany, being the minority section of the divided Cold War era Germany, the particular success of that state was considered to foster international acceptance of the GDR as a state in its own right. Stamps and philately Stamp celebrating the GDR's 25th anniversary in 1974. Communist States gave much importance to philately and the GDR was one of those which printed the most beautiful stamps. However, their philatelic value was sometimes questioned in the West since GDR stamps were usually part of a 3- or 4-stamp series and one of them would be very difficult to find and then would acquire an expensive value in the philatelic market. Television and radio Television and radio in East Germany was state controlled. Rundfunk der DDR was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until German reunification. The organization was based in the Funkhaus Nalepastraße in East Berlin. Deutscher Fernsehfunk (DFF), from 1972–1990 known as Fernsehen der DDR or DDR-FS, was the state television broadcaster from 1952. Telecommunications By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system. There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 telex stations. Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office). East Germany was assigned telephone country code 37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code 49. An unusual feature of the telephone network was that in most cases, direct dialing for long distance calls was not possible. Although area codes were assigned to all major towns and cities, they were only used for switching international calls. Instead, each location had its own list of dialing codes - with shorter codes for local calls, and longer codes for long distance calls. This was due to the way the calls were routed over the trunk network. After reunification, the existing network was largely replaced, and area codes and dialing became standardised. In 1976 East Germany inaugurated the operation of a ground-based radio station at Fürstenwalde for the purpose of relaying and receiving communications from Soviet satellites, and serve as a participant in the international telecommunications organization established by the Soviet government, Intersputnik. Holidays Date English Name German Name Remarks 1 January New Year's Day Neujahr   Moveable feast Good Friday Karfreitag   Moveable feast Easter Sunday Ostersonntag   Moveable feast Easter Monday Ostermontag Was not an official Holiday after 1967. 1 May May Day Tag der Arbeit International Workers' Day 8 May Victory in Europe Day Tag der Befreiung The translation means "Day of Liberation" Moveable feast Father's Day / Ascension Day Vatertag / Christi Himmelfahrt Thursday after the 5th Sunday after Easter. Was not an official Holiday after 1967. Moveable feast Whitmonday Pfingstmontag 50 days after Easter Sunday 7 October Republic Day Tag der Republik National holiday 25 December First Day of Christmas 1. Weihnachtsfeiertag   26 December Second Day of Christmas 2. Weihnachtsfeiertag See also Germany West Germany History of Germany since 1945 History of East Germany Leaders of East Germany Berlin East Berlin West Berlin Ministerrat Berlin Wall Armed Forces National People's Army Landstreitkräfte Luftstreitkräfte Volksmarine Grenztruppen Stasi Volkspolizei Conscientious objection in East Germany Media Broadcasting in East Germany Cold War propaganda in Germany Aktuelle Kamera, GDR's main TV news show Radio Berlin International Der Tunnel, a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel Transport Transport in the German Democratic Republic Deutsche Reichsbahn - The railway company of the GDR Interflug - The airline of the GDR Trabant Barkas Wartburg Other Sportvereinigung (SV) Dynamo Iron Curtain Tourism in East Germany GDR jokes Ostalgie Palast der Republik Dean Reed Highest point: Fichtelberg (1,214 m) Education in the German Democratic Republic References Thomas A. Baylis, David H Childs and Marilyn Rueschemeyer, eds.; East Germany in Comparative Perspective Routledge. 1989 Fulbrook, Mary. The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker Yale University Press, 2005. 352 pp. ISBN 0-300-10884-2. Fulbrook; Mary. Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949-1989 Oxford University Press, 1995 William Glenn Gray; Germany's Cold War: The Global Campaign to Isolate East Germany, 1949–1969 University of North Carolina Press. 2003 Jonathan Grix; The Role of the Masses in the Collapse of the GDR Macmillan, 2000 Konrad H. Jarausch and Eve Duffy; Dictatorship as Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR Berghahn Books, 1999 Andrew I. Port, Conflict and Stability in the German Democratic Republic Cambridge University Press, 2007. Jonathan R. Zatlin, The Currency of Socialism - Money and Political Culture in East Germany. Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN 0521869560 Notes External links AHF - Nationale Volksarmee (NVA) Auferstanden aus Ruinen Translations of propaganda materials from the GDR. DDR Museum Berlin - Culture of the GDR East Berlin, Past and Present Pictures of the GDR 1949–1973 The Lives of Others official website RFE/RL East German Subject Files Open Society Archives, Budapest Countries of the world Europe

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İsmet_İnönü

Mustafa İsmet İnönü (September 24 1884 – December 25, 1973) was a Turkish Army General, TSK Genel Kurmay Baskanlari Prime Minister and the second President of the Republic of Turkey. He is widely referred to as "Milli Şef" (National Chief), a title he bestowed upon himself when he was elected as the President of Turkey in 1938. Family and early life He was born in İzmir to a family originally from Malatya with mixed Turkish-Kurdish heritage. The Young Turks – Children of the Borderlands? - Erik Jan Zürcher (Universiteit Leiden) Ismet Inonu: The Making of a Turkish Statesman - Metin Heper / Brill Academic Publishers His father was Hacı Reşid Bey, a member of the Ottoman bureaucracy, an examining magistrate born in Malatya, and his mother was Cevriye Hanım, daughter of Russo-Turkish War refugees from Bulgaria. Due to his father's assignments, the family moved from one city to another. Thus, İsmet İnönü completed his primary education in Sivas. For more than half his life, İsmet İnönü was known as İsmet Pasha. He changed his name in the early 1930s when President Atatürk decreed that all his countrymen had to have surnames. İsmet Pasha decided to take as his surname "İnönü", from the Central Anatolian town where he commanded the Turkish forces in his greatest battles as a general, known as the First Battle of İnönü and Second Battle of İnönü, victories which played an important role in the Turkish War of Independence. His son, Erdal İnönü, was a Wigner medal winner mathematical physicist and a former deputy prime minister of Turkey, as well as the former leader of the Social Democracy Party and the Social Democratic Populist Party, and the honorary leader of the Social Democratic People's Party. Early military career İnönü graduated from the Military Academy in 1903 as gunnery officer, and received his first military assignment in the Ottoman army. He joined the Committee of Union and Progress. He won his first military victories by suppressing two major revolts against the struggling Ottoman Empire, first in Rumelia and later in Yemen, whose leader was Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din. He served as a military officer during the Balkan Wars on the Ottoman-Bulgarian front. During World War I, he served as a miralay (colonel) on the Ottoman eastern front in Syria, and was later appointed as the commander of the western fronts. He worked together with Mustafa Kemal Pasha during his assignment at the Caucasus front. Independence war After losing the Battle of Megiddo against General Edmund Allenby during the last days of World War I, he went to Anatolia to join the Turkish nationalist movement and was appointed the commander of the Turkish Western Army, a position in which he remained during the Turkish War of Independence. He was promoted to brigadier general after the "Battles of İnönü", in which he successfully defeated the Greek Army in western Anatolia. During the Turkish War of Independence he was also a member of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara. İnönü was replaced by Fevzi Paşa as the Chief of Staff of the Turkish Army after the Turkish army lost a battle against the advancing Greek Army in July 1921, as a result of which the cities Afyon, Kütahya and Eskişehir were lost. Later, he was appointed as the chief negotiator of the Turkish delegation at the Treaty of Lausanne. He became famous for his resolve and stubbornness in defending Turkey's demands while conceding very little to the other side at the negotiating table, causing the peace conference to last longer than expected. Partially deaf, İnönü simply turned off his hearing aid when the British foreign secretary, Lord Curzon, launched into lengthy speeches opposing Turkish demands for recognition of the national pact, and then would restate the Turkish position as if the British foreign secretary had not said a thing. Political career İnönü later served as the Prime Minister of Turkey for several terms, maintaining the system that Atatürk had put in place. He acted after every major crisis (such as the rebellion of Sheikh Said or the attempted assassination of Atatürk in İzmir) to restore peace in the country. He tried to manage the economy with heavy-handed government intervention, especially after the 1929 economic crisis, by implementing an economic plan inspired by the Five Year Plan of the Soviet Union. In doing so, he took much private property under government control. Due to his efforts, to this day, more than 70% of land in Turkey is still owned by the state, resembling the now-defunct Soviet Union. Desiring a more liberal economic system, Atatürk forced Inönü , from the government leadership in 1937 and appointed Celal Bayar, the founder of the first Turkish bank Türkiye İş Bankası as Prime Minister. "National Chief" period Churchill secretly meets with Inönü inside a train wagon at the Yenice Station 23 kilometers outside of Adana, Turkey, on January 30, 1943 After the death of Atatürk, Inönü was viewed as the most appropriate candidate to succeed him, and was elected the second President of the Republic of Turkey and enjoyed the official title of "Milli Şef", i.e. "National Chief". World War II broke out in the first year of his presidency, and both the Allies and the Axis pressured Inönü to bring Turkey into the war on their side. The Germans sent Franz von Papen to Ankara, while Winston Churchill secretly met with Inönü inside a train wagon near Adana on January 30, 1943. Inönü later met with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference on December 4-6, 1943. Until 1941, both Roosevelt and Churchill thought that Turkey's continuing neutrality would serve the interests of the Allies by blocking the Axis from reaching the strategic oil reserves of the Middle East. But the early victories of the Axis up to the end of 1942 caused Roosevelt and Churchill to re-evaluate a possible Turkish participation in the war on the side of the Allies. Turkey had maintained a decently-sized Army and Air Force throughout the war, and Churchill wanted the Turks to open a new front in the Balkans. Roosevelt, on the other hand, still believed that a Turkish attack would be too risky, and an eventual Turkish failure would have disastrous effects for the Allies. Inönü knew very well the hardships which his country had suffered during decades of incessant war between 1908 and 1922 and was determined to keep Turkey out of another war as long as he could. The young Turkish Republic was still re-building, recovering from the losses due to earlier wars, and lacked any modern weapons and the infrastructure to enter a war to be fought along and possibly within its borders. Inönü also wanted assurances on financial and military aid for Turkey, as well as a guarantee that the United States and the United Kingdom would stand beside Turkey in the event of a Soviet invasion of the Turkish Straits after the war. The fear of Soviet invasion and Stalin's unconcealed desire to control the Turkish Straits eventually caused Turkey to give up its principle of neutrality in foreign relations and join NATO in 1952. The economic conditions in Turkey during his Presidency can be described as "depression", as evidenced by the negative economic growth between 1938 to 1950 http://www.ggdc.net/Maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_03-2007.xls , which may explain why he could not win any democratic elections (in 1950, 1954, 1957, 1961, 1965 and 1969) in his country. Yet, overcoming strong opposition within his own party, he still switched Turkey to a multi-party democracy which allowed the previously mentioned elections to be held in the first place. He probably is the only leader in the World History who gave up absolute ruling power and continue as the leader of the opposition party. It may be that Inönü's greatest political achievement was keeping his country out of World War II until February 1945, when Turkey entered the war on the side of the Allies against Germany and Japan. Multi party period İnönü's tomb at Anıtkabir Under international pressure to transform the country to a democratic state, Inönü resided over the infamous 1946 elections, in which votes were cast in the open with onlookers (most probably secret police) able to observe to which party the voters had cast their votes and ballots were tallied behind closed doors by only his own party's officials. In 1950, his party lost the first free elections in Turkish history, and Inönü presided over the peaceful transfer of power to the Democratic Party of Adnan Menderes. İnönü served for ten years as the leader of the opposition before returning to power as Prime Minister after the 1961 election, held after the military coup-d'etat in 1960 in which he allegedly conspired. Although the opposition was imprisoned during the 1961 elections, he still did not win a majority and had to form coalition governments until the 1965 elections. He lost both the 1965 and 1969 general elections to Süleyman Demirel and then in 1972 he lost his party's leadership race to Bülent Ecevit. Ismet Inönü was by the standards of his time a highly educated man, speaking Arabic, English, French and German in addition to his native Turkish. İnönü died in 1973. He was interred next to Atatürk's mausoleum at Anıtkabir in Ankara and a massive tomb was constructed there. Legacy İnönü University in Malatya is named after him, as is a stadium in Istanbul, home of the Beşiktaş football club. Media Image:IsmetInonu1963.ogg (The sound file of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Kemal Atatürk, November 10, 1963) Image:IsmetInonu1963 text.pdf (The Text of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Atatürk) See also Pembe Köşk - Private home from 1925 to 1973 Çankaya Köşkü - The Presidency of the Republic of Turkey References

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Dieting

Dieting is the practice of ingesting food in a regulated fashion to achieve or maintain a controlled weight. In most cases the goal is weight loss in those who are overweight or obese, but some athletes aspire to gain weight (usually in the form of muscle) and diets can also be used to maintain a stable body weight. Diets to promote weight loss are generally divided into four categories: low-fat, low-carbohydrate, low-calorie, and very low calorie. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between the main diet types (low calorie, low carbohydrate, and low fat), with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss in all studies. At two years all diet types cause equal weight loss irrespective of the macronutrients emphasized. Types of dieting There are several kinds of diets: Weight-loss diets restrict the intake of specific foods, or food in general, to reduce body weight. What works to reduce body weight for one person will not necessarily work for another, due to metabolic differences and lifestyle factors. Also, for a variety of reasons, most people find it difficult to maintain significant weight loss over time. Among individuals that have lost 10% or more of body weight, only 20% are able to maintain that weight loss for a full year. Athletes participating in professional sports may sometimes undertake weight-gain diets to increase their body mass and gain advantage in their field. Individuals who are underweight, such as those recovering from anorexia nervosa or starvation, may adopt weight-gain diets which, unlike those of athletes, have the goal of restoring normal levels of body fat, muscle, and stores of essential nutrients. Actors, and people participating in similar activities, may pursue weight loss or gain in order to better portray a particular role. In children and young adults Receiving adequate nutrition through a well-balanced diet is crucial during childhood and adolescence. Some diets can deprive the body of necessary nutrients, for instance lipids. In addition, there are some indications that the harmful effects of starvation or extreme dieting during adolescence exceed the expected benefits, sometimes even leading to increased weight gains. Research shows that putting children on starvation or extreme diets can be harmful. The brain is unable to learn how to correlate taste with nutritional value, which is why such children may consistently overeat later in their life despite adequate nutritional intake. Diet food 'may fuel obesity risk in young Thermoregulation As endotherms, humans expend energy to maintain our blood temperature at body temperature, which is approximately 37 °C (98.6 °F). This is accomplished by metabolism and blood circulation, by shivering to stay warm, and by sweating to stay cool. Thermoregulation In addition to thermoregulation, humans expend energy keeping the vital organs (especially the lungs, heart and brain) functioning. Except when sleeping, our skeletal muscles are working, typically to maintain upright posture. The average work done just to stay alive is the basal metabolic rate. Physical exercise Physical exercise is an important complement to dieting in securing weight loss. Aerobic exercise is also an important part of maintaining normal good health, especially the muscular strength of the heart. Though the energy for muscle activity is primarily derived from the glycogen stored in the body, continued activity results in an increased use of the fatty acids as well. After the available glycogen stores are exhausted, fatty acids alone are used J. G. Salway, D. K. Granner: "Metabolism at a Glance", page 52. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. . It is often recommended that muscle activity be maintained for 20 minutes or more for increased usage of fatty acids. The energy burnt during physical exercise has only a limited effect on weight loss, since an hour of aerobic exercise for a man in reasonable physical shape would burn about 2 megajoules (500 kilocalories), which is equivalent to only 60 grams (2 oz) of fat. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise would increase the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for some time after exercising. This leads to an additional caloric loss. Fat loss versus muscle loss Weight loss typically involves the loss of fat, water and muscle. Overweight people, or people suffering from obesity, typically aim to reduce the percentage of body fat. Additionally, as muscle tissue is denser than fat, fat loss results in increased loss of body volume compared with muscle loss. Reducing even 10% body fat can therefore have a dramatic effect on a person's body shape . To determine the proportion of weight loss that is due to decreased fat tissue, various methods of measuring body fat percentage have been developed. Muscle loss during weight loss can be restricted by regularly lifting weights (or doing push-ups and other strength-oriented calisthenics) and by maintaining sufficient protein intake. Those on low-carbohydrate diets, and those doing particularly strenuous exercise, may wish to increase their protein intake. According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Dietary Reference Intake for protein is "0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight for adults." Excessive protein intake, may cause liver and kidney problems and may be a risk factor for heart disease. . There is no conclusive evidence that moderately high protein diets in healthy individuals are dangerous, it has only been shown that these diets are dangerous in individuals who already have kidney and liver problems. Energy obtained from food The energy intake from food is limited by the efficiency of digestion and the efficiency of utilization. The efficiency of digestion is largely dependent on the type of food being eaten, while efficiency of utilization is affected by individual factors, including body weight and hormones. The effects of chewing, especially in elderly people, have been shown to affect the intake of micronutrients. However, there was no significant effect on the intake of macronutrients, such as sugars, fats, and proteins Ildebrando appollonio, Corrado Carabellese, Alessandra Frattola, Marco Trabucchi: "Influence of dental status on dietary intake and survival in community-dwelling elderly subjects". Oxford University Press, 1997. . Proper nutrition Food provides nutrients from six broad classes: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, dietary minerals, and water. Carbohydrates are metabolized to provide energy. Proteins provide amino acids, which are required for cell construction, especially for the construction of muscle cells. Essential fatty acids are required for brain and cell membrane construction. Vitamins and trace minerals help maintain proper electrolyte balance and are required for many metabolic processes. Dietary fiber is another food component which influences health even though it is not actually absorbed into the body. Any diet that fails to meet minimum nutritional requirements can threaten general health (and physical fitness in particular). If a person is not well enough to be active, weight loss and good quality of life will be unlikely. The National Academy of Sciences and the World Health Organization publish guidelines for dietary intakes of all known essential nutrients. Sometimes dieters will ingest excessive amounts of vitamin and mineral supplements. While this is usually harmless, some nutrients are dangerous. Men (and women who don't menstruate) need to be wary of iron poisoning. Retinol (oil-soluble vitamin A) is toxic in large doses. As a general rule, most people can get the nutrition they need from foods. In any event, a multivitamin taken once a day will suffice for the majority of the population. Weight-loss diets which manipulate the proportion of macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.) have not been found to be more effective than diets which maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g. low-fat milk, or less salad dressing). Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition. How the body gets rid of fat All body processes require energy to run properly. When the body is expending more energy than it is taking in (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, like complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source the body turns to is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, where 65% of it is stored in skeletal muscles and the rest in the liver (totaling about 2000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When those sources are nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process, fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to make energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system. Fats are also secreted by the sebaceous glands (in the skin). Psychological aspects of weight-loss dieting Diets affect the "energy in" component of the energy balance by limiting or altering the distribution of foods. Techniques that affect the appetite can limit energy intake by affecting the desire to overeat. Cognitive Behavior Therapy has been effective in producing long term weight loss L. Stahre et al., "A short-term cognitive group treatment program gives substantial weight reduction up to 18 months from the end of treatment. A randomized controlled trial." Eating and Weight Disorders. Vol. 10. p 51-58 (2005) . Judith S. Beck has been one of the most prominent practitioners and writers to bring this method to a popular audience. Consumption of low-energy, fiber-rich foods, such as non-starchy vegetables, is effective in obtaining satiation (the feeling of "fullness"). Exercise is also useful in controlling appetite as is drinking water and sleeping. The use of drugs to control appetite is also common. Stimulants are often taken as a means to suppress hunger in people who are dieting. Ephedrine (through facilitating the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline) stimulates the alpha(1)-adrenoreceptor subtype, which is known to act as an anorectic. L-Phenylalanine, an amino acid found in whey protein powders also has the ability to suppress appetite by increasing the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) which sends a satiety signal to the brain. Weight loss groups There exist both profit-oriented and non-profit weight loss organizations who assist people in their weight loss efforts. An example of the former is Weight Watchers; examples of the latter include Overeaters Anonymous, as well as a multitude of non-branded support groups run by local churches, hospitals, and like-minded individuals. These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking. Most groups leverage the power of group meetings to provide counseling, emotional support, problem-solving, and useful information. Food diary A July 2008 study, published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, showed dieters who keep a daily food diary (or diet journal) of what they eat lose twice as much weight as those who do not. The researchers concluded, "It seems that the simple act of writing down what you eat encourages people to consume fewer calories." Diet journaling software and websites have become popular to help people track calorie consumption, calorie burning, weight loss goals, and nutritional balance. Medications Certain medications can be prescribed to assist in weight loss. The most recent prescription weight loss medication released is Acomplia (generic name Rimonabant), manufactured by Sanofi Aventis. Used to treat obesity in persons with a BMI ( body mass index) of 30 or above as well as for smoking cessation treatments, Acomplia is still pending FDA approval for use in the United States. Other weight loss medications, like amphetamines, are dangerous and are now banned for casual weight loss. Some supplements, including those containing vitamins and minerals, may not be effective for losing weight. Diuretics Diuretics induce weight loss through the excretion of water. These medication or herbs will reduce the amount that a body weighs, but will have no effect on an individual's body fat. Diuretics can thicken the blood, cause cramping, kidney and liver damage. There was even a report of a woman who died of swelling in her brain after she drank a large amount of water over a short period of time, while being on a special water diet. Woman Dies Because Of Water Diet Stimulants Stimulants such as ephedrine or synephrine work to increase the basal metabolic rate and reduce appetite. Dangers of fasting Lengthy fasting can be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition and should be carried out under medical supervision. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolize body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body. Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent this issue. Side effects Dieting, especially extreme food-intake reduction and rapid weight loss, can have the following side effects: Prolonged hunger Depression Reduced sex drive Fatigue Irritability Fainting Sinus problems (especially post-nasal drip) Muscle atrophy Rashes Acidosis Bloodshot eyes Gallbladder disease Seizures Malnutrition, possibly leading to death Subsequent weight gain Low carbohydrate versus low fat Many studies have focused on diets that reduce calories via a low-carbohydrate (Atkins diet, Scarsdale diet, Zone diet) diet versus a low-fat diet (LEARN diet, Ornish diet). The Nurses' Health Study, an observational cohort study, found that low carbohydrate diets based on vegetable sources of fat and protein are associated with less coronary heart disease. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by the international Cochrane Collaboration in 2002 concluded that fat-restricted diets are no better than calorie restricted diets in achieving long term weight loss in overweight or obese people. A more recent meta-analysis that included randomized controlled trials published after the Cochrane review Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers,...[JAMA. 2005] - PubMed Result found that "low-carbohydrate, non-energy-restricted diets appear to be at least as effective as low-fat, energy-restricted diets in inducing weight loss for up to 1 year. However, potential favorable changes in triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol values should be weighed against potential unfavorable changes in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol values when low-carbohydrate diets to induce weight loss are considered." The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial found that a diet of total fat to 20% of energy and increasing consumption of vegetables and fruit to at least 5 servings daily and grains to at least 6 servings daily resulted in: no reduction in cardiovascular disease an insignificant reduction in invasive breast cancer no reductions in colorectal cancer Additional recent randomized controlled trials have found that: A comparison of Atkins, Zone diet, Ornish diet, and LEARN diet in premenopausal women found the greatest benefit from the Atkins diet. The choice of diet for a specific person may be influenced by measuring the individual's insulin secretion: In young adults "Reducing glycemic [carbohydrate] load may be especially important to achieve weight loss among individuals with high insulin secretion." This is consistent with prior studies of diabetic patients in which low carbohydrate diets were more beneficial. The American Diabetes Association released for the first time a recommendation (in its January 2008 Clinical Practice Recommendations) for a low carbohydrate diet to reduce weight for those with or at risk of Type 2 diabetes. Low glycemic index "The glycemic index factor is a ranking of foods based on their overall effect on blood sugar levels. Low glycemic index foods, such as lentils, provide a slower more consistent source of glucose to the bloodstream, thereby stimulating less insulin release than high glycaemic index foods, such as white bread." The glycemic load is "the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount". In a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results : Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake) Diet 1 was high-glycemic index Diet 2 was low-glycemic index Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake) Diet 3 was high-glycemic index Diet 4 was low-glycemic index Diets 2 and 3 lost the most weight and fat mass; however, low density lipoprotein fell in Diet 2 and rose in Diet 3. Thus the authors concluded that the high-carbohydrate, low-glycemic index diet was the most favorable. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that low glycemic index or low glycemic load diets led to more weight loss and better lipid profiles. However, the Cochrane Collaboration grouped low glycemic index and low glycemic load diets together and did not try to separate the effects of the load versus the index. See also Body image Eating disorder Crash diet Dietitian Food Balance Wheel Food faddism Healthy diet List of diets National Weight Control Registry Nutritional rating systems Nutrition scale Underweight References American Dietetic Association. 2003. Position paper on vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 103:748-765. Curley, Sandra and Mark,The Natural Guide to Good Health. Lafayette, Louisiana. Supreme Publishing 1990 Dansinger, M.L., Gleason, J. L., Griffith, J.L., et al., "One Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk", Presented at the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions November 12, 2003 in Orlando, Florida.) Davis, B. and Melina, V. 2000. Becoming Vegan. pg. 22. Wansink, B. Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think, New York: Bantam Dell (2006). Cheraskin, Emmanuel, M.D., D.M.D.. . “The Breakfast/Lunch/Dinner Ritual”, Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine Vol.8, No.1, 1993. Appleton, Nancy, Ph.D., “Nibbling, Grazing and Frequent Meals”. External links The food pyramid: Video lectures at the Harvard School of public health Drinking water and Weight Loss A PBS Frontline interview with Prof. Walter Willett, Chair of Harvard's nutrition department Exercise and Weight Loss Calculate your BMI

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Noble_gas

Group → 18 ↓ Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Legend Noble gas Gas Primordial element From decay Synthetic The noble gases are a group of chemical elements with very similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases, with a very low chemical reactivity. They are placed in group 18 (8A) of the periodic table (previously known as group 0). The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). So far, three atoms of the next member of the group, ununoctium (Uuo) have been synthesized in a supercollider, but very little is known of that element's properties because of the tiny amount produced and its short half-life. The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been prepared. The melting and boiling points for each noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 °C (18 °F); consequently, they are liquids only over a small temperature range. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is typically separated from natural gas, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia, the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons. History Noble gas is translated from the German noun , first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the term "noble metals", such as gold, which were associated with wealth and nobility, and also have low reactivity. The noble gases have also been referred to as inert gases, but this label is now deprecated as many noble gas compounds are now known. Rare gases is another term that was used, but this is also inaccurate because argon forms a fairly considerable part (0.94% by volume, 1.3% by mass) of the Earth's atmosphere. Helium was first detected in the Sun due to its characteristic spectral lines. Pierre Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer were the first to discover a noble gas on August 18, 1868 while looking at the chromosphere of the Sun, and named it helium after the Greek word for the Sun, ( or ). Oxford English Dictionary (1989), s.v. "helium". Retrieved December 16, 2006, from Oxford English Dictionary Online. Also, from quotation there: Thomson, W. (1872). Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix: "Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium." Before them, in 1784, the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish had discovered that air contains a small proportion of a substance less reactive than nitrogen. A century later, in 1895, Lord Rayleigh discovered that samples of nitrogen from the air were of a different density than nitrogen resulting from chemical reactions. Along with scientist William Ramsay at University College, London, Lord Rayleigh theorized that the nitrogen extracted from air was mixed with another gas, leading to an experiment that successfully isolated a new element, argon, from the Greek word (, "inactive"). With this discovery, they realized an entire class of gases was missing from the periodic table. During his search for argon, Ramsay also managed to isolate helium for the first time while heating cleveite, a mineral. In 1902, having accepted the evidence for the elements helium and argon, Dmitri Mendeleev included these noble gases as group 0 in his arrangement of the elements, which would later become the periodic table. Ramsay continued to search for these gases using the method of fractional distillation to separate liquid air into several components. In 1898, he discovered the elements krypton, neon, and xenon, and named them after the Greek words (, "hidden"), (, "new"), and (, "stranger"), respectively. Radon was first identified in 1898 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn, and was named radium emanation, but was not considered a noble gas until 1904 when its characteristics were found to be similar to those of other noble gases. Rayleigh and Ramsay received the 1904 Nobel Prizes in Physics and in Chemistry, respectively, for their discovery of the noble gases; in the words of J. E. Cederblom, then president of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, "the discovery of an entirely new group of elements, of which no single representative had been known with any certainty, is something utterly unique in the history of chemistry, being intrinsically an advance in science of peculiar significance". The discovery of the noble gases aided in the development of a general understanding of atomic structure. In 1895, French chemist Henri Moissan attempted to form a reaction between fluorine, the most electronegative element, and argon, one of the noble gases, but failed. Scientists were unable to prepare compounds of argon until the end of the 20th century, but these attempts helped to develop new theories of atomic structure. Learning from these experiments, Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed in 1913 that the electrons in atoms are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus, and that for all noble gases except helium the outermost shell always contains eight electrons. In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis formulated the octet rule, which concluded an octet of electrons in the outer shell was the most stable arrangement for any atom; this arrangement caused them to be unreactive with other elements since they did not require any more electrons to complete their outer shell. It was not until 1962 that Neil Bartlett discovered the first chemical compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate. Compounds of other noble gases were discovered soon after: in 1962 for radon, radon fluoride, and in 1963 for krypton, krypton difluoride (). The first stable compound of argon was reported in 2000 when argon fluorohydride (HArF) was formed at a temperature of . In December 1998, scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research working in Dubna, Russia bombarded plutonium (Pu) with calcium (Ca) to produce a single atom of element 114, which they temporarily named ununquadium (Uuq). Preliminary chemistry experiments have indicated this element may be the first superheavy element to show abnormal noble-gas-like properties, even though it is a member of group 14 on the periodic table. In October 2006, scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory successfully created synthetically ununoctium (Uuo), the seventh element in group 18, by bombarding californium (Cf) with calcium (Ca). Physical and atomic properties Property Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Density (g/dm³) 0.1786 0.9002 1.7818 3.708 5.851 9.97 Boiling point (K) 4.4 27.3 87.4 121.5 166.6 211.5 Melting point (K) 0.95 Under pressure of 25 bar 24.7 83.6 115.8 161.7 202.2 Enthalpy of vaporization (kJ/mol) 0.08 1.74 6.52 9.05 12.65 18.1 Solubility in water at 20 °C (cm3/kg) 8.61 10.5 33.6 59.4 108.1 230 Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86 Atomic radius (calculated) (pm) 31 38 71 88 108 120 Ionization energy (kJ/mol) 2372 2080 1520 1351 1170 1037 Allen electronegativity 4.16 4.79 3.24 2.97 2.58 2.60 For more data, see Noble gas (data page). The noble gases have very weak interatomic force, and consequently have very low melting and boiling points. They are all monatomic gases under standard conditions, including the elements with larger atomic masses than many normally solid elements. Helium has several unique qualities when compared with other elements: its boiling and melting points are lower than those of any other known substance; it is the only element known to exhibit superfluidity; it is the only element that cannot be solidified by cooling under standard conditions—a pressure of must be applied at a temperature of to convert it to a solid. The noble gases up to xenon have multiple stable isotopes. Radon has no stable isotopes; its longest-lived isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days and decays to form helium and polonium, which ultimately decays to lead. This is a plot of ionization potential versus atomic number. The noble gases, which are labeled, have the largest ionization potential for each period. The noble gas atoms, like atoms in most groups, increase steadily in atomic radius from one period to the next due to the increasing number of electrons. The size of the atom is related to several properties. For example, the ionization potential decreases with an increasing radius because the valence electrons in the larger noble gases are farther away from the nucleus and are therefore not held as tightly together by the atom. Noble gases have the largest ionization potential among the elements of each period, which reflects the stability of their electron configuration and is related to their relative lack of chemical reactivity. Some of the heavier noble gases, however, have ionization potentials small enough to be comparable to those of other elements and molecules. It was the insight that xenon has an ionization potential similar to that of the oxygen molecule that led Bartlett to attempt oxidizing xenon using platinum hexafluoride, an oxidizing agent known to be strong enough to react with oxygen. Noble gases cannot accept an electron to form stable anions; that is, they have a negative electron affinity. ; The macroscopic physical properties of the noble gases are dominated by the weak van der Waals forces between the atoms. The attractive force increases with the size of the atom as a result of the increase in polarizability and the decrease in ionization potential. This results in systematic group trends: as one goes down group 18, the atomic radius, and with it the interatomic forces, increases, resulting in an increasing melting point, boiling point, enthalpy of vaporization, and solubility. The increase in density is due to the increase in atomic mass. The noble gases are nearly ideal gases under standard conditions, but their deviations from the ideal gas law provided important clues for the study of intermolecular interactions. The Lennard-Jones potential, often used to model intermolecular interactions, was deduced in 1924 by John Lennard-Jones from experimental data on argon before the development of quantum mechanics provided the tools for understanding intermolecular forces from first principles. The theoretical analysis of these interactions became tractable because the noble gases are monatomic and the atoms spherical, which means that the interaction between the atoms is independent of direction, or isotropic. Chemical properties Neon, like all noble gases, has a full valence shell. Noble gases have eight electrons in the outermost shell, except in the case of helium, which has two. The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse. Very little is known about the properties of the most recent member of group 18, ununoctium (Uuo). Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 2 helium 2 10 neon 2, 8 18 argon 2, 8, 8 36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8 54 xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 86 radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 118 ununoctium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases. As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation. To do this, the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For example, the electron notation of carbon is 1s²2s²2p², and the noble gas notation is [He]2s²2p². This notation makes it easier to identify elements, and is shorter than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals. Compounds Structure of , one of the first noble gas compounds to be discovered The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although there are some theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity. The reactivity follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn. In 1933, Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. He predicted the existence of krypton hexafluoride () and xenon hexafluoride (), speculated might exist as an unstable compound, and suggested xenic acid could form perxenate salts. These predictions were shown to be generally accurate, except is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable. Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed. Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or oxygen, as in xenon difluoride (), xenon tetrafluoride (), xenon hexafluoride (), xenon tetroxide (), and sodium perxenate (). Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing agents; , in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent. As of 2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified, including organoxenon compounds (those bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen, chlorine, gold, mercury, and xenon itself. Compounds of xenon bound to boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium, copper, and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets. In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon does. However, due to the high radioactivity and short half-life of radon isotopes, only a few fluorides and oxides of radon have been formed in practice. . Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of +2. Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized. Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3 doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3 but are only stable below and respectively). Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine, carbon) as well as some late transition metals (copper, silver, gold) have also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets. Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such as argon fluorohydride (HArF), and some bound to the late transition metals copper, silver, and gold. As of 2007, no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known. The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase. The simplest is the helium hydride molecular ion, HeH+, discovered in 1925. Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium, although it has not been detected yet. In addition to these ions, there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases. These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state; some of them find application in excimer lasers. In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949, consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice. An endohedral fullerene compound containing a noble gas atom Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when , a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as can be formed (the @ notation indicates He is contained inside but not covalently bound to it). As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been obtained. These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom. Bonding in according to the 3-center-4-electron bond model Noble gas compounds such as xenon difluoride () are considered to be hypervalent because they violate the octet rule. Bonding in such compounds can be explained using a 3-center-4-electron bond model. This model, first proposed in 1951, considers bonding of three collinear atoms. For example, bonding in is described by a set of three molecular orbitals (MOs) derived from p-orbitals on each atom. Bonding results from the combination of a filled p-orbital from Xe with one half-filled p-orbital from each F atom, resulting in a filled bonding orbital, a filled non-bonding orbital, and an empty antibonding orbital. The highest occupied molecular orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms. This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high electronegativity of fluorine. The chemistry of heavier noble gases, krypton and xenon, are well established. The chemistry of the lighter ones, argon and helium, is still at an early stage, while a neon compound is still yet to be identified. Occurrence and production The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis. Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field. Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits. The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the base for the potassium-argon dating method. Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust. Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone. Abundance Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Solar System (for each atom of silicon) 2343 2.148 0.1025 5.515 × 10−5 5.391 × 10−6 – Earth's atmosphere (volume fraction in ppm) 5.20 18.20 9340.00 1.10 0.09 (0.06 – 18) × 10−19 Igneous rock (mass fraction in ppm) 3 × 10−3 7 × 10−5 4 × 10−2 – – 1.7 × 10−10 Gas 2004 price (USD/m3) Helium (industrial grade) 4.20–4.90 Helium (laboratory grade) 22.30–44.90 Argon 2.70–8.50 Neon 60–120 Krypton 400–500 Xenon 4000–5000 Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases, to convert elements to a liquid state, and fractional distillation, to separate mixtures into component parts. Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds. The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the table to the right lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas. Applications Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners. Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. In particular, liquid helium, which boils at , is used for superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance. Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen. Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen, due its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis. Due to its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes, and when helium is used to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained. Helium's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as decompression sickness, or the bends. The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best option for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving. The Spirit of Goodyear, one of the iconic Goodyear Blimps Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, helium has replaced hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and incombustibility, despite an 8.6% decrease in buoyancy. In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air-sensitive compounds that are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of very unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures. Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers, and in devices for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber. Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry. 15,000-watt xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX projectors Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs. Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine. The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as neon lights, which produce an orange-red color. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps. The noble gases are used in excimer lasers, which are based on short-lived electronically excited molecules known as excimers. The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2, Kr2 or Xe2, or more commonly, the noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF, KrF, XeF, or XeCl. These lasers produce ultraviolet light which, due to its short wavelength (193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF), allows for high-precision imaging. Excimer lasers have many industrial, medical, and scientific applications. They are used for microlithography and microfabrication, which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture, and for laser surgery, including laser angioplasty and eye surgery. Some noble gases have direct application in medicine. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers. Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its highly solubility in lipids, which makes it more potent than the usual nitrous oxide, and because it is readily eliminated from the body, resulting in faster recovery. Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI. Radon, which is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts, is used in radiotherapy. See also Noble gas (data page), for extended tables of physical properties. Noble metal, for metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation. Inert gas, for any gas that is not reactive under normal circumstances. Notes References

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Clara_Petacci

Clara Petacci (Claretta Petacci) (28 February 1912 – 28 April 1945) was an upper class Roman who became Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's mistress. Her father had been the personal physician to the Pope. She was twenty-nine years younger than Mussolini. Petacci was with Mussolini to the end. On 27 April 1945, when a convoy of escaping Italian Social Republic members, including Mussolini, was captured by Communist partisans, it is said that Petacci was offered the opportunity to go unmolested, but there is no solid evidence for this. On 28 April, she and Mussolini were taken to Mezzagra where she and the Duce were shot. On the following day, 29 April, Mussolini and Petacci's bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and hanged upside down in front of an Esso petrol station. The bodies were photographed as a crowd vented their rage upon them. Many photographs show the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci hanging between four other bodies. Mussolini and Petacci are together in the middle with two bodies hanging to either side of the couple. However, this photograph taken from the rear shows three bodies hanging on Mussolini's side to the right of the couple as seen from the rear. This indicates that Mussolini and Petacci were hanged upside down with five others at the petrol station. Miscellaneous Clara Petacci's sister was actress Miriam di San Servolo (28 February 1923 – 24 May 1991) , also known as Miriam Petacci or Miriam Day. Clara Petacci's brother, Marcello Petacci, was captured with Mussolini and Petacci. But, rather than being executed in Dongo, he was shot trying to escape. The American musician Scott Walker recorded a song about Petacci called "Clara" on his 2006 album The Drift. The Spanish skinhead band 'División 250' also recorded a song about Petacci called 'Clara'. See also Margherita Sarfatti, one of Mussolini's earlier mistresses Further reading Nicholas Farrell, Mussolini: A New Life (Phoenix Press, London, 2003) ISBN 1-84212-123-5 Luciano Garibaldi, Mussolini: The Secrets of His Death (Enigma Books, New York, 2004) IBSN 1-929631-23-5 Ray Moseley, Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce (Taylor Trade Publishing, Dallas, 2004) ISBN 1-58979-095-2 Rudolph S. Daldin "The Last Centurion" Volumes I&II ISBN 0-921447-34-5 www.benito-mussolini.com or www.Daldin5.com External links

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Federal_Aviation_Administration

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is an agency of the United States Department of Transportation with authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of civil aviation in the U.S. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 created the group under the name "Federal Aviation Agency", and adopted its current name in 1967 when it became a part of the United States Department of Transportation. The Federal Aviation Administration's major roles include: Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates Regulating civil aviation to promote safety, especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil and military aircraft Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other environmental effects of civil aviation Activities In December 2000, an organization within the FAA called the Air Traffic Organization Air Traffic Organization Official website , or ATO, was set up by presidential executive order. This became the Air Navigation Service Provider for the airspace of the United States and for the New York (Atlantic) and Oakland (Pacific) oceanic areas. It is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organization. The FAA issues a number of awards to holders of its licenses. Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as a mechanic, an instructor, a 50-year aviator, or as a safe pilot. The latter, the FAA "Wings Program", provides a series of ten badges for pilots who have undergone several hours of training since their last award. A higher level can be claimed each year. For more information see "FAA Advisory Circular 61-91H". The FAA exercises surprise Red Team drills on national airports annually. History The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the federal government's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. A new aeronautics branch of the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight. In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways, a task that had been begun by the Post Office Department. The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving them the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. The CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency. On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at promoting development of the nation's civil airports. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions (most notable was the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision), prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. This legislation gave the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, and also gave the FAA sole responsibility for a common civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower. FAA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), created in the wake of the Soviet launching of the first artificial satellite. NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration. In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. FAA's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies within DOT. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the CAB's role of investigating aviation accidents. The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying. By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment. FAA History from official website In 1979 the Congress authorized the FAA to work with major commercial airports to define noise pollution contours and investigate the feasibility of noise mitigation by residential retrofit programs. Throughout the 1980s these charters were implemented. In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters. The FAA was responsible for the decision to ground flights after the September 11 attacks. FAA ordered its inspectors March 18, 2008 to reconfirm that airlines are complying with federal rules after revelations that Southwest Airlines flew dozens of aircraft without certain mandatory inspections. FAA looking to see if airlines made safety repairs Many experts on the FAA have been critical of what they perceive as fundamental problems with the FAA in conducting oversight on the airlines and pilots, predicated on the belief, as expressed by the FAA itself, that both the airlines and pilots are their customers. Retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Gutheinz, who formerly was a Special Agent with both the U.S. Department of Transportation Office of Inspector General and FAA Security, is one of the most outspoken critics of the FAA. Rather than commend the FAA for imposing a 10.2 million dollar fine against Southwest Airlines for its failure to conduct mandatory inspections in 2008 he was quoted as saying the following in an Associated Press story: "Penalties against airlines that violate FAA directives should be stiffer. At $25,000 per violation, (which is how the 10.2 million dollar figure was reached) Gutheinz said, airlines can justify rolling the dice and taking the chance on getting caught. He also said the FAA is often too quick to bend to pressure from airlines and pilots." { http://www.aviation.com/safety/080307-ap-southwest-faces-penalty.html }Southwest Faces Big Penalty on Plane Cracks. Associated Press, March 7, 2008. { http://archives.starbulletin.com/2008/03/23/news/story08.html }Military jets rest while go! pilots stay silent. Associated Press, March 23, 2008. { http://www.dailyherald.com/story/?id=144570&src=110 }Deaths on planes give passengers an up-close view of human frailty. Associated Press, February 29, 2008. List of FAA Administrators Elwood Richard Quesada (1958-1961) Najeeb Halaby (1961-1965) William F. McKee (1965-1968) John H. Shaffer (1969-1973) Alexander Butterfield (1973-1975) John L. McLucas (1975-1977) Langhorne Bond (1977-1981) J. Lynn Helms (1981-1984) Donald D. Engen (1984-1987) T. Allan McArtor (1987-1989) James B. Busey (1989-1991) Thomas C. Richards (1992-1993) David R. Hinson (1993-1996) Jane Garvey (1997-2002) Marion Blakey (September 12, 2002 - September 13, 2007) Robert A. Sturgell (Acting) (September 14, 2007-January 15, 2009) Lynne A. Osmus (Acting) (January 16, 2009-present) J. Randolph Babbitt (nomination confirmed by Senate May 22, 2009) FAA process Designated Engineering Representative A Designated Engineering Representative (DER) is an engineer who is appointed to act on behalf of a Company or as an individual Consultant esignated Engineering Representative (DER) . Company DERs act on behalf of their employer and may only approve, or recommend approval, of technical data to the FAA for this company. Consultant DERs are appointed to act as an independent DER to approve or recommend approval of technical data to the FAA. See also Civil Aviation Authority References External links FAA FAA Aviation News ATO News FOCUS FAA Jane's Airport news on user fees, April 2006

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confirm:1 senate:1 process:1 engineering:3 representative:3 designated:1 der:3 engineer:1 appoint:2 behalf:2 company:3 individual:1 consultant:2 esignated:1 ders:2 employer:1 approve:2 recommend:2 approval:2 technical:2 data:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 focus:1 user:1 fee:1 april:1 |@bigram franklin_roosevelt:1 keep_abreast:1 midair_collision:1 outspoken_critic:1 roll_dice:1 http_www:2 external_link:1

Decade_(Neil_Young_album)

Decade is a triple album compilation by Neil Young, released in 1977, now available on two compact discs. It contains thirty-five of Young's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976, among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point. It peaked at #43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart. History Compiled by Young himself, with his hand-written notes about each track, representing every album from his career and various affiliations through 1977 with the exception of Four Way Street and Time Fades Away. Of the previously unreleased songs, "Down to the Wire" features the New Orleans pianist Dr. John with Buffalo Springfield on an item from their shelved Stampede album; "Love Is a Rose" was a minor hit for Linda Ronstadt in 1975; "Winterlong" received a cover by Pixies on the Neil Young tribute album from 1989, The Bridge; and "Campaigner" is yet another Young song critical of Richard Nixon. The track "Long May You Run" is a different mix to that found on the album of the same name, featuring the harmonies of the full CSNY before Crosby & Nash left the recording sessions. The album has been lauded in many quarters as one of the best examples of a career retrospective for a rock and roll artist, and as a template for the box set collections that would follow in the 1980s and beyond. However, in the original article on Young from the first edition of the Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll and a subsequent article in the 1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide, critic Dave Marsh used this album to accuse Young of deliberately manufacturing a self-mythology, arguing that while his highlights could be seen to place him on a level with other greats from his generation like Bob Dylan or The Beatles, the particulars of his catalogue did not bear this out. The magazine has since excised the article from subsequent editions of the Illustrated History book; a somewhat messy transcription of it can be found at the link below (despite his scathing view of Young's career, Marsh gave the album the highest possible rating). For many years, Decade was the only Neil Young compilation album available. A 1993 compilation called Lucky Thirteen was released, but it only covered Young's 1982-1988 output. It was not until 2004 that Reprise Records released a single-disc retrospective of his best-known tracks, simply titled Greatest Hits. Since the 1980s, Young has promised fans a follow up collection, variously referred to as Decade II or Archives and ranging in size from a box set to an entire series of audio and/or video releases. In the meantime, the first release of archival material since Decade and Lucky Thirteen would appear in 2006, Live at the Fillmore East, a recording from a 1970 concert featuring Crazy Horse with Danny Whitten. Alternate early version Initially, Decade was to be released in 1976, but was pulled at the last minute by Young. It was shelved until the following year, where it appeared with two songs removed from the original tracklist (a live version of "Don't Cry No Tears" recorded in Japan in 1976, and a live version of "Pushed it Over The End" recorded in 1974). Also removed were the following comments on those two songs and Time Fades Away, from Young's handwritten liner notes : "Time Fades Away. No songs from this album are included here. It was recorded on my biggest tour ever, 65 shows in 90 days. Money hassles among everyone concerned ruined this tour and record for me but i released it anyway so you folks could see what could happen if you lose it for a while. I was becoming more interested in an audio verite approach than satistfying the public demands for a repition of Harvest." "Don't Cry No Tears. Initially titled 'I Wonder,' this song was written in 1964. One of my first songs. This is a live recording from Japan with Crazy Horse." "Pushed It over the End. Recorded live on the road in Chicago, 1974. Thanks to Crosby & Nash's help on the overdubbed chorus, I was able to complete this work. I wrote it for Patty Hearst and her countless brothers and sisters. Also, I wrote it for myself and the increasing distance between me and you." Track listing All songs written and performed by Neil Young except where noted. Side one "Down to the Wire" – 2:25 Performed by Buffalo Springfield & Dr. John, outtake from the unreleased Buffalo Springfield album Stampede "Burned" – 2:14 Performed by Buffalo Springfield, the first Neil Young vocal ever recorded, circa late 1966 "Mr. Soul" – 2:41 Performed by Buffalo Springfield, recorded live in the studio in New York City "Broken Arrow" – 6:13 Performed by Buffalo Springfield "Expecting to Fly" – 3:44 Performed by Buffalo Springfield "Sugar Mountain" – 5:43 Recorded live in concert on November 9, 1968 at the Canterbury House, Ann Arbor, Michigan Side two "I Am a Child" – 2:17 Performed by Buffalo Springfield "The Loner" – 3:50 "The Old Laughing Lady" – 5:35 "Cinnamon Girl" – 2:59 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse "Down by the River" – 8:58 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse Side three "Cowgirl in the Sand" – 10:01 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse "I Believe in You" – 3:27 Performed by Neil Young "After the Gold Rush" – 3:45 Performed by Neil Young "Southern Man" – 5:31 Performed by Neil Young "Helpless" – 3:34 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young Side four "Ohio" – 2:56 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young "Soldier" – 2:28 "Old Man" – 3:21 "A Man Needs a Maid" – 3:58 "Harvest" – 3:08 "Heart of Gold" – 3:06 "Star of Bethlehem" – 2:46 Side five "The Needle and the Damage Done" – 2:02 "Tonight's the Night, Part 1" – 4:41 Performed by Neil Young & The Santa Monica Flyers "Tired Eyes" – 4:33 Performed by Neil Young & The Santa Monica Flyers "Walk On" – 2:40 "For the Turnstiles" – 3:01 "Winterlong" – 3:05 Previously unreleased "Deep Forbidden Lake" – 3:39 Previously unreleased Side six "Like a Hurricane" – 8:16 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse "Love is a Rose" – 2:16 Previously unreleased "Cortez the Killer" – 7:29 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse "Campaigner" – 3:30 Previously unreleased, performed by The Stills-Young Band "Long May You Run" – 3:48 Previously unreleased version performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, originally from Long May You Run by The Stills-Young Band</small> The CD release combined sides 1-3 onto disc one, and sides 4-6 on disc two. Notes External links Marsh RSIHRR article at Thrashers Wheat Charts Album - Billboard YearChartPosition1977Pop Albums43

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Mind_map

A hand-drawn mind map A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked to and arranged around a central key word or idea. Mind maps are used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing. The elements of a given mind map are arranged intuitively according to the importance of the concepts, and are classified into groupings, branches, or areas, with the goal of representing semantic or other connections between portions of information. Mind maps may also aid recall of existing memories. By presenting ideas in a radial, graphical, non-linear manner, mind maps encourage a brainstorming approach to planning and organizational tasks. Though the branches of a mindmap represent hierarchical tree structures, their radial arrangement disrupts the prioritizing of concepts typically associated with hierarchies presented with more linear visual cues. This orientation towards brainstorming encourages users to enumerate and connect concepts without a tendency to begin within a particular conceptual framework. The mind map can be contrasted with the similar idea of concept mapping. The former is based on radial hierarchies and tree structures denoting relationships with a central governing concept, whereas concept maps are based on connections between concepts in more diverse patterns. Characteristics Graphical (Distinguish words or ideas with colors & symbols). Hierarchical or tree branch. Allows for creativity. Associates words with visual representations. Focuses on ONLY one word or idea versus Concept maps that connect multiple words or ideas. Dimensions for Optimal Use On-line real time. Simultaneous interaction User friendly. Graphical tools: 2 way audio and 2 way video. Software Operating System Compatible Browser Compatible Ability to upload/export attached images. Access to communicative software. E-mail Gantt Charts Task management. History Mind maps (or similar concepts) have been used for centuries in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of mind maps were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235 - 1315) also used mind maps. The semantic network was developed in the late 1950s as a theory to understand human learning and developed into mind maps by Allan M. Collins and M. Ross Quillian during the early 1960s. Due to his commitment and published research, and his work with learning, creativity, and graphical thinking, Collins can be considered the father of the modern mind map. British popular psychology author Tony Buzan claims to have invented modern mind mapping. He claimed the idea was inspired by Alfred Korzybski's general semantics as popularized in science fiction novels, such as those of Robert A. Heinlein and A. E. van Vogt. Buzan argues that while 'traditional' outlines force readers to scan left to right and top to bottom, readers actually tend to scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion. Buzan also uses popular assumptions about the cerebral hemispheres in order to promote the exclusive use of mind mapping over other forms of note making. The mind map continues to be used in various forms, and for various applications including learning and education (where it is often taught as 'Webs', 'Mind webs', or 'Webbing'), planning, and in engineering diagramming. When compared with the concept map (which was developed by learning experts in the 1970s) the structure of a mind map is a similar radial, but is simplified by having one central key word. It is better to structure your knowledge with the help of clues about knowledge instead of structuring knowledge itself. Mind Maps helps to arrange your knowledge, ideas, words with the help of images those are called mind maps. Uses Rough mindmap notes taken during a course session A mind map is often created around a single word or text, placed in the center, to which associated ideas, words and concepts are added. Mind maps have many applications in personal, family, educational, and business situations, including notetaking, brainstorming (wherein ideas are inserted into the map radially around the center node, without the implicit prioritization that comes from hierarchy or sequential arrangements, and wherein grouping and organizing is reserved for later stages), summarizing, revising, and general clarifying of thoughts. One could listen to a lecture, for example, and take down notes using mind maps for the most important points or keywords. One can also use mind maps as a mnemonic technique or to sort out a complicated idea. Mind maps are also promoted as a way to collaborate in color pen creativity sessions. Quick Summary of Uses Problem Solving Outline / Framework Design Allows anonymous collaboration. Allows for marriage of words and visuals. Allows for individual expression of creativity. Condenses material into a concise and memorable format. Team building or synergy creating activity. Enhances work moral. Mindmaps can be drawn by hand, either as 'rough notes' during a lecture or meeting, for example, or can be more sophisticated in quality. Examples of both are illustrated. There are also a number of software packages available for producing mind maps (see below). 7 Steps to Making a Mind Map Start in the CENTRE of a blank page turned sideways. Why? Because starting in the centre gives your Brain freedom to spread out in all directions and to express itself more freely and naturally. Use an IMAGE or PICTURE for your central idea. Why? Because an image is worth a thousand words and helps you use your Imagination. A central image is more interesting, keeps you focussed, helps you concentrate, and gives your Brain more of a buzz! Use COLOURS throughout. :Why? Because colours are as exciting to your Brain as are images. Colour adds extra vibrancy and life to your Mind Map, adds tremendous energy to your Creative Thinking, and is fun! CONNECT your MAIN BRANCHES to the central image and connect your second- and third-level branches to the first and second levels, etc. Why? Because your Brain works by association. It likes to link two (or three, or four) things together. If you connect the branches, you will understand and remember a lot more easily. Make your branches CURVED rather than straight-lined. Why? Because having nothing but straight lines is boring to your Brain. Use ONE KEY WORD PER LINE. Why Because single key words give your Mind Map more power and flexibility. Use IMAGES throughout. Why Because each image, like the central image, is also worth a thousand words. So if you have only 10 images in your Mind Map, it's already the equal of 10,000 words of notes! Effectiveness in learning Buzan Buzan, Tony. (2000). The Mind Map Book, Penguin Books, 1996. ISBN 978-0452273221 claims that the mind map is a vastly superior note taking method because it does not lead to a "semi-hypnotic trance" state induced by other note forms. Buzan also argues that the mind map utilizes the full range of left and right human cortical skills, balances the brain, taps into the alleged 99% of your unused mental potential, as well as intuition (which he calls "superlogic"). However, scholarly research suggests that such claims may actually be marketing hype based on misconceptions about the brain and the cerebral hemispheres. Critics argue that hemispheric specialization theory has been identified as pseudoscientific when applied to mind mapping. Williams (2000) Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. Facts on file. ISBN 978-0816033515 Scholarly research by Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that the mind map technique had a limited but significant impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a −6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the mind map group, and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking. Farrand et al. suggested that learners preferred to use other methods because using a mind map was an unfamiliar technique, and its status as a "memory enhancing" technique engendered reluctance to apply it. Pressley, VanEtten, Yokoi, Freebern, and VanMeter (1998) found that learners tended to learn far better by focusing on the content of learning material rather than worrying over any one particular form of note taking. Pressley, M., VanEtten, S., Yokoi, L., Freebern, G., & VanMeter, P. (1998). "The metacognition of college studentship: A grounded theory approach". In: D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in Theory and Practice (pp. 347-367). Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum ISBN 9780805824810 Tools Mind mapping software can be used effectively to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding. Software packages can extend the concept of mind mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts & ideas with information on their computers and the internet, like spreadsheets, documents, internet sites and images. Trademarks The use of the term "Mind Maps" is claimed as a trademark by The Buzan Organisation, Ltd. in the UK Trade Mark 1424476, UK Intellectual Property Office, filed Nov. 1990 and the USA. US Trademark, USPTO Trademark Application and Registration Retrieval system The trade-mark does not appear in the records of the Canadian Intellectual Property Office. Canadian Intellectual Property Office In the U.S. "Mind Maps" is trademarked as a "service mark" expressly for "EDUCATIONAL SERVICES, NAMELY, CONDUCTING COURSES IN SELF-IMPROVEMENT" – other products and services are not covered by the trademark. See also Argument map Cognitive map Concept map List of mind mapping software Semantic network References Further reading Novak, J. D. (1993), "How do we learn our lesson?: Taking students through the process". The Science Teacher, 60(3), 50-55 (ISSN 0036-8555) Walther Hermann & Viviani Bovo (2005) Mapas Mentais: Enriquecendo Inteligências- Manual de Aprendizagem e Desenvolvimento de Inteligências"; (p XI 27, 331). Ed IDPH Nast, J. (2006). Idea Mapping: how to access your hidden brain power, learn faster, remember more, and achieve success in business. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471788621 Jean-Luc Deladrière, Frédéric Le Bihan, Pierre Mongin, Denis Rebaud, Organisez vos idées avec le Mind Mapping. Dunod, December 2006. ISBN 2-1005-0627-7 Delengaigne Xavier, Mongin Pierre, Boostez votre efficacité avec FreeMind. Eyrolles, april 2009, ISBN 978-2-212-12448-4 Delengaigne Xavier, Mongin Pierre, Organisez votre vie avec le mind mapping. Interéditions, april 2009, ISBN 978-2-72-960954-2 Judge, T. (2009). Mind Maps How to Mind Map. In Buzen World. Retrieved May 27 2009, from www.buzanworld.com/Mind_Maps.htm. External links Basic introduction to mind mapping Information on creating mind maps and the theory behind Mind Mapping Examples of Mind Maps A wiki about mind maps and other forms of information mapping

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Feminist_theology

Feminist theology is a movement found in several religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts. Feminists have attempted to counter perceptions of women as morally or spiritually inferior to men; as a source of sexual temptation; as dedicated to childbearing, their homes, and husbands; and as having a lesser role in religious ritual or leadership because of such inferiority or dedication. Methodology Feminist theology attempts to consider every aspect of religious practice and thought. Some of the questions feminist theologians ask are: How do we do theology? The basic question of how theologians may go about creating systems of thought is currently being reinterpreted by feminist theologians. Many feminist theologians assert that personal experience can be an important component of insight into the divine, along with the more traditional sources of holy books or received tradition. (The relevance of personal experience to the policies of groups of people is a familiar notion to veterans of the feminist movement.) Who is God? Feminist theologians have supported the use of non- or multi-gendered language for God, arguing that language powerfully impacts belief about the behavior and essence of God. Where are women in religious history? Feminist historical theologians study the roles of women in periods throughout history that have impacted religion: the Biblical period, the early Christian era, medieval Europe, and any period of import to a particular religion. They study individual women who influenced their religion or whose religious faith led them to impact their culture. The work of these scholars has helped feminist theologians claim historical figures as their predecessors in feminist theology. For example, Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech pointed out, "Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman. Man had nothing to do with him!" Elizabeth Cady Stanton produced The Woman's Bible, excising the traditional Christian text of all references she thought contradicted the positions of women's rights. Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith has as one of its main teachings the principle of the equality of men and women. The Bahá'í teachings suggest that for humanity to advance, that each gender, though not identical in function, must work in unison with each other and allow the healthy functioning of society. The Bahá'í teachings state that gender equality has positive results for everyone, not only women, and require the same academic and spiritual education for both girls and boys. Christianity One resource could be 'Beyond Sex Roles' by Gilbert Bilezikian Islam Judaism New Thought movement New Thought as a movement had no single origin, but was rather propelled along by a number of spiritual thinkers and philosophers and emerged through a variety of religious denominations and churches, particularly the Unity Church, Religious Science, and Church of Divine Science. It was a feminist movement in that most of its teachers and students were women; notable among the founders of the movement were Emma Curtis Hopkins, known as the "teacher of teachers" Myrtle Fillmore, Malinda Cramer, and Nona L. Brooks; with its churches and community centers mostly lead by women, from the 1880s to today. Christian Science Founder: Mary Baker Eddy Other religions In the latter part of the 20th Century, feminism was influential in the rise of Neopaganism in the United States, and particularly the Dianic tradition. Some feminists find the worship of a goddess, rather than a god, to be consonant with their views. Others are polytheists, and worship a number of goddesses. The collective set of beliefs associated with this is sometimes known as thealogy and sometimes referred to as the Goddess movement. See also Dianic Wicca. Gender and God Others who practice feminist spirituality may instead adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions. In those cases, the notion of God as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns. Feminist spirituality may also object to images of God that they perceive as authoritarian, parental, or disciplinarian, instead emphasizing "maternal" attributes such as nurturing, acceptance, and creativity. See also Unity Divine Science New Thought Christian theological praxis Liberation theology Ordination of women Postmodern Christianity When God Was a Woman Christian Science References Pamela Sue Anderson, A feminist philosophy of religion: the rationality and myths of religious belief (Oxford; Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998) Pamela Sue Anderson and Beverley Clack, eds., Feminist philosophy of religion: critical readings (London: Routledge, 2004) External links Unclipping the Wing: A Survey of Secondary Literature in English on Baha'i Perspectives on Women by Trevor R. J. Finch Directory of Bahá'í Articles on Gender Equality

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Economy_of_Liechtenstein

Overview Despite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. Low business taxes - the maximum tax rate is 18% - and easy incorporation rules have induced about 73,700 holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and EU) since May 1995. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe. History Since the signing of the Customs Treaty in 1924, Liechtenstein and Switzerland have represented one mutual economic area. Therefore, the borders between those states are open. The country also uses the Swiss franc as its national currency, and Swiss customs officers secure its border with Austria. Liechtenstein is a member of EFTA, and joined the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1995 in order to benefit from the EU internal market. The liberal economy and tax system make Liechtenstein a safe, trustworthy, and success-oriented place for private and business purposes, especially with its highly modern, internationally laid-out infrastructure and nearby connections to the whole world. The Principality of Liechtenstein has gone through economic and cultural development in the last 40 years like no other Western country. In this short period, Liechtenstein developed from a mainly agricultural state to one of the most highly industrialized countries in the world. Foreign Trade Besides its efficient industry, there also is a strong services sector. Four out of 10 employees work in the services sector, a relatively high proportion of whom are foreigners, including those who commute across the border from the neighboring states of Switzerland and Austria. Industrial exports doubled in 10 years from $1.4 billion (SFr. 2.2 billion) in 1990 to $2.9 billion (SFr. 4.6 billion) in 2000. Some 12.7% of Liechtenstein goods are exported to Switzerland, 42.1% to the EU, and 45.2% to the rest of the world. Liechtenstein imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. For the last 2 years, the United States has been the most important export market for Liechtenstein, totaling $561 million (SFr. 876 million); Germany is second, with $479 million (SFr. 748 million) worth of imports, and Switzerland third, with $375 million (SFr. 587 million). France and Italy were able to maintain their positions, while Austria and the United Kingdom have been overtaken by Taiwan and Japan. About 5% of the country's revenues are invested in research and development, one of the driving forces of the success of Liechtenstein's economy. Total R&D spending in 2000 rose by 20.7% to approximately $149 million (233 million francees). Banking and Finance The Principality of Liechtenstein also is known as an important financial center, primarily because it specializes in financial services for foreign entities. The country's low tax rate, loose incorporation and corporate governance rules, and traditions of strict bank secrecy have contributed significantly to the ability of financial intermediaries in Liechtenstein to attract funds from outside the country's borders. The same factors made the country attractive and vulnerable to money launderers, although late 2009 legislation has strengthened regulatory oversight of illicit funds transfers. Liechtenstein has chartered 17 banks, three non-bank financial companies, and 71 public investment companies, as well as insurance and reinsurance companies. Its 270 licensed fiduciary companies and 81 lawyers serve as nominees for, or manage, more than 75,000 entities (primarily corporations, institutions, or trusts), party for non-Liechtenstein residents. About one-third of these entities hold the controlling interest in other entities, chartered in countries other than Liechtenstein. The Principality's laws permit the corporations it charters to issue bearer shares. Until recently, the Principality's banking laws permitted banks to issue numbered accounts, but new regulations require strict know-your-customer practices for all accounts. Statistics GDP (PPP): $4.16 billion (2007) GDP - real growth rate: 3.1%% (2007 est.) GDP (PPP) - per capita: purchasing power parity - $118,000 (2007 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (2001) Labor force: 31,000 of whom 19,000 are foreigners; 13,900 commute from Austria, Switzerland, and Germany to work each day (31 December 2006) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1.7%, industry 43.5%, services 55.4% (31 December 2006) Unemployment rate: 1.5% (December 2007) Budget: revenues: $424.2 million expenditures: $414.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) Industries: electronics, metal manufacturing, textiles, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, food products, precision instruments, tourism Industrial production growth rate: N/A Electricity - production: 80,857 MWh (2002) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 3330 MWh (4.12%) hydro: 76166 MWh (94.2%) nuclear: none (0%) other: 1361 MWh (1.68%) Electricity - consumption: 318,340 MWh Electricity - exports: none Electricity - imports: 237,483 MWh Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, corn, potatoes; livestock, dairy products Exports - commodities: small specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery Exports - partners: EU 62.6% (Germany 24.3%, Austria 9.5%, France 8.9%, Italy 6.6%, UK 4.6%), US 18.9%, Switzerland 15.7% Imports - commodities: agricultural products, raw materials, machinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles Imports - partners: EU countries, Switzerland Currency: Swiss franc (CHF) Exchange rates: Swiss francs per US dollar - 1.3467 (2003), 1.5586 (2002), 1.6876 (2001), 1.6888 (2000), 1.5022 (1999) Fiscal year: calendar year

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Backplane

A backplane (or "backplane system") is a circuit board (usually a printed circuit board) that connects several connectors in parallel to each other, so that each pin of each connector is linked to the same relative pin of all the other connectors Definition , forming a computer bus. It is used as a backbone to connect several printed circuit boards together to make up a complete computer system. Early personal computers like the Apple II and the IBM PC integrated an internal backplane for expansion cards. While a motherboard may include a backplane, the backplane is actually a separate entity. A backplane is generally differentiated from a motherboard by the lack of on-board processing power where the CPU is on a plug-in card. Backplanes are normally used in preference to cables because of their greater reliability. In a cabled system, the cables need to be flexed every time that a card is added to or removed from the system; and this flexing eventually causes mechanical failures. A backplane does not suffer from this problem, so its service life is limited only by the longevity of its connectors. For example, the DIN 41612 connectors used in the VMEbus system can withstand 50 to 500 insertions and removals (called mating cycles), depending on their quality. In addition, there are bus expansion cables which will extend a computer bus to an external backplane, usually located in an enclosure, to provide more or different slots than what the host computer provides. These cable sets have a transmitter board located in the computer, an expansion board in the remote backplane, and a cable between the two. Active backplanes Backplanes have grown in complexity from the simple ISA (used in the original IBM PC) or S-100 style where all the connectors were connected to a common bus. Because of limitations inherent in the PCI specification for driving slots, backplanes are now offered as passive and active. Passive backplanes offer no active bus driving circuitry. Any desired arbitration logic is placed on the daughter cards. Active backplanes include chips which buffer the various signals to the slots. The distinction between the two isn't always very clear, but may become an important issue if a whole system is expected to have no single point of failure. A passive backplane, even if it is single, is not usually considered a SPOF. Active backplanes are more complicated and thus have a non-zero risk of malfunction. Backplanes in storage Backplanes have also become commonplace for connecting multiple hard drives to a single disk array controller. Backplanes are commonly found in disk enclosures, disk arrays, and servers. Backplanes for SAS and SATA HDDs most commonly use the SGPIO protocol as means of communication between the HBA and the backplane. Alternatively SCSI Enclosure Services can be used. With Parallel SCSI subsystems, SAF-TE is used. Midplane Whereas cards and devices connect to only one side of a backplane, a midplane has cards and devices connected to both sides. This ability to plug cards into either side of a midplane is often useful in larger systems made up primarily of modules attached to the midplane. Midplanes are used in computers, mostly in blade servers, where server blades reside on one side and the peripheral (power, networking, and other I/O) and service modules reside on the other. Midplanes are also popular in networking and telecommunications equipment where one side of the chassis accepts system processing cards and the other side of the chassis accepts network interface cards. Platforms PICMG Chassis Plans PICMG 1.3 Dual Quad Core Single Board Computer in BPX 3/8 Backplane Chassis Plans PICMG 1.3 Active Backplane Major Components A Single Board Computer meeting the PICMG 1.3 specification and compatible with a PICMG 1.3 backplane is referred to as a System Host Board. In the Intel Single Board Computer world, PICMG provides standards for the backplane interface: PICMG 1.0, 1.1 and 1.2 PICMG 1.0, 1.1 and 1.2 provide for ISA and PCI support with 1.2 adding PCIX support. PICMG 1.3 PICMG 1.3 PICMG 1.3 SHB Express Resources provides for PCI-Express support. See also Motherboard Switched fabric References

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Cyborg

A cyborg is a cybernetic organism (i.e., an organism that has both artificial and natural systems). The term was coined in 1960 when Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline used it in an article about the advantages of self-regulating human-machine systems in outer space. "Cyborgs and Space," in Astronautics (September 1960), by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline. D. S. Halacy's Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman in 1965 featured an introduction by, who wrote of a "new frontier" that was "not merely space, but more profoundly the relationship between 'inner space' to 'outer space' -a bridge...between mind and matter." D. S. Halacy, Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1965), 7. The cyborg is often seen today merely as an organism that has enhanced abilities due to technology, Technology as extension of human functional architecture by Alexander Chislenko but this perhaps oversimplifies the category of feedback. Fictional cyborgs are portrayed as a synthesis of organic and synthetic parts, and frequently pose the question of difference between human and machine as one concerned with morality, free will, and empathy. Fictional cyborgs may be represented as visibly mechanical (e.g. the Cybermen in the Doctor Who franchise or Amber from the game Project Eden); or as almost indistinguishable from humans (e.g. the "Human" Cylons from the re-imagining of Battlestar Galactica). The 1970s television series the Six Million Dollar Man featured one of the most famous fictional cyborgs. Cyborgs in fiction often play up a human contempt for over-dependence on technology, particularly when used for war, and when used in ways that seem to threaten free will. Cyborgs are also often portrayed with physical or mental abilities far exceeding a human counterpart (military forms may have inbuilt weapons, among other things). Real (as opposed to fictional) cyborgs are more frequently people who use cybernetic technology to repair or overcome the physical and mental constraints of their bodies. While cyborgs are commonly thought of as mammals, they can be any kind of organism. Overview According to some definitions of the term, the metaphysical and physical attachments humanity has with even the most basic technologies have already made them cyborgs. A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century by Donna Haraway In a typical example, a human fitted with a heart pacemaker or an insulin pump (if the person has diabetes) might be considered a cyborg, since these mechanical parts enhance the body's "natural" mechanisms through synthetic feedback mechanisms. Some theorists cite such modifications as contact lenses, hearing aids, or intraocular lenses as examples of fitting humans with technology to enhance their biological capabilities; however, these modifications are no more cybernetic than would be a pen or a wooden leg. Cochlear implants that combine mechanical modification with any kind of feedback response are more accurately cyborg enhancements. The prefix "cyber" is also used to address human-technology mixtures in the abstract. This includes artifacts that may not popularly be considered technology; for example, pen and paper, and speech and language. Augmented with these technologies, and connected in communication with people in other times and places, a person becomes capable of much more than they were before. This is like computers, which gain power by using Internet protocols to connect with other computers. Cybernetic technologies include highways, pipes, electrical wiring, buildings, electrical plants, libraries, and other infrastructure that we hardly notice, but which are critical parts of the cybernetics that we work within. Bruce Sterling in his universe of Shaper/Mechanist suggested an idea of alternative cyborg called Lobster, which is made not by using internal implants, but by using an external shell (e.g. a Powered Exoskeleton). Sterling, Bruce. Schismatrix. Arbor House. 1985. Unlike human cyborgs that appear human externally while being synthetic internally, a Lobster looks inhuman externally but contains a human internally. The computer game Deus Ex: Invisible War prominently featured cyborgs called Omar, where "Omar" is a Russian translation of the word "Lobster" (since the Omar are of Russian origin in the game). History The concept of a man-machine mixture was widespread in science fiction before World War II. As early as 1843, Edgar Allan Poe described a man with extensive prostheses in the short story "The Man That Was Used Up". In 1908, Jean de la Hire introduced Nyctalope (perhaps the first true superhero was also the first literary cyborg) in the novel L'Homme Qui Peut Vivre Dans L'eau (The Man Who Can Live in Water). Edmond Hamilton presented space explorers with a mixture of organic and machine parts in his novel The Comet Doom in 1928. He later featured the talking, living brain of an old scientist, Simon Wright, floating around in a transparent case, in all the adventures of his famous hero, Captain Future. In the short story "No Woman Born" in 1944, C. L. Moore wrote of Deirdre, a dancer, whose body was burned completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful and supple mechanical body. One of the earliest uses of the term was by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline in 1960 to refer to their conception of an enhanced human being who could survive in extraterrestrial environments: For the exogenously extended organizational complex functioning as an integrated homeostatic system unconsciously, we propose the term ‘Cyborg'. Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline Manfred E. Clynes, and Nathan S. Kline, (1960) "Cyborgs and space," Astronautics, September, pp. 26-27 and 74-75; reprinted in Gray, Mentor, and Figueroa-Sarriera, eds., The Cyborg Handbook, New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 29-34. (hardback: ISBN 0-415-90848-5; paperback: ISBN 0-415-90849-3) Their concept was the outcome of thinking about the need for an intimate relationship between human and machine as the new frontier of space exploration was beginning to take place. A designer of physiological instrumentation and electronic data-processing systems, Clynes was the chief research scientist in the Dynamic Simulation Laboratory at Rockland State Hospital in New York. However this may not have been the earliest use. Five months earlier The New York Times had printed: A cyborg is essentially a man-machine system in which the control mechanisms of the human portion are modified externally by drugs or regulatory devices so that the being can live in an environment different from the normal one. OED On-line A book titled Cyborg: Digital Destiny and Human Possibility in the Age of the Wearable computer was published by Doubleday in 2001. Some of the ideas in the book were incorporated into the 35mm motion picture film Cyberman. Individual cyborgs Generally, the term "cyborg" is used to refer to a man or woman with bionic, or robotic, implants. In current prosthetic applications, the C-Leg system developed by Otto Bock HealthCare is used to replace a human leg that has been amputated because of injury or illness. The use of sensors in the artificial C-Leg aids in walking significantly by attempting to replicate the user's natural gait, as it would be prior to amputation. Otto Bock HealthCare : a global leader in healthcare products | Otto Bock Prostheses like the C-Leg and the more advanced iLimb are considered by some to be the first real steps towards the next generation of real-world cyborg applications. Additionally cochlear implants and magnetic implants which provide people with a sense that they would not otherwise have had can additionally be thought of as creating cyborgs. In 2002, under the heading Project Cyborg, a British scientist, Kevin Warwick, had an array of 100 electrodes fired in to his nervous system in order to link his nervous system into the internet. With this in place he successfully carried out a series of experiments including extending his nervous system over the internet to control a robotic hand, a form of extended sensory input and the first direct electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans. Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu, X: “Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy”, IEE Proceedings on Communications, 151(3), pp.185-189, 2004 Social cyborgs More broadly, the full term "cybernetic organism" is used to describe larger networks of communication and control. For example, cities, networks of roads, networks of software, corporations, markets, governments, and the collection of these things together. A corporation can be considered as an artificial intelligence that makes use of replaceable human components to function. People at all ranks can be considered replaceable agents of their functionally intelligent government institutions, whether such a view is desirable or not. Cyborg proliferation in society Many people could be making the transition to cyborg sooner than they thought. Applied Digital Solutions leads in the development of the human implant RFID chip. This small, rice sized chip has been marketed to help track medical records and keep credit information safe and convenient . Fisher, Jill A. 2006. Indoor Positioning and Digital Management: Emerging Surveillance Regimes in Hospitals. In T. Monahan (ed), Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and Power in Everyday Life (pp. 77-88). New York: Routledge. Although there is a large community that is critical of this technology, RFID technology has done well in the past as a tracking chip in the industrial world (RFID's reduction for out-of-stock study at Wal-Mart, RFID radio), and for tracking pets and endangered wildlife (USDA Bets the Farm on Animal ID Program). This in effect turns all chipped people or organisms into cyborgs, which is also a source of discomfort to some. The critics of this movement claim that chipping people is an invasion of privacy . Markus Hansen, Sebastian Meissner: Identification and Tracking of Individuals and Social Networks using the Electronic Product Code on RFID Tags, IFIP Summer School, Karlstad, 2007,Slides In medicine In medicine, there are two important and different types of cyborgs: these are the restorative and the enhanced. Restorative technologies “restore lost function, organs, and limbs”. Gray, Chris Hables, ed. The Cyborg Handbook. New York: Routledge, 1995 The key aspect of restorative cyborgization is the repair of broken or missing processes to revert to a healthy or average level of function. There is no enhancement to the original faculties and processes that were lost. On the contrary, the enhanced cyborg “follows a principle, and it is the principle of optimal performance: maximising output (the information or modifications obtained) and minimising input (the energy expended in the process) ”. Lyotard, Jean François: The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984 Thus, the enhanced cyborg intends to exceed normal processes or even gain new functions that were not originally present. Although prostheses in general supplement lost or damaged body parts with the integration of a mechanical artifice, bionic implants in medicine allow model organs or body parts to mimic the original function more closely. Michael Chorost wrote a memoir of his experience with cochlear implants, or bionic ear, titled "Rebuilt: How Becoming Part Computer Made Me More Human." Jesse Sullivan became one of the first people to operate a fully robotic limb through a nerve-muscle graft, enabling him a complex range of motions beyond that of previous prosthetics. By 2004, a fully functioning artificial heart was developed. The continued technological development of bionic and nanotechnologies begins to raise the question of enhancement, and of the future possibilities for cyborgs which surpass the original functionality of the biological model. The ethics and desirability of "enhancement prosthetics" have been debated; their proponents include the transhumanist movement, with its belief that new technologies can assist the human race in developing beyond its present, normative limitations such as ageing and disease, as well as other, more general incapacities, such as limitations on speed, strength, endurance, and intelligence. Opponents of the concept describe what they believe to be biases which propel the development and acceptance of such technologies; namely, a bias towards functionality and efficiency that may compel assent to a view of human people which de-emphasises as defining characteristics actual manifestations of humanity and personhood, in favour of definition in terms of upgrades, versions, and utility. One of the more common and accepted forms of temporary modification occurs as a result of prenatal diagnosis technologies. Some modern parents willingly use testing methods such as ultrasounds and amniocentesis to determine the sex or health of the fetus. The discovery of birth defects or other congenital problems by these procedures may lead to neonatal treatment in the form of open fetal surgery or the less invasive fetal intervention. A brain-computer interface, or BCI, provides a direct path of communication from the brain to an external device, effectively creating a cyborg. Research of Invasive BCIs, which utilize electrodes implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain, has focused on restoring damaged eye sight in the blind and providing functionality to paralysed people, most notably those with severe cases, such as Locked-In syndrome. Retinal implants are another form of cyborgization in medicine. The theory behind retinal stimulation to restore vision to people suffering from retinitis pigmentosa and vision loss due to aging (conditions in which people have an abnormally low amount of ganglion cells) is that the retinal implant and electrical stimulation would act as a substitute for the missing ganglion cells (cells which connect the eye to the brain). The Boston Retinal Implant Project - Publications While work to perfect this technology is still being done, there have already been major advances in the use of electronic stimulation of the retina to allow the eye to sense patterns of light. A specialized camera is worn by the subject (possibly on the side of a their glasses frames) the camera converts the image into a pattern of electrical stimulation. A chip located in the users eye would then electrically stimulate the retina with this patten and the image appears to the user. Current prototypes have the camera being powered by a hand sized power supply that could be placed in a pocket or on the waist. The Boston Retinal Implant Project - Mission Statement Currently the technology has only been tested on human subject for brief amounts of time and the amount of light picked up by the subject has been minimal. However, if technological advances proceed as planned this technology may be used by thousands of blind people and restore vision to most of them. In the military The "cyborg soldier" often refers to a soldier whose weapon and survival systems are integrated into the self, creating a human-machine interface. A notable example is the Pilot's Associate, first developed in 1985, which would use Artificial Intelligence to assist a combat pilot. The push for further integration between pilot and aircraft would include the Pilot Associate's ability to "initiate actions of its own when it deems it necessary, including firing weapons and even taking over the aircraft from the pilot. (Gray, Cyborg Handbook). Military organizations' research has recently focused on the utilization of cyborg animals for inter-species relationships for the purposes of a supposed a tactical advantage. DARPA has announced its interest in developing "cyborg insects" to transmit data from sensors implanted into the insect during the pupal stage. The insect's motion would be controlled from a MEMS, or Micro-Electro-Mechanical System, and would conceivably surveil an environment and detect explosives or gas. Washington Times - Military seeks to develop 'insect cyborgs' Similarly, DARPA is developing a neural implant to remotely control the movement of sharks. The shark's unique senses would be exploited to provide data feedback in relation to enemy ship movement and underwater explosives. Military Plans Cyborg Sharks | LiveScience Other proposals have integrated the mechanical into the intuitive abilities of the individual soldier. Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley have set out to "create an exoskeleton that combines a human control system with robotic muscle." 03.03.2004 - UC Berkeley Researchers Developing Robotic Exoskeleton that can Enhance Human Strength and Endurance The device is distinctly Cyborgian in that it is self-powered, and requires no conscious manipulation by the pilot soldier. The exoskeleton responds to the pilot, through constant computer calculations, to distribute and lessen weight exerted on the pilot, allowing hypothetically for soldiers to haul large amounts of medical supplies and carry injured soldiers to safety. In sports The cyborgization of sports has come to the forefront of the national consciousness in recent years. Through the media, America has been exposed to the subject both with the BALCO scandal and the accusations of blood doping at the Tour de France levied against Lance Armstrong and Floyd Landis. But, there is more to the subject; steroids, blood doping, prosthesis, body modification, and maybe in the future, genetic modification are all topics that should be included within cyborgs in sports. As of now, prosthetic legs and feet are not advanced enough to give the athlete the edge, and people with these prosthetics are allowed to compete, possibly only because they are not actually competitive in the Ironman event among other such -athlons. Prosthesis in track and field, however, is a budding issue. Prosthetic legs and feet may soon be better than their human counterparts. Some prosthetic legs and feet allow for runners to adjust the length of their stride which could potentially improve run times and in time actually allow a runner with prosthetic legs to be the fastest in the world. One model used for replacing a leg lost at the knee has actually improved runners' marathon times by as much as 30 minutes. The leg is shaped out of a long, flat piece of metal that extends backwards then curves under itself forming a U shape. This functions as a spring, allowing for runners to be propelled forward with by just placing their weight on the limb. This is the only form that allows the wearer to sprint. In art Because the concept of the cyborg is associated to most people with science fiction, they tend to believe that cyborgs exist only in the imaginations of writers and artists. There are many types of art that work towards creating public awareness of cybernetic organisms; these can range from paintings to installations. Some artists who create such works are Neil Harbisson (who is also the first person to be officially recognized as a cyborg by a government The Sunday Times ), Isa Gordon, Motohiko Odani, Nick Lampert, Patricia Piccinini, Jenifer Gonzalez, Gray, C.H.: The Cyborg Handbook. Routledge, 1995. Simbiotica and Oron Catts, Iñigo Manglano-Ovalle and Orlan and Stelarc. Zylinska, J: The Cyborg Experiments. Continuum, 2002. Machines are becoming more ubiquitous in the artistic process itself, with computerized drawing pads replacing pen and paper, and drum machines becoming nearly as popular as human drummers. This is perhaps most notable in generative art and music. Composers such as Brian Eno have developed and utilized software which can build entire musical scores from a few basic mathematical parameters. Generative Music - Brian Eno - In Motion Magazine In popular culture Cyborgs have become a well-known part of science fiction literature and other media. Examples of famous Organic-based fictional cyborgs include Robocop, Star Trek's Borg and Darth Vader. Mechanical-based models include Replicants, and Cylons. See also Android Bio-nano generator Bioroid Body horror Borg (Star Trek) Brain-computer interface Cybermen Cybernetics Cyberware Cyborgs in fiction Cyborg theory Cylon Powered Exoskeleton Fictional cyborgs Gynoid Hybrot Ict implant List of fictional cyborgs Robot Transhumanism Waldo (short story) Wetware hacker References Further reading Balsamo, Anne. Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women. Durham: Duke University Press, 1996. Caidin, Martin. Cyborg; A Novel. New York: Arbor House, 1972. Clark, Andy. Natural-Born Cyborgs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Crittenden, Chris. "Self-Deselection: Technopsychotic Annihilation via Cyborg." Ethics & the Environment 7.2 (Autumn 2002): 127-152. Franchi , Stefano, and Güven Güzeldere, eds. Mechanical Bodies, Computational Minds: Artificial Intelligence from Automata to Cyborgs. MIT Press, 2005. Flanagan, Mary, and Austin Booth, eds. Reload: Rethinking Women + Cyberculture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002. Gray, Chris Hables. Cyborg Citizen: Politics in the Posthuman Age. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 2001. Gray, Chris Hables, ed. The Cyborg Handbook. New York: Routledge, 1995. Grenville, Bruce, ed. The Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture. Arsenal Pulp Press, 2002. Halacy, D. S. Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman. New York: Harper & Row, 1965. Halberstam, Judith, and Ira Livingston. Posthuman Bodies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. Haraway, Donna. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women; The Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge, 1990. Klugman, Craig. "From Cyborg Fiction to Medical Reality." Literature and Medicine 20.1 (Spring 2001): 39-54. Kurzweil, Ray. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. Viking, 2005. Mann, Steve. "Telematic Tubs against Terror: Bathing in the Immersive Interactive Media of the Post-Cyborg Age." Leonardo 37.5 (October 2004): 372-373. Mann, Steve, and Hal Niedzviecki. Cyborg: digital destiny and human possibility in the age of the wearable computer Doubleday, 2001. ISBN 0-385-65825-7 (A paperback version also exists, ISBN 0-385-65826-5). Masamune Shirow, Ghost in the Shell. Endnotes, 1991. Kodansha ISBN 4-7700-2919-5. Mitchell, William. Me++: The Cyborg Self and the Networked City. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003. Muri, Allison. The Enlightenment Cyborg: A History of Communications and Control in the Human Machine, 1660–1830. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006. Muri, Allison. Of Shit and the Soul: Tropes of Cybernetic Disembodiment. Body & Society 9.3 (2003): 73–92. Nishime, LeiLani. "The Mulatto Cyborg: Imagining a Multiracial Future." Cinema Journal 44.2 (Winter 2005), 34-49. The Oxford English dictionary. 2nd ed. edited by J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Vol 4 p. 188. Rorvik, David M. As Man Becomes Machine: the Evolution of the Cyborg. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971. Rushing, Janice Hocker, and Thomas S. Frentz. Projecting the Shadow: The Cyborg Hero in American Film. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Smith, Marquard, and Joanne Morra, eds. The Prosthetic Impulse: From a Posthuman Present to a Biocultural Future. MIT Press, 2005. The science fiction handbook for readers and writers. By George S. Elrick. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1978, p. 77. The science fiction encyclopaedia. General editor, Peter Nicholls, associate editor, John Clute, technical editor, Carolyn Eardley, contributing editors, Malcolm Edwards, Brian Stableford. 1st ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979, p. 151. Warwick, Kevin. I,Cyborg, University of Illinois Press, 2004. Yoshito Ikada, Bio Materials: an approach to Artificial Organs. (バイオマテリアル: 人工臓器へのアプローチ) External links The Cyborg Database Top Ten Cybernetic Upgrades Everyone Will Want by Michael Anissimov Rangeresqe Military Cyborgs Are you a cyborg? by Alexander Chislenko Border Crossings: Cyborgs Cyberman reviews Cyborgblog Cyborg Fantasies Futures wiki, Cyborg The open-source Electroencephalography project; The open-source programmable chip Electroencephalography project; wiki; WikiCities wiki Stelarc FROM ZOMBIE TO CYBORG BODIES - Extra Ear, Exoskeleton and Avatars TransVision: Transhumanism Conference, 2004 Wetware Technology World Transhumanist Association Cyborg Nation: Beyond Terminator Salvation by Rae Bryant

Cyborg |@lemmatized cyborg:83 cybernetic:8 organism:6 e:9 artificial:7 natural:4 system:13 term:7 coin:1 manfred:5 clynes:6 nathan:5 kline:5 use:22 article:1 advantage:2 self:5 regulating:1 human:33 machine:11 space:8 astronautics:2 september:2 halacy:3 evolution:4 superman:3 feature:4 introduction:1 write:3 new:15 frontier:2 merely:2 profoundly:1 relationship:3 inner:1 bridge:1 mind:2 matter:2 york:11 harper:2 row:2 publisher:1 often:4 see:2 today:1 enhance:4 ability:4 due:2 technology:22 extension:1 functional:1 architecture:1 alexander:2 chislenko:2 perhaps:3 oversimplify:1 category:1 feedback:4 fictional:7 portray:2 synthesis:1 organic:3 synthetic:3 part:8 frequently:2 pose:1 question:2 difference:1 one:7 concerned:1 morality:1 free:2 empathy:1 may:8 represent:1 visibly:1 mechanical:9 g:3 cybermen:2 doctor:1 franchise:1 amber:1 game:3 project:7 eden:1 almost:1 indistinguishable:1 cylons:2 imagining:1 battlestar:1 galactica:1 television:1 series:2 six:1 million:1 dollar:1 man:8 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Frank_Sinatra

{{Infobox Musical artist |Name = Frank Sinatra |Img = Frank Sinatra laughing.jpg |Img_capt = Frank Sinatra in 1960 |Background = solo_singer |Birth_name = Francis Albert Sinatra |Alias = Ol' Blue Eyes The Chairman of the BoardThe VoiceFrankie |Born = Hoboken, New Jersey, USA |Died = Los Angeles, California, USA |Instrument = Vocals |Genre = Traditional pop, jazz, big band,vocal Music Genre: Vocal music.Allmusic. Retrieved October 23, 2008.</ref> |Occupation = Singeractorproducerdirectorconductor Gigliotti, Gilbert L. A Storied Singer: Frank Sinatra as Literary Conceit |Years_active = 1935–1995 |Label = Columbia, Capitol, Reprise |Associated_acts = Rat PackBing CrosbyNancy Sinatra |URL = www.franksinatra.com }} Francis Albert "Frank" Sinatra (December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer and actor. Beginning his musical career in the swing era with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey, Sinatra became a successful solo artist in the early to mid-1940s, being the idol of the "bobby soxers." His professional career had stalled by the 1950s, but it was reborn in 1954 after he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He signed with Capitol Records and released several critically lauded albums (such as In the Wee Small Hours, Songs for Swingin' Lovers, Come Fly with Me, Only the Lonely and Nice 'n' Easy). Sinatra left Capitol to found his own record label, Reprise Records (finding success with albums such as Ring-A-Ding-Ding, Sinatra at the Sands and Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim), toured internationally, was a founding member of the Rat Pack and fraternized with celebrities and presidents, including President John F. Kennedy. Sinatra turned 50 in 1965, recorded the retrospective September of My Years, starred in the Emmy-winning television special Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music, and scored hits with "Strangers in the Night" and "My Way". Sinatra attempted to weather the changing tastes in popular music, but with sales of his music dwindling, and after appearing in several poorly received films, he retired in 1971. Coming out of retirement in 1973, he recorded several albums, scored a hit with "(Theme From) New York, New York" in 1980, and toured both within the United States and internationally until a few years before his death in 1998. Sinatra also forged a career as a dramatic actor, winning the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here to Eternity, and he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Man with the Golden Arm. He also starred in such musicals as High Society, Pal Joey, Guys and Dolls and On the Town. Sinatra was honored with the Kennedy Center Honors in 1983 and awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Ronald Reagan in 1985 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1997. Sinatra was also the recipient of eleven Grammy Awards, including the Grammy Trustees Award, Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Biography Early life Sinatra was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the only child of Italian immigrants Natalie Della (née Garaventa) and Anthony Martin Sinatra. Frank Sinatra Biography (1915-1998) He left high school without graduating, Summers, Antony and Swan, Robbyn. Sinatra: The Life. Doubleday, 2005. ISBN 0552153311. pg38. having attended only 47 days before being expelled due to his rowdy conduct. His mother, known as Dolly, was influential in the neighborhood and in local Democratic Party circles, but also ran an illegal abortion business from her home; she was arrested several times and convicted twice for this offense. Frank's father Tony served with the Hoboken Fire Department. During the tough years of the 1930s, when the Great Depression hit North America very hard, Dolly nevertheless provided ready pocket money to her son Frank, the family's only child, for outings with friends and fancy clothes. His Way: Frank Sinatra, the Unauthorized Biography, by Kitty Kelley, 1988. Frank then worked for some time as a delivery boy at the Jersey Observer newspaper, Summers and Swan, pg44 and as a riveter at the Tietjan and Lang shipyard. Summers and Swan, pg47 It was in the early 1930s that Sinatra began singing in public. Summers and Swan, p48. 1935-1940: Start of career, work with James and Dorsey In 1935, he got his first break when his mother persuaded a local singing group, The Three Flashes, to let him join. With Sinatra, the group became known as the Hoboken Four, and they sufficiently impressed Edward Bowes. After appearing on his show, Major Bowes Amateur Hour, they attracted 40,000 votes and won the first prize — a six month contract to perform on stage and radio across the United States. Sinatra's first cousin, Ray Sinatra, had an orchestra and his own network radio program ("Cycling the Kilocycles") in the mid-1930s, but Ray and Frank did not work together. "Jim and Marian Jordan Will Be Heard Tonight With Ray Sinatra's Orchestra." Oakland Tribune. April 15, 1937. p28. Sinatra left the Hoboken Four and returned home in late 1935. His mother secured him a job as a singing waiter and MC at the Rustic Cabin in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, for which he was paid $15 a week. Nelson, Michael. Frank Sinatra: the Loneliness of the Long Distance Singer. vqronline.com On March 18, 1939, Sinatra made his first recording, of a song called "Our Love", with the Frank Mane band. In June, Harry James hired Sinatra on a one year contract of $75 a week. Ingham, Chris. The Rough Guide to Frank Sinatra. Rough Guides Ltd. June 30, 2005. ISBN 1843534142. p9. Growing dissatisfied with the James band, Sinatra was approached by Tommy Dorsey in November 1939, and formally joined Dorsey's band the following January. In his first year with Dorsey, Sinatra released more than forty songs, with "I'll Never Smile Again" topping the charts for twelve weeks in mid-July. Summers and Swan, pg91 1940-1950: Sinatramania and decline of career In the autumn of 1940, Sinatra appeared in his first film, Las Vegas Nights. In May 1941, Sinatra was at the top of the male singer polls in the Billboard and Downbeat magazines. Summers and Swan, pg94 Sinatra's relationship with Tommy Dorsey was tenuous, and Sinatra recorded his first solo sessions without the Dorsey band (but with Dorsey's arranger Axel Stordahl and with Dorsey's approval) in January 1942. Sinatra left the Dorsey band late in 1942. His appeal to bobby soxers, as teenage girls of that time were called, revealed a whole new audience for popular music, which had been recorded mainly for adults up to that time. On December 31, 1942, Sinatra opened at the Paramount Theater in New York. Sinatra being interviewed for American Forces Network during World War II. During the musicians' strike of 1942–44, Columbia rereleased Harry James’ "All or Nothing at All", recorded in August 1939 and released before Sinatra had made a name for himself. The original release didn’t even mention the vocalist’s name. When the recording was re–released in 1943 with Sinatra’s name prominently displayed, the record was on the best–selling list for 18 weeks and reached number 2 on June 2, 1943. Richard Peters, "Frank Sinatra Scrapbook", St. Martins Press, New York, 1982, pp. 123, 157. In 1943, he signed with Columbia Records as a solo artist with initially great success, particularly during the musicians' recording strikes. Sinatra signed with Columbia on June 1, 1943, with the musicians' strike ten months old. And while no new records had been issued during the strike, he had been performing on the radio (on Your Hit Parade), and on stage. Columbia wanted to get new recordings of their growing star as fast as possible, so Sinatra convinced them to hire Alec Wilder as arranger and conductor for several sessions with a vocal group called the Bobby Tucker Singers. These first sessions were on June 7, June 22, August 5, and November 10, 1943. Of the nine songs recorded during these sessions, seven charted on the best–selling list.<ref> (CD booklet), "Frank Sinatra: The Columbia Years: 1943–1952, The Complete Recordings Vol. 1, 1993 When Sinatra returned to the Paramount in October 1944, 35,000 fans caused a near riot outside the venue because they were not allowed in. In 1945, Sinatra co-starred with Gene Kelly in Anchors Aweigh. That same year, he was loaned out to RKO to star in a short film titled The House I Live In. Directed by Mervyn LeRoy, this film on tolerance and racial equality earned a special Academy Award shared among Sinatra and those who brought the film to the screen, along with a special Golden Globe for "Promoting Good Will." 1946 saw the release of his first album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra, and the debut of his own weekly radio show. By the end of 1948, Sinatra himself felt that his career was stalling, something that was confirmed when he slipped to No. 4 on Down Beats annual poll of most popular singers (following Billy Eckstine, Frankie Laine, and Bing Crosby). Summers and Swan, p149 1949 saw an upswing, as Frank once again teamed up with Gene Kelly to co-star in Take Me Out to the Ball Game. It was well received critically and became a major commercial success. That same year, Sinatra would team up with Gene Kelly for a third time in On the Town. 1950-1960: Rebirth of career, Capitol concept albums After two years' absence, Sinatra returned to the concert stage on January 12, 1950, in Hartford, Connecticut. Sinatra's voice suffered and he experienced hemorrhaging of his vocal cords on stage at the Copacabana on April 26, 1950. His Way: Frank Sinatra, the Unauthorized Biography, by Kitty Kelley, 1988. Sinatra's career and appeal to new teen audiences declined as he moved into his mid-30s. In September 1951, Sinatra made his Las Vegas debut at the Desert Inn. A month later, a second series of the Frank Sinatra Show aired on CBS. On November 7, 1951, Sinatra married Ava Gardner. Frank Sinatra and Ava Gardner. AvaGardner.org .Retrieved 2007-01-04. They had an extremely tempestuous relationship, and the ascent of Gardner's career seemed to coincide with the decline in Sinatra's. They split up in 1953 and divorced in 1957. Columbia and MCA dropped Sinatra in 1952. The rebirth of Sinatra's career began with the eve-of-Pearl Harbor drama From Here to Eternity (1953), for which he won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. This role and performance mark the turnaround in Sinatra's career, in which he went from being in a critical and commercial decline for several years to an Oscar-winning actor and, once again, one of the top recording artists in the world. Schmidt, M.A. Best Pictures: From Here to Eternity. The New York Times. May 9, 1954. Also in 1953, Sinatra starred in the NBC radio program Rocky Fortune. His character, Rocko Fortunato (aka Rocky Fortune) was a private eye who was placed in a variety of odd jobs by the Gridley Employment Agency in order to help solve crimes. The series aired on NBC radio Tuesday nights from October 1953 to March 1954. During the final months of the show, just before the 1954 Oscars, it became a running gag that Sinatra would manage to work the phrase "from here to eternity" into each episode, a reference to his Oscar-nominated performance. Rocky Fortune Old Time Radio Researchers Group, Archive.org. Retrieved 9 April 2009. In 1953, Sinatra signed with Capitol Records, where he worked with many of the finest musical arrangers of the era, most notably Nelson Riddle, Gordon Jenkins, and Billy May. Sinatra reinvented himself with a series of albums featuring darker emotional material, starting with In the Wee Small Hours (1955), and followed by Frank Sinatra Sings For Only The Lonely (1958), and Where Are You? (1957). He also developed a hipper, "swinging" persona, as heard on Swing Easy! (1954), Songs For Swingin' Lovers (1956), Come Fly With Me (1957). By the end of the year, Billboard named "Young at Heart" Song of the Year, Swing Easy! with Nelson Riddle at the helm, (his second album for Capitol) was named Album of the Year and Sinatra was named "Top Male Vocalist" by Billboard, Down Beat and Metronome. Also in 1955, Sinatra's first 12" LP In the Wee Small Hours, his second collaboration with Nelson Riddle, was released. A third collaboration with Nelson Riddle, Songs For Swingin' Lovers, was a success, featuring a recording of "I've Got You Under My Skin" Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely, a stark collection of introspective saloon songs and blues-tinged ballads, was a mammoth commercial success, peaking at #1 on Billboard'''s album chart during a 120-week stay. Cuts from this LP, such as "Angel Eyes" and "One for My Baby (and One More for the Road)," would remain staples of Sinatra's concerts throughout his life. Throughout the fifties, Sinatra frequently criticized rock music, much of it being his reaction to rhythms and attitudes he found alien. In 1958 he lambasted it as "sung, played, and written for the most part by cretinous goons. It manages to be the martial music of every sideburned delinquent on the face of the earth." 5 Enemies of Rock 'n' Roll Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-03-31. 1960-1970: Ring-A-Ding-Ding, Reprise records, Basie, Jobim, "My Way" Sinatra would start the 1960s as he ended the 1950s, his first album of the decade, Nice 'n' Easy, topping Billboard's album chart and winning critical plaudits en masse, this, despite Sinatra growing discontented at Capitol Records and having decided to form his own label, Reprise Records. His first album on the label, Ring-A-Ding-Ding (1961), was a major success peaking at #4 on Billboard and #8 in the UK. His fourth and final Timex special was broadcast in March 1960 and secured massive viewing figures. Titled It's Nice to Go Travelling, the show is more commonly known as Welcome Home Elvis. Elvis Presley's appearance after his army discharge was somewhat ironic; Sinatra had been scathing about him in the mid fifties, saying: "His kind of music is deplorable, a rancid smelling aphrodisiac. It fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people." Khurana, Simran. "Quotes About Elvis Presley". about.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Presley had responded: "... [Sinatra] is a great success and a fine actor, but I think he shouldn't have said it. ... [rock and roll] ... is a trend, just the same as he faced when he started years ago." Hopkins, J. (2007). Elvis. The Biography, Plexus. p.126 Later, in efforts to maintain his commercial viability, Sinatra would eventually record Presley's hit "Love Me Tender" as well as works by Paul Simon ("Mrs. Robinson"), George Harrison ("Something") and Joni Mitchell ("Both Sides Now"). The TIME 100 Retrieved 2009-03-31. Following on the heels of Can Can was Ocean's 11, the film that would become the definitive on-screen outing for "The Rat Pack". On January 27, 1961, Sinatra played a benefit show at Carnegie Hall for Martin Luther King, Jr. and would go on to play a major role in the desegregation of Nevada hotels and casinos in the 1960s. Sinatra led his fellow members of the Rat Pack and label-mates on Reprise in refusing to patronize hotels and casinos that wouldn't allow black singers to play live or wouldn't allow black patrons entry. He would often speak from the stage on desegregation. He would play more benefits for Martin Luther King, Jr. who, according to Frank Sinatra, Jr., at one point during a show in 1963 sat weeping as Sinatra sang Ol' Man River, the song from the musical Show Boat that, in the show, is sung by an African-American stevedore. Over September 11 and 12, 1961, Sinatra recorded his final songs for Capitol Records. In 1962, along with Janet Leigh and Laurence Harvey, he starred in the political thriller The Manchurian Candidate as Bennett Marco. That same year, Sinatra and Count Basie collaborated for the album Sinatra-Basie. This popular and successful release would prompt them to rejoin two years later for a follow-up It Might as Well Be Swing, which was arranged by Quincy Jones. One of Sinatra's more ambitious albums from the mid-1960s was The Concert Sinatra, which was recorded with a 73-piece symphony orchestra on 35 mm tape. Sinatra's first live album, Sinatra at the Sands, was recorded during January and February 1966 at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. In June 1965, Sinatra, Sammy Davis, Jr.. and Dean Martin played live in St. Louis to benefit Dismas House. The concert was broadcast live via satellite to numerous movie theaters across America. Released in August 1965 was the Grammy Award–winning album of the year September of My Years, with a career anthology A Man and His Music followed in November, itself winning Album of the Year at the Grammys in 1966. The TV special Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music garnered both an Emmy award and a Peabody Award. In the spring, That's Life appeared, with both the single and album becoming Top Ten hits in the US on Billboards pop charts. Strangers in the Night went on to top the Billboard and UK pop singles charts, winning the award for Record of the Year at the Grammys. The album of the same name also topped the Billboard chart and reached number 4 in the UK. Sinatra would start 1967 with a series of recording sessions with Antonio Carlos Jobim. Later in the year, a duet with daughter Nancy, "Somethin' Stupid", topped the Billboard pop and UK singles charts. In December, Sinatra collaborated with Duke Ellington on the album Francis A. & Edward K.. During the late 1960s, press agent Lee Solters would invite columnists with their spouse into Sinatra's dressing room just before he was about to go on stage. The New Yorker recounted that "The first columnist they tried this on was Larry Fields of the Philadelphia Daily News, whose wife fainted when Sinatra kissed her cheek. 'Take care of it, Lee,' Sinatra said, and he was off." Martin, Douglas. "Lee Solters, Razzle-Dazzle Press Agent, Dies at 89", The New York Times, May 21, 2009. Accessed May 22, 2009. Back on the small-screen, Sinatra once again worked with Antonio Carlos Jobim, with Ella Fitzgerald on the TV special A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim.Watertown (1970) was one of Sinatra's most acclaimed concept albums, Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. Watertown. allmusic.com. Retrieved 2006-12-19. but was all but ignored by the public in commercial terms. Selling a mere 30,000 copies, and reaching a peak chart position of 101, its failure put an end to plans of a television special based on the album. With Sinatra in mind, singer-songwriter Paul Anka wrote the song "My Way" inspired from the French "Comme d'habitude" ("As Usual"), composed by Claude François and Jacques Revaux. "My Way" would, perhaps, become more identified with him than any other over his seven decades as a singer. 1970-1980: Retirement and comeback On June 12, 1971 — at a concert in Hollywood to raise money for the Motion Picture and TV Relief Fund — at the age of 55, Sinatra announced that he was retiring, bringing to an end his 36-year career in show business. In 1973, Sinatra came out of retirement with a television special and album, both entitled Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back. The album, arranged by Gordon Jenkins and Don Costa, was a great success, reaching number 13 on Billboard and number 12 in the UK. The TV special was highlighted by a dramatic reading of "Send in the Clowns" and a song and dance sequence with former co-star Gene Kelly. In January 1974, Sinatra returned to Las Vegas, performing at Caesars Palace. This occurred, despite vowing in 1970 never to play Caesars Palace again, after the manager of the resort, Sanford Waterman, had pulled a gun on him during a heated argument. Kelley. P436. With Waterman recently sacked, the door was open for Sinatra to return. In Australia, he caused an uproar by describing journalists there — who were aggressively pursuing his every move and pushing for a press conference — as "fags", "pimps", and "whores." Australian unions representing transport workers, waiters, and journalists all went on strike, demanding that Sinatra apologize for his remarks. Kelley. P464. Sinatra instead insisted that the journalists apologize for "fifteen years of abuse I have taken from the world press." The future Prime Minister of Australia, Bob Hawke, then the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) leader, also insisted that Sinatra apologize, and a settlement was eventually reached, to the apparent satisfaction of both parties, Sinatra's final show of his Australian tour was televised to the nation. In October 1974, Sinatra appeared at New York City's Madison Square Garden, in a televised concert that was later released as an album under the title The Main Event – Live. Backing him was bandleader Woody Herman and the Young Thundering Herd, who accompanied Sinatra on a European tour later that month. The TV special would garner mostly positive reviews whilst the album — actually culled from various shows during his comeback tour — was only a moderate success, peaking at #37 on Billboard and #30 in the UK. In 1979, in front of the Egyptian pyramids, Sinatra performed for Anwar Sadat. Back in Las Vegas, while celebrating 40 years in show business and his 64th birthday, he was awarded the Grammy Trustees Award during a party at Caesars Palace. 1980-1990: Trilogy, She Shot Me Down, L.A. Is My Lady Sinatra sings with then First Lady Nancy Reagan at the White House. In 1980, Sinatra's first album in six years was released, Trilogy: Past Present Future, a highly ambitious triple album that found Sinatra recording songs from the past (pre-rock era) and present (rock era and contemporary) that he had overlooked during his career, while 'The Future' was a free-form suite of new songs linked a la musical theater by a theme, in this case, Sinatra pondering over the future. The album garnered six Grammy nominations — winning for best liner notes — and peaked at number 17 on Billboards album chart, while spawning yet another song that would become a signature tune, "Theme from New York, New York" as well as Sinatra's much lauded (second) recording of George Harrison's "Something" (the first was not officially released on an album until 1972's Frank Sinatra's Greatest Hits Vol. 2.) The following year, Sinatra built on the success of Trilogy with She Shot Me Down, an album that revisited the dark tone of his Capitol years, and was praised by critics as a vintage late-period Sinatra. Sinatra would comment that it was "A complete saloon album... tear-jerkers and cry-in-your-beer kind of things." "She Shot Me Down. Allmusic.com. Retrieved 2006-11-28. Sinatra was embroiled in controversy in 1981 when he worked a ten-day engagement for $2 million in Sun City, South Africa. Frank Sinatra was selected as one of the five recipients of the 1983 Kennedy Center Honors, alongside Katharine Dunham, James Stewart, Elia Kazan and Virgil Thomson. Quoting Henry James in honoring Sinatra, Reagan said that "art was the shadow of humanity," and said that Sinatra had "spent his life casting a magnificent and powerful shadow." Kelley. P544. Earlier that year, Sinatra had worked with Quincy Jones for the first time in nearly two decades on the album L.A. Is My Lady. Well received critically, L.A. Is My Lady came after an album of duets with Lena Horne, instigated by Jones, was abandoned after Horne developed vocal problems and Sinatra committed to other engagements, could not wait to record. 1990s: Duets, final performances In 1990, Sinatra celebrated his 75th birthday with a national tour, "Sinatra: The Singer. CNN Special Reports. CNN.com. Retrieved 2006-11-22. and was awarded the second "Ella Award" by the Los Angeles–based Society of Singers. At the award ceremony, he performed for the final time with Ella Fitzgerald. Freedland, Michael. All the Way: A biography of Frank Sinatra. St Martin’s Press, 2000. ISBN 0-7528-1662-4. In December, as part of Sinatra's birthday celebrations, Patrick Pasculli, the Mayor of Hoboken, New Jersey, made a proclamation in his honor, declaring that "no other vocalist in history has sung, swung and crooned and serenaded into the hearts of the young and old... as this consummate artist from Hoboken". Freedland. P407. The same month Sinatra would give the first show of his Diamond Jubilee Tour at the Meadowlands Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey. In 1993 Sinatra made a surprise return to Capitol Records and the recording studio for Duets, which was released in November. The artists who added their vocals to the album worked for free, and a follow-up album (Duets II) was released in 1994, which reached #9 on the Billboard charts. Still touring, despite various health problems, Sinatra would remain a top concert attraction on a global scale during the first half of the 1990s. At times, his memory seemed to fail him, and a fall onstage in Richmond, Virginia in 1994 signaled further problems. Sinatra's final public concerts were held in Japan's Fukuoka Dome in December 1994. The following year, on February 25, 1995, at a private party for 1,200 select guests on the closing night of the Frank Sinatra Desert Classic golf tournament, Sinatra sang before a live audience for the very last time. Esquire Magazine reported of the show that Sinatra was "clear, tough, on the money" and "in absolute control." His closing song was "The Best is Yet to Come." Sinatra was awarded the Legend Award at the 1994 Grammy Awards. He was introduced by Bono, who said of Sinatra "Frank's the chairman of the bad attitude... rock 'n roll plays at being tough, but this guy is the boss. The chairman of boss... I'm not going to mess with him, are you?" Bono On Sinatra's Legacy. MTV.com. May 15, 1998. Sinatra called it "the best welcome...I ever had." Retrieved 2009-03-05. However, during his speech, Sinatra apparently ran too long and was curtly cut off by music, then commercials, leaving Sinatra looking confused while talking into a dead microphone. In 1995, To mark Sinatra's 80th birthday, the Empire State Building glowed blue. A star-studded birthday tribute at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles would be his last televised appearance. Personal life Sinatra had three children; Nancy, Frank Jr. and Tina by his first wife Nancy Barbato (married 1939-1951). He was married three more times, to the actresses Ava Gardner (married 1951-1957) and Mia Farrow (married 1966-1968) and finally to Barbara Marx (married 1976), to whom he was still married at his death. Throughout his life, Sinatra had mood swings and bouts of depression, symptoms of bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic depression. He himself acknowledged this fact, telling an interviewer in the 1950s: "Being an 18-karat manic-depressive, and having lived a life of violent emotional contradictions, I have an over-acute capacity for sadness as well as emotion." Summers and Swan, p. 218 . In her memoirs My Father's Daughter, his daughter Tina wrote about the "eighteen-karat" remark: "As flippant as Dad could be about his mental state, I believe that a Zoloft a day might have kept his demons away. But that kind of medicine was decades off." Death After suffering another heart attack, Frank Sinatra died at 10:50 pm on May 14, 1998 at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, with his wife Barbara by his side. He was 82 years old. Sinatra's final words, spoken as attempts were made to stabilize him, were "I'm losing." Hollywood bids Sinatra last farewell. CNN.com. Retrieved 2006-11-24. His death was confirmed by the Sinatra family on their website with a statement accompanied by a recording of the singer's version of "Softly As I Leave You." The next night the lights on the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed in his honor. President Bill Clinton led tributes to Sinatra, stating that he had managed "to appreciate on a personal level what millions of people had appreciated from afar." Elton John stated that Sinatra, "was simply the best - no one else even comes close." On May 20, 1998 at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills, Sinatra's funeral was held, with 400 mourners in attendance and hundreds of fans outside. Gregory Peck, Tony Bennett, and Frank Sinatra, Jr. addressed the mourners, among whom were Jill St. John, Tom Selleck, Joey Bishop, Faye Dunaway, Tony Curtis, Liza Minnelli, Kirk Douglas, Robert Wagner, Don Rickles, Nancy Reagan, Angie Dickinson, Sophia Loren, Bob Newhart, Mia Farrow, and Jack Nicholson. A private ceremony was held later that day at St. Theresa's Catholic Church in Palm Springs. Sinatra was buried following the ceremony next to his parents in section B-8 of Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, a quiet cemetery on Ramon Road at the border of Cathedral City and Rancho Mirage, near his famous Rancho Mirage compound, located on tree-lined Frank Sinatra Drive. His close friend Jilly Rizzo is buried nearby in the same cemetery. The words "The Best Is Yet to Come" are imprinted on Sinatra's grave marker. Discography Awards and recognitions Sinatra's music star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Sidewalk star in front of Sinatra birthplace. Legacy The U.S. Postal Service issued a 42-cent postage stamp in honor of Sinatra on May 13, 2008. The design of the stamp was unveiled Wednesday, December 12, 2007 — on the 92nd birthday of the entertainer — in Beverly Hills, CA, with Sinatra family members on hand. The design shows an 1950s-vintage image of Sinatra, wearing a hat. The design also includes his signature, with his last name alone.<ref name=stamp>{{cite press release |title=Postal Service to immortalize ‘Ol’ Blue Eyes’ |url=http://www.usps.com/communications/newsroom/2007/sr07_082.htm |publisher=United States Postal Service |date=2007-12-05 |accessdate=2008-05-15 |quote=Frank Sinatra, one of the most iconic entertainers of the 20th century, will be commemorated on a postage stamp next spring, Postmaster General John Potter announced today.}}</ref> The Hoboken Post Office was renamed in his honor in 2002. The U.S. Congress passed a resolution on May 20, 2008 designating May 13 as Frank Sinatra Day to honor his contribution to American culture. The resolution was introduced by U.S. House representative Mary Bono Mack. To commemorate the anniversary of Sinatra's death, Patsy's Restaurant in New York City, which Sinatra was very fond of and a regular at, exhibited in May 2009 15 never before released photos of Sinatra that were taken by Bobby Bank. The photos are of his recording "Everybody Ought to Be in Love" at a recording studio that was nearby. Stephen Holden wrote for the 1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide: Frank Sinatra's voice is pop music history. [...] Like Presley and Dylan — the only other white male American singers since 1940 whose popularity, influence, and mythic force have been comparable — Sinatra will last indefinitely. He virtually invented modern pop song phrasing. Film Portrayals In 1992, CBS aired a TV movie about the entertainer's life called Sinatra, directed by James Steven Sadwith and starred Philip Casnoff as Sinatra. Opening with his childhood in Hoboken, New Jersey, the film follows Sinatra's rise to the top in the 1940s, through the dark days of the early 1950s and his triumphant re-emergence in the mid-1950s, to his status as pop culture icon in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. In between, the film hits all of the main events, including his three marriages, his connections with the Mafia and his notorious friendship with the Rat Pack. Even with the presence of Tina Sinatra as executive producer. Casnoff received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance. In 1998 Ray Liotta portrayed Sinatra in the HBO movie The Rat Pack, alongside Joe Mantegna as Dean Martin and Don Cheadle as Sammy Davis Jr. It depicted their contribution to John F. Kennedy's election as U.S. president in 1960. Film director Martin Scorsese will take the helm of a film about Sinatra's life, titled Sinatra with screenwriter Phil Alden Robinson writing the script. The project was acquired by Universal Pictures from Mandalay Pictures. Controversy Sinatra garnered considerable attention due to his alleged personal and professional links with organized crime, including figures such as Carlo Gambino,Sam Giancana, Lucky Luciano, and Joseph Fischetti. The Federal Bureau of Investigation kept records amounting to 2,403 pages on Sinatra. With his Mafia ties, his ardent New Deal politics and his friendship with John F. Kennedy, he was a natural target for J. Edgar Hoover's FBI. The FBI kept Sinatra under surveillance for almost five decades beginning in the 1940s with, for example, an erroneous report that the star paid $40,000 for his 4-F draft status, through the early 1980s when he was successful in efforts to get his Nevada Gaming license renewed. The documents include accounts of Sinatra as the target of death threats and extortion schemes. They also portray rampant paranoia and strange obsessions at the FBI and reveal nearly every celebrated Sinatra foible and peccadillo. For a year Hoover investigated Sinatra's alleged communist affiliations, but came up empty-handed. Readers learn that the budding star, to get an exemption from military service, told draft-board doctors that he had an irrational fear of crowds. In truth he was drafted into the Army during World War II but got a 4F because of a damaged eardrum, something that was apparent at birth after a complicated delivery using forceps. The files include his rendezvous with prostitutes, and his extramarital affair with Ava Gardner, which preceded their marriage. Celebrities mentioned in the files are Dean Martin, Marilyn Monroe, Peter Lawford, and Giancana's girlfriend, singer Phyllis McGuire. The FBI's secret dossier on Sinatra was released in 1998 in response to Freedom of Information Act requests. Political views Sinatra held differing political views throughout his life. Sinatra's parents had immigrated to the United States in 1895 and 1897 respectively. His mother, Dolly Sinatra (1896-1977), was a Democratic Party ward boss. Sinatra: The Life, Anthony Summers and Robbyn Swan, p. 31 Sinatra, pictured here with Eleanor Roosevelt in 1960, was an ardent supporter of the Democratic Party until 1968. Sinatra remained a supporter of the Democratic Party until the late 1960s when he switched his allegiance to the Republican Party. Political activities 1944-1968 In 1944 after sending a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Sinatra was invited to meet Roosevelt at the White House, where he agreed to become part of the Democratic party's voter registration drives. Smith, Martin (2005). When Ol' Blue Eyes was a Red Redwords, ISBN 1905192029, pg. 40 He donated $5,000 to the Democrats for the 1944 presidential election, and by the end of the campaign was appearing at two or three political events every day. Smith. P40. After World War II, Sinatra's politics grew steadily more left wing, Smith. P41. and he became more publicly associated with the Popular Front. He started reading progressive literature, and supported many organizations that were later identified as front organizations of the Communist Party USA by the House Un-American Activities Committee in the 1950s, though Sinatra was never brought before the Committee. Sinatra spoke at a number of New Jersey high schools in 1945, where students had gone on strike in opposition to racial integration. Later that year Sinatra would appear in The House I Live In, a short film that stood against racism. The film was scripted by Albert Maltz, with the title song written by Earl Robinson and Abel Meeropol (under the pseudonym of Lewis Allen). In 1948, Sinatra supported the candidacy of Henry A. Wallace. In January, 1961, Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized the Inaugural Gala in Washington, D.C., held on the evening before new President John F. Kennedy was sworn into office. The event, featuring many big show business stars, was an enormous success, raising a large amount of money for the Democratic Party. Sinatra also organized an Inaugural Gala in California in 1962 to welcome second term Democratic Governor Pat Brown. His Way: Frank Sinatra, the Unauthorized Biography, by Kitty Kelley, 1988. Sinatra's move towards the Republicans seems to have begun when he was snubbed by President Kennedy in favour of Bing Crosby, a rival singer and a Republican, for Kennedy's visit to Palm Springs in 1962. Kennedy had planned to stay at Sinatra's home over the Easter holiday weekend, but decided against doing so because of problems with Sinatra's connections to organized crime. Sinatra had invested a lot of his own money in upgrading the facilities at his home, in anticipation of the president's visit. President Kennedy's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, was intensifying his own investigations into organized crime figures at the time, such as Chicago mob boss Sam Giancana, who had earlier stayed at Sinatra's home. The President and Giancana were also sharing the favours of mistress Judith Campbell, who was in frequent contact with the president. Giancana's under-the-table influence had been critical in capturing Illinois for the Democrats in the presidential election of 1960. His Way: Frank Sinatra, the Unauthorized Biography, by Kitty Kelley, 1988. Political activities 1970-1984 On February 27, 1970 Sinatra sang at the White House as part of a tribute to senator Everett Dirksen. Over the summer Sinatra supported another Republican candidate as he declared for Ronald Reagan in his race for a second term as the Governorship of California. Freedland, Michael (2000). All the Way: A Biography of Frank Sinatra, St Martin's Press, ISBN 0-7528-1662-4 Sinatra was also good friends with Vice President Spiro Agnew. Sinatra said he agreed with the Republican Party on most positions, except that of abortion. Smith, Martin (2005). When Ol' Blue Eyes was a Red Redwords, ISBN 1905192029 After a lifetime of supporting Democratic presidential candidates, Sinatra supported Richard Nixon for re-election in the 1972 presidential election. In 1973, Spiro Agnew resigned the vice presidency, amid charges of bribery, extortion and tax fraud; Sinatra helped Agnew pay some of his legal bills that he faced after his exit from office. Kelley. P458. Sinatra is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan. In the 1980 presidential election, Sinatra supported Ronald Reagan, and donated $4 million to Reagan's campaign. Sinatra said he supported Reagan as he was “the proper man to be the President of the United States… it's so screwed up now, we need someone to straighten it out”. Freedwald. P395. Reagan's victory gave Sinatra his closest relationship with the White House since the early 1960s, as a result of which Sinatra arranged Reagan's Presidential gala, Kelley. P503. as he had done for John F. Kennedy, some 20 years previously. In 1984 Sinatra returned to his birthplace in Hoboken, New Jersey, bringing with him President Reagan, who was in the midst of campaigning for the 1984 presidential election. Reagan had made Sinatra a fund-raising ambassador as part of the Republicans' 'Victory 84’ get-the-vote-out-drive. Kelley. P551. See also Rat Pack Sinatra Doctrine 1920 US Census with Sinatras 1930 US Census with Sinatras List of honorific titles in popular music List of jazz musicians Best selling music artists Chronological list of singles and albums recorded by Frank Sinatra The Frank Sinatra Show (CBS) The Frank Sinatra Show (ABC) Anthony Martin Sinatra Further reading Biographies Freedland, Michael. (2000) All the Way: A Biography of Frank Sinatra. St Martins Press. ISBN 0752816624 Havers, Richard. (2004) Sinatra. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 1405314613 Kelley, Kitty. (1986) His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra. Bantam Press. ISBN 0553265156 Lahr, John. (1987) Sinatra. Random House. ISBN 0753808420 Munn, Michael. (2002) Sinatra: The Untold Story. Robson Books Ltd. ISBN 1861055374 Rockwell, John. (1984) Sinatra: An American Classic. Rolling Stone. ISBN 039453977X Rojek, Chris. (2004) Frank Sinatra. Polity. ISBN 0745630901 Santopietro, Tom. (2008) "Sinatra In Hollywood". Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 9780312362263 Summers, Antony and Swan, Robbyn. (2005) Sinatra: The Life. Doubleday. ISBN 0552153311 Taraborrelli, J. Randall. (1998) Sinatra: The Man Behind the Myth. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1840181192 Wilson, Earl. (1976) Sinatra. Memoirs Ash, Vic. (2006) I Blew it My Way: Bebop, Big Bands and Sinatra. Northway Publications. ISBN 0955090822 Jacobs, George and Stadiem, William. (2003) Mr. S.: The Last Word on Frank Sinatra. HarperCollins. ISBN 0330412299 Criticism Fuchs, J. & Prigozy, R., ed. (2007) Frank Sinatra: The Man, the Music, the Legend. The Boydell Press. ISBN 1580462510 Granata, Charles L. (1999) "Sessions with Sinatra: Frank Sinatra and the Art of Recording." Chicago Review Press. ISBN 9781556525094 Hamill, Pete. (2003) Why Sinatra Matters. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0316738867 Mustazza, Leonard, ed. (1998) Frank Sinatra and Popular Culture. Praeger. ISBN 0275964957 Petkov, Steven and Mustazza, Leonard, ed. (1997) The Frank Sinatra Reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195113896 Pugliese, S., ed. (2004) Frank Sinatra: "History, Identity, and Italian American Culture ". Palgrave. ISBN 1403966559 Smith, Martin. (2005) When Ol' Blue Eyes Was a Red. Redwords. ISBN 1905192029 Zehme, Bill. (1997) The Way You Wear Your Hat: Frank Sinatra and the Lost Art of Livin. Harper Collins. ISBN 0060931752 "Frank Sinatra — Through the Lens of Jazz", Jazz Times Magazine, May 1998 Friedwald, Will. (1999) Sinatra! The Song Is You: A Singer's Art. Da Capo Press. ISBN 068419368X Granata, Charles L. (1999) Sessions with Sinatra: Frank Sinatra and the Art of Recording. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1556525095 McNally, Karen. (2008) When Frankie Went to Hollywood: Frank Sinatra and American Male Identity University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252033345 Sinatra family publications Pignone, Charles, with forward by Sinatra, Frank Jr. and Jones, Quincy. (2004) The Sinatra Treasures. Virgin Books. ISBN 1852271841 Pignone, Charles, with forward by Sinatra, Amanda. (2007) Frank Sinatra: The Family Album Little Brown and Company. ISBN 0316003492 Sinatra, Julie. (2007) Under My Skin: My Father, Frank Sinatra The Man Behind the Mystique iuniverse.com, ISBN 0595434789 Sinatra, Nancy. (1985) Frank Sinatra, My Father. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385233569 Sinatra, Nancy. (1998) Frank Sinatra 1915-1998: An American Legend. Readers Digest. ISBN 0762101342 Sinatra, Tina. (2000) My Father's Daughter. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684870762 Cultural criticism Gigliotti, Gilbert L. A Storied Singer: Frank Sinatra as Literary Conceit. Greewood, 2002. Hamill, Pete. Why Sinatra Matters. Back Bay Books, 2003. Mustazza, Leonard, ed. Frank Sinatra and Popular Culture. Praeger, 1998. Petkov, Steven and Mustazza, Leonard, ed. The Frank Sinatra Reader. Oxford University Press, 1997. Pugliese, S., ed. Frank Sinatra: "History, Identity, and Italian American Culture ". Palgrave, 2004. Smith, Martin. When Ol' Blue Eyes was a red. Redwords, 2005. Zehme, Bill. The Way You Wear Your Hat: Frank Sinatra and the Lost Art of Livin'''. Harper Collins, 1997. Other Gigliotti, Gilbert L., ed. (2008) Sinatra: But Buddy I'm a Kind of Poem. Entasis Press ISBN 9780980099904 Havers, Richard. (2004) Sinatra. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 1405314613 Ingham, Chris. (2005) The Rough Guide to Frank Sinatra. Rough Guides. ISBN 1843534142 Lloyd, David. (2003) The Gospel According to Frank. New American Press. ISBN 1-930-907-19-2 O'Neill, Terry, ed. Morgan, Robert. (2007) Sinatra: Frank and Friendly. Evans Mitchell Books. ISBN 1901268322 The New Rolling Stone Record Guide, Rolling Stone Press, 1983. Tom and Phil Kuntz. (2000) The Sinatra Files: The Secret FBI Dossier. Three Rivers Press ISBN 0812932765 References External links Frank Sinatra official website Official site of the Sinatra family "Frank Sinatra Dies at 82; Matchless Stylist of Pop" Obituary, New York Times'', May 16, 1998 Frank Sinatra's FBI file Walking tour of Sinatra's Hoboken Sinatra's last Will and Testament Article on the 1954 "Wrong Door Raid" Private informational webpage

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Biennial_plant

Parsley is an example of a biennial plant. A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots (vegetative structures), then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. Usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a cold treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly, or "bolting bolts". The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies. There are far fewer biennials than either perennial plants or annual plants. Under extreme climatic conditions, a biennial plant may complete its life cycle in a very short period of time (e.g. three or four months instead of two years). This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were exposed to cold conditions, or vernalized, before they were planted in the ground. This behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas. Flowering can be induced in some biennials without vernalization by application of the plant hormone gibberellin, but this is rarely done commercially. The Sweet William Dwarf plant is a biennial plant From a gardener's perspective, a plant's status as annual, biennial, or perennial often varies based on location or purpose. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years. Biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown as annuals, e.g. beets, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, celery, lettuce, parsley, and Swiss chard. If a normally biennial plant is grown in extremely harsh conditions, it is likely to be treated as an annual because it will not survive the winter cold. Conversely, an annual grown under extremely favorable conditions may have highly successful seed propagation, giving it the appearance of being biennial or perennial. Some short-lived perennials may appear to be biennial rather than perennial. True biennials flower only once, while many perennials will flower every year once mature. Examples of biennial plants are parsley, Lunaria, silverbeet, Sweet William, colic weed, and carrot. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, e.g. foxglove and stock. See also Annual plant Perennial plant References

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Jack_Ruby

Jacob Rubenstein (March 25, 1911 – January 3, 1967), who legally changed his name to Jack Leon Ruby in 1947, was an American nightclub operator in Dallas, Texas. He was convicted on March 14, 1964, of the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald was arrested for the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. He successfully appealed his conviction and death sentence. As a date for his new trial was being set, Martin Waldron, "Ruby Seriously Ill In Dallas Hospital," New York Times, December 10, 1966, p. 1. he became ill and died. Conspiracy theorists claim that Ruby was involved with major figures in organized crime and killed Oswald as part of an overall plot surrounding the assassination of Kennedy. Others have disputed this, arguing that his connections with gangsters was minimal at best and that he was not the sort to be entrusted with such an act within a high-level conspiracy. Family and early life Jack Ruby was born Jacob Rubenstein to Joseph Rubenstein (1871–1958) & Fannie Turek Rutkowski (or Rokowsky) in Chicago, Illinois, in 1911, both Polish-born, Orthodox Jews. Conflicting birth dates for Ruby, ranging March to June 1911, were given by Ruby at various times; March 25, 1911, is the date he most commonly gave for his own birth date. (Births in Chicago in 1911 were not mandatorily recorded, so there is no official record to consult.) The fifth of his parents' eight living children, growing up in the Maxwell Street area of Chicago, Ruby had a troubled childhood and adolescence, marked by juvenile delinquency and time spent in foster homes. On June 6, 1922, when Ruby was only eleven years old, he was arrested for truancy. Ruby eventually skipped school enough times that he spent time in the Institute of Juvenile Research. Spartacus Educational Young Ruby sold horse-racing tip sheets and various other novelties, then acted as business agent for a local refuse collectors union that later became part of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Ruby briefly came to public attention in December 1939 when he was implicated in the fatal shooting of the union's president, attorney Leon Cooke, but was cleared of any wrongdoing. In memory of Cooke, Ruby later adopted "Leon" as his middle name. In the 1940s, Ruby frequented race tracks in Illinois and California. He was drafted in 1943 and served in the Army Air Forces during World War II, working as an aircraft mechanic at bases in the US until 1946. He had an honorable record and was promoted to Private First Class. Upon discharge, on 21 February 1946, Ruby returned to Chicago in the USA. In 1947, Ruby moved to Dallas, where he and his brothers soon afterward shortened their surnames from Rubenstein to Ruby. The stated reason for changing the family name had been that Jack and his brothers had opened up a mail order business and feared that some customers would refuse to do business with Jews. Jack later went on to manage various nightclubs, strip clubs, and dance halls. Among the strippers Ruby befriended was Candy Barr. He developed close ties to many Dallas police officers, who frequented his nightclubs where Ruby showered them with large quantities of liquor and other favors. Ruby went to Cuba in 1959, ostensibly to visit a friend, influential Dallas gambler Lewis McWillie, an associate of Mafia boss Santo Trafficante. (Trafficante operated major casinos in Cuba and was briefly imprisoned after Fidel Castro came to power.) Summers, Anthony. Not in Your Lifetime, (New York: Marlowe & Company, 1998), pp. 336-339. ISBN 1-56924-739-0 The House Select Committee on Assassinations inferred from Ruby's trip to Cuba, and his subsequent trips, "...that Ruby was at least serving as a kind of courier on behalf of gambling interests in Cuba." House Select Committee on Assassinations, Volume 9, 5C, p. 177 Allegations of organized crime links For Jack Ruby is known to have had acquaintances in both the police and the mob, specifically the Italian Mafia. Some have gone on to hypothesize that his alleged links to organized crime were evidence of conspiracy to kill Lee Harvey Oswald and/or John F. Kennedy. The House Select Committee on Assassinations said that Jack Ruby knew restaurateurs Sam (1920–1970) and Joseph Campisi (1918–1990) since 1947, and had been seen with them on many occasions. HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 9, p. 336, par. 917, Joseph Campisi. Ancestry.com, Social Security Death Index [database on-line], Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 2007. Ancestry.com, Texas Death Index, 1903-2000 [database on-line], Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 2006. After an investigation of Joe Campisi, the HSCA found, While Campisi's technical characterization in Federal law enforcement records as an organized crime member has ranged from definite to suspected to negative, it is clear that he was an associate or friend of many Dallas-based organized crime members, particularly Joseph Civello during the time he was the head of the Dallas organization. There was no indication that Campisi had engaged in any specific organized crime-related activities. HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 9, p. 336, par. 916, Joseph Campisi. Similarly, a PBS Frontline investigation into the connections between Ruby and Dallas organized crime figures reported the following: In 1963, Sam and Joe Campisi were leading figures in the Dallas underworld. Jack knew the Campisis and had been seen with them on many occasions. The Campisis were lieutenants of Carlos Marcello, the Mafia boss who had reportedly talked of killing the President. Frontline: Who Was Lee Harvey Oswald?, 2003. A day before Kennedy was murdered, Ruby went to Joe Campisi's restaurant. HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 9, p. 344, par. 919, Joseph Campisi. At the time of the Kennedy assassination, Ruby was close enough to the Campisis to ask them to come see him after he was arrested for shooting Lee Oswald. HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 9, p. 344, Joseph Campisi. In his memoir, Bound by Honor: A Mafioso's Story, Bill Bonanno, son of New York Mafia boss Joseph Bonanno explains that several Mafia families had long-standing ties with the anti-Castro Cubans through the Havana casinos operated by the Mafia before the Cuban Revolution. The Cubans hated Kennedy because he failed to fully support them in the Bay of Pigs Invasion; and his brother, the young and idealistic Attorney General Robert Kennedy had conducted an unprecedented legal assault on organized crime. This was especially provocative because several of the Mafia "families" had worked with JFK's father, Joseph Kennedy, to get his son elected. Both the Mafia and the anti-Castro Cubans were experts in assassination, the Cubans having been trained by the CIA. Bonanno reports that he realized the degree of the involvement of other Mafia families when he witnessed Jack Ruby killing Oswald on television: the Bonannos recognized Jack Ruby as an associate of Chicago mobster Sam Giancana. Bonanno, Bill (1999). Bound by Honor: A Mafioso's Story. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 0312203888 Against Some writers, including former Los Angeles District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi, dismiss Ruby's connections to organized crime as hearsay: It is very noteworthy that without exception, not one of these conspiracy theorists knew or had ever met Jack Ruby. Without our even resorting to his family and roommate, all of whom think the suggestion of Ruby being connected to the mob is ridiculous, those who knew him, unanimously and without exception, think the notion of his being connected to the Mafia, and then killing Oswald for them, is nothing short of laughable. Bugliosi, Vincent, Reclaiming History: The Assassination of John F. Kennedy p. 1130. Bill Alexander, who prosecuted Ruby for Oswald's murder, equally rejected any suggestions that Ruby was part-and-parcel of organised crime, claiming that conspiracy theorists based it on the claim that "A knew B, and Ruby knew B back in 1950, so he must have known A, and that must be the link to the conspiracy." Ruby's brother Earl denied allegations that Jack was involved in racketeering Chicago nightclubs, and author Gerald Posner suggests that he may have been confused with Harry Rubenstein, a convicted Chicago felon. Entertainment reporter Tony Zoppi is also dismissive of mob ties. He knew Ruby well and describes him as a "born loser". Murder of Oswald Ruby shoots Oswald Ruby (also known as "Sparky," from his boxing nickname "Sparkling Ruby" Hollington, Kris. How To Kill. The Definitive History of the Assassin, (London: Arrow Books, 2008), pp. 93. ISBN 978-0-099-50246-3 ) frequently carried a handgun, and witnesses saw him with a handgun in the halls of the Dallas police headquarters on several occasions after President Kennedy's assassination and arrest of Lee Harvey Oswald on November 22, 1963. In addition, WFAA-TV (Dallas) and NBC newsreel footage show Ruby impersonating a newspaper reporter during a press conference, at Dallas Police Headquarters, on the night of the assassination. At the press conference, District Attorney Henry Wade said that Lee Oswald was a member of the anti-Castro Free Cuba Committee. Ruby corrected Wade by stating that it was the pro-Castro Fair Play for Cuba Committee. Ruby received international attention two days later. After driving into town and sending a money order to one of his employees, he walked the short distance to the nearby police headquarters. There is some evidence it was on a whim, for he left his favorite dog, Sheba, in the car, when he shot and fatally wounded the 24-year-old Oswald on Sunday, November 24, 1963, at 11:21 am CST, while authorities were preparing to transfer Oswald by car from police headquarters to the nearby county jail. Stepping out from a crowd of reporters and photographers, Ruby fired a snub-nosed Colt Cobra .38 into Oswald's abdomen on a nationally televised live broadcast. Ruby's testimony to the Warren Commission: "I think I used the words, 'You killed my President, you rat.' The next thing, I was down on the floor. I said, 'I am Jack Ruby. You all know me.' I never used anything malicious, nothing like s.o.b." When Ruby was arrested immediately after the shooting, he told several witnesses that he helped the city of Dallas "redeem" itself in the eyes of the public, and that Oswald's death would spare Jacqueline Kennedy the ordeal of appearing at Oswald's trial (to be held later). Warren Commission Hearings, vol.5, p. 198–199, Testimony of Jack Ruby. Ruby stated that he shot Oswald to avenge Kennedy. Later, however, he claimed he shot Oswald on the spur of the moment when the opportunity presented itself, without considering any reason for doing so. Ruby, ibid., p. 199 At the time of the shooting Jack Ruby was taking Preludin, a slimming tablet which, while removing appetite, also roused the metabolism to hyperactivity. History Matters Archive - Warren Commission Hearings, Volume V, pg Prosecution and conviction Prominent San Francisco defense attorney Melvin Belli agreed to represent Ruby free of charge. Some observers thought that the case could have been disposed of as a "murder without malice" charge (roughly equivalent to manslaughter), with a maximum prison sentence of five years. Instead, Belli attempted to prove that Ruby was legally insane and had a history of mental illness in his family (the latter being true, as his mother had been committed to a mental hospital years before). On March 14, 1964, Ruby was convicted of murder with malice, for which he received a death sentence. During the six months following the Kennedy assassination, Ruby repeatedly asked, orally and in writing, to speak to the members of the Warren Commission. Curiously, the commission showed no interest, and it was only after Ruby's sister Eileen wrote letters to the Warren Commission (and after her writing letters to the commission became publicly reported) did the commission agree to talk to Ruby. In June 1964, Chief Justice Earl Warren, then-Representative Gerald R. Ford of Michigan and other commission members went to Dallas and met with Ruby. Ruby asked Warren several times to take him to Washington D.C., Warren Commission Hearings, Volume V page 194 history-matters.com because he feared for his life and wanted an opportunity to make additional statements. Warren was unable to comply because many legal barriers would need to be broken and public interest in the situation would be too heavy . According to a record of Ruby's testimony, Warren declared that the Commission would have no way of providing protection to him, since it had no police powers. Ruby said he wanted to convince President Johnson that he was not part of any conspiracy to kill JFK. From Ruby's testimony to the Warren Commission: "I realize it is a terrible thing I have done, and it was a stupid thing, but I just was carried away emotionally…I am as innocent regarding any conspiracy as any of you gentlemen in the room … And all I want to do is tell the truth, and that is all. There was no conspiracy." Ruby alleges conspiracies Following Ruby's March 1964 conviction for murder with malice, Ruby's lawyers, led by Sam Houston Clinton, appealed to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, the highest criminal court in Texas. Ruby's lawyers argued that he could not have received a fair trial in the city of Dallas because of the excessive publicity surrounding the case. A year after his conviction, in March 1965, Ruby conducted a brief televised news conference in which he stated: "Everything pertaining to what's happening has never come to the surface. The world will never know the true facts of what occurred, my motives. The people who had so much to gain, and had such an ulterior motive for putting me in the position I'm in, will never let the true facts come above board to the world." When asked by a reporter: "Are these people in very high positions Jack?" he responded "Yes." Jack Ruby (Oswald's assassin) makes a statement to reporters after his trial ntlworld Dallas Deputy Sheriff Al Maddox claimed: "Ruby told me, he said, 'Well, they injected me for a cold.' He said it was cancer cells. That's what he told me, Ruby did. I said you don't believe that ____. He said, 'I damn sure do!' [Then] one day when I started to leave, Ruby shook hands with me and I could feel a piece of paper in his palm.... [In this note] he said it was a conspiracy and he said ... if you will keep your eyes open and your mouth shut, you're gonna learn a lot. And that was the last letter I ever got from him." Marrs, Jim. Crossfire: The Plot that Killed Kennedy, (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1989), p. 432. ISBN 0-88184-648-1 Dallas Deputy Sheriff Al Maddox, videotape interview Not long before Ruby died, according to an article in the London Sunday Times, he told psychiatrist Werner Teuter, that the assassination was "an act of overthrowing the government" and that he knew "who had President Kennedy killed." He added: "I am doomed. I do not want to die. But I am not insane. I was framed to kill Oswald." Marrs, Crossfire, p. 431. JFK Lancer Eventually, the appellate court agreed with Ruby's lawyers for a new trial, and on October 5, 1966, ruled that his motion for a change of venue before the original trial court should have been granted. Ruby's conviction and death sentence were overturned. Arrangements were underway for a new trial to be held in February 1967, in Wichita Falls, Texas, when, on December 9, 1966, Ruby was admitted to Parkland Hospital in Dallas, suffering from pneumonia. A day later, doctors realized he had cancer in his liver, lungs, and brain. Ruby made a final statement from his hospital bed on December 19 that he and he alone had been responsible for the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald. Associated Press, "Ruby Asks World to Take His Word," New York Times, December 20, 1966, p. 36. "There is nothing to hide," Ruby said. "There was no one else." "A Last Wish," Time, December 30, 1966. He died of a pulmonary embolism, secondary to bronchiolar lung cancer, on January 3, 1967 at Parkland Hospital, where Lee Harvey Oswald had died and President Kennedy had been pronounced dead after his assassination. He is buried in the Westlawn Cemetery in Chicago. Criticisms of conspiracy theories In Gerald Posner's book Case Closed, Ruby's friends, relatives and associates stress how upset he was upon hearing of Kennedy's murder, even crying on occasion, and how he went so far as to close his loss-making clubs for three days as a mark of respect. Case Closed by Gerald Posner, published in 1993 by Warner Books Dallas reporter Tony Zoppi, who knew Ruby well, claims that it "would have to be crazy" to entrust Ruby with anything as important as a high-level plot to kill Kennedy since he "couldn't keep a secret for five minutes... Jack was one of the most talkative guys you would ever meet. He'd be the worst fellow in the world to be part of a conspiracy, because he just plain talked too much." Spartacus Educational He and others describe Ruby as the sort who enjoyed being at "the center of attention", trying to make friends with people and being more of a nuisance. It is claimed that many of Ruby's statements were also taken out of context by conspiracy theorists in order to fit in with their claims. In Defense of Jack Ruby: Was Lee Harvey Oswald's killer part of a conspiracy? Copyright © 2000, 2003 by David Reitzes In popular culture Ruby's shooting of Oswald, and his behavior both before and after the Kennedy assassination, have been the topic of three films. Ruby and Oswald A 1977 made-for-television movie, Ruby and Oswald, generally supported the Warren Commission conclusions. Ruby was played by Michael Lerner. JFK In Oliver Stone's 1991 film JFK, Ruby was portrayed by Brian Doyle-Murray. Stone's perspective on events draws heavily from conspiracy theory researchers such as Jim Marrs and L. Fletcher Prouty. At least three scenes further detailing Ruby were removed from the film and are only available on DVD. One scene expanded the Oswald shooting by showing corrupt police letting Ruby enter through a restricted entrance. A lunch meeting between Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) and Dean Andrews (John Candy) is expanded to include the comment by Andrews, “Jack Ruby gets a new trial and dies of cancer a few days later. That’s some kind of cancer. I’d say that’s a going out of business kind of cancer.” When this conversation took place Ruby would still have been alive. Ruby The 1992 feature film Ruby speculated on Ruby's more complex motivations. Among the impulses explored by the film that might have propelled Ruby into shooting Oswald were Ruby's reputation among family and friends as an assiduous, emotionally volatile publicity-seeker, and the influence of his long-time organized crime and Dallas police connections. Ruby was played by Danny Aiello. References Notes Further reading External links In Defense of Jack Ruby Historical TV Footage from Dallas TV Station KDFW Exclusive television coverage—most from the KRLD -TV/KDFW Collection at the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza Jack Ruby: Dallas' Original J.R. Spartacus Educational Biography of Jack Ruby Testimony of Earl Ruby Jack Ruby --Mobster, Intelligence Agent, or Small-time Hustler? An article on Ruby's family background and childhood Jack Ruby quotes The Warren Commission Report, Appendix XVI: A Biography of Jack Ruby "Richard Nixon's Greatest Cover-Up" by Don Fulsom, Crime Magazine "Giancana's half-bother Chuck and nephew Sam claimed in their 1992 book Double Cross that the Mafia don had a long, warm, and mutually rewarding relationship with Nixon that dated back to the 1940s. '...He even helped my guy in Texas, (Jack) Ruby, get out of testifying in front of Congress back in forty-seven … By sayin' Ruby worked for him.'" Copy of a 1947 U.S. Department of Justice memo stating that Ruby "is working for Congressman Richard M. Nixon." The FBI subsequently called the memo a fake, but the reference service Facts on File considers it authentic. Gunrunner Ruby and the CIA

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Jersey

The Bailiwick of Jersey (; Jèrriais: Jèrri) is a British Crown Dependency off the coast of Normandy, France. As well as the island of Jersey itself, the bailiwick includes the nearly uninhabited islands of the Minquiers, Écréhous, the Pierres de Lecq and other rocks and reefs. Together with the bailiwick of Guernsey it forms the grouping known as the Channel Islands. The defence of all these islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. However, Jersey is part of neither the UK nor the European Union; rather, like the Isle of Man, it is a separate possession of the Crown. Jersey belongs to the Common Travel Area. History Jersey history is influenced by its strategic location between the northern coast of France and the southern coast of England; the island's recorded history extends over a thousand years. Evidence of Bronze Age and early Iron Age settlements can be found in many locations around the island. While archaeological evidence of Roman influence has been found, in particular the coastal headland site at Le Pinacle, Les Landes, where remains of a primitive structure are attributed to Roman temple worship (fanum), evidence for regular Roman occupation has yet to be established. Formerly under the control of Brittany and named Angia (also spelled Agna  ), Jersey became subject to Viking influence in the ninth century, one of the "Norman Islands". The name for Jersey itself is sourced from a Viking heritage: the Norse suffix -ey for island can be found in many places around the Northern European coasts. However, the significance of the first part of the island's toponym is unclear. Among theories are that it derives from jarth (Old Norse: "earth") or jarl, or perhaps a personal name, Geirr, to give "Geirr's Island". "Jersey", Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. John Everett-Heath. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Jersey Library. 6 October 2006 Alternatively support for a Celtic origin can be made with reference to the Gaulish gar- (oak), ceton (forest). It is also said to be a corruption of the Latin Caesarea, the Roman name for the island, influenced by Old English suffix -ey for "island"; this is plausible if, in the regional pronunciation of Latin, Caesarea was not but . The island was eventually annexed to the Duchy of Normandy by William Longsword, Duke of Normandy in 933; his descendant, William the Conqueror, conquered England in 1066, which led to the Duchy of Normandy and the kingdom of England being governed under one monarch. The Dukes of Normandy owned considerable estates on the island, and Norman families living on their estates founded many of the historical Norman-French Jersey family names. King John lost all his territories in mainland Normandy in 1204 to King Philip II Augustus, but retained possession of Jersey, along with Guernsey and the other Channel Islands; the islands have been internally self-governing since. Islanders became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries in the late 16th century. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, Charles II gave George Carteret, bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America. Trade laid the foundations of prosperity, aided by neutrality between England and France. The Jersey way of life involved agriculture, milling, fishing, shipbuilding, and production of woollen goods until 19th century improvements in transport links brought tourism to the island. Jersey was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1 July, 1940, until 9 May, 1945 (when Germany surrendered). Politics The States building in St. Helier. Jersey's legislature is the States of Jersey. It includes fifty-three elected members: twelve senators (elected for six-year terms), twelve connétables (heads of parishes elected for three-year terms), twenty-nine deputies (elected for three-year terms); the Bailiff and the Deputy Bailiff (appointed to preside over the assembly and having a casting vote in favour of the status quo when presiding); and three non-voting members (the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney General, and the Solicitor General) appointed by the Crown. Government departments are run by a Cabinet government under a Chief Minister. The civil head of the island, and its judiciary is the Bailiff. Senators are elected on an island-wide mandate and Deputies are elected by local constituencies. Formally constituted political parties are unfashionable, although groups of "like-minded members" act in concert. Elizabeth II's traditional title as head of state is that of Duke of Normandy, but she does not hold that title formally. She reigns by her position as Queen over a Crown Dependency. Her representative in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, who has only token involvement in island politics. Since 2006, the incumbent Lieutenant Governor has been Lieutenant General Andrew Ridgway. The legal system is based on Norman customary law (including the Clameur de Haro), statute and English law; justice is administered by the Royal Court. Appeals are heard by the Jersey Court of Appeal and, ultimately, by the Privy Council. Statutes were enacted solely in French until 1929; some legislation continues to be made in French, especially amendments to existing legislation. The influence of French language legislation in Jersey is now limited and principally concerns administrative and real property matters, wills and succession and some aspects of criminal procedure. Company legislation, regulatory statutes, material bankruptcy procedures, security over shares and all other relevant matters are, to the extent addressed by existing legislation, governed by statutes enacted in English and, in many cases, are largely based on English law principles or practices. Parishes Map of the parishes of Jersey Administratively, Jersey is divided into twelve parishes. All have access to the sea and are named after the saints to whom their ancient parish churches are dedicated: Grouville (historically Saint Martin de Grouville; incorporating Les Minquiers) Saint Brélade Saint Clement Saint Helier Saint John Saint Lawrence Saint Martin (historically Saint Martin le Vieux; incorporating Les Écréhous) Saint Mary Saint Ouen Saint Peter Saint Saviour Trinity The parishes of Jersey are further divided into vingtaines (or, in St. Ouen, cueillettes), divisions which are historic and nowadays mostly used for purposes of local administration and electoral constituency. The Constable (Connétable) is the head of each parish, elected at a public election for a three year term to run the parish and to represent the municipality in the States. The Procureur du Bien Public (two in each parish) is the legal and financial representative of the parish (elected at a public election since 2003 in accordance with the Public Elections (Amendment) (Jersey) Law 2003; formerly an Assembly of Electors of each parish elected the Procureurs in accordance with the Loi (1804) au sujet des assemblées paroissiales). A Procureur du Bien Public is elected for a mandate of three years as a public trustee for the funds and property of the parish and to be empowered to pass contract on behalf of the parish if so authorised by a Parish Assembly. The Parish Assembly is the decision-making body of local government in each parish; it consists of all entitled voters of the parish. Each parish elects its own force of Honorary Police consisting of Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constable's Officers. Centeniers are elected at a public election within each parish for a term of three years to undertake policing within the parish. The Centenier is the only officer authorised to charge and bail offenders. Formerly, the senior Centenier of each parish (entitled the Chef de Police) deputised for the Constable in the States of Jersey when the Constable was unable to attend a sitting of the States. This function has now been abolished. International relations Jersey Airport greets travellers with "Welcome to Jersey" in Jèrriais. Although diplomatic representation is reserved to the Crown, Jersey has been developing its own international identity over recent years and negotiates directly with foreign governments on matters within the competence of the States of Jersey. Jersey maintains a permanent non-diplomatic representation in Caen, the Bureau de Jersey, with a branch office in Rennes. A similar office, the Maison de Normandie, in St. Helier represents the Conseil général of Manche and the Conseil régional of Basse-Normandie and hosts the Consulate of France. Jersey is a member of the British-Irish Council, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association and the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie. Jersey is aiming to become a full member of the Commonwealth in its own right. Jersey Evening Post, 23 September 2006 Dicey and Morris (p26) *Dicey & Morris. (1993) The Conflict of Laws 12th edition. London: Sweet & Maxwell Ltd. (pp26/30) ISBN 0-420-48280-6 list the separate States comprising the British Islands: "England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, [Herm] and Sark. . . is a separate country in the sense of the conflict of laws, though not one of them is a State known to public international law." In 2007, the Chief Minister and the UK Lord Chancellor signed an agreement Jersey and UK agree framework for developing Jersey’s international identity which established a framework for the development of the international identity of Jersey. The agreement stated that: the UK has no democratic accountability in and for Jersey; the UK will not act internationally on behalf of Jersey without prior consultation; Jersey has an international identity which is different from that of the UK; the UK recognises that the interests of Jersey may differ from those of the UK, and the UK will seek to represent any differing interests when acting in an international capacity; the UK and Jersey will work together to resolve or clarify any differences which may arise between their respective interests. In a survey of 700 people carried out by Channel Television in the summer of 2000, 68% supported independence from the United Kingdom. Channel Isles. Senator (now Deputy) Paul le Claire lodged a projet calling for Jersey's independence shortly thereafter. Subsequently, the Jersey Law Review published an editorial The Sword of Damocles, Jersey Law Review, Volume 6, Issue 3, October 2002 and articles touching on the possibility of full independence. "Jersey and the United Kingdom: a choice of destiny", Jersey Law Review, Volume 8, Issue 3, October 2004. In 2007 the Chief Minister was reported Jersey Evening Post 21 April 2007 as saying that Jersey had contingency plans in case independence were to be forced upon the Island or if Jersey wanted to move towards independence at a later date. In June 2008 an interim report was presented to the Council of Ministers evaluating "the potential advantages and disadvantages for Jersey in seeking independence from the United Kingdom or other incremental change in the constitutional relationship, while retaining the Queen as Head of State." Second Interim Report of the Constitution Review Group . The Bailiff, who chaired the group that produced the report, said on 15 September 2008 that "sovereignty would cause no major problems for Jersey". Bailiff’s speech at Assise d’Héritage The island has a special relationship with the EU provided by Protocol 3 to the UK’s Treaty of Accession in 1973. This relationship cannot be changed without the unanimous agreement of all Member States and Island Authorities. Under Protocol 3, the island is part of the customs territory of the European Community. The common customs tariff, levies and other agricultural import measures therefore apply to trade between the island and non-Member States. There is free movement of goods and trade between the island and Member States. Jersey is not, however, part of the single market in financial services and as a result, is not required to implement EU Directives on such matters as movement of capital, company law or money laundering. However, Jersey will emulate such measures where appropriate having particular regard to the island's commitment to meeting international standards of financial regulation and countering money laundering and terrorist financing. A number of tax information exchange agreements http://www.gov.je/TreasuryResources/IncomeTax/TIEA/ have been signed directly by the island with foreign countries. Jersey’s Chief Minister signed a TIEA with the United States of America on 4 November, 2002 and with the Kingdom of the Netherlands International Finance - The Netherlands and Jersey sign agreement on the exchange of tax information on 20 June, 2007. This was reported Jersey Evening Post, 22 June, 2007 as the Bailiwick's first tax treaty with a European state as a state in its own right (and the second after the similar agreement with the United States in 2002). Both TIEAs have been ratified by the States of Jersey and are in force. However, the Federal Court of Justice of Germany ruled on 1 July, 2002 (case: II ZR 380/00), that under German law, for the purposes of § 110 of the German Civil Procedures Act (ZPO), Jersey is to be deemed to be part of the United Kingdom and of the European Union as well. Jersey’s Chief Minister also signed a TIEA with the Federal Republic of Germany on 4 July, 2008 and TIEAs with Denmark, the Faroes, the Republic of Finland, Greenland, Iceland, the Kingdom of Sweden and the Kingdom of Norway on 28 October, 2008 (ratified March 2009) http://www.gov.je/TreasuryResources/News/TIEAIreland.htm . On 10 March, 2009, a TIEA was signed between Jersey and the UK. http://www.gov.je/TreasuryResources/IncomeTax/TIEA/TieaUK.htm Also in March 2009, TIEAs were signed with France http://www.gov.je/TreasuryResources/News/FranceTIEA.htm and Ireland. http://www.gov.je/TreasuryResources/News/TIEAIreland.htm These agreements will not come into force until they are ratified by the States, the relevant regulations have been adopted and the other party has completed its own domestic procedures. Geography Satellite view of Jersey. Coastline of Bonne Nuit Map of islands of Bailiwick of Jersey Jersey is an island measuring 118.2 square kilometres (65,569 vergée / 46 sq mi), including reclaimed land and intertidal zone. It lies in the English Channel, approximately from the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy, France, and approximately south of Great Britain. As of October 15, 2006, the States of Jersey indicates that the island is situated "only 22 km off the north-west coast of France and 140 km south of England". It is the largest and southernmost of the Channel Islands. The climate is temperate with mild winters and cool summers. The average annual temperature, is similar to the South Coast of England while the mean annual total sunshine of 1918 hours Climate Averages Jersey 1971 - 2000 is higher than anywhere in the United Kingdom. Sunshine hours annual average The terrain consists of a plateau sloping from long sandy bays in the south to rugged cliffs in the north. The plateau is cut by valleys running generally north-south. Economy Thanks to specialisation in a few high return sectors, at purchasing power parity Jersey has very high economic output per capita, substantially ahead of all of the world's large developed economies. The CIA World Factbook estimate of Jersey's GDP per capita for 2005 is US$57,000, which was beaten only by two other small states with similar economic characteristics, Bermuda and Luxembourg. Jersey's economy is based on financial services, tourism, electronic commerce and agriculture; financial services contribute approximately sixty percent of the island's economy, and the island is recognised as one of the leading offshore financial centres. In June 2005 the States introduced the Competition (Jersey) Law 2005 http://www.jcra.je/pdf/051101%20Competition-Jersey-Law--2005.pdf in order to regulate competition and stimulate economic growth. This competition law was based on that of other jurisdictions. Aside from its banking and finance underpinnings (and the finance industries supporting industries) Jersey also depends on tourism. In 2006 there were 729,000 visitors (down 3% on the previous year) but total visitor spending rose 1% to £222m. Jersey Tourism Annual Report, 2006 Duty-free goods are available for purchase on travel to and from the island. Major agricultural products are potatoes and dairy produce. The source of milk is Jersey cattle, a small breed of cow that has also been acknowledged (though not widely so) for the quality of its meat. Small-scale organic beef production has been reintroduced in an effort to diversify the industry. Farmers and growers often sell surplus food and flowers in boxes on the roadside, relying on the honesty of those who pass to drop the correct change into the money box and take what they want. In the 21st century, diversification of agriculture and amendments in planning strategy have led to farm shops replacing many of the roadside stalls. On February 18, 2005, Jersey was granted Fairtrade Island status. Taxation Until the 20th century, the States relied on indirect taxation to finance the administration of Jersey. The levying of impôts (duties) was in the hands of the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats until 1921 when that body's tax raising powers were transferred to the Assembly of the States, leaving the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats to serve simply as licensing bench for the sale of alcohol (this fiscal reform also stripped the Lieutenant-Governor of most of his effective remaining administrative functions). The Income Tax Law of 1928 introducing income tax was the first law drafted entirely in English. Income tax has been levied at a flat rate of 20% for decades. As VAT has not been levied in the island, luxury goods have often been cheaper than in the UK or in France, providing an incentive for tourism from neighbouring countries. The absence of VAT has also led to the growth of the fulfilment industry, whereby low-value luxury items, such as videos, lingerie and contact lenses are exported, avoiding VAT on arrival and thus undercutting local prices on the same products. In 2005, the States of Jersey announced limits on licences granted to non-resident companies trading in this way. Although Jersey does not have VAT, the States of Jersey introduced a goods and services tax (GST) in 2008 which was put at a flat rate of 3%. Currency Twin cash machines at a bank that dispensed a choice of Bank of England or Jersey banknotes. Since the intervention of the Treasurer of the States in 2005, cash machines generally (with the exception of those at the Airport and Elizabeth Harbour) no longer dispense English notes. Jersey issues its own Jersey banknotes and coins which circulate with UK coinage, Bank of England notes, Scottish notes and Guernsey currency within the island. Jersey currency is not legal tender outside Jersey: However, in the United Kingdom it is acceptable tender http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200102/ldhansrd/vo011206/text/11206-28.htm and can be surrendered at banks within that country in exchange for Bank of England-issued currency on a like-for-like basis. Coinage Designs on the reverse of Jersey coins: 1p Le Hocq Tower (coastal defence) 2p L'Hermitage, site where St. Helier lived 5p Seymour Tower (offshore defence) 10p La Pouquelaye de Faldouet (dolmen) 20p La Corbière Lighthouse 50p Grosnez Castle (ruins) Pound coins are issued, but are much less widely used than pound notes. Designs on the reverse of Jersey pound coins include historic ships built in Jersey and a series of the twelve parishes' crests. The motto round the milled edge of Jersey pound coins is (). Two pound coins are issued also, but in very small quantities. Demographics Mont Orgueil was built in the 13th century to protect Jersey from French invasion. The island is host to a large number of people born outside Jersey; 47% of the population are not originally from the island. 2001 Census Censuses have been undertaken in Jersey since 1821, the most recent being the 2001 Census on March 11. Thirty percent of the population is concentrated in Saint Helier, the island's only town. Of the roughly 88,000 people in Jersey, around 40 percent are of Jersey/Norman descent and 40 percent of British (English, Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish) descent. The largest minority groups in the island, after the British, are Portuguese (around 7%, especially Madeiran), Irish and Polish. The French community is also always present. The people of Jersey are often called islanders, or in individual terms Jerseyman or Jerseywoman. Some Jersey-born people consider themselves British and value the special relationship between the British Crown and the island, whereas a large number of Jersey people consider themselves more European, leaning towards the French. Religion in Jersey has a complex history and much diversity. The established church is the Church of England. In the countryside, Methodism found its traditional stronghold. A minority of Roman Catholics can also be found in Jersey, with two Catholic private schools (De La Salle College in Saint Saviour being an all-boys Catholic school, and Beaulieu Convent School down the road in Saint Helier being an all-girls school where the sisters still have a presence in school life). Immigration For immigration and nationality purposes the United Kingdom generally treats Jersey as though it were part of the UK. Jersey is constitutionally entitled to restrict immigration gov.je - Summary Policy by non-Jersey residents, but control of immigration at the point of entry cannot, at present, be introduced for British, certain Commonwealth and EEA nationals without change to existing international law. gov.je - Migration Monitoring and Regulation Immigration is therefore controlled by a mixture of restrictions on those without residential status purchasing or renting property in the island and restrictions on employment. Migration policy is to move to a registration system to integrate residential and employment status. Jersey maintains its own immigration gov.je - Immigration and border controls. Although Jersey citizens are full British citizens, an endorsement restricting the right of establishment in European Union states other than the UK is placed in the Jersey passport of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. gov.je - Passports - I have an observation in my passport which says - the holder is not entitled to benefit from EC Provisions relating to employment and settlement - what does that mean? Those who have a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom, or who have lived in the United Kingdom for five years, are not subject to this restriction. Historical large-scale immigration was facilitated by the introduction of steamships (from 1823). By 1840, up to 5,000 English people, mostly half-pay officers and their families, had settled in Jersey.. Balleine's History of Jersey In the aftermath of 1848, Polish, Russian, Hungarian, Italian and French political refugees came to Jersey. Following Louis Napoléon's coup of 1851, more French proscrits arrived. By the end of the 19th century, well-to-do British families, attracted by the lack of income tax, were settling in Jersey in increasing numbers, establishing St Helier as a predominantly English-speaking town. Seasonal work in agriculture had depended mostly on Bretons and mainland Normans from the 19th century. The growth of tourism attracted staff from the United Kingdom. Following Liberation in 1945, agricultural workers were mostly recruited from the United Kingdom - the demands of reconstruction in mainland Normandy and Brittany employed domestic labour. Until the 1960s, the population had been relatively stable for decades at around 60,000 (excluding the Occupation years). Economic growth spurred immigration and a rise in population. From the 1960s Portuguese workers arrived, mostly working initially in seasonal industries in agriculture and tourism. A trend that has developed over the past few years is the setting up of recruitment agencies in a number of countries in the world, to employ either cheap labour (often from poor countries) or qualified/experienced labour. Amongst the countries that have been targeted for this type of recruitment are Poland, Nigeria, Australia, South Africa, Cyprus and Latvia. Culture Jèrriais road sign ("The black road") in Saint-Ouen. Victor Hugo in exile, 1850s. Until the 19th century, indigenous Jèrriais — a variety of Norman — was the language of the island, though French was used for official business. During the 20th century, however, an intense language shift took place and Jersey today is predominantly English-speaking. Jèrriais nonetheless survives; around 2,600 islanders (three percent) are reckoned to be habitual speakers, and some 10,000 (12 percent) in all claim some knowledge of the language, particularly amongst the elderly in rural parishes. There have been efforts to revive Jèrriais in schools, and the highest number of declared Jèrriais speakers is in the capital. Actress Lillie Langtry, nicknamed the Jersey Lily. The dialects of Jèrriais differ in phonology and, to a lesser extent, lexis between parishes, with the most marked differences to be heard between those of the west and east. Many place names are in Jèrriais, and French and English place names are also to be found. Anglicisation of the toponymy increased apace with the migration of English people to the island. Some Neolithic carvings are the earliest works of artistic character to be found in Jersey. Only fragmentary wall-paintings remain from the rich mediaeval artistic heritage, after the wholesale iconoclasm of the Calvinist Reformation of the 16th century. Printing arrived in Jersey only in the 1780s, but the island supported a multitude of regular publications in French (and Jèrriais) and English throughout the 19th century, in which poetry, most usually topical and satirical, flourished (see Jèrriais literature). The island is particularly famous for the Battle of Flowers, a carnival held annually since 1902. Annual music festivals include Rock in the Park, Avanchi presents Jazz in July, Jersey Live, the music section of the Jersey Eisteddfod. Other festivals include La Fête dé Noué (Christmas festival), La Faîs'sie d'Cidre (cidermaking festival), the Battle of Britain air display, food festivals, and parish events. The island's patron saint is Saint Helier. Media Broadcast BBC Radio Jersey provides a radio service and Spotlight Channel Islands provides a joint television news service with Guernsey but with headquarters in Jersey. Channel Television is a regional ITV franchise shared with the Bailiwick of Guernsey but with its headquarters in Jersey. Channel 103 is a commercial radio station. Newspaper Jersey's only newspaper, the Jersey Evening Post, claims that it has an average issue readership of 73% of adults in Jersey and that over the course of a week 93 per cent of all adults will read a copy of the newspaper, it being the main printed source of local news and official notices. The newspaper features a weekly Jèrriais column accompanied by English-language précis. Magazines Lifestyle magazines include Gallery Magazine Gallery Magazine Jersey (monthly), Jersey Now http://www.jerseyeveningpost.com/pub2.html (quarterly) and The Jersey Life Quality LifeStyle Magazines - Jersey, Harpenden,Jersey Estrella Radlett, St Albans (monthly). Les Nouvelles Chroniques du Don Balleine Les Nouvelles Chroniques du Don Balleine is a quarterly literary magazine in Jèrriais. Cinema In 1909, T.J. West established the first cinema in the Royal Hall in St. Helier, which became known as West's Cinema in 1923 (demolished 1977). The first talking picture, The Perfect Alibi, was shown on 30 December, 1929 at the Picture House in St. Helier. The Jersey Film Society was founded on 11 December, 1947 at the Café Bleu, West's Cinema. The large Art Deco Forum Cinema was opened in 1935 — during the German Occupation this was used for German propaganda films. The Odeon Cinema (now the New Forum) was opened 2 June, 1952. Since 1997, Kevin Lewis (formerly of the Cine Centre and now of the New Forum) has arranged the Jersey Film Festival, a charity event showing the latest and also classic films outdoors in 35 mm on a big screen. The 2006 festival was held in Howard Davis Park, St Saviour, on the 12-18 August, 2006. In 2008 the boutique Branchage film festival was held. http://www.branchagefestival.com/ In December 2002, Cineworld Cinemas opened a 10 screen multiplex on the waterfront centre in St. Helier. In August 2006, plans were revealed to convert the former Odeon building into a department store while retaining the landmark architecture. Food and drink Jersey wonders, or mèrvelles, are a favourite snack consisting of fried dough, especially at country fêtes. According to tradition, the success of cooking depends on the state of the tide. Seafood has traditionally been important to the cuisine of Jersey: mussels (called moules locally), oysters, lobster and crabs — especially spider crabs — ormers, and conger. Jersey milk being very rich, cream and butter have played a large part in insular cooking. (See Channel Island milk) However there is no indigenous tradition of cheese making, contrary to the custom of mainland Normandy, but some cheese is produced commercially. Jersey fudge, mostly imported and made with milk from overseas Jersey cattle herds, is a popular food product with tourists. Jersey Royal potatoes are the local variety of new potato, and the island is famous for its early crop of small potatoes from the south-facing côtils (steeply-sloping fields). They are eaten in a variety of ways, often simply boiled and served with butter. Apples historically were an important crop. Bourdélots are apple dumplings, but the most typical speciality is black butter (lé nièr beurre), a dark spicy spread prepared from apples, cider and spices. Cider used to be an important export. After decline and near-disappearance in the late 20th century, apple production is being increased and promoted. Apple brandy is also produced, as is some wine. Among other traditional dishes are cabbage loaf, Jersey wonders (les mèrvelles), fliottes, bean crock (les pais au fou), nettle (ortchie) soup, vraic buns. Sport In its own right Jersey participates in the Commonwealth Games and in the bi-annual Island Games, which it last hosted in 1997. In sporting events in which Jersey does not have international representation, when the British Home Nations are competing separately, islanders that do have high athletic skill may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations – there are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent another Home Nation. Jersey is an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC). The Jersey cricket team plays in the Inter-insular match among others. The Jersey cricket team competes in the World Division 4, held in Tanzania in October 2008, after recently finishing as runners-up and therefore being promoted from the World Division 5 held in Jersey. They also compete in the European Division 2, held in Guernsey during August 2008. The youth cricket teams have been promoted to play in the European Division 1 alongside Ireland, Scotland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Guernsey. In two tournaments at this level Jersey have finished 6th. For horseracing, Les Landes Racecourse can be found at Les Landes in St. Ouen next to the ruins of Grosnez Castle. The Jersey Football Association supervises football in Jersey. The Jersey Football Combination has 9 teams in its top division. The 2006/07 champions were Jersey Scottish where Ross Crick is the top scorer. The Jersey national football team plays in the annual Muratti competition among others. Jersey has two public indoor swimming pools. Swimming in the sea, surfing, windsurfing and other marine sports are practised. Jersey Swimming Club have organised an annual swim from Elizabeth Castle to Saint Helier Harbour for over 50 years. A round-island swim is a major challenge which a select number of swimmers have achieved. The Royal Channel Island Yacht Club is based in Jersey. There is one facility for extreme sports and some facilities for youth sports. Coastal cliffs provide opportunities for rock climbing.. Environment Three areas of land are protected for their ecological or geological interest as Sites of Special Interest (SSI): Les Landes, Les Blanches Banques and La Lande du Ouest. A large area of intertidal zone is designated as a Ramsar site. Jersey is the home of Durrell Wildlife (formerly known as the Jersey Zoological Park) founded by the naturalist, zookeeper, and author Gerald Durrell. Biodiversity Four species of small mammal are considered native Species Based Research Projects - The Jersey Mammal Survey : the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), the Jersey bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus caesarius), the Lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura suaveolens) and the French shrew (Sorex coronatus). Three wild mammals are well-established introductions: the rabbit (introduced in the mediaeval period), the red squirrel and the hedgehog (both introduced in the 19th century). The stoat (Mustela erminea) became extinct in Jersey between 1976 and 2000. The Green lizard (Lacerta bilineata) is a protected species of reptile; Jersey is its only habitat in the British Isles. Biodiversity Action Plan Trees generally considered native are the alder (Alnus glutinosa), silver birch (Betula pendula), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), hazel (Corylus avellana), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), beech (Fagus sylvatica), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), aspen (Populus tremula), wild cherry (Prunus avium), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), holm oak (Quercus ilex), oak (Quercus robur), sallow (Salix cinerea), elder (Sambucus nigra), elm (Ulmus spp), and medlar (Mespilus germanica). Among notable introduced species, the cabbage palm (Cordyline australis) has been planted in coastal areas and may be seen in many gardens. Trees in Jersey, The Jersey Association of Men of the Trees, Jersey 1997, ISBN 0953097900 Notable marine species http://www.jersey.com/English/sightsandactivities/activities/fishing/AtoZFish/Pages/default.aspx include the ormer, conger, bass, undulate ray, grey mullet, ballan wrasse and garfish. Marine mammals include the bottlenosed dolphin http://www.gov.je/NR/rdonlyres/49F2D9D7-2E1A-4958-9446-F3ADC2672868/0/Keithspaper.pdf and grey seal. http://www.gov.je/NR/rdonlyres/27F0C1B6-73B4-4B51-A743-7000AEEAC404/0/CZMTPMarineBiodiversityOct05.pdf See also Footnotes and references Print Jersey Through the Centuries, Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1984, ISBN 0-86120-003-9 </div> External links States of Jersey BBC Jersey Jersey in The World Factbook Jersey History Jersey Independent visitors guide International Finance Centre - local business news Jersey Legal Information Board (JLIB) Jersey Tourism Les Pâraîsses d'Jèrri en Jèrriais (map of parishes, coat-of-arms, and history) Map of Jersey Société Jersiaise This is Jersey (Local Portal) Virtual Tour of the Channel Island of Jersey be-x-old:Джэрсі

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Khmer_Rouge

The Khmer Rouge () was the communist ruling political party of Cambodia — which it renamed Democratic Kampuchea — from 1975 to 1979. Gradually losing power following a Vietnamese invasion in December 1978, the Khmer Rouge maintained control in some regions until 1998 when their final stronghold, in Anlong Veng District, fell to the government. "Key events regarding Pol Pot and Khmer Rouge", CNN.com The term "Khmer Rouge," French for "Red Khmer", was coined by Cambodian head of state Norodom Sihanouk and was later adopted by English speakers. It was used to refer to a succession of Communist parties in Cambodia which evolved into the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) and later the Party of Democratic Kampuchea. The organization was also known as the Khmer Communist Party and the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea. The Khmer Rouge is remembered mainly for the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million people or 1/5 of the country's total population (estimates range from 850,000 to 2.5 million) under its regime, through execution, torture, starvation and forced labor. Following their leader Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge imposed an extreme form of social engineering on Cambodian society — a radical form of agrarian communism where the whole population had to work in collective farms or forced labor projects. In terms of the number of people killed as a proportion of the population (est. 1.75 million people, as of 1975), it was one of the most lethal regimes of the 20th century. The Khmer Rouge wanted to eliminate anyone suspected of "involvement in free-market activities". Suspected capitalists encompassed professionals and almost everyone with an education, many urban dwellers, and people with connections to foreign governments. The Khmer Rouge believed parents were tainted with capitalism. Consequently, children were separated from parents and brainwashed to socialism as well as taught torture methods with animals. Children were a "dictatorial instrument of the party" and were given leadership in torture and executions. One of their mottoes, in reference to the New People, was: "To keep you is no benefit. To destroy you is no loss." The ideology of the Khmer Rouge evolved over time. In the early days, it was an orthodox communist party and looked to the Vietnamese Communists for guidance. It became more Stalinist and anti-intellectual when groups of students who had been studying in France returned to Cambodia. The students, including future party leader Pol Pot, had been heavily influenced by the example of the French Communist Party (PCF). After 1960, the Khmer Rouge developed its own unique political ideas. For example, contrary to most Marxist doctrine, the Khmer Rouge considered the farmers in the countryside to be the proletariat and the true representatives of the working class, a form of Maoism which brought them onto the PRC side of the Sino-Soviet Split. By the 1970s, the ideology of the Khmer Rouge combined its own ideas with the anti-colonialist ideas of the PCF, which its leaders had acquired during their education in French universities in the 1950s. The Khmer Rouge leaders were also privately very resentful of what they saw as the arrogant attitude of the Vietnamese, and were determined to establish a form of communism very different from the Vietnamese model and also from other Communist countries, including China. After four years of rule, the Khmer Rouge regime was removed from power in 1979 as a result of an invasion by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and was replaced by moderate, pro-Vietnamese Communists. It survived into the 1990s as a resistance movement operating in western Cambodia from bases in Thailand. In 1996, following a peace agreement, their leader Pol Pot formally dissolved the organization. Pol Pot died on 15 April, 1998, having never been put on trial. How the mighty are falling.The Economist Origins The Cambodian Left: the early history The history of the communist movement in Cambodia can be divided into six phases: the emergence of the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), whose members were almost exclusively Vietnamese, before World War II; the ten-year struggle for independence from the French, when a separate Cambodian communist party, the Kampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), was established under Vietnamese auspices; the period following the Second Party Congress of the KPRP in 1960, when Saloth Sar (Pol Pot after 1976) and other future Khmer Rouge leaders gained control of its apparatus; the revolutionary struggle from the initiation of the Khmer Rouge insurgency in 1967-68 to the fall of the Lon Nol government in April 1975; the Democratic Kampuchea regime, from April 1975 to January 1979; and the period following the Third Party Congress of the KPRP in January 1979, when Hanoi effectively assumed control over Cambodia's government and communist party. In 1930 Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnamese Communist Party by unifying three smaller communist movements that had emerged in northern, central and southern Vietnam during the late 1920s. The name was changed almost immediately to the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), ostensibly to include revolutionaries from Cambodia and Laos. Almost without exception, however, all the earliest party members were Vietnamese. By the end of World War II, a handful of Cambodians had joined its ranks, but their influence on the Indochinese communist movement and on developments within Cambodia was negligible. Viet Minh units occasionally made forays into Cambodian bases during their war against the French, and, in conjunction with the leftist government that ruled Thailand until 1947, the Viet Minh encouraged the formation of armed, left-wing Khmer Issarak bands. On April 17, 1950 (twenty-five years to the day before the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh), the first nationwide congress of the Khmer Issarak groups convened, and the United Issarak Front was established. Its leader was Son Ngoc Minh (possibly a brother of the nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh), and a third of its leadership consisted of members of the ICP. According to the historian David P. Chandler, the leftist Issarak groups, aided by the Viet Minh, occupied a sixth of Cambodia's territory by 1952; and, on the eve of the Geneva Conference, they controlled as much as one half of the country. In 1951 the ICP was reorganized into three national units — the Vietnam Workers' Party, the Lao Itsala, and the Kampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP). According to a document issued after the reorganization, the Vietnam Workers' Party would continue to "supervise" the smaller Laotian and Cambodian movements. Most KPRP leaders and rank-and-file seem to have been either Khmer Krom, or ethnic Vietnamese living in Cambodia. The party's appeal to indigenous Khmers appears to have been minimal. According to Democratic Kampuchea's version of party history, the Viet Minh's failure to negotiate a political role for the KPRP at the 1954 Geneva Conference represented a betrayal of the Cambodian movement, which still controlled large areas of the countryside and which commanded at least 5,000 armed men. Following the conference, about 1,000 members of the KPRP, including Son Ngoc Minh, made a "Long March" into North Vietnam, where they remained in exile. In late 1954, those who stayed in Cambodia founded a legal political party, the Pracheachon Party, which participated in the 1955 and the 1958 National Assembly elections. In the September 1955 election, it won about four percent of the vote but did not secure a seat in the legislature. Members of the Pracheachon were subject to constant harassment and to arrests because the party remained outside Sihanouk's political organization, Sangkum. Government attacks prevented it from participating in the 1962 election and drove it underground. Sihanouk habitually labeled local leftists the Khmer Rouge, a term that later came to signify the party and the state headed by Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, and their associates. During the mid-1950s, KPRP factions, the "urban committee" (headed by Tou Samouth), and the "rural committee" (headed by Sieu Heng), emerged. In very general terms, these groups espoused divergent revolutionary lines. The prevalent "urban" line, endorsed by North Vietnam, recognized that Sihanouk, by virtue of his success in winning independence from the French, was a genuine national leader whose neutralism and deep distrust of the United States made him a valuable asset in Hanoi's struggle to "liberate" South Vietnam. Champions of this line hoped that the prince could be persuaded to distance himself from the right wing and to adopt leftist policies. The other line, supported for the most part by rural cadres who were familiar with the harsh realities of the countryside, advocated an immediate struggle to overthrow the "feudalist" Sihanouk. In 1959 Sieu Heng defected to the government and provided the security forces with information that enabled them to destroy as much as 90 % of the party's rural apparatus. Although communist networks in Phnom Penh and in other towns under Tou Samouth's jurisdiction fared better, only a few hundred communists remained active in the country by 1960. The Paris student group During the 1950s, Khmer students in Paris organized their own communist movement, which had little, if any, connection to the hard-pressed party in their homeland. From their ranks came the men and women who returned home and took command of the party apparatus during the 1960s, led an effective insurgency against Lon Nol from 1968 until 1975, and established the regime of Democratic Kampuchea. Pol Pot, who rose to the leadership of the communist movement in the 1960s, was born in 1928 (some sources say in 1925) in Kampong Thum Province, northeast of Phnom Penh. He attended a technical high school in the capital and then went to Paris in 1949 to study radio electronics (other sources say he attended a school for printers and typesetters and also studied civil engineering). Described by one source as a "determined, rather plodding organizer," he failed to obtain a degree, but, according to the Jesuit priest, Father François Ponchaud, he acquired a taste for the classics of French literature as well as for the writings of Marx. Another member of the Paris student group was Ieng Sary. He was a Chinese-Khmer born in 1925 in South Vietnam. He attended the elite Lycée Sisowath in Phnom Penh before beginning courses in commerce and politics at the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (more widely known as Sciences Po) in France. Khieu Samphan, considered "one of the most brilliant intellects of his generation," was born in 1931 and specialized in economics and politics during his time in Paris. In talent he was rivaled by Hou Yuon, born in 1930, who was described as being "of truly astounding physical and intellectual strength," and who studied economics and law. Son Sen, born in 1930, studied education and literature; Hu Nim, born in 1932, studied law. These men were perhaps the most educated leaders in the history of Asian communism. Two of them, Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon, earned doctorates from the University of Paris; Hu Nim obtained his degree from the University of Phnom Penh in 1965. In retrospect, it seems unlikely that these talented members of the elite, sent to France on government scholarships, could launch the bloodiest and most radical revolution in modern Asian history. Most came from landowner or civil servant families. Pol Pot and Hou Yuon may have been related to the royal family. An older sister of Pol Pot had been a concubine at the court of King Monivong. Three of the Paris group forged a bond that survived years of revolutionary struggle and intraparty strife, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary married Khieu Ponnary and Khieu Thirith (also known as Ieng Thirith), purportedly relatives of Khieu Samphan. These two well-educated women also played a central role in the regime of Democratic Kampuchea. The intellectual ferment of Paris must have been a dizzying experience for young Khmers fresh from Phnom Penh or the provinces. A number turned to orthodox Marxism-Leninism. At some time between 1949 and 1951, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary joined the French Communist Party, the most tightly disciplined and orthodox Marxist-Leninist of Western Europe's communist movements. In 1951 the two men went to East Berlin to participate in a youth festival. This experience is considered to have been a turning point in their ideological development. Meeting with Khmers who were fighting with the Viet Minh (and whom they subsequently judged to be too subservient to the Vietnamese), they became convinced that only a tightly disciplined party organization and a readiness for armed struggle could achieve revolution. They transformed the Khmer Students' Association (KSA), to which most of the 200 or so Khmer students in Paris belonged, into an organization for nationalist and leftist ideas. Inside the KSA and its successor organizations was a secret organization known as the Cercle Marxiste. The organization was composed of cells of three to six members with most members knowing nothing about the overall structure of the organization. In 1952 Pol Pot, Hou Yuon, Ieng Sary, and other leftists gained notoriety by sending an open letter to Sihanouk calling him the "strangler of infant democracy." A year later, the French authorities closed down the KSA. In 1956, however, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan helped to establish a new group, the Khmer Students' Union. Inside, the group was still run by the Cercle Marxiste. The doctoral dissertations written by Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan express basic themes that were later to become the cornerstones of the policy adopted by Democratic Kampuchea. The central role of the peasants in national development was espoused by Hou Yuon in his 1955 thesis, The Cambodian Peasants and Their Prospects for Modernization, which challenged the conventional view that urbanization and industrialization are necessary precursors of development. The major argument in Khieu Samphan's 1959 thesis, Cambodia's Economy and Industrial Development, was that the country had to become self-reliant and end its economic dependency on the developed world. In its general contours, Khieu's work reflected the influence of a branch of the "dependency theory" school, which blamed lack of development in the Third World on the economic domination of the industrialized nations. Path to power and reign KPRP Second Congress After returning to Cambodia in 1953, Pol Pot threw himself into party work. At first he went to join with forces allied to the Viet Minh operating in the rural areas of Kampong Cham Province (Kompong Cham). After the end of the war, he moved to Phnom Penh under Tou Samouth's "urban committee" where he became an important point of contact between above-ground parties of the left and the underground secret communist movement. His comrades, Ieng Sary and Hou Yuon, became teachers at a new private high school, the Lycée Kambuboth, which Hou Yuon helped to establish. Khieu Samphan returned from Paris in 1959, taught as a member of the law faculty of the University of Phnom Penh, and started a left-wing, French-language publication, L'Observateur. The paper soon acquired a reputation in Phnom Penh's small academic circle. The following year, the government closed the paper, and Sihanouk's police publicly humiliated Khieu by beating, undressing and photographing him in public--as Shawcross notes, "not the sort of humiliation that men forgive or forget." Yet the experience did not prevent Khieu from advocating cooperation with Sihanouk in order to promote a united front against United States activities in South Vietnam. As mentioned, Khieu Samphan, Hou Yuon, and Hu Nim were forced to "work through the system" by joining the Sangkum and by accepting posts in the prince's government. In late September, 1960, twenty-one leaders of the KPRP held a secret congress in a vacant room of the Phnom Penh railroad station. This pivotal event remains shrouded in mystery because its outcome has become an object of contention (and considerable historical rewriting) between pro-Vietnamese and anti-Vietnamese Khmer communist factions. The question of cooperation with, or resistance to, Sihanouk was thoroughly discussed. Tou Samouth, who advocated a policy of cooperation, was elected general secretary of the KPRP that was renamed the Workers' Party of Kampuchea (WPK). His ally, Nuon Chea (also known as Long Reth), became deputy general secretary; however, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary were named to the Political Bureau to occupy the third and the fifth highest positions in the renamed party's hierarchy. The name change is significant. By calling itself a workers' party, the Cambodian movement claimed equal status with the Vietnam Workers' Party. The pro-Vietnamese regime of the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) implied in the 1980s that the September 1960 meeting was nothing more than the second congress of the KPRP. On July 20, 1962, Tou Samouth was murdered by the Cambodian government. In February 1963, at the WPK's second congress, Pol Pot was chosen to succeed Tou Samouth as the party's general secretary. Tou's allies, Nuon Chea and Keo Meas, were removed from the Central Committee and replaced by Son Sen and Vorn Vet. From then on, Pol Pot and loyal comrades from his Paris student days controlled the party center, edging out older veterans whom they considered excessively pro-Vietnamese. In July 1963, Pol Pot and most of the central committee left Phnom Penh to establish an insurgent base in Ratanakiri Province in the northeast. Pol Pot had shortly before been put on a list of 34 leftists who were summoned by Sihanouk to join the government and sign statements saying Sihanouk was the only possible leader for the country. Pol Pot and Chou Chet were the only people on the list who escaped. All the others agreed to cooperate with the government and were afterward under 24-hour watch by the police. From enemy to ally: Sihanouk and the GRUNK The region Pol Pot and the others moved to was inhabited by tribal minorities, the Khmer Loeu, whose rough treatment (including resettlement and forced assimilation) at the hands of the central government made them willing recruits for a guerrilla struggle. In 1965, Pol Pot made a visit of several months to North Vietnam and China. He received some training in China, which had enhanced his prestige when he returned to the WPK's liberated areas. Despite friendly relations between Norodom Sihanouk and the Chinese, the latter kept Pol Pot's visit a secret from Sihanouk. In September 1966, the party changed its name to the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). The change in the name of the party was a closely guarded secret. Lower ranking members of the party and even the Vietnamese were not told of it and neither was the membership until many years later. The party leadership endorsed armed struggle against the government, then led by Sihanouk. In 1967, several small-scale attempts at insurgency were made by the CPK but they had little success. In 1968, the Khmer Rouge forces launched a national insurgency across Cambodia (see also Cambodian Civil War). Though North Vietnam had not been informed of the decision, its forces provided shelter and weapons to the Khmer Rouge after the insurgency started. Vietnamese support for the insurgency made it impossible for the Cambodian military to effectively counter it. For the next two years the insurgency grew as Sihanouk did very little to stop it. As the insurgency grew stronger, the party finally openly declared itself to be the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). The political appeal of the Khmer Rouge was increased as a result of the situation created by the removal of Sihanouk as head of state in 1970. Premier Lon Nol, with the support of the National Assembly, deposed Sihanouk. Sihanouk, in exile in Beijing, made an alliance with the Khmer Rouge and became the nominal head of a Khmer Rouge-dominated government-in-exile (known by its French acronym, GRUNK) backed by the People's Republic of China. Sihanouk's popular support in rural Cambodia allowed the Khmer Rouge to extend its power and influence to the point that by 1973 it exercised de facto control over the majority of Cambodian territory, although only a minority of its population. Many people in Cambodia who helped the Khmer Rouge against the Lon Nol government thought they were fighting for the restoration of Sihanouk. The relation between the massive carpet bombing of Cambodia by the United States and the growth of the Khmer Rouge, in terms of recruitment and popular support, has been a matter of interest to historians. In 1984 Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia argued that it is "untenable" to assert that the Khmer Rouge would not have won but for U.S. intervention and that while the bombing did help Khmer Rouge recruitment, they "would have won anyway." Etcheson, Craig, The Rise and Demise of Democratic Kampuchea, Westview Press, 1984, p. 97 Conversely, some historians have cited the U.S. intervention and bombing campaign (spanning 1965-1973) as a significant factor leading to increased support of the Khmer Rouge among the Cambodian peasantry. Historian Ben Kiernan and Taylor Owen have used a combination of sophisticated satellite mapping, recently unclassified data about the extent of bombing activities, and peasant testimony, to argue that there was a correlation between villages targeted by U.S. bombing and recruitment of peasants by the Khmer Rouge. http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf In his 1996 study of Pol Pot's rise to power, Kiernan argued that foreign intervention "was probably the most significant factor in Pol Pot's rise." Kiernan, Ben, The Pol Pot Regime,1996, Yale University Press, p. 16 By 1975, with the Lon Nol government running out of ammunition, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the government would collapse. On April 17, 1975 the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh. The Khmer Rouge in power The leadership of the Khmer Rouge remained largely unchanged from the 1960s to the mid-1990s. The leaders were mostly from middle-class families and had been educated at French universities. The Standing Committee of the Khmer Rouge's Central Committee ("Party Center") during its period of power consisted of: Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) "Brother number 1" the effective leader of the movement, General Secretary from 1963 until his death in 1998 Nuon Chea (Long Bunruot) "Brother number 2" Prime Minister (alive, arrested in 2007 Bangkok Post, "Former Khmer Rouge leader arrested", September 2007 ) Ieng Sary "Brother number 3" Deputy Prime Minister (Pol Pot's brother-in-law) (alive, arrested in 2007) Ta Mok (Chhit Chhoeun) "Brother number 4" Final Khmer Rouge leader, Southwest Regional Secretary (died in custody awaiting trial for genocide, July 21, 2006) Khieu Samphan "Brother number 5" President of the Khmer Rouge (alive, arrested in 2007) Son Sen Defense Minister (d. 1997) {Superior of Kang Kek Iew tried 2009} Yun Yat (d. 1997) Ke Pauk "Brother number 13" Former secretary of the Northern zone (d. 2002) Ieng Thirith (alive, arrested in 2007) In power, the Khmer Rouge carried out a radical program that included isolating the country from foreign influence, closing schools, hospitals and factories, abolishing banking, finance and currency, outlawing all religions, confiscating all private property and relocating people from urban areas to collective farms where forced labor was widespread. The purpose of this policy was to turn Cambodians into "Old People" through agricultural labor. These actions resulted in massive deaths through executions, work exhaustion, illness, and starvation. In Phnom Penh and other cities, the Khmer Rouge told residents that they would be moved only about "two or three kilometers" outside the city and would return in "two or three days." Some witnesses say they were told that the evacuation was because of the "threat of American bombing" and that they did not have to lock their houses since the Khmer Rouge would "take care of everything" until they returned. These were not the first evacuations of civilian populations by the Khmer Rouge. Similar evacuations of populations without possessions had been occurring on a smaller scale since the early 1970s. The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labor camps. During their four years in power, the Khmer Rouge overworked and starved the population, at the same time executing selected groups who had the potential to undermine the new state (including intellectuals or even those that had stereotypical signs of learning, such as glasses) and killing many others for even minor breaches of rules. Cambodians were expected to produce three tons of rice per hectare; before the Khmer Rouge era, the average was only one ton per hectare. The Khmer Rouge forced people to work for 12 hours non-stop, without adequate rest or food. They did not believe in western medicine but instead favoured traditional peasant medicine; many died as a result. Family relationships not sanctioned by the state were also banned, and family members could be put to death for communicating with each other. In any case, family members were often relocated to different parts of the country with all postal and telephone services abolished. The total lack of agricultural knowledge by the former city dwellers made famine inevitable. Rural dwellers were often unsympathetic or too frightened to assist them. Such acts as picking wild fruit or berries was seen as "private enterprise" for which the death penalty applied. The Khmer language has a complex system of usages to define speakers' rank and social status. During the rule of the Khmer Rouge, these usages were abolished. People were encouraged to call each other 'friend' or 'comrade' (; mitt), and to avoid traditional signs of deference such as bowing or folding the hands in salutation, known as samphea. Language was transformed in other ways. The Khmer Rouge invented new terms. People were told to 'forge' (lot dam) a new revolutionary character, that they were the 'instruments' (; opokar) of the ruling body known as 'Angkar' (; pronounced ahngkah; meaning 'The Organization'), and that nostalgia for pre-revolutionary times (choeu stek arom, or 'memory sickness') could result in execution. Also, rural terms like Mae (; mother) replaced urban terms like Mak (; mother). Many Cambodians crossed the border into Thailand to seek asylum. From there, they were transported to refugee camps such as Khao-I-Dang, the only camp allowing resettlement in countries such as the United States, France, Canada, and Australia. Crimes against humanity The Khmer Rouge government arrested, tortured and eventually executed anyone suspected of belonging to several categories of supposed "enemies": anyone with connections to the former government or with foreign governments professionals and intellectuals - in practice this included almost everyone with an education, or even people wearing glasses (which, according to the regime, meant that they were literate) ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, ethnic Thai and other minorities in Eastern Highland, Cambodian Christians, Muslims and the Buddhist monks "economic sabotage" for which many of the former urban dwellers (who had not starved to death in the first place) were deemed to be guilty by virtue of their lack of agricultural ability. Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was also shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant purges reached a crest in 1977 and 1978 when thousands, including some important KCP leaders, were executed. Today, examples of the torture methods used by the Khmer Rouge can be seen at the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. The museum occupies the former grounds of a high school turned prison camp that was operated by Khang Khek Ieu, more commonly known as "Comrade Duch". Some 17,000 people passed through this centre before they were taken to sites (also known as The Killing Fields), outside Phnom Penh such as Choeung Ek where most were executed (mainly by pickaxes to save bullets) and buried in mass graves. Of the thousands who entered the Tuol Sleng Centre (also known as S-21), only twelve are known to have survived. Number of deaths The exact number of people who died as a result of the Khmer Rouge's policies is debated, as is the cause of death among those who died. Access to the country during Khmer Rouge rule and during Vietnamese rule was very limited. In the early 1980s, the Vietnamese-installed regime that succeeded the Khmer Rouge conducted a national household survey, which concluded that over 4.8 million had died, but most modern historians do not consider that number to be reliable. Modern research has located thousands of mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia, containing an estimated 1.39 million bodies. Various studies have estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and disease. The United States Department of State-funded Yale Cambodian Genocide Project gives estimates of the total death toll between 1.2 million and 1.7 million.. Amnesty International estimates the total death toll as 1.4 million. R. J. Rummel, an analyst of historical political killings, gives a figure of 2 million. Former Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot gave a figure of 800,000, and his deputy, Khieu Samphan, said 1 million had been killed. Fall of the Khmer Rouge By December 1978, because of several years of border conflict and the flood of refugees fleeing Cambodia, relations between Cambodia and Vietnam collapsed. Pol Pot, fearing a Vietnamese attack, ordered a pre-emptive invasion of Vietnam. His Cambodian forces crossed the border and looted nearby villages. These Cambodian forces were repulsed by the Vietnamese. The Vietnamese forces then invaded Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7, 1979. Despite a traditional Cambodian fear of Vietnamese domination, defecting Khmer Rouge activists assisted the Vietnamese, and, with Vietnam's approval, became the core of the new puppet government. At the same time, the Khmer Rouge retreated west, and it continued to control an area near the Thai border for the next decade. It was funded by diamond and timber smuggling. Despite its deposal, the Khmer Rouge retained its UN seat, which was occupied by Thiounn Prasith, an old compatriot of Pol Pot and Ieng Sary from their student days in Paris, and one of the 21 attendees at the 1960 KPRP Second Congress. The seat was retained under the name 'Democratic Kampuchea' until 1982, and then 'Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea' (see below) until 1993. Western governments repeatedly backed the Khmer Rouge in the U.N. and voted in favour of retaining the Cambodia's seat in the organization. Margaret Thatcher stated that "there are amongst the Khmer Rouge some very reasonable people and they will have to take part in a future government in Cambodia". Sweden on the contrary changed its vote in the U.N. and withdrew support for the Khmer Rouge after a large number of Swedish citizens wrote letters to their elected representatives demanding a policy change towards Pol Pot's regime. <ref name="autogenerated1">Pilger, John. 2004. In Tell me no lies", Jonathan Cape Ltd </ref> Vietnam's victory, supported by the Soviet Union, had significant ramifications for the region; the People's Republic of China launched a punitive invasion of northern Vietnam and retreated (with both sides claiming victory), and during the 1980s, the U.S. provided military and humanitarian support to Cambodian insurgent groups. China, the U.S. and the ASEAN countries sponsored the creation and the military operations of a Cambodian government-in-exile known as the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea which included, besides the Khmer Rouge, republican KPNLF and royalist ANS Rowley, Kevin. 2004. "Second Life, Second Death: The Khmer Rouge After 1978". In Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda: New Perspectives, ed. Susan E. Cook, New Haven: Yale University Center for International and Area Studies, p.201-225 The Khmer Rouge, still led by Pol Pot, was the strongest of the three rebel groups in the government, and received extensive military aid from China, Britain and the United states and intelligence from the Thai military. Western secret services also trained the Khmer Rouge in military camps in Thailand and Malaysia. Eastern and central Cambodia were firmly under the control of Vietnam and its Cambodian allies by 1980, while the western part of the country continued to be a battlefield throughout the 1980s, and millions of landmines were sown across the countryside. Already in 1981, the Khmer Rouge went as far as to officially renounce Communism and somewhat moved their ideological emphasis to nationalism and anti-Vietnamese rhetoric instead. However, some analysts argue that this change meant little in practice, because, as historian Kelvin Rowley puts it, "CPK propaganda had always relied on nationalist rather than revolutionary appeals". Although Pol Pot relinquished the Khmer Rouge leadership to Khieu Samphan in 1985, he continued to be the driving force of Khmer Rouge insurgency, giving speeches to his followers. Journalists such as Nate Thayer who spent some time with the Khmer Rouge during that period commented that, despite the international community's near-universal condemnation of the Khmer Rouge's brutal rule, a considerable number of Cambodians in Khmer Rouge-controlled areas seemed genuinely to support Pol Pot. CONTINUING UNREST. PBS. 18 June, 1997 TRANSCRIPT While Vietnam proposed to withdraw in return for a political settlement excluding the Khmer Rouge from power, the rebel coalition government as well as ASEAN, China and the US insisted that such a condition was unacceptable. Nevertheless, in 1985 Vietnam declared that it would complete the withdrawal of its forces from Cambodia by 1990 and did so in 1989, having allowed the government that it had instated there to consolidate and gain sufficient military strength. After a decade of inconclusive conflict, the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian government and the rebel coalition signed a treaty in 1991 calling for elections and disarmament. In 1992, however, the Khmer Rouge resumed fighting, boycotted the election and, in the following year, rejected its results. It now fought the new Cambodian coalition government which included the former Vietnamese-backed Communists (headed by Hun Sen) as well as the Khmer Rouge's former non-Communist and monarchist allies (notably Prince Rannaridh). There was a mass defection in 1996, when around half the remaining soldiers (about 4,000) left. In 1997, a conflict between the two main participants in the ruling coalition caused Prince Rannaridh to seek support from some of the Khmer Rouge leaders, while refusing to have any dealings with Pol Pot. CONTINUING UNREST. PBS. June 18, 1997 TRANSCRIPT This resulted in bloody factional fighting among the Khmer Rouge leaders, ultimately leading to Pol Pot's trial and imprisonment by the Khmer Rouge. Pol Pot died in April 1998. Khieu Samphan surrendered in December. On December 29, 1998, the remaining leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologized for the 1970s genocide. By 1999, most members had surrendered or been captured. In December 1999, Ta Mok and the remaining leaders surrendered, and the Khmer Rouge effectively ceased to exist. Most of the surviving Khmer Rouge leaders live in the Pailin area or are hidden in Phnom Penh. Since 1990 Cambodia has gradually recovered, demographically and economically, from the Khmer Rouge regime, although the psychological scars affect many Cambodian families and émigré communities. It is noteworthy that Cambodia has a very young population and by 2005 three-quarters of Cambodians were too young to remember the Khmer Rouge years. Members of this younger generation may know of the Khmer Rouge only through word of mouth from parents and elders. In part, this is because the government does not require that educators teach children about Khmer Rouge atrocities in the schools. Kinetz, Erika.In Cambodia, a Clash Over History of the Khmer Rouge", Washington Post, 8 May 2007. However, Cambodia’s Education Ministry has approved plans to teach Khmer Rouge history in high schools beginning in 2009. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/index.php/200805151854/Post-Life/Schools-face-up-to-KR-history.html Right now, the Khmer Rouge Case trials are taking place, with the charges accusing the Khmer Rouge regime of genocide and crimes against humanity. http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/introduction_eng/index.htm#Will%20the%20trials%20use%20Cambodian%20law%20or%20international%20law See also Cambodian Civil War Cambodia Tribunal Choeung Ek Cold War Command responsibility Dap Prampi Mesa Chokchey Democratic Kampuchea Dith Pran Crimes against humanity Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Genocides in history Operation Menu Further reading Among the very few western scholars who know the Khmer language and have published works about Cambodia are Ben Kiernan, David P. Chandler and Michael Vickery. Nayan Chanda, the Indochina correspondent of the Far Eastern Economic Review, is also very familiar with this period (through personal reporting, including many interviews with principals). Elizabeth Becker: When the War Was over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War After the War (Collier, New York, 1986) (very comprehensively footnoted) David P. Chandler: A History of Cambodia (Westview Press 2000); ISBN 0-8133-3511-6. David P. Chandler: Brother Number One: A Political Biography (Westview Press 1999); ISBN 0813335108 David P. Chandler: Facing the Cambodian past: Selected essays, 1971-1994 (Silkworm Books 1996); ISBN 974-7047-74-8. David P. Chandler, Ben Kiernan etc.: Revolution and Its Aftermath in Kampuchea: Eight Essays (Yale University Press 1983); ISBN 0-938692-05-4. Francois Bizot: The Gate Ben Kiernan: The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-79; ISBN 0-300-09649-6. Ben Kiernan: How Pol Pot Came to Power: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Communism in Cambodia, 1930-1975 (Yale University Press, Second Edition 2004); ISBN 0-300-10262-3. Haing Ngor: A Cambodian Odyssey Dith Pran (compiled by): Children of Cambodia's Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors William Shawcross: Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia Jon Swain: River of Time; ISBN 0-425-16805-0. Loung Ung: First They Killed My Father: A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers; ISBN 0-06-093138-8 Chanrithy Him: When Broken Glass Floats Michael Vickery: Cambodia 1975-1982 JoAn D. Criddle: To Destroy You Is No Loss: The Odyssey of a Cambodian Family; ISBN 978-0963220516 References External links General From Sideshow to Genocide - A history of the rise and fall of the Khmer Rouge, including survivor stories. Khmer Rouge Trial Web Portal The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Cambodia Selected Documents of the Khmer Rouge Cambodia Tribunal Monitor Condescending Saviours: What Went Wrong with the Pol Pot Regime - a Maoist critique of the Khmer Rouge from A World to Win magazine Genocide Yale University: Cambodian Genocide Program "The Demography of Genocide: Cambodia and East Timor" (Critical Asian Studies, 35:4, 2003) [in .pdf format] Digital Archive of Cambodian Holocaust Survivors PBS Frontline/World: Pol Pot's Shadow Calculations for Cambodian genocide figures Cambodia Tales: Khmer Rouge torture and killing paintings Khmer Rouge Tribunal Updates from Genocide Watch Genocide of Cham Muslims When Broken Glass Floats: Growing Up Under the Khmer Rouge Uncategorize Documentation Center of Cambodia Accessed 6 February 2005 Chigas, George (2000). "Building a Case Against the Khmer Rouge: Evidence from the Tuol Sleng and Santebal Archives". Harvard Asia Quarterly'' 4 (1) 44-49. The Lost Executioner: A Story of the Khmer Rouge - Book

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Knud_Rasmussen

Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen (June 7, 1879–December 21, 1933) was a Greenlandic polar explorer and anthropologist. He has been called the "father of Eskimology" Jean Malaurie, 1982. and was the first to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled. Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen, biography by Sam Alley. Minnesota State University. He remains well known in Greenland, Denmark and among Canadian Inuit. Elizabeth Cruwys, 2003. Earlyl years Rasmussen was born in Ilulissat, Greenland, the son of a Danish missionary, the vicar Charles V. Rasmussen, and an Inuit mother, Sofie Rasmussen (nee Fleicher). He had two siblings, including a brother, Peter Lim. Rasmussen spent his early years in Greenland among the Kalaallit (Inuit) where he learned from an early age to speak the language (Kalaallisut), hunt, drive dog sleds and live in harsh Arctic conditions. "My playmates were native Greenlanders; from the earliest boyhood I played and worked with the hunters, so even the hardships of the most strenuous sledge-trips became pleasant routine for me." He was later educated in Lynge, North Zealand, Denmark. Between 1898 and 1900 he pursued an unsuccessful career as an actor and opera singer. Career He went on his first expedition in 1902–1904, known as The Danish Literary Expedition, with Jørgen Brønlund, Harald Moltke and Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, to examine Inuit culture. After returning home he went on a lecture circuit and wrote The People of the Polar North (1908), a combination travel journal and scholarly account of Inuit folklore. In 1908, he married Dagmar Andersen. In 1910, Rasmussen and friend Peter Freuchen established the Thule Trading Station at Cape York (Uummannaq), Greenland, as a trading base. The name Thule was chosen because it was the most northernly trading post in the world, literally the "Ultima Thule". Knud Rasmussen, 1927, Across Arctic America, Introduction. Thule Trading Station became the home base for a series of seven expeditions, known as the Thule Expeditions, between 1912 and 1933. The First Thule Expedition (1912, Rasmussen and Freuchen) aimed to test Robert Peary's claim that a channel divided Peary Land from Greenland. They proved this was not the case in a remarkable 1,000-km journey across the inland ice that almost killed them. Clements Markham, president of the Royal Geographic Society, called the journey the "finest ever performed by dogs." Clements Markham, 1921 Freuchen wrote personal accounts of this journey (and others) in Vagrant Viking (1953) and I Sailed with Rasmussen (1958). The Second Thule Expedition (1916-1918) was larger with a team of seven men, which set out to map a little known area of Greenland's north coast. This journey was documented in Rasmussen's account Greenland by the Polar Sea (1921). The trip was beset with two fatalities, the only in Rasmussen's career. The Third Thule Expedition (1919) was depot-laying for Roald Amundsen's polar drift in Maud. The Fourth Thule Expedition (1919-1920) was in east Greenland where Rasmussen spent several months collecting ethnographic data near Angmagssalik. Rasmussen's "greatest achievement" was the massive Fifth Thule Expedition (1921-1924) which was designed to "..attack the great primary problem of the origin of the Eskimo race." A ten volume account (The Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-1924 (1946)) of ethnographic, archaeological and biological data was collected, and many artifacts are still on display in museums in Denmark. The team of seven first went to eastern Arctic Canada where they began collecting specimens, taking interviews and excavations. Rasmussen left the team and traveled for 16 months with two Inuit hunters by dog-sled across North America to Nome, Alaska - he tried to continue to Russia but his visa was refused. He was the first person to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled. His journey is recounted in Across Arctic America (1927), considered today a classic of polar expedition literature. This trip has also been called the "Great Sled Journey" and was dramatized in the Canadian film The Journals of Knud Rasmussen (2006). For the next seven years Rasmussen traveled between Greenland and Denmark giving lectures and writing. In 1931, he went on the Sixth Thule Expedition, designed to consolidate Denmark's claim on a portion of eastern Greenland that was contested by Norway. The Seventh Thule Expedition (1933) was meant to continue to the work of the sixth, but Rasmussen contracted pneumonia after an episode of food poisoning, dying a few weeks later in Copenhagen at the age of 54. Honors He was awarded an Honorary Fellowship from the American Geographical Society in 1912, and its Daly Medal in 1924. Notes Bibliography Primary Rasmussen, Knud (1908). The People of the Polar North. Edited by G. Herring. Rasmussen, Knud (1921). Greenland by the Polar Sea: The Story of the Thule Expedition from Melville Bay to Cape Morris Jesup. Trans by Asta and Rowland Kenny. Published by W. Heinemann. Rasmussen, Knud (1927). Across Arctic America: Narrative of the Fifth Thule Expedition. Rasmussen, Knud (author), Cole, Terrence (introduction, editor). Across Arctic America: Narrative of the Fifth Thule Expedition. University of Alaska Press; Reprint edition (February 1999). ISBN 0912006935 (hard) ISBN 0912006943 (paper). Rasmussen, Knud (1946-52). The Fifth Thule Expedition, 10 volumes. Published posthumously by fellow expeditioners. Secondary Cruwys, Elizabeth (2003). "Rasmussen, Knud (1879-1933)", in Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia, volume 3. ISBN 1579582478 Malaurie, Jean (1982). The Last Kings of Thule: With the Polar Eskimos, as They Face Their Destiny, trans. Adrienne Folk. Markham, Clements R. (1921). The Lands of Silence: A History of Arctic and Antarctic Exploration. Cambridge University Press. Online Rasmussen, Knud (collector), Worster, W. (editor, translator). Eskimo Folk Tales. London: Gylglendal, etc. 1921. Scanned, illustrated at Internet Archive Rasmussen, Knud. Across Arctic America: Narrative of the Fifth Thule Expedition. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1927. Scanned, illustrated, at Internet Archive. External links Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen, biography by Sam Alley. Minnesota State University. Knud Rasmussen College, Greenland. Knud Rasmussens House, Denmark

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Moxie

Moxie is a carbonated beverage which was among the first mass-produced soft drinks in the United States, and is regionally popular to this day. History Around 1876 Augustin Thompson, a medical doctor, developed a formula for an elixir which he called "Moxie Nerve Food", claiming that it was a treatment for almost anything. After a few years, Thompson added soda water to the formula and changed the name to "Beverage Moxie Nerve Food". By 1884 he was selling Moxie both in bottles and in bulk as a soda fountain syrup, marketing it as "... a delicious blend of bitter and sweet, a drink to satisfy everyone's taste." . Moxie Facts from The Marietta Soda Museum In the early phase of its life as a recreational soft drink, Moxie is said to have been kept handy by bartenders to give to customers who were too drunk to be given any more alcohol. This story may be apocryphal, however, considering Moxie's noted aftertaste, which many people find unpleasantly strong. The popularity of Moxie produced popular advertising jingles, such as “Just Make It Moxie for Mine”, and President Calvin Coolidge was known to have favored the drink. Boston Red Sox slugger Ted Williams endorsed Moxie. Author E.B. White, an adopted Mainer and noted Moxie fan, once wrote “Moxie contains gentian root, which is the path to the good life.” The original Moxie logo on the label of a newer derivative product Falling out of favor due to competition from Coca Cola, demand for Moxie has waned in recent years, although demand still exists in New England. It was designated on May 10 2005, as the official state soft drink of Maine. One of the key ingredients of Moxie is “Gentian Root Extractives”, which probably contributes noticeably to its unique flavor. "Moxie For Mine: More About Moxie the Drink" For those without access to Moxie, the flavor can be approximated (and adjusted to taste) by adding Angostura bitters to root beer, or by mixing Campari with Coca-Cola, or by mixing a shot of Jägermeister in a glass of Coca-cola (6-8 oz.). Its bitter taste is also reminiscent of Italian chinotto soda. Many people, even those who do not like the soda on its own, find it refreshing when mixed with whiskey. Every summer, all things Moxie are celebrated at the Moxie Festival in Lisbon Falls, Maine. Moxie is also available in a sugar-free version known as Diet Moxie, introduced in 1962. Moxie is currently owned by Cornucopia Beverages Inc. of Bedford, New Hampshire, which is owned by Coca-Cola Bottling Co. of Northern New England Incorporated, a subsidiary of Tokyo-based Kirin Brewery Co. Ltd. Cornucopia cites fielding requests for more Moxie from fans across the country in their decision to step up efforts to distribute the product. In 2007 they launched pilot sales in Florida and organized a sampling event at Mohegan Sun casino in Uncasville, Connecticut. The Catawissa Bottling Company in Catawissa, Pennsylvania is one of the six remaining bottlers in the United States producing Moxie, and has produced Moxie since 1945. Moxie was previously marketed with the so-called "Moxie Man" logo. In 2008, Cornucopia unveiled a new logo 2008 Moxie logo , much to the chagrin of some fans Bring Back the Moxie Man! . A 12-ounce bottled version of Moxie Original Elixir is distributed to specialty grocers by Real Soda in Real Bottles Ltd. based in Gardena, California. There is also a Moxie Energy Drink, although it does not appear on Cornucopia's products page. In common language "Moxie" means "guts" or "courage," that is to say "intestinal fortitude" and "overtness" as in, "He's got moxie!" "Moxie" has come to mean "energy" or "pep" in common usage, and is included in standard dictionaries. moxie - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary Origin of the name The origin of the name Moxie is unclear, but two possible theories lend insight to the question. The name is most likely a Native American word meaning either "wintergreen" (one of the drink's ingredients) or "black water" (thought to be the reasoning for Moxie Falls, Moxie Bog, etc.) It is also possible the word is related to moxa, a type of mugwort burned to relieve various ailments and increase energy as used in East Asian medicine, and in turn would come from the Japanese word for the herb mogusa. The use of the word moxie to mean spunk or chutzpah comes from the phrase, "you've got moxie", which is trademarked by the company . References The Book of Moxie by Frank Potter The Moxie Encyclopedia by Q. David Bowers External links Moxie.info Moxie World (includes a list of places to buy Moxie) BuyMoxie.com Moxie Festival Moxie Facts "Make Mine a Moxie!", Maine Farmhouse Journal, July 6-10, 2000 Moxie Logo Petition (a petition to bring back the Moxie Man logo)

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Cantor_set

In mathematics, the Cantor set, introduced by German mathematician Georg Cantor in 1883 Georg Cantor (1883) "Über unendliche, lineare Punktmannigfaltigkeiten V" [On infinite, linear point-manifolds (sets)], Mathematische Annalen, vol. 21, pages 545–591. H.-O. Peitgen, H. Jürgens, and D. Saupe, Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science 2nd ed. (N.Y., N.Y.: Springer Verlag, 2004), page 65. (but discovered in 1875 by Henry John Stephen Smith Henry J.S. Smith (1875) “On the integration of discontinuous functions.” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 1, vol. 6, pages 140–153. The “Cantor set” was also discovered by Paul du Bois-Reymond (1831–1889). See footnote on page 128 of: Paul du Bois-Reymond (1880) “Der Beweis des Fundamentalsatzes der Integralrechnung,” Mathematische Annalen, vol. 16, pages 115–128. The “Cantor set” was also discovered in 1881 by Vito Volterra (1860–1940). See: Vito Volterra (1881) “Alcune osservazioni sulle funzioni punteggiate discontinue” [Some observations on point-wise discontinuous functions], Giornale di Matematiche, vol. 19, pages 76–86. José Ferreirós, Labyrinth of Thought: A History of Set Theory and Its Role in Modern Mathematics (Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1999), pages 162–165. Ian Stewart, Does God Play Dice?: The New Mathematics of Chaos ), is a set of points lying on a single line segment that has a number of remarkable and deep properties. Through consideration of it, Cantor and others helped lay the foundations of modern general topology. Although Cantor himself defined the set in a general, abstract way, the most common modern construction is the Cantor ternary set, built by removing the middle thirds of a line segment. Cantor himself only mentioned the ternary construction in passing, as an example of a more general idea, that of a perfect set that is nowhere dense. Construction of the ternary set The Cantor ternary set is created by repeatedly deleting the open middle thirds of a set of line segments. One starts by deleting the open middle third (1/3, 2/3) from the interval [0, 1], leaving two line segments: [0, 1/3] ∪ [2/3, 1]. Next, the open middle third of each of these remaining segments is deleted, leaving four line segments: [0, 1/9] ∪ [2/9, 1/3] ∪ [2/3, 7/9] ∪ [8/9, 1]. This process is continued ad infinitum, where the nth set is The Cantor ternary set contains all points in the interval [0, 1] that are not deleted at any step in this infinite process. The first six steps of this process are illustrated below. Cantor ternary set, in seven iterations Some research papers describe the explicit formula of Cantor ternary set in detail. Mohsen Soltanifar, On A sequence of cantor Fractals, Rose Hulman Undergraduate Mathematics Journal, Vol 7, No 1, paper 9, 2006. Mohsen Soltanifar, A Different Description of A Family of Middle-a Cantor Sets, American Journal of Undergraduate Research, Vol 5, No 2, pp 9–12, 2006. Composition Since the Cantor set is defined as the set of points not excluded, the proportion (i.e., measure) of the unit interval remaining can be found by total length removed. This total is the geometric progression So that the proportion left is 1 – 1 = 0. (Intuitively, one could imagine the geometric series as being base-3 decimals, so that 0.2222... repeating equals 1 just as in base 10 0.999... repeating equals 1.) This calculation shows that the Cantor set cannot contain any interval of non-zero length. In fact, it may seem surprising that there should be anything left — after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval. However, a closer look at the process reveals that there must be something left, since removing the "middle third" of each interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints). So removing the line segment (1/3, 2/3) from the original interval [0, 1] leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3. Subsequent steps do not remove these (or other) endpoints, since the intervals removed are always internal to the intervals remaining. So the Cantor set is not empty, and in fact contains an infinite number of points. It may appear that only the endpoints are left, but that is not the case either. The number 1/4, for example is in the bottom third, so it is not removed at the first step, and is in the top third of the bottom third, and is in the bottom third of that, and in the top third of that, and so on ad infinitum—alternating between top and bottom thirds. Since it is never in one of the middle thirds, it is never removed, and yet it is also not one of the endpoints of any middle third. The number 3/10 is also in the Cantor set and is not an endpoint. In the sense of cardinality, most members of the Cantor set are not endpoints of deleted intervals. Properties Cardinality It can be shown that there are as many points left behind in this process as there were that were removed, and that therefore, the Cantor set is uncountable. To see this, we show that there is a function f from the Cantor set C to the closed interval [0,1] that is surjective (i.e. f maps from C onto [0,1]) so that the cardinality of C is no less than that of [0,1]. Since C is a subset of [0,1], its cardinality is also no greater, so the two cardinalities must in fact be equal. To construct this function, consider the points in the [0, 1] interval in terms of base 3 (or ternary) notation. In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.13 and 2/3 can be written as 0.23, so the middle third (to be removed) contains the numbers with ternary numerals of the form 0.1xxxxx...3 where xxxxx...3 is strictly between 00000...3 and 22222...3. So the numbers remaining after the first step consists of Numbers of the form 0.0xxxxx...3 1/3 = 0.13 = 0.022222...3 (This alternative recurring representation of a number with a terminating numeral occurs in any positional system.) 2/3 = 0.122222...3 = 0.23 Numbers of the form 0.2xxxxx...3 All of which can be stated as those numbers with a ternary numeral 0.0xxxxx...3 or 0.2xxxxx...3 The second step removes numbers of the form 0.01xxxx...3 and 0.21xxxx...3, and (with appropriate care for the endpoints) it can be concluded that the remaining numbers are those with a ternary numeral whose first two digits are not 1. Continuing in this way, for a number not to be excluded at step n, it must have a ternary representation whose nth digit is not 1. For a number to be in the Cantor set, it must not be excluded at any step, it must have a numeral consisting entirely of 0s and 2s. It is worth emphasising that numbers like 1, 1/3 = 0.13 and 7/9 = 0.213 are in the Cantor set, as they have ternary numerals consisting entirely of 0s and 2s: 1 = 0.2222...3, 1/3 = 0.022222...3 and 7/9 = 0.2022222...3. So while a number in C may have either a terminating or a recurring ternary numeral, one of its representations will consist entirely of 0s and 2s. It has been conjectured that all algebraic irrational numbers are normal and if true, this would imply that all members of the Cantor set are either rational or transcendental. The function from C to [0,1] is defined by taking the numeral that does consist entirely of 0s and 2s, replacing all the 2s by 1s, and interpreting the sequence as a binary representation of a real number. In a formula, For any number y in [0,1], its binary representation can be translated into a ternary representation of a number x in C by replacing all the 1s by 2s. With this, f(x) = y so that y is in the range of f. For instance if y = 3/5 = 0.100110011001...2, we write x = 0.200220022002...3 = 7/10. Consequently f is surjective; however, f is not injective — interestingly enough, the values for which f(x) coincides are those at opposing ends of one of the middle thirds removed. For instance, 7/9 = 0.2022222...3 and 8/9 = 0.2200000...3 so f(7/9) = 0.101111...2 = 0.112 = f(8/9). So there are as many points in the Cantor set as there are in [0, 1], and the Cantor set is uncountable (see Cantor's diagonal argument). However, the set of endpoints of the removed intervals is countable, so there must be uncountably many numbers in the Cantor set which are not interval endpoints. As noted above, one example of such a number is ¼, which can be written as 0.02020202020...3 in ternary notation. The Cantor set contains as many points as the interval from which it is taken, yet itself contains no interval. (Actually, the irrational numbers have the same property, but the Cantor set has the additional property of being closed, so it is not even dense in any interval, unlike the irrational numbers, which are dense everywhere.) Self-similarity The Cantor set is the prototype of a fractal. It is self-similar, because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each copy is shrunk by a factor of 3 and translated. More precisely, there are two functions, the left and right self-similarity transformations, and , which leave the Cantor set invariant up to homeomorphism: Repeated iteration of and can be visualized as an infinite binary tree. That is, at each node of the tree, one may consider the subtree to the left or to the right. Taking the set together with function composition forms a monoid, the dyadic monoid. The automorphisms of the binary tree are its hyperbolic rotations, and are given by the modular group. Thus, the Cantor set is a homogeneous space in the sense that for any two points and in the Cantor set , there exists a homeomorphism with . These homeomorphisms can be expressed explicitly, as Mobius transformations. The Hausdorff dimension of the Cantor set is equal to ln(2)/ln(3) = log3(2). Topological and analytical properties As the above summation argument shows, the Cantor set is uncountable but has Lebesgue measure 0. Since the Cantor set is the complement of a union of open sets, it itself is a closed subset of the reals, and therefore a complete metric space. Since it is also totally bounded, the Heine-Borel theorem says that it must be compact. For any point in the Cantor set and any arbitrarily small neighborhood of the point, there is some other number with a ternary numeral of only 0s and 2s, as well as numbers whose ternary numerals contain 1s. Hence, every point in the Cantor set is an accumulation point (also called a cluster point), but none is an interior point. A closed set in which every point is an accumulation point is also called a perfect set in topology, while a closed subset of the interval with no interior points is nowhere dense in the interval. Every point of the Cantor set is also a cluster point of the complement of the Cantor set. For two points in the Cantor set, there will be some ternary digit where they differ — one d will have 0 and the other 2. By splitting the Cantor set into "halves" depending on the value of this digit, one obtains a partition of the Cantor set into two closed sets that separate the original two points. In the relative topology on the Cantor set, the points have been separated by a clopen set. Consequently the Cantor set is totally disconnected. As a compact totally disconnected Hausdorff space, the Cantor set is an example of a Stone space. As a topological space, the Cantor set is naturally homeomorphic to the product of countably many copies of the space , where each copy carries the discrete topology. This is the space of all sequences in two digits: , which can also be identified with the set of 2-adic integers. The basis for the open sets of the product topology are cylinder sets; the homeomorphism maps these to the subspace topology that the Cantor set inherits from the natural topology on the real number line. This characterization of the Cantor space as a product of compact spaces gives a second proof that Cantor space is compact, via Tychonoff's theorem. From the above characterization, the Cantor set is homeomorphic to the p-adic integers, and, if one point is removed from it, to the p-adic numbers. The Cantor set can be endowed with a metric, the p-adic metric. Given two sequences , the distance between them may be given by , where is the smallest index such that ; if there is no such index, then the two sequences are the same, and one defines the distance to be zero. This turns the Cantor set into a metric space. Every nonempty totally-disconnected perfect compact metric space is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. See Cantor space for more on spaces homeomorphic to the Cantor set. The Cantor set is sometimes regarded as universal in the category of compact metric spaces as any compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor set; however this construction is not unique so the Cantor set is not universal in the precise categorical sense. The "universal" property has important applications in functional analysis, where it is sometimes known as the representation theorem for compact metric spaces Stephen Willard, General Topology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1968. . Variants Smith–Volterra–Cantor set Instead of repeatedly removing the middle third of every piece as in the Cantor set, we could also keep removing any other fixed percentage (other than 0% and 100%) from the middle. The resulting sets are all homeomorphic to the Cantor set and also have Lebesgue measure 0. In the case where the middle 8/10 of the interval is removed, we get a remarkably accessible case — the set consists of all numbers in [0,1] that can be written as a decimal consisting entirely of 0s and 9s. By removing progressively smaller percentages of the remaining pieces in every step, one can also construct sets homeomorphic to the Cantor set that have positive Lebesgue measure, while still being nowhere dense. See Smith–Volterra–Cantor set for an example. Cantor dust Cantor dust is a multi-dimensional version of the Cantor set. It can be formed by taking a finite cartesian product of the Cantor set with itself, making it a Cantor space. Like the Cantor set, Cantor dust has zero measure. Cantor dust (2D)Cantor dust (3D) A different 2D analogue of the Cantor set is the Sierpinski carpet, where a square is divided up into nine smaller squares, and the middle one removed. The remaining squares are then further divided into nine each and the middle removed, and so on ad infinitum. The 3D analogue of this is the Menger sponge. Historical remarks Cantor himself defined the set in a general, abstract way, and mentioned the ternary construction only in passing, as an example of a more general idea, that of a perfect set that is nowhere dense. The original paper provides several different constructions of the abstract concept. This set would have been considered abstract at the time when Cantor devised it. Cantor himself was led to it by practical concerns about the set of points where a trigonometric series might fail to converge. The discovery did much to set him on the course for developing an abstract, general theory of infinite sets. See also Cantor function Cantor cube Sierpinski carpet Koch snowflake Menger sponge List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension References the first generalized explicit formula of Cantor set the second generalized explicit formula of Cantor set (See example 29). Gary L. Wise and Eric B. Hall, Counterexamples in Probability and Real Analysis. Oxford University Press, New York 1993. ISBN 0-19-507068-2. (See chapter 1). Cantor Sets at cut-the-knot Cantor Set and Function at cut-the-knot

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Gerald_Schroeder

Gerald L. Schroeder is a scientist, author, and lecturer, who focuses on what he perceives as inherent relationship between science and spirituality. In 1965, Schroeder received his Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in nuclear physics and earth and planetary sciences. After emigrating to Israel in 1971, he was employed as a researcher at the Weitzman Institute, the Volcani Research Institute, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Finding the Intelligence Within the Design 17-22, Gerald Schroeder He professes Orthodox Judaism, and his works frequently cite ancient Talmudic commentaries on Biblical creation accounts, such as commentaries written by the Jewish philosopher Nachmanides. Among other things, Schroeder attempts to reconcile the oft-implied Biblical account of a young earth with the scientific observation our world is billions of years old with the commonly accepted phenomenon that the perceived flow of time for a given event in an expanding universe varies with the observer’s perspective of that event. He attempts to describe the spatial perspectives numerically, with calculations faithful to the effect of the stretching of space: Einstein's General Relativity Theory. The Age of the Universe, Gerald Schroeder Books Genesis and the Big Bang (1990), ISBN 0-553-35413-2 The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom, (1997), ISBN 0-7679-0303-X The Hidden Face of God: Science Reveals the Ultimate Truth, (2002), ISBN 0-7432-0325-9. See also cosmology astronomy physics Einstein General Relativity age of the earth anthropic principle Fine-tuned universe References External links Gerald Schroeder (official website) MIT Alumni Association. News and Views: Nuclear Scientist Sees No God-Science Conflict Dr. Schroeder speaking on cosmology: a 30 min. clip from the documentary, "Has Science Discovered God?" "The Age of the Universe"

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Murad_IV

Murad IV Ghazi (Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) (July 26/27, 1612 February 8/9, 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. Murad IV was born in Istanbul the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and the Greek E. van Donzel, Islamic Desk Reference: Compiled from the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Academic Publishers, p 219 Robert Bator, Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Istanbul, Runestone Press, p 42 Douglas Arthur Howard, The History of Turkey, Greenwood Press, p 195 Valide Sultan Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan (also known as Mahpeyker), originally named Anastasia, a Greek. Brought to power by a palace conspiracy in 1623, he succeeded his mad uncle Mustafa I (1617–18, 1622–23). He was only eleven when he took the throne. He married Aisha, without issue. Early Reign Murad IV was for a long time under the control of his relatives and during his early years as Sultan, his mother, Kösem Sultan, essentially ruled through him. The Empire fell into anarchy; the Persians invaded Iraq almost immediately, Northern Anatolia erupted in revolts, and in 1631 the Janissaries stormed the palace and killed the Grand Vizier, among others. Murad IV feared suffering the fate of his elder brother, Osman II (1618–22), and decided to assert his power. Absolute Rule and Imperial Policies Murad IV tried to quell the corruption that had grown during the reigns of previous Sultans, and that had not been checked while his mother was ruling through proxy. He addressed this corruption with several policy changes, such as limiting wasteful spending. Murad IV also banned alcohol, tobacco, and coffee in Istanbul. He ordered execution for breaking this ban. He would patrol the streets and taverns of İstanbul in civilian clothes at night, policing the enforcement of his command. If, while patrolling the streets, he saw a subject using tobacco or alcohol, he would kill the person on the spot with his mace. Towards the end of his reign, Murad became a homicidal maniac, killing people indiscriminately. Military Success Militarily, Murad IV's reign is most notable for the war against Persia in which Ottoman forces, invaded Azerbaijan, occupied Yerevan, Tabriz and Hamadan, and, in the last great feat of Imperial Ottoman arms, recaptured Baghdad in 1638. The sultan had a famous quote about the fall of Baghdad, "Bağdat'ı almaya çalışmak, Bağdat'ın kendinden daha mı güzeldi ne" ("I guess trying to capture Baghdad was better than Baghdad itself"). Akın Alıcı, Hayata Yön Veren Sözler, 2004 Murad IV himself commanded the Ottoman army in the last years of the war, including the final invasion of Mesopotamia, and proved to be an outstanding field commander. He was the last Ottoman Sultan to command an army on the battlefield. During his campaign to Iran, he annihilated all rebels in Anatolia and restored the order of the state. As a result, many local places were given his name by their residents so as to show their gratitude. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Zuhab in May 1639, which permanently restored Mesopotamia to the Ottomans. After his return to İstanbul, he ordered respected statesmen of the Empire to prepare a new economic and political project to return to the Empire the old successful days. However, his illness and relatively early death prevented him from implementing his ideas for the Empire. Physical Power Murad IV was a huge, tall man and one of the most feared warriors of his time. He was the last Warrior Sultan who led campaigns in front of his army and fought on the battlefield. His physical strength was phenomenal, which is described in detail on the books of Evliya Çelebi. He was especially known for his exceptional strength in wrestling - capable of fighting several opponents at the same time. His favorite weapon was a huge mace, weighing 60 kilograms (132 lbs), which he wielded effortlessly with a single hand. Among his other favourite weapons are a longbow and a large two-handed broadsword weighing more than 50 kilograms (110 lbs). His weapons are today displayed at the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul, intact and well preserved. Death Murad IV, who had outlawed alcohol, died in Istanbul at the age of 27 from cirrhosis of the liver in 1640. On his deathbed he ordered the execution of his brother, Ibrahim (1640–48), which would have meant the end of the Ottoman line, but the order was not carried out. Murad possibly gave this order because he thought that Ibrahim, who was mentally ill, was not capable of being a good emperor. Notes See also Ottoman-Commonwealth War (1633-1634) External links

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Constantius_II

Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II (7 August, 317 – November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor (337-361) of the Constantinian dynasty. Early life Flavius Iulius Constantius was born at Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) in province of Pannonia, the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324 DiMaio Jr., M. & Frakes, R. 'DIR-Constantius II' from De Imperatoribus Romanis . Death of Constantine I and Aftermath When the elder Constantine died at Constantinople on 22 May 337, Constantius was nearest of his sons to that city, and despite being on campaign in the eastern provinces, immediately returned to the city to oversee his father's funeral Odahl, C.M., Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004), p. 275 . The Massacre of 337 The role of Constantius in the massacre of his relatives (those descended from the second marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus and Theodora) is unclear X. Lucien-Brun, "Constance II et le massacre des princes," Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé ser. 4 (1973): 585-602; Joe W. Leedom, "Constantius II: Three Revisions," Byzantion 48 (1978): 132-145, and Michael DiMaio and Duane Arnold, "Per Vim, Per Caedem, Per Bellum: A Study of Murder and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Year 327 A.D," Byzantion, 62(1992), 158ff. Cited in DiMaio and Frakes. . Zosimus, writing 498-518 claims that Constantius “caused” Zosimus, New History II.57-8 the soldiers to murder his relatives, as opposed to actually ordering the action. Eutropius, writing between 350 and 370, writes that Constantius merely sanctioned “the act, rather than commanding it” Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9 . However, it must be noted that both of these sources are hostile to Constantius - Zosimus being a pagan, Eutropius a friend of Julian, Constantius’ cousin and, ultimately, his enemy. Whatever the case, Constantius himself, his older brother Constantine II, his younger brother Constans and three cousins, Gallus, his half-brother Julian and Nepotianus, son of Eutropia, were left as the only surviving males related to Constantine. Division of the Empire Meeting at Sirmium not long after the massacre, the three brothers proceeded to divide the Roman Empire among them, according to their father's will. Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul and Hispania; Constans (initially under the supervision of Constantine II) Italia, Africa, Illyricum, Thrace, Macedon and Achaea; and Constantius the East Zosimus, New History II.57 . Reign in the East Constantius II coin, celebrating his 15th year of reign. There are few details of the early years of Constantius' sole reign in the East. He seems to have spent most of his time defending the eastern border against invasions by the aggressive Sassanid Empire under Shapur II. These conflicts seem to have been mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the various fortresses (Nisibis, Singara, Constantia and Amida) of Roman Mesopotamia, which achieved little for either side Dignas, B. & Winter, E., Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (2007), p. 89 . Although Shapur II seems to have been victorious in most of the confrontations Festus, Brevarium XXVII - except the Battle of Narasara, where one of Shapur II's brothers, Narses, was killed Festus, Brevarium XXVII Theophanes, Chronicle A.M. 5815 - the overall result must be considered a victory for Constantius because Shapur failed to make any significant gains Dignas, B. & Winter, E., Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (2007), p. 89 . In the meantime, Constantine II's desire to retain control of Constans' realm had lead Constantius' two surviving brothers into open conflict; resulting in the death of the elder in 340 Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9 . As a result, Constans took control of his deceased elder brother’s realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the Empire. This division lasted until 350, when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9 Zosimus New History II.58-9 . War against Magnentius Vetranio was proclaimed Emperor by the Danubian legions after the death of Constans. He later resigned his position in favour of Constantius. This new state of affairs proved unacceptable to Constantius, who felt that, as the only surviving son of Constantine the Great, the position of Emperor was his alone Zosimus, New History II.60 . As such, he determined to march west to enforce his claims. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial control, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to Caesar of the East. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to Gallus Zosimus, New History II.60 . Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal Constantian general, who had previously accepted the position of Augustus in order to retain the loyalty of his troops, and probably to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. This action may have been carried out at the urging of Constantius’ own sister, Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius for his own part had previously sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general‘s new position. However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly and gladly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia Zosimus, New History II.59 . The defeat of Magnentius in 353 left Constantius as sole Roman Emperor. The following year, Constantius finally met Magnentius in the Battle of Mursa Major Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.8.5-13 Julian the Apostate, The Caesars XLII.9-10 Zosimus, New History II.46.2 Eutropius, Roman History X.12 , one of the bloodiest battles in Roman history. The result was a defeat for the usurper, who withdrew back to his Gaulish domains. As a result, the cities of Italy switched their allegiance to Constantius and ejected all of Magnentius’ garrisons. Constantius spent the early months of 352 on a campaign against the Sarmatians, before moving on to invade Italy Potter, D.S., The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180-395 (2004), p. 474 . When Constantius and Magnentius finally met again, at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, Constantius once again emerged the victor Potter, D.S., The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180-395 (2004), p. 474 . Soon after, Magnentius, realising the futility of continuing his revolt, committed suicide 10 August, 353 Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.12 . Sole Ruler of the Roman Empire Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alemanni on the Danubian borders. The exact details of this campaign are uncertain, though it seems to have ended with victory for Constantius. The Downfall of Gallus In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving some disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin, Gallus Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 14.1.10 . Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alemanni, and withdrew to Milan Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.10.16 . Constantius Gallus was a paternal cousin of Constantius. In 350, he was made Caesar by Constantius and was married to the Emperor's sister, Constantina. However, his mismanagement of the eastern provinces led to his downfall and death in 354. Once there, he decided to first call Ursicinus, Gallus’ magister equitum, to Milan for reasons that remain unclear Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.3-5 . Constantius then requested the presence of Gallus and Constantina Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6 . Although at first Gallus and Constantina complied with this order, when Constantina died in Bithynia Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6 , Gallus begun to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.11-12 , Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Petobio in the province of Noricum Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.19 Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis . It was there that Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.20 . He was then moved to Pola, and interrogated. Once there, Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble that had been caused while he was in charge of the east Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.22 . Apparently, at first, this so greatly angered Constantius that he immediately ordered the death of Gallus Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.23 . However, soon after, he changed his mind, and recanted his execution order Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.9.20 Libanius, Orations XVIII.152 . Unfortunately for Gallus, this order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius‘ eunuchs, and, as a result, Gallus was executed Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis . More Usurpers and Julian Caesar On 11 August 355, the magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him magister militum in 353, with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius' court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter by Constantius that recalled him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. However, Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself, so on 6 November 355 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.17 , he elevated his last remaining relative, Julian, to the rank of Caesar Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.5-16 . A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18 . Not long after Constantius sent Julian off to Gaul Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18 . Constantius in the West and Return to the East Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the Empire primarily from his base at Milan. However, he also visited Rome Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVI - for the first and only time in his life - in 357, and, in that same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, then led a successful campaign across the Danube against the Sarmatians and the Germanic Quadi tribe Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVI.12 . Around 357/8, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II, who demanded that Constantius restore the lands surrendered by Narseh Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.3-8 Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.25-7 . Despite rejecting these terms Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.9-14 Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.28-9 , Constantius still tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II Libanius, Epistle 331 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.14.1-3 & XVIII.6.17-8 Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists VI. 5.1-10 . As a result of Constantius' rejection of his terms, Shapur II launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. When news reached Constantius that Shapur II had not only invaded Roman territory, but taken Amida Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIX , destroyed Singara Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.6 and taken Bezabde Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.7.1-16 he decided to return to there to face this re-emergent threat in 360. The usurpation of Julian and Problems in the East In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alemanni tribe, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul. As such, Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian for his own campaign against Shapur II. However, when he requested reinforcements from Julian’s Gaulish army, the Gaulish legions revolted and proclaimed Julian Augustus Julian the Apostate, Letter To The Senate And People of Athens, X.12-17 Libanius, Orations XII.58 & XVIII.90-1 Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.15.1 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.4.1-2 . However, on account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin’s usurpation other than by sending missives by which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of Augustus and be satisfied with that of Caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with violent force; and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to take the fortress of Bezabde Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.11.6-25 . After a time, he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup, and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXI.7.7 & 13.1-5 . However, as it turned out, the campaigns of the previous year had inflicted such heavy losses on the Sassanids that they did not attempt another round of engagements in 361. This allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing the usurpation of Julian Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (2001), p. 508 . Death As such, Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cicilia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. Apparently, realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (2001), p. 508 . Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXI.15.2 . Marriages and Children Constantius II was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin from the city of Thessaloniki, whom he married before Constantius' defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died in 360. Third and lastly, in 360, to Faustina (empress), who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named Flavia Maxima Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian. Religious Issues Constantius seems to have had a particular interest in the religious state of the Roman Empire. As a Christian Roman Emperor, Constantius made a concerted effort to promote Christianity at the expense of Roman polytheism (‘paganism’). As such, over the course of his reign, he issued a number of different edicts designed specifically to carry out this agenda (see below). Constantius also took an active part in attempting to shape the Christian church. Paganism under Constantius In spite of the some of the edicts issued by Constantius, it should be recognised that he was not fanatically anti-pagan - he never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins Vasiliev, A.A, History of the Byzantine Empire 324-1453 (1958), p. 68 (in fact, "he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa") , he never acted against the various pagan schools, and, at times, he actually even made some effort to protect paganism Vasiliev, A.A, History of the Byzantine Empire 324-1453 (1958), p. 68 . Also, most notably, he remained pontifex maximus until his death, and was actually deified by the Roman Senate after his death. The relative moderation of Constantius' actions toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was not until over 20 years after Constantius' death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senators protested their religion's treatment Salzman, M.R., The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire (2002), p. 182 . Christianity under Constantius Although often considered an Arian Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 118. , Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicaean Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (1989), pp. 209-10 Gaddis, M., There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ (2005), p. 92 . As such, during his reign, Constantius made a concerted attempt to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, and to this end, he convened several Christian councils during his reign, the most notable of which were one at Rimini and its twin at Seleuca, which met in 359 and 360 respectively. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian A.H.M. Jones. "The great councils of 359-60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church." Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 118. Judaism under Constantius Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father Schäfer, P., The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (2003), pp. 180-1 . Early in his reign, Constantius issued a double edict in concert with his brothers limiting the ownership of slaves by Jewish people Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 . A later edict (issued by Constantius after becoming sole Emperor) decreed that a person who was proven to have converted from Christianity to Judaism would have their entire property confiscated by the state Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7 . However, it should be noted that Constantius' actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as Jewish business; apparently, it was often the case that privately-owned Jewish businesses were in competition with state-owned businesses. As such, Constantius may have sought to provide as much of an advantage to the state-owned businesses as possible by limiting the skilled workers and the slaves available to the Jewish businesses Schäfer, P., The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (2003), pp. 180-1 . Religious Edicts Issued by Constantius Pagan-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: The banning of sacrifices Codex Theodosianus 16.10.2 & 16.10.6 ; The closing of pagan temples Codex Theodosianus 16.10.4 & 16.10.6 ; Edicts against soothsayers and magicians Codex Theodosianus 9.16.4, 9.16.5 & 9.16.6 . Christian-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: Exemption from compulsory public service for the clergy Codex Theodosianus 16.2.9 ; * Exemption from compulsory public service for the sons of clergy Codex Theodosianus 16.2.11 ; Tax exemptions for clergy and their servants Codex Theodosianus 16.2.8 , also later for their family Codex Theodosianus 16.2.14 ; Clergy and the issue of private property Codex Theodosianus 16.2.15, 12.1.49 & 8.4.7 ; Bishops exempted from being tried in secular courts Codex Theodosianus 16.2.12 ; Christian prostitutes only able to be bought by Christians Codex Theodosianus 15.8.1 . Jew-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: Weaving women who moved from working for the government to working for Jews, must be restored to the government; Jews may not marry Christian women; Jews may not attempt to convert Christian women Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 ; Any non-Jewish slave bought by a Jew will be confiscated by the state; if a Jew attempts to circumcise a non-Jewish slave, the slave will be freed and the Jew shall face capital punishment; any Christian slaves owned by a Jew will be taken away and freed Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 ; A person who is proven to have converted from Christianity to Judaism shall have their property confiscated by the state Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7 . Reputation Constantius II is a particularly difficult figure to judge properly, mainly as a result of the hostility of most every source that mentions him. A.H.M Jones writes that Constantius "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage." Jones, A.H.M., Later Roman Empire, p. 116. However, Kent & M. and A. Hirmer suggest that Constantius "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler" Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (1978), p. 54 . They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not" Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (1978), p. 54 . Ancestry Ancestors of Constantius II Footnotes References Primary Sources Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XIV-XXI Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium Festus, Brevarium Julian the Apostate, Letter To The Senate And People of Athens Libanius, Orations XII & XVII Theophanes, Chronicle Zonaras, Extracts of History Zosimus, New History Secondary Sources Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis Dignas, B. & Winter, E., Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2007) DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R., 'DIR-Constantius II' from De Imperatoribus Romanis "Constantius II,". Gaddis, M., There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ (University of California Press, 2005) Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986) Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (Thames and Hudson, 1978) Odahl, C.M., Constantine and the Christian Empire (Routledge, 2004) Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (University of Chicago, 1989) Potter, D.S., The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180-395 (Routledge, 2004) Rohrbacher, D., "Why didn't Constantius II Eat Fruit?," Classical Quarterly 55,1 (2005), 323-326. Salzman, M.R., The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 2002) Schäfer, P., The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (Routledge, 2003) Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (Taylor & Francis, 2001) Vasiliev, A.A., History of the Byzantine Empire 324-1453 (University of Wisconsin Press, 1958) Vogler, C., Constance II et l’administration impériale (Strasbourg, 1979). External links An 1886 translation of Eutropius' Historiae Romanae Breviarium by Watson can be found here. An 1814 translation of Zosimus' New History by Green & Chaplin can be found here. An 1862 translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' Res Gestae by Bohn can be found here. (Books 14-21 cover Constantius II's reign; books 1-13 may also have included mention of Constantius, but they are not extant). A 2001 translation of Festus' Brevarium by Banchich & Meka can be found here. This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity. Other likely portrait sculptures of Constantius II: , .

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Myasthenia_gravis

Myasthenia gravis (literally "serious muscle-weakness"; from Greek μύς "muscle", "weakness", and Latin gravis "serious"; abbreviated MG) is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatiguability. It is an autoimmune disorder, in which weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated medically with cholinesterase inhibitors or immunosuppressants, and, in selected cases, thymectomy. At 200–400 cases per million it is one of the less common autoimmune disorders. Classification The most widely accepted classification of myasthenia gravis is the Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America Clinical Classification: Class I: Any eye muscle weakness, possible ptosis, no other evidence of muscle weakness elsewhere Class II: Eye muscle weakness of any severity, mild weakness of other muscles Class IIa: Predominantly limb or axial muscles Class IIb: Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles Class III: Eye muscle weakness of any severity Moderate weakness of other muscles Class IIIa: Predominantly limb or axial muscles Class IIIb: Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles Class IV: Eye muscle weakness of any severity, severe weakness of other muscles Class IVa: Predominantly limb or axial muscles Class IVb: Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles (Can also include feeding tube without intubation) Class V: Intubation needed to maintain airway Signs and symptoms Ptosis of the left eye. The hallmark of myasthenia gravis is fatiguability. Muscles become progressively weaker during periods of activity and improve after periods of rest. Muscles that control eye and eyelid movement, facial expression, chewing, talking, and swallowing are especially susceptible. The muscles that control breathing and neck and limb movements can also be affected. Often the physical examination is within normal limits. The onset of the disorder can be sudden. Often symptoms are intermittent. The diagnosis of myasthenia gravis may be delayed if the symptoms are subtle or variable. In most cases, the first noticeable symptom is weakness of the eye muscles. In others, difficulty in swallowing and slurred speech may be the first signs. The degree of muscle weakness involved in MG varies greatly among patients, ranging from a localized form, limited to eye muscles (ocular myasthenia), to a severe or generalized form in which many muscles - sometimes including those that control breathing - are affected. Symptoms, which vary in type and severity, may include asymmetrical ptosis (a drooping of one or both eyelids), diplopia (double vision) due to weakness of the muscles that control eye movements, unstable or waddling gait, weakness in arms, hands, fingers, legs, and neck, a change in facial expression, dysphagia (difficulty in swallowing), shortness of breath and dysarthria (impaired speech, often nasal due to weakness of the velar muscles). In myasthenic crisis a paralysis of the respiratory muscles occurs, necessitating assisted ventilation to sustain life. In patients whose respiratory muscles are already weak, crises may be triggered by infection, fever, an adverse reaction to medication, or emotional stress. Since the heart muscle is stimulated differently, it is never affected by MG. Pathophysiology The thymus. Displayed thymus is relatively large, since it is a juvenile thymus. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune channelopathy: it features antibodies directed against the body's own proteins. While in various similar diseases the disease has been linked to a cross-reaction with an infective agent, there is no known causative pathogen that could account for myasthenia. There is a slight genetic predisposition: particular HLA types seem to predispose for MG (B8 and DR3 with DR1 more specific for ocular myasthenia). Up to 75% of patients have an abnormality of the thymus; 25% have a thymoma, a tumor (either benign or malignant) of the thymus, and other abnormalities are frequently found. The disease process generally remains stationary after thymectomy (removal of the thymus). The acetylcholine receptor. In MG, the autoantibodies are directed most commonly against the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) Patrick J, Lindstrom J. Autoimmune response to acetylcholine receptor. Science (1973) 180:871–2. , the receptor in the motor end plate for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine that stimulates muscular contraction. Some forms of the antibody impair the ability of acetylcholine to bind to receptors. Others lead to the destruction of receptors, either by complement fixation or by inducing the muscle cell to eliminate the receptors through endocytosis. The antibodies are produced by plasma cells, derived from B cells. B-cells convert into plasma cells by T-helper cell stimulation. In order to carry out this activation T-helpers must first be activated themselves, which is done by binding of the T-cell receptor (TCR) to the acetylcholine receptor antigenic peptide fragment (epitope) resting within the major histocompatibility complex of an antigen presenting cells. Since the thymus plays an important role in the development of T-cells and the selection of the TCR myasthenia gravis is closely associated with thymoma. The exact mechanisms are however not convincingly clarified although resection of the thymus (thymectomy) in MG patients without a thymus neoplasm often have positive results. In normal muscle contraction, cumulative activation of the nAChR leads to influx of sodium ions which in turn causes depolarization of muscle cell and subsequent opening of voltage gated sodium channels. This ion influx then travels down the cell membrane via T-tubules and, via calcium channel complexes leads to the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Only when the levels of calcium inside the muscle cell are high enough will it contract. Decreased numbers of functioning nAChRs therefore impairs muscular contraction by limiting depolarization. In fact, MG causes the motor neuron action potential to muscular twitch ratio to vary from the non-pathological one to one ratio. It has recently been realized that a second category of gravis is due to auto-antibodies against the MuSK protein (muscle specific kinase), a tyrosine kinase receptor which is required for the formation of the neuromuscular junction. Antibodies against MuSK inhibit the signaling of MuSK normally induced by its nerve-derived ligand, agrin. The result is a decrease in patency of the neuromuscular junction, and the consequent symptoms of MG. People treated with penicillamine can develop MG symptoms. Their antibody titer is usually similar to that of MG, but both the symptoms and the titer disappear when drug administration is discontinued. MG is more common in families with other autoimmune diseases. A familial predisposition is found in 5% of the cases. This is associated with certain genetic variations such as an increased frequency of HLA-B8 and DR3. People with MG suffer from co-existing autoimmune diseases at a higher frequency than members of the general population. Of particular mention is co-existing thyroid disease where episodes of hypothyroidism may precipitate a severe exacerbation. The acetylcholine receptor is clustered and anchored by the Rapsyn protein, research in which might eventually lead to new treatment options. Diagnosis Myasthenia can be a difficult diagnosis, as the symptoms can be subtle and hard to distinguish from both normal variants and other neurological disorders. A thorough physical examination can reveal easy fatiguability, with the weakness improving after rest and worsening again on repeat of the exertion testing. Applying ice to weak muscle groups characteristically leads to improvement in strength of those muscles. Additional tests are often performed, as mentioned below. Furthermore, a good response to medication can also be considered a sign of autoimmune pathology. Physical examination Muscle fatigability can be tested for many muscles. A thorough investigation includes: looking upward and sidewards for 30 seconds: ptosis and diplopia. looking at the feet while lying on the back for 60 seconds keeping the arms stretched forward for 60 seconds 10 deep knee bends walking 30 steps on both the toes and the heels 5 situps, lying down and sitting up completely "Peek sign": after complete initial apposition of the lid margins, they quickly (within 30 seconds) start to separate and the sclera starts to show Blood tests If the diagnosis is suspected, serology can be performed in a blood test to identify certain antibodies: One test is for antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor. The test has a reasonable sensitivity of 80–96%, but in MG limited to the eye muscles (ocular myasthenia) the test may be negative in up to 50% of the cases. A proportion of the patients without antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor have antibodies against the MuSK protein. In specific situations (decreased reflexes which increase on facilitation, co-existing autonomic features, suspected presence of neoplasm, especially of the lung, presence of increment or facilitation on repetitive EMG testing) testing is performed for Lambert-Eaton syndrome, in which other antibodies (against a voltage-gated calcium channel) can be found. Neurophysiology Muscle fibers of patients with MG are easily fatigued, and thus do not respond as well as muscles in healthy individuals to repeated stimulation. By repeatedly stimulating a muscle with electrical impulses, the fatiguability of the muscle can be measured. This is called the repetitive nerve stimulation test. In single fiber electromyography, which is considered to be the most sensitive (although not the most specific) test for MG, a thin needle electrode is inserted into a muscle to record the electric potentials of individual muscle fibers. By finding two muscle fibers belonging to the same motor unit and measuring the temporal variability in their firing patterns (i.e. their 'jitter'), the diagnosis can be made. Edrophonium test Photograph of the patient showing right partial ptosis. The left lid shows compensatory pseudo lid retraction because of equal innervation of the levator palpabrae superioris (Hering's law of equal innervation). b. After an edrophonium test: Note the improvement in ptosis. The "edrophonium test" is infrequently performed to identify MG; its application is limited to the situation when other investigations do not yield a conclusive diagnosis. This test requires the intravenous administration of edrophonium chloride (Tensilon, Reversol) or neostigmine (Prostigmin), drugs that block the breakdown of acetylcholine by cholinesterase and temporarily increases the levels of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. In people with myasthenia gravis involving the eye muscles, edrophonium chloride will briefly relieve weakness. Imaging A chest CT-scan showing a thymoma (red circle). A chest X-ray is frequently performed; it may point towards alternative diagnoses (e.g. Lambert-Eaton due to a lung tumor) and comorbidity. It may also identify widening of the mediastinum suggestive of thymoma, but computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are more sensitive ways to identify thymomas, and are generally done for this reason. Pulmonary function test Spirometry (lung function testing) may be performed to assess respiratory function if there are concerns about a patient's ability to breathe adequately. The forced vital capacity may be monitored at intervals in order not to miss a gradual worsening of muscular weakness. Severe myasthenia may cause respiratory failure due to exhaustion of the respiratory muscles. Pathological findings Muscle biopsy is only performed if the diagnosis is in doubt and a muscular condition is suspected. Immunofluorescence shows IgG antibodies on the neuromuscular junction. (Note that it is not the antibody which causes myasthenia gravis that fluoresces, but rather a secondary antibody directed against it.) Muscle electron microscopy shows receptor infolding and loss of the tips of the folds, together with widening of the synaptic clefts. Both these techniques are currently used for research rather than diagnostically. Associations Myasthenia Gravis is associated with various autoimmune diseases S. Thorlacius et al., “Associated disorders in myasthenia gravis: autoimmune diseases and their relation to thymectomy,” Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 80, no. 4 (1989): 290-295. , including: Thyroid diseases, including Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease Diabetes mellitus type 1 Rheumatoid arthritis Lupus, and Demyelinating CNS diseases Seropositive and "double-seronegative" patients often have thymoma or thymic hyperplasia. However, anti-MuSK positive patients do not have evidence of thymus pathology. In pregnancy In the long term, pregnancy does not affect myasthenia gravis. Up to 10% of infants with parents affected by the condition are born with transient (periodic) neonatal myasthenia (TNM) which generally produces feeding and respiratory difficulties. TNM usually presents as poor sucking and generalized hypotonia (low muscle tone). Other reported symptoms include a weak cry, facial diplegia (paralysis of one part of the body) or paresis (impaired or lack of movement) and mild respiratory distress. A child with TNM typically responds very well to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. The mothers themselves suffer from exasperated myasthenia in a third of cases and for those who it does worsen, it usually occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy. Signs and symptoms in pregnant mothers tend to improve during the second and third trimester. Complete remission can occur in some mothers. Immunosuppressive therapy should be maintained throughout pregnancy as this reduces the chance of neonatal muscle weakness, as well as controlling the mother's myasthenia. Very rarely, an infant can be born with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, secondary to profound intrauterine weakness. This is due to maternal antibodies that target an infant's acetylcholine receptors. In some cases, the mother remains asymptomatic. Treatment Treatment is by medication and/or surgery. Medication consists mainly of cholinesterase inhibitors to directly improve muscle function and immunosuppressant drugs to reduce the autoimmune process. Thymectomy is a surgical method to treat MG. For emergency treatment, plasmapheresis or IVIG can be used as a temporary measure to remove antibodies from the blood circulation. Medication Neostigmine, chemical structure. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: neostigmine and pyridostigmine can improve muscle function by slowing the natural enzyme cholinesterase that degrades acetylcholine in the motor end plate; the neurotransmitter is therefore around longer to stimulate its receptor. Usually doctors will start with a low dose, eg 3x20mg pyridostigmine, and increase until the desired result is achieved. If taken 30 minutes before a meal, symptoms will be mild during eating. Side effects, like perspiration and diarrhea can be countered by adding atropine. Pyridostigmine is a short-lived drug with a half-life of about 4 hours. Azathioprine, chemical structure. Immunosuppressive drugs: prednisone, cyclosporine, mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine may be used. It is common for patients to be treated with a combination of these drugs with a cholinesterase inhibitor. Treatments with some immunosuppressives take weeks to months before effects are noticed. Other immunomodulating substances, like drugs preventing acetylcholine receptor modulation by the immune system are currently being researched Plasmapheresis and IVIG If the myasthenia is serious (myasthenic crisis), plasmapheresis can be used to remove the putative antibody from the circulation. Also, Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used to bind the circulating antibodies. Both of these treatments have relatively short-lived benefits, typically measured in weeks. Surgery Thymectomy, the surgical removal of the thymus, is essential in cases of thymoma in view of the potential neoplastic effects of the tumor. However, the procedure is more controversial in patients who do not show thymic abnormalities. Although some of these patients improve following thymectomy, some patients experience severe exacerbations and the highly controversial concept of "therapeutic thymectomy" for patients with thymus hyperplasia is disputed by many experts and efforts are underway to unequivocally answer this important question. There are a number of surgical approaches to the removal of the thymus gland: transsternal (through the sternum, or breast bone), transcervical (through a small neck incision), and transthoracic (through one or both sides of the chest). The transsternal approach is most common and uses the same length-wise incision through the sternum (breast bone)used for most open-heart surgery. The transcervical approach is a less invasive procedure that allows for removal of the entire thymus gland through a small neck incision. There has been no difference in success in symptom improvement between the transsternal approach and the minimally invasive transcervical approach. However for patients with a thymoma it is important that all the tissue is removed as thymic tissue can regrow. Thymomas can be malignant and are thought to be the onset of other diseases as well. For this reason, many surgeons will only recommend the full sternotomy approach to a thymectomy. Thymoma is relatively rare in younger (<40) patients, but paradoxically especially younger patients with generalized MG without thymoma benefit from thymectomy. Of course, resection is also indicated for those with a thymoma, but it is less likely to improve the MG symptoms. Prognosis With treatment, patients have a normal life expectancy, except for those with a malignant thymoma (whose lesser life expectancy is on account of the thymoma itself and is otherwise unrelated to the myasthenia). Quality of life can vary depending on the severity and the cause. The drugs used to control MG either diminish in effectiveness over time (cholinesterase inhibitors) or cause severe side effects of their own (immunosuppressants). A small percentage (around 10%) of MG patients are found to have tumors in their thymus glands, in which case a thymectomy is a very effective treatment with long-term remission. However, most patients need treatment for the remainder of their lives, and their abilities vary greatly. It should be noted that MG is not usually a progressive disease. The symptoms may come and go, but the symptoms do not always get worse as the patient ages. For some, the symptoms decrease after a span of 3–5 years. Epidemiology & MG in children Myasthenia gravis occurs in all ethnic groups and both genders. It most commonly affects women under 40 - and people from 50 to 70 years old of either sex, but it has been known to occur at any age. Younger patients rarely have thymoma. The prevalence in the United States is estimated at 20 cases per 100,000. Risk factors are the female gender with ages 20 – 40, familial myasthenia gravis, D-penicillamine ingestion (drug induced myasthenia), and having other autoimmune diseases. Three types of myasthenic symptoms in children can be distinguished: Neonatal: In 12% of the pregnancies with a mother with MG, she passes the antibodies to the infant through the placenta causing neonatal myasthenia gravis. The symptoms will start in the first two days and disappear within a few weeks after birth. With the mother it is not uncommon for the symptoms to even improve during pregnancy, but they might worsen after labor. Congenital: Children of a healthy mother can, very rarely, develop myasthenic symptoms beginning at birth. This is called congenital myasthenic syndrome or CMS. Other than Myasthenia gravis, CMS is not caused by an autoimmune process, but due to synaptic malformation, which in turn is caused by genetic mutations. Thus, CMS is a hereditary disease. More than 11 different mutations have been identified and the inheritance pattern is typically autosomal recessive. Juvenile myasthenia gravis: myasthenia occurring in childhood but after the peripartum period. The congenital myasthenias cause muscle weakness and fatigability similar to those of MG. The symptoms of CMS usually begin within the first two years of life, although in a few forms patients can develop their first symptoms as late as the seventh decade of life. A diagnosis of CMS is suggested by the following: Onset of symptoms in infancy or childhood. Weakness which increases as muscles tire. A decremental EMG response, on low frequency, of the compound muscle action potential (CMAP). No anti-AChR or MuSK antibodies. No response to immunosuppressant therapy. Family history of symptoms which resemble CMS. The symptoms of CMS can vary from mild to severe. It is also common for patients with the same form, even members of the same family, to be affected to differing degrees. In most forms of CMS weakness does not progress, and in some forms, the symptoms may diminish as the patient gets older. Only rarely do symptoms of CMS become worse with time. Notable people Augustus Pablo, reggae musician. Died May 18, 1999 due to a collapsed lung and had suffered from the disease for some time. Suzanne Rogers, Emmy award winning daytime television actress; plays Maggie Horton on Days of our Lives. Diagnosed in 1984, but currently in remission; her condition was dramatized on the series as her character was shown to be suffering from it as well. John Spencer, World professional snooker champion 1969, 1971 and 1977. Double vision, associated with the disease, effectively ended his career in the mid 1980s. Vijay Tendulkar, A renowned Indian playwright; died May 19, 2008 due to complications arising out of Myasthenia gravis. Aristotle Onassis. Brandon Cox- Starting Auburn QB from 2005-2007. Finished with a record of 29-9. Madame Web, a fictional character from the Spider-Man comics and other media. Amitabh Bachchan, Bollywood superstar, Star of Millennium (voted on BBC). Christopher Robin Milne, 1920-1996, of Winnie-the-Pooh fame and son of author A.A. Milne. Mary Broadfoot Walker, British physician who first discovered the effectiveness of physostigmine in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. References External links The Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America The Myasthenia Gravis Association (MGA) in the United Kingdom & the Republic of Ireland The Myasthenia Gravis Coalition of Canada

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New_Latin

The term New Latin, or Neo-Latin, is used to describe a form of the Latin language used after the end of the Medieval Latin period (c. 1500) to c. 1900, and in a very limited fashion, down to the present day, in the form of neologisms. With a series of reforms in usage, it gave rise to the contemporary Latin of the 20th century. Extent Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the use of the Latin language for any purpose, scientific or literary, after the Renaissance. The beginning of the period is imprecise; however, the spread of secular education, the acceptance of humanistic literary norms, and the wide availability of Latin texts following the invention of printing mark the transition to a new era at the end of the 1400s. The end of the New Latin period is likewise indeterminate, but Latin as a regular vehicle of communicating ideas became rare after the first few decades of the 19th century, and by 1900 it survived primarily in International Scientific Vocabulary cladistics and systematics. The term "New Latin" came into widespread use towards the end of the 1890s among linguists and scientists. New Latin was, at least in its early days, an international language used throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe, as well as in the colonies of the major European powers. This area included all of Western Europe, including Scandinavia; its southern border was the Mediterranean Sea, while in Eastern Europe it had little use in regions with majority Orthodox or Muslim populations, with the division more or less corresponding to the modern eastern borders of Finland, the Baltic states, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia. Russia's acquisition of Kiev in the later 17th century introduced the study of New Latin to that country. History of New Latin Beginnings New Latin was inaugurated by the triumph of the humanist reform of Latin education, led by such writers as Erasmus, More, and Colet. Medieval Latin had been the practical working language of the Roman Catholic Church, taught throughout Europe to aspiring clerics and refined in the medieval universities. It was a flexible and living language, full of neologisms and often composed without reference to the grammar or style of classical (usually pre-Christian) authors. While accepting many of the strengths of Medieval Latin, the humanist reformers sought both to purify Latin grammar and style, and to make Latin applicable to concerns beyond the ecclesiastical, creating a body of Latin literature outside the bounds of the Church. Attempts at reforming Latin usage would occur sporadically throughout the period, becoming most successful in the mid-to-late 19th century. Height The Protestant Reformation (1520-1580), though it removed Latin from the liturgies of the churches of Northern Europe, may have advanced the cause of the new secular Latin. The period during and after the Reformation, coinciding with the growth of printed literature, saw the growth of an immense body of New Latin literature, on all kinds of secular as well as religious subjects. The heyday of New Latin was its first two centuries (1500-1700), when in the continuation of the Medieval Latin tradition, it served as the primary language of science, education, and to some degree diplomacy in Europe. Classic works such as Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) were written in the language. Throughout this period, Latin was a universal school subject, and indeed, the pre-eminent subject for elementary education in Western Europe and those places which shared its culture. All universities required Latin proficiency (obtained in local grammar schools) to obtain admittance as a student. Through most of the 17th century, Latin was also supreme as an international language of diplomatic correspondence, used in negotiations between nations and the writing of treaties. As an auxiliary language to the local vernaculars, New Latin appeared in a wide variety of documents, ecclesiastical, legal, diplomatic, academic, and scientific. While a text written in English, French, or Spanish at this time might be understood by a significant cross section of the learned, only a Latin text could be certain of finding someone to interpret it anywhere between Lisbon and Helsinki. Peace of Westphalia (1648) was written in Latin. As late as the 1720s, Latin was still used conversationally, and was serviceable as an international auxiliary language between people of different countries who had no other language in common. For instance, the Hanoverian king George I of Great Britain (reigned 1714-1727), who had no command of spoken English, communicated in Latin with his Prime Minister Robert Walpole, who knew no German. Decline By about 1700 A.D., the growing movement for the use of national languages (already found earlier in literature and the Protestant religious movement) had reached academia, and an often-cited example of the transition is Newton's writing career, which began in New Latin and ended in English (e.g. Opticks, 1704). Likewise, starting in the 1710s, French replaced Latin as a diplomatic language, due to the commanding presence in Europe of the France of Louis XIV. At the same time, some (like King Frederick William I of Prussia) were dismissing Latin as a useless accomplishment, unfit for a man of practical affairs. A diminishing audience combined with diminishing production of Latin texts pushed Latin into a death spiral from which it has not recovered. As it was gradually abandoned by various fields, and as less written material appeared in it, there was less of a practical reason for anyone to bother to learn Latin; as fewer people knew Latin, there was less reason for material to be written in the language. Latin came to be viewed as esoteric, irrelevant, and worst of all, too difficult. As languages like French, German, and English came to be more widely known, recourse to a 'difficult' auxiliary language would seem unnecessary; while the argument that Latin could be used to expand readership beyond a single nation was fatally weakened if, in fact, Latin readers did not compose a majority of the intended audience. As the 18th century progressed, the extensive literature in Latin being produced at the beginning slowly contracted. By 1800 Latin publications were far outnumbered, and often outclassed, by writings in the vernacular. Latin literature lasted longest in very specific fields (e.g. botany and zoölogy) where it had acquired a technical character, and where a literature available only to a small number of learned individuals could remain viable. By the end of the 19th century, Latin in some instances functioned less as a language than as a code capable of concise and exact expression, as for instance in physicians' prescriptions, or in a botanist's description of a specimen. In other fields (e.g. anatomy or law) where Latin had been widely used, it survived in technical phrases and terminology. The perpetuation of Ecclesiastical Latin in the Roman Catholic Church through the 20th century can be considered a special case of the technicalizing of Latin, and the narrowing of its use to an élite class of readers. By 1900, creative Latin composition, for purely artistic purposes, had become rare. Authors such as Arthur Rimbaud and Max Beerbohm wrote Latin verse, but these texts were either school exercises or occasional pieces. The last survivals of New Latin to convey non-technical information appear in the use of Latin to cloak passages and expressions deemed too indecent (in the 19th century) to be read by children, the lower classes, or (most) women. Such passages appear in translations of foreign texts and in works on folklore, anthropology, and psychology, e.g. Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). Crisis and transformation Latin as a language held a place of educational pre-eminence until the second half of the nineteenth century. At that point its value was increasingly questioned; in the twentieth century, educational philosophies such as that of John Dewey dismissed its relevance. At the same time, the philological study of Latin appeared to show that the traditional methods and materials for teaching Latin were dangerously out of date and ineffective. In secular academic use, however, New Latin declined sharply and then continuously after about 1700 A.D. Although Latin texts continued to be written throughout the 18th and into the 19th century, their number and their scope diminished over time. By 1900, very few new texts were being created in Latin for practical purposes, and the production of Latin texts had become little more than a hobby for Latin enthusiasts. Around the beginning of the 19th century came a renewed emphasis on the study of Classical Latin as the spoken language of the Romans of the 1st centuries BC and AD. This new emphasis, similar to that of the Humanists but based on broader linguistic, historical, and critical studies of Latin literature, led to the exclusion of Neo-Latin literature from academic studies in schools and universities (except for advanced historical language studies); to the abandonment of New Latin neologisms; and to an increasing interest in the reconstructed Classical pronunciation, which was to displace the several regional pronunciations in Europe in the early 20th century. Coincident with these changes in Latin instruction, and to some degree motivating them, came a concern about lack of Latin proficiency among students. Latin had already lost its privileged role as the core subject of elementary instruction; and as education spread to the middle and lower classes, it tended to be dropped altogether. By the mid-20th century, even the trivial acquaintance with Latin typical of the 19th-century student was a thing of the past. Relics This pocket watch made for the medical community has Latin instructions for measuring a patient's pulse rate on its dial: enumeras ad XX pulsus, "count 20 heartbeats". Ecclesiastical Latin, the form of New Latin used in the Roman Catholic Church, remained in use throughout the period and after. Until the Second Vatican Council of 1962-65 all priests were expected to have competency in it, and it was studied in Catholic schools. It is still today the official language of the Church and the Vatican State. Use of the Latin Mass, restricted through the later 20th century, has recently been broadened by Pope Benedict XVI. New Latin is also the source of the biological system of binomial nomenclature and classification of living organisms devised by Carolus Linnæus; the need to create names within a superficially Latin structure continues to drive the development of new Latin or quasi-Latin vocabulary today; see also classical compounds. Another continuation is the use of Latin names for the surface features of planets and planetary satellites (planetary nomenclature), originated in the mid-17th century for selenographic toponyms. New Latin has also contributed a vocabulary for specialized fields such as anatomy and law; some of these words have become part of the normal, non-technical vocabulary of various European languages. Pronunciation New Latin had no single pronunciation, but a host of local variants or dialects, all distinct both from each other and from the historical pronunciation of Latin at the time of the Roman Republic and Empire. As a rule, the local pronunciation of Latin used sounds identical to those of the dominant local language; the result of a concurrently evolving pronunciation in the living languages and the corresponding spoken dialects of Latin. Despite this variation, there are some common characteristics to nearly all of the dialects of New Latin, for instance: The use of a sibilant fricative or affricate in place of a stop for the letters c and g, when preceding a front vowel. The use of a sibilant fricative or affricate for the letter t when non-initial and preceding unstressed i followed by a vowel. The use of a labiodental fricative for most instances of the letter v (or consonantal u), instead of the classical labiovelar approximant . A tendency for medial s to be voiced to [ z ], especially between vowels. The merger of æ and œ with e, and of y with i. The loss of the distinction between short and long vowels, with such vowel distinctions as remain being dependent upon word-stress. The following table illustrates some of the variation of New Latin consonants found in various countries of Western Europe, compared to the Classical Latin pronunciation of the 1st centuries BCE-CE . In Eastern Europe, the pronunciation of Latin was generally similar to that used in Germany. Roman letter PronunciationClassical Western Eastern Italy France England Portugal Spain Germany Netherlands Scandinavia cbefore æ, e, i, œ, y gbefore æ, e, i, œ, y j qubefore a, o, u qubefore æ, e, i scbefore æ, e, i, œ, y tbefore i+vowel v Orthography New Latin texts are primarily found in early printed editions, which present certain features of spelling and the use of diacritics which are distinct from the Latin of antiquity, medieval Latin manuscript conventions, and representations of Latin in modern printed editions. Characters In spelling, New Latin, in all but the earliest texts, distinguishes the letter u from v and i from j. In older printed texts, including most from the first decades of the 17th century, v was used in initial position (even when it represented a vowel, e.g. in vt, later printed ut) and u was used elsewhere, e.g. in nouus, later printed novus. By the middle decades of the 1600s, the letter v was used for the consonantal sound of Roman V, which in most pronunciations of Latin in the New Latin period was (and not ), as in vulnus "wound", corvus "crow". Where the pronunciation remained , as after g, q and s, the spelling u continued to be used for the consonant, e.g. in lingua, qualis, and suadeo. The letter j generally represented a consonantal sound (pronounced in various ways in different European countries, e.g. , , , ). It appeared, for instance, in jam "now" or jubet "orders" (now spelled iam and iubet). It was also found between vowels in the words ejus, hujus, cujus (now normally spelled eius, huius, cuius), and pronounced as a consonant. J was also used when the last in a sequence of two or more i'''s, e.g. radij (now spelled radii) "rays", alijs "to others", iij, the Roman numeral 3; however, ij was for the most part replaced by ii by 1700. In common with texts in other languages using the Roman alphabet, Latin texts down to c. 1800 used ſ (the long s), italic ſ for s in positions other than at the end of a word; e.g. ipſiſſimus. The digraphs ae and oe were rarely if ever so written; instead the ligatures æ and œ were used, e.g. Cæsar, pœna. More rarely (and usually in 16th to early 17th-century texts) the e caudata is found substituting for either. Diacritics Three kinds of diacritic were in common use: the acute accent ´, the grave accent `, and the circumflex accent ˆ. These were normally only marked on vowels (e.g. í, è, â); but see below regarding que. The acute accent marked a stressed syllable, but was usually confined to those where the stress was not in its normal position, as determined by vowel length and syllabic weight. In practice, it was typically found on the vowel in the syllable immediately preceding a final clitic, particularly que "and", ve "or" and ne, a question marker; e.g. idémque "and the same (thing)". By some printers, however, this acute accent was placed over the q in que when that clitic followed, e.g. eorumq́ue "and their". The acute accent fell out of favor by the 19th century. The grave accent had various uses, none related to pronunciation or stress. It was always found on the preposition à (variant of ab "by" or "from") and likewise on the preposition è (variant of ex "from" or "out of"). Most frequently, it was found on the last (or only) syllable of various adverbs and conjunctions, particularly those which might be confused with prepositions or with inflected forms of nouns, verbs, or adjectives. Examples include certè "certainly", verò "but", primùm "at first", pòst "afterwards", cùm "when", adeò "so far, so much", unà "together", quàm "than". In some texts the grave was found over the clitics que et al., in which case the acute accent did not appear before them. The circumflex accent represented metrical length (generally not distinctively pronounced in the New Latin period) and was chiefly found over an a, when that represented an ablative singular case, e.g. eâdem formâ "with the same shape". It might also be used to distinguish two words otherwise spelled identically, but distinct in vowel length; e.g. hîc "here" differentiated from hic "this", fugêre "they have fled" (=fūgērunt) distinguished from fugere "to flee", or senatûs "of the senate" distinct from senatus "the senate". It might also be used for vowels arising from contraction, e.g. nôsti for novisti "you know", imperâsse for imperavisse "to have commanded", or dî for dei or dii. Notable works (1500-1900) Erasmus by Holbein Literature and biography 1511. Stultitiæ Laus, essay by Desiderius Erasmus. 1516. Utopia by Thomas More 1602. Cenodoxus, a play by Jacob Bidermann. 1608. Parthenica, two books of poetry by Elizabeth Jane Weston. 1621. Argenis, a novel by John Barclay. 1626-1652. Poems by John Milton. 1634. Somnium, a scientific fantasy by Johannes Kepler. 1741. Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum, a satire by Ludvig Holberg. 1761. Slawkenbergii Fabella, short parodic piece in Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy. 1767. Apollo et Hyacinthus, intermezzo by Rufinus Widl (with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart). 1835. Georgii Washingtonii, Americæ Septentrionalis Civitatum Fœderatarum Præsidis Primi, Vita, biography of George Washington by Francis Glass. Scientific works 1543. De Revolutionibus Orbium Cœlestium by Nicolaus Copernicus 1545. Ars Magna by Hieronymus Cardanus 1600. De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus et de Magno Magnete Tellure by William Gilbert. 1609. Astronomia nova by Johannes Kepler. 1610. Sidereus Nuncius by Galileo Galilei. 1620. Novum Organum by Francis Bacon. 1628. Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus by William Harvey. 1659. Systema Saturnium by Christiaan Huygens. 1673. Horologium Oscillatorium by Christiaan Huygens. Also at Gallica. 1687. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. 1703. Hortus Malabaricus by Hendrik van Rheede. 1735. Systema Naturae by Carolus Linnaeus. 1737. Mechanica sive motus scientia analytice exposita by Leonhard Euler. 1738. Hydrodynamica, sive de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii by Daniel Bernoulli. 1748. Introductio in analysin infinitorum by Leonhard Euler. 1753. Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus. 1758. Systema Naturae (10th ed.) by Carolus Linnaeus. 1801. Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl Gauss. 1810. Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen by Robert Brown. 1840. Flora Brasiliensis by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius. 1864. Philosophia zoologica by Jan van der Hoeven. Other technical subjects 1514. De Asse et Partibus by Guillaume Budé. 1530. Syphilis, sive, De Morbo Gallico by Girolamo Fracastoro(transcription) 1582. Rerum Scoticarum Historia by George Buchanan (transcription) 1604-1608. Historia sui temporis by Jacobus Augustus Thuanus. 1625. De Jure Belli ac Pacis by Hugo Grotius. (Posner Collection facsimile; Gallica facsimile) 1641. Meditationes de prima philosophia by René Descartes. (The Latin, French and English by John Veitch.) 1642-1658. Elementa Philosophica by Thomas Hobbes. 1657. Orbis Sensualium Pictus by John Amos Comenius. (Hoole parallel Latin/English translation, 1777; Online version in Latin) 1670. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus by Baruch Spinoza. 1725. Gradus ad Parnassum by Johann Joseph Fux. An influential treatise on musical counterpoint. References IJsewijn, Jozef with Dirk Sacré. Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. 2 vols. Leuven University Press, 1990-1998. Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1-85984-402-2; translated from the French by John Howe. Footnotes See also Classical compound Contemporary Latin External links An Analytic Bibliography of On-line Neo-Latin Titles — Bibliography of Renaissance Latin and Neo-Latin literature on the web. A Lost Continent of Literature: The rise and fall of Neo-Latin, the universal language of the Renaissance. — An essay on Neo-Latin literature on the I Tatti Renaissance Library website. American Association for Neo-Latin Studies Latin Abbreviations used in modern language. CAMENA – Latin Texts of Early Modern Europe Center for Neo-Latin Studies at University College Cork Database of Nordic Neo-Latin Literature Heinsius collection: Dutch Neo-Latin poetry Glossary of Latin Roots of Botanical Terms International Association for Neo-Latin Studies Latinitas Nova at Bibliotheca Augustana Lexicon Universale, 1693 Neo-Latin dictionary Neo-Latin at The Latin Library''. Neo-Latin Humanist Texts from DigitalBookIndex Neo-Latin Links at the Leuven Catholic University Pantoia Latin translations of popular works, mostly of the 19th century (site in German) Society for Neo-Latin Studies

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Cognitive_science

Rendering of human brain Cognitive science may be concisely defined as the study of the nature of intelligence. It draws on multiple empirical disciplines, including psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, computer science, sociology and biology. The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of Artificial Intelligence research. Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1973). "Comments on the Lighthill Report and the Sutherland Reply", in Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium, Science Research Council, 35-37 In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Science Society were founded. Cognitive Science Society Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. History In Ancient Greece, philosophers Plato and Aristotle sought to understand the nature of human knowledge. In the 17th century, Descartes popularized the notion that the body and the mind were two separate entities, known as Res Extensa and Res Cogitans. Other contributors to the study of the mind in the 17th and 18th centuries included George Berkeley, Robert Burton, Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and John Locke. In the 1870s, Wilhelm Wundt moved the study of human knowledge into the realm of experimental psychology. In the early 20th century, the popular notion of mind was altered by John B. Watson's behaviorist viewpoint that consciousness was not an appropriate question for scientific inquiry and that only observable behavior should be studied. In the 1950s this prevailing viewpoint began to change again as scientists started conceptualizing theories of mind based on complex representations and computational procedures. George A. Miller pioneered the concept of mental representations, chunks of information that are encoded and decoded within the mind. John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon founded the field of artificial intelligence around the same time. Noam Chomsky further removed the study of the mind from the behaviorism of Watson, B.F. Skinner, and others who had been psychology's primary focus. The mid-1970s saw the emergence of the field as a new academic discipline. Today, cognitive science programs exist in more than sixty universities around the world. Cognitive Science. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Principles Levels of analysis A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. For example, consider the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. How does this process occur? One approach would be to study behavior through direct observation. A person could be presented with a phone number, asked to recall it after some delay. Then the accuracy of the response could be measured. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on their own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available, and it were known when each neuron was firing, it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is needed. This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior. Marr Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. W. H. Freeman. gave a famous description of three levels of analysis: the computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation; representation and algorithm, giving a representation of the input and output and the algorithm which transforms one into the other; and the hardware implementation, how algorithm and representation may be physically realised. (See also the entry on functionalism.) Interdisciplinary nature Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology, and biology. Cognitive science tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus it too has an objective, observer-independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with the physical sciences, and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states are classified functionally, such that any system that performs the proper function for some mental state is considered to be in that mental state. Thus, according to functionalism about the mind, even non-human systems, such as other animal species, alien life forms, or advanced computers can, in principle, have mental states. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with neuroscience, psychology, or some combination of the two. From the external point of view, the largest interdisciplinary context of cognitive science is systemics. It includes the socio-cognitive extension of the cognition models and theories over different social environments social systems, with the emphasis on distributed cognition and intelligence. Cognitive science: the term The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical.) The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining "to the action or process of knowing". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato. Scope Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative and evolutionary approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophical conflicts. Another important mind-related subject that the cognitive sciences tend to avoid is the existence of qualia, with discussions over this issue being sometimes limited to only mentioning qualia as a philosophically-open matter. Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them. A number of authors consider the qualia problem to be part of the cognitive science field, e.g. Some philosophical issues in cognitive science: qualia, intentionality, and the mind-body problem, Qualia: The Hard Problem, and indeed the entire discipline of philosophy as being part of the cog sci field, e.g. What is Cognitive Science?, while other reputable sources that cover both qualia and cog sci do not draw any obvious connection between them, e.g. the Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Jan 2008 online edition) does have full-size articles on both qualia and cog sci, but qualia are not even mentioned in the cog sci article while cog sci is not mentioned in the qualia article. Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but is meant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various aspects of the field. Artificial intelligence "... One major contribution of AI and cognitive science to psychology has been the information processing model of human thinking in which the metaphor of brain-as-computer is taken quite literally. ." AAAI Web pages. Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. Sun, Ron (ed.) (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology. Cambridge University Press, New York. (See the section on computational modeling in the Research Methods section.) There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemas, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain. Attention Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it. Language processing |A well known example of a Phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically. The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences they have never heard before? The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonology and phonetics, syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction. The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of. Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration. One approach to cognitive issues in language is the pragmatics of language, that is, the current use of the language by a real speaker. From a pragmatic analytical perspective it is possible to show that some people who have a profession in which they categorically work with language (e.g. journalists) have a behavior which is not predictable by known theories. The pragmatic approach is also useful in the study of collective distributed decision making, particularly in broadcasted systems (for instance aviation approach control - AAP). Learning and development Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place. A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature versus nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information might guide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker ) have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic. They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific "facts" about how grammar works can only be learnt as a result of experience. Memory Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes). Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory--grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory--refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g., Who was the first president of the U.S.A.?, or "What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory . Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus in more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in "fill-in-the-blank")? Perception and action The Necker cube, an example of an optical illusion Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions. The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception. Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action. Research methods Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory. Behavioral experiments In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. Reaction time. The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing. Psychophysical responses. Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include: sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc. threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc. Eye tracking. This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed. Brain imaging |Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus. Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience. Single photon emission computed tomography and Positron emission tomography. SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution. Electroencephalography. EEG measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution. Functional magnetic resonance imaging. fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution. Optical imaging. This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains. Magnetoencephalography. MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred or attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is. MEG uses SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields. Computational modeling A Neural network with two layers. Computational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem. Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence. Computational modelling can help us to understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon. There are two basic approaches to cognitive modeling. The first is focused on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind and operates using symbols, and the second, which follows the neural and associative properties of the human brain, and is called subsymbolic. Symbolic modeling evolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of Knowledge-based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective, see for example "Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence" (GOFAI). They are developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information engineering for expert systems . Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation of functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR environment. Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision making, symbolic cognitive modeling is extended to socio-cognitive approach including social and organization cognition interrelated with a sub-symbolic not conscious layer. Subsymbolic modeling includes Connectionist/neural network models. Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and that the power of the system comes primarily from the existence and manner of connections between the simple nodes. Neural nets are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a repetition of how the system works, they lack explanative powers as complicated systems of connections with even simple rules are extremely complex and often less interpretable than the system they model. Other approaches gaining in popularity include the use of Dynamical systems theory and also techniques putting symbolic models and connectionist models into correspondence (Neural-symbolic integration). All the above approaches tend to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence, in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making and reasoning. Neurobiological methods Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence. These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system. Single-cell recording Direct brain stimulation Animal models Postmortem studies Key findings Cognitive science has much to its credit. Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics, and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence firmly known in the philosophy of language and epistemology - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual perception. It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, and it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific disfunction, such as dyslexia, anopia, and hemispatial neglect. Criticism The philosophical underpinnings of research in cognitive science have been criticized by philosophers and scientists alike. In a speech given shortly before his death ref. , B.F. Skinner stated that "cognitive science is the creationism of psychology." See Functionalism (philosophy of mind) for an extended entry on criticisms. Notable researchers Some of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited. Within philosophy familiar names include Daniel Dennett who writes from a computational systems perspective, John Searle known for his controversial Chinese Room, Jerry Fodor who advocates functionalism, and Douglas Hofstadter, famous for writing Gödel, Escher, Bach, which questions the nature of words and thought. In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential (both have also become notable as political commentators). In Artificial intelligence Marvin Minsky and Kevin Warwick are prominent. Popular names in the discipline of psychology include James McClelland and Steven Pinker. The academic field of cognitive science in its own right is very recently established, and the first Ph.D. in cognitive science was awarded to Agneta Gulz of Lund University in 1991. http://www.lucs.lu.se/Agneta.Gulz/ See also Affective science Artificial intelligence Cognitive science of mathematics Cognitive science of religion Cognitive bias Cognitive Informatics Cognitive linguistics Cognitive neuropsychology Cognitive neuroscience Cognitive psychology Computational neuroscience Decision theory Decision field theory Dynamicism Educational psychology Heterophenomenology Human Cognome Project Indiana Archives of Cognitive Science Informatics Embodied cognitive science Embodied cognition Enactivism Linguistics List of cognitive scientists List of institutions granting degrees in cognitive science Neural Darwinism Neural network Neuropsychology Neuroscience Notation bias Personal information management (PIM) Philosophy of mind Psychology Simulated consciousness Situated cognition Society of Mind theory Speech-Language Pathology Concept Mining Thought Notes Baumgartner, P., et al. Eds. (1995). Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Bechtel, W. et al. Ed. (1999). A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New York: Grosset/Putnam. Gardner, H. (1985). The Mind's New Science. New York: Basic Books. Gazzaniga, M. S. Ed. (1996). Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences. New York: The MIT Press. Hunt, M. (1982). The Universe Within: A New Science Explores the Human Mind. Brighton: The Harvester Press. Lakoff, G and Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy In The Flesh. New York: Basic Books. Port, Robert F. and vanGelder, Tim (1995). Mind as Motion: Explorations in the Dynamics of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0262161508 . Sun, Ron & L. Bookman, (eds.), Computational Architectures Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994. Thagard, P. (2nd, 2005). Mind : Introduction to Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Thelen, Esther and Smith, Linda B. (1996). A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 026270059X . Gardner, Howard (1987). The Minds New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. New York: Basic Books. Further reading Education Berkeley's "What can I do with a major in cognitive science?" Indiana University's iCogSci project MIT: Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Definitions Cognitive Science - American Assoc. for Artificial Intelligence aiKnow: Cognitive Artificial Intelligence MIT CogNet History Dr. Roy Ruddle's history page at the University of Leeds Carl Stahmer's history page at the University of Santa Barbara List of People List of leading thinkers in cognitive science Publications & Publishers The Journal of Cognitive Science Cognitive Science Journal Archive: Archive of the Cognitive Science journal, plus conference proceedings and supplemental materials Cognitive Systems Research The MIT Press Canadian Undergraduate Journal of Cognitive Science Indiana Undergraduate Journal of Cognitive Science : Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews in Cognitive Science; launching in January 2010 Classic Texts General External links Cognitive Science Society Cognitive Science Online List of University Departments of Cognitive Science Cognitive Science Journal Archive: 25 years of the official Cognitive Science journal, annual conference proceedings and supplemental materials iCogSci: An online information portal of everything Cognitive Science Introducing Cognitive Science on CognoBytes Piero Scaruffi's annotated bibliography on the mind A special issue of the journal Labyrinthe, 2005 (in French): "La cognition" Researchmaster Cognitive science at the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Entry in the Semiotics Encyclopedia Online

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Calorimetry

The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat evolved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermo chemistry. Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. Calorimetry involves the use of a calorimeter. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce from their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), OR from their consumption of oxygen. Lavoisier noted in 1780 that heat production can be predicted from oxygen consumption this way, using multiple regression. The Dynamic Energy Budget theory explains why this procedure is correct. Of course, heat generated by living organisms may also be measured by direct calorimetry, in which the entire organism is placed inside the calorimeter for the measurement. The specific heat formula is as follows: where q is energy, or heat, m is mass, c is specific heat, ΔT is change in temperature. Constant-volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry) Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume calorimeter. No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The equation for constant-volume calorimetry is (the heat capacity at constant volume is assumed to be constant): where ΔU is change in internal energy, ΔT is change in temperature and CV is the heat capacity at constant volume. Since in constant-volume calorimetry the pressure is not kept constant, the heat measured does not represent the ''enthalpy change. References

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Alfred_Jarry

Alfred Jarry (8 September 1873 – 1 November 1907) was a French writer born in Laval, Mayenne, France, not far from the border of Brittany; he was of Breton descent on his mother's side. Best known for his play Ubu Roi (1896), which is often cited as a forerunner to the surrealist theatre of the 1920s and 1930s, Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism. His texts present some pioneering work in the field of absurdist literature. Sometimes grotesque or misunderstood (i.e. the opening line in his play Ubu Roi, "Merdre!", has been translated into English as "Shitteth!" "Shittr!", "Shikt!", "Shrit!" and "Pschitt!"), he invented a pseudoscience called 'Pataphysics. Biography and works A precociously brilliant student, Jarry enthralled his classmates with a gift for pranks and troublemaking. At the lycée in Rennes when he was 15, he led of a group of boys who devoted much time and energy to poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and classmate Henri Morin wrote a play they called Les Polonais and performed it with marionettes in the home of one of their friends. The main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly; three teeth (one of stone, one of iron, and one of wood); a single, retractable ear; and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature. At 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893. That same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent. Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to absinthe, the "green goddess". A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence). When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame—the army did not issue uniforms small enough—was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired the novel, Days and Nights. Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to drinking, writing, and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered, and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of L'Ymagier, a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time and L'Ymagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play Caesar Antichrist (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, Caesar Antichrist presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as an agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation of the Narmer Palette, an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics. The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review Le Livre d'art, of Jarry's 5-act play Ubu Roi—the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Roi'''s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Oeuvre. On opening night (10 December 1896), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" ("Shittr!"). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more forward-thinking contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until 1907. The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the royal we, and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls". Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had created through the unusual expedient of subdividing a larger flat by means of a horizontal rather than a vertical partition. The diminutive Jarry could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry also took to carrying a loaded pistol. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you" (though he was not at all inclined to engage with females in the manner implied). Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health, and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write what is often cited as the first cyborg sex novel, Le Surmâle (The Supermale), which is partly a satire on the Symbolist ideal of self-transcendence. Unpublished until after his death, his fiction Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien) describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of 'pataphysics. 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one". In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event. Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion". In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. Guillaume Apollinaire, André Salmon, and Max Jacob sought him out in his truncated apartment. After his death, Pablo Picasso, fascinated with Jarry, acquired his pistol and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris, and later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him. Jarry lived in his 'pataphysical world until his death in Paris on 1 November 1907 of tuberculosis, aggravated by drug and alcohol use. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the Cimetière de Bagneux, near Paris. See also 'Pataphysics Selected Jarry works Plays Caesar Antichrist Ubu the King (Ubu Roi) Ubu Cuckolded (Ubu cocu) Ubu Bound (Ubu enchaíné)Novels The Supermale (Le Surmâle) Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien) Days and Nights (novel) (Les Jours et les nuits )Other notable works Short story, The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race, has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by J.G. Ballard, and Robert Anton Wilson Bibliography The Banquet Years'' by Roger Shattuck (1958) ISBN 0-394-70415-0 External links Alfred Jarry at Find-A-Grave Alfred Jarry: Absinthe, Bicycles and Merdre

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Garnet_Bailey

Garnet Edward "Ace" Bailey (June 13, 1948 – September 11, 2001) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and scout who was a member of Stanley Cup and Memorial Cup winning teams. He died at age 53 when pilot hijacker Marwan al-Shehhi crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the World Trade Center in New York City, during the September 11, 2001 attacks. Playing career Born in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, Bailey played junior hockey with the Edmonton Oil Kings from 1964 to 1967. He went with his team to the Memorial Cup final in 1965 and won the Cup the following year. As a professional, he joined the Boston Bruins in 1968 and was a member of their Stanley Cup championship teams in 1970 and 1972. He later played for the Detroit Red Wings, St. Louis Blues and the Washington Capitals. Bailey returned to Edmonton to play with the Edmonton Oilers of the World Hockey Association in 1978–79, where he took rookie Wayne Gretzky under his wing. He was head coach of the Wichita Wind, the Oilers' Central Hockey League affiliate, in the 1980–81 season. Bailey then worked as a scout with the Oilers from 1981 to 1994. He won 5 Stanley Cup rings with Edmonton as scout 1984–85–87–88–90. His name was engraved on the 3 of 5 Stanley Cups won during that period: 1985, 1987, 1990 In an NHL career spanning 10 seasons and 568 games, Bailey scored 107 goals and 171 assists with 633 penalty minutes. His most productive season offensively was 1975, when he scored 19 goals and 58 points for the Blues and the Capitals. In his sole WHA season, he scored 5 goals and 4 assists with 22 penalty minutes in 38 games. Death and Legacy At the time of his death, Bailey was living in Lynnfield, Massachusetts and working as director of pro scouting for the Los Angeles Kings hockey team. Bailey, along with Mark Bavis (another passenger on Flight 175), is mentioned in the Boston-based Dropkick Murphys song "Your Spirit's Alive." Denis Leary also wore a Bailey memorial t-shirt as the character Tommy Gavin on a fourth season episode ("Pussified") as well as in season 1 episode 10 ("Immortal") of his post 9/11 firefighter television series Rescue Me. In memory of his death, the Los Angeles Kings named their new mascot "Bailey". Awards & Achievements 1986–87 - NHL - Stanley Cup (Edmonton) 1989–90 - NHL - Stanley Cup (Edmonton) See also List of retired NHL players External links

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Fatty_acid

In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. Carboxylic acids as short as butyric acid (4 carbon atoms) are considered to be fatty acids, whereas fatty acids derived from natural fats and oils may be assumed to have at least eight carbon atoms, caprylic acid (octanoic acid), for example. Most of the natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms, because their biosynthesis involves acetyl-CoA, a coenzyme carrying a two-carbon-atom group (see fatty acid synthesis). Fatty acids are produced by the hydrolysis of the ester linkages in a fat or biological oil (both of which are triglycerides), with the removal of glycerol. See oleochemicals. Fatty acids are aliphatic monocarboxylic acids derived from, or contained in esterified form in an animal or vegetable fat, oil, or wax. Natural fatty acids commonly have a chain of four to 28 carbons (usually unbranched and even numbered), which may be saturated or unsaturated. By extension, the term is sometimes used to embrace all acyclic aliphatic carboxylic acids. This would include acetic acid, which is not usually considered a fatty acid because it is so short that the triglyceride triacetin made from it is substantially miscible with water and is thus not a lipid. Types Three dimensional representations of several fatty acids Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated, depending on double bonds. They differ in length as well. Unsaturated fatty acids Comparison of the trans isomer (top) Elaidic acid and the cis-isomer oleic acid. Unsaturated fatty acids are of similar form, except that one or more alkenyl functional groups exist along the chain, with each alkene substituting a single-bonded " -CH2-CH2-" part of the chain with a double-bonded "-CH=CH-" portion (that is, a carbon double-bonded to another carbon). The two next carbon atoms in the chain that are bound to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. cis A cis configuration means that adjacent hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend and restricts the conformational freedom of the fatty acid. The more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations. For example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a "kink" in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. Alpha-linolenic acid, with three double bonds, favors a hooked shape. The effect of this is that, in restricted environments, such as when fatty acids are part of a phospholipid in a lipid bilayer, or triglycerides in lipid droplets, cis bonds limit the ability of fatty acids to be closely packed, and therefore could affect the melting temperature of the membrane or of the fat. trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the next two hydrogen atoms are bound to opposite sides of the double bond. As a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally-occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each double bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the trans configuration (trans fats) are not found in nature and are the result of human processing (e.g., hydrogenation). The differences in geometry between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes). Examples of unsaturated fatty acids: Common name Chemical structure Δx C:D n−xMyristoleic acid CH3(CH2)3CH=CH(CH2)7COOH cis-Δ9 14:1 n−5Palmitoleic acid CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH cis-Δ9 16:1 n−7Oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH cis-Δ9 18:1 n−9Linoleic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH cis,cis-Δ9,Δ12 18:2 n−6α-Linolenic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH cis,cis,cis-Δ9,Δ12,Δ15 18:3 n−3Arachidonic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)3COOHNIST cis,cis,cis,cis-Δ5Δ8,Δ11,Δ14 20:4 n−6Eicosapentaenoic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)3COOH cis,cis,cis,cis,cis-Δ5,Δ8,Δ11,Δ14,Δ17 20:5 n−3Erucic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH cis-Δ13 22:1 n−9Docosahexaenoic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)2COOH cis,cis,cis,cis,cis,cis-Δ4,Δ7,Δ10,Δ13,Δ16,Δ19 22:6 n−3 Essential fatty acids The human body can produce all but two of the fatty acids it needs. These two, linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), are widely distributed in plant oils. In addition, fish oils contain the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Other marine oils, such as from seal, also contain significant amounts of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), which is also an omega-3 fatty acid. Although the body to some extent can convert ALA into these longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids, the omega-3 fatty acids found in marine oils help fulfill the requirement of essential fatty acids (and have been shown to have wholesome properties of their own). Since they cannot be made in the body from other substrates and must be supplied in food, they are called essential fatty acids. Mammals lack the ability to introduce double bonds in fatty acids beyond carbons 9 and 10. Hence linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids for humans. In the body, essential fatty acids are primarily used to produce hormone-like substances that regulate a wide range of functions, including blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipid levels, the immune response, and the inflammation response to injury infection. Essential fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are the parent compounds of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid series, respectively. They are essential in the human diet because there is no synthetic mechanism for them. Humans can easily make saturated fatty acids or monounsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the omega-9 position, but do not have the enzymes necessary to introduce a double bond at the omega-3 position or omega-6 position. The essential fatty acids are important in several human body systems, including the immune system and in blood pressure regulation, since they are used to make compounds such as prostaglandins. The brain has increased amounts of linolenic and alpha-linoleic acid derivatives. Changes in the levels and balance of these fatty acids due to a typical Western diet rich in omega-6 and poor in omega-3 fatty acids is alleged to be associated with depression and behavioral change, including violence. The actual connection, if any, is still under investigation. Further, changing to a diet richer in omega-3 fatty acids, or consumption of supplements to compensate for a dietary imbalance, has been associated with reduced violent behavior and increased attention span, but the mechanisms for the effect are still unclear. So far, at least three human studies have shown results that support this: two school studies as well as a double blind study in a prison. Fatty acids play an important role in the life and death of cardiac cells because they are essential fuels for mechanical and electrical activities of the heart. - see page 1 of this link Trans fatty acids A trans fatty acid (commonly shortened to trans fat) is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a trans double bond between carbon atoms, which makes the molecule less 'kinked' in comparison to fatty acids with cis double bonds. These bonds are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils. Since they are also produced in bacterial metabolism, ruminant fats (e.g. in milk) also contain about 4% trans fatty acids F.D. Gunstone, J.L. Harwood & A.J. Dijkstra: The Lipid Handbook, 3rd ed., New York (Chapman & Hall) 2007, ISBN 978-0-849-39688-5 . Research suggests that amounts of trans fats correlate with circulatory diseases such as atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease more than the same amount of cis fats, for reasons that are not fully understood. It is known, however, that trans fats, just like saturated fats, raise the LDL ("bad") cholesterol and lowers the HDL ("good") cholestrol. They have also been shown to have other harmful effects such as increasing triglycerides and Lp(a) lipoproteins. They are also thought to cause more inflammation, which is thought to occur through damage to the cells lining of blood vessels. Long and short In addition to saturation, fatty acids are short, medium, or long. Short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of less than six carbons. Medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 [http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/946755-overview carbons, which can form medium chain triglycerides. Long chain fatty acids (LCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails longer than 12 carbons Christopher Beermann1, J Jelinek1, T Reinecker2, A Hauenschild2, G Boehm1, and H-U Klör2, "Short term effects of dietary medium-chain fatty acids and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fat metabolism of healthy volunteers" . Very Long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails longer than 22 carbons When discussing essential fatty acids (EFA), a slightly different terminology applies. Short-chain EFA are 18 carbons long; long-chain EFA have 20 or more carbons. Nomenclature There are several different systems of nomenclature in use for fatty acids. The following table describes the most common systems. SystemExampleExplanationTrivial nomenclaturePalmitoleic acidTrivial names (or common names) are non-systematic historical names which are the most frequent naming system used in literature. Most common fatty acids have trivial names in addition to their systematic names (see below). These names do not follow any pattern, but are concise and generally unambiguous.Systematic nomenclature(9Z)-octadec-9-enoic acidSystematic names (or IUPAC names) derive from the standard IUPAC Rules for the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, published in 1979, along with a recommendation published specifically for lipids in 1977. Counting begins from the carboxylic acid end. Double bonds are labelled with cis-/trans- notation or E-/Z- notation, where appropriate. This notation is generally more verbose than common nomenclature, but has the advantage of being more technically clear and descriptive.Δx nomenclaturecis,cis-Δ9,Δ12In Δx (or delta-x) nomenclature, each double bond is indicated by Δx, where the double bond is located on the xth carbon–carbon bond, counting from the carboxylic acid end. Each double bond is preceded by a cis- or trans- prefix, indicating the conformation of the molecule around the bond. For example, linoleic acid is designated .n−x nomenclaturen−3n−x (n minus x; also ω−x or omega-x) nomenclature does not provide names for individual compounds, but is a shorthand way to categorize fatty acids by their physiological properties. A double bond is located on the xth carbon–carbon bond, counting from the terminal methyl carbon (designated as n or ω) toward the carbonyl carbon. For example, α-Linolenic acid is classified as a n−3 or omega-3 fatty acid, and so it shares properties with other compounds of this type. The ω−x or omega-x notation is common in popular literature, but IUPAC has deprecated it in favor of n−x notation in technical documents. The most commonly researched fatty acid types are n−3 and n−6, which have unique biological properties.Lipid numbers18:318:3, n−618:3, cis,cis,cis-Δ9,Δ12,Δ15Lipid numbers take the form C:D, where C is the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid and D is the number of double bonds in the fatty acid. This notation can be ambiguous, as some different fatty acids can have the same numbers. Consequently, when ambiguity exists this notation is usually paired with either a Δx or n−x term. Free fatty acids Fatty acids can be bound or attached to other molecules, such as in triglycerides or phospholipids. When they are not attached to other molecules, they are known as "free" fatty acids. The uncombined fatty acids or free fatty acids may come from the breakdown of a triglyceride into its components (fatty acids and glycerol). However as fats are insoluble in water they must be bound to appropriate regions in the plasma protein albumin for transport around the body. The levels of "free fatty acid" in the blood are limited by the number of albumin binding sites available. Free fatty acids are an important source of fuel for many tissues since they can yield relatively large quantities of ATP. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. The brain cannot use fatty acids as a source of fuel; it relies on glucose, or on ketone bodies. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver by fatty acid metabolism during starvation, or during periods of low carbohydrate intake. Fatty acids in dietary fats The following table gives the fatty acid, vitamin E and cholesterol composition of some common dietary fats. + Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Cholesterol Vitamin E g/100g g/100g g/100g mg/100g mg/100g Animal fats Lard 40.8 43.8 9.6 93 0.00 Butter 54.0 19.8 2.6 230 2.00 Vegetable fats Coconut oil 85.2 6.6 1.7 0 .66 Palm oil 45.3 41.6 8.3 0 33.12 Cottonseed oil 25.5 21.3 48.1 0 42.77 Wheat germ oil 18.8 15.9 60.7 0 136.65 Soya oil 14.5 23.2 56.5 0 16.29 Olive oil 14.0 69.7 11.2 0 5.10 Corn oil 12.7 24.7 57.8 0 17.24 Sunflower oil 11.9 20.2 63.0 0 49.0  Safflower oil 10.2 12.6 72.1 0 40.68 Hemp oil 10 15 75 0 Rapeseed/Canola oil 5.3 64.3 24.8 0 22.21 Acidity Short chain carboxylic acids such as formic acid and acetic acid are miscible with water and dissociate to form reasonably strong acids (pKa 3.77 and 4.76, respectively). Longer-chain fatty acids do not show a great change in pKa. Nonanoic acid, for example, has a pKa of 4.96. However, as the chain length increases the solubility of the fatty acids in water decreases very rapidly, so that the longer-chain fatty acids have very little effect on the pH of a solution. The significance of their pKa values therefore has relevance only to the types of reactions in which they can take part. Even those fatty acids that are insoluble in water will dissolve in warm ethanol, and can be titrated with sodium hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein as an indicator to a pale-pink endpoint. This analysis is used to determine the free fatty acid content of fats; i.e., the proportion of the triglycerides that have been hydrolyzed. Reaction of fatty acids Fatty acids react just like any other carboxylic acid, which means they can undergo esterification and acid-base reactions. Reduction of fatty acids yields fatty alcohols. Unsaturated fatty acids can also undergo addition reactions, most commonly hydrogenation, which is used to convert vegetable oils into margarine. With partial hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids can be isomerized from cis to trans configuration. In the Varrentrapp reaction certain unsaturated fatty acids are cleaved in molten alkali, a reaction at one time of relevance to structure elucidation. Auto-oxidation and rancidity Fatty acids at room temperature undergo a chemical change known as auto-oxidation. The fatty acid breaks down into hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes, and smaller amounts of epoxides and alcohols. Heavy metals present at low levels in fats and oils promote auto-oxidation. Fats and oils often are treated with chelating agents such as citric acid. Circulation Digestion and intake Short- and medium chain fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries and travel through the portal vein just as other absorbed nutrients do. However, long chain fatty acids are too large to be directly released into the tiny intestine capillaries. Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine villi and reassembled again into triglycerides. The triglycerides are coated with cholesterol and protein (protein coat) into a compound called a chylomicron. Within the villi, the chylomicron enters a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal, which merges into larger lymphatic vessels. It is transported via the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct up to a location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger). The thoracic duct empties the chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left subclavian vein. At this point the chylomicrons can transport the triglycerides to where they are needed. Distribution Blood fatty acids are in different forms in different stages in the blood circulation. They are taken in through the intestine in chylomicrons, but also exist in very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) and low density lipoproteins (LDL) after processing in the liver. In addition, when released from adipocytes, fatty acids exist in the blood as free fatty acids. References See also List of saturated fatty acids Essential fatty acid Saturated fat Unsaturated fat Fatty acid synthesis Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acid synthase Vegetable oils External links Lipid Library Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids Journal

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Alexander_the_Great

Alexander the Great ( or , Mégas Aléxandros; 356 BC – 323 BC), - Leo Depuydt, 'The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 BC, ca. 4:00-5:00 PM' in: Die Welt des Orients 28 (1997) 117-135. also known as Alexander III of Macedon () was an ancient Greek -Hammond, N. G. L. (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press, 12–13. ISBN 0-19-814883-6; -Perseus By Daniel Ogden; -Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians By Bob Brier, A. Hoyt Hobbs; -A Survey of Historic Costume By Phyllis G. Tortora, Keith Eubank ; -Jesus of History, Christ of Faith, By Thomas Zanzig; -Territory By David Storey; -The Man in the Garden By Bronwyn Johnson ; -Why the Nativity? By David Jeremiah; -Zinc By Leon Gray; -A Historical Atlas of India By Aisha Khan ; -Real Things in Nature By Edward Singleton Holden; -Women's Roots By June Stephenson; -The Great White Lies By Howard Randal Cox; -Writing in Ancient Egypt By Jil Fine; -Encountering Ancient Voices By Corrine L. Carvalho; -漫遊世界文明學英語 (20k+2cd) Published by 寂天文化 ISBN 9861840575, 9789861840574 ; -Shema is for Real By Joel Lurie Grishaver, Deena Bloomstone; -The Candlestick By E. Paul Braxton; moreover the Argead Dynasty, to which Alexander belonged claimed direct descend from Argos. King (basileus) of Macedon (336–323 BC). He was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered (see Wars of Alexander the Great) the Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world as known to the ancient Greeks. Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II, who had unified Bowra, C. M., [1957] (1994), The Greek Experience, London: Phoenix, Orion Books Ltd, ISBN 1-85799-122-2, p. 9. most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the League of Corinth. Sacks, David, (1995), Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, London: Constable and Co. Ltd, ISBN 0-09-475270-2, p. 16. After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbours, Alexander set out east against the Persian Empire, which he defeated and overthrew. His conquests included Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Bactria and Mesopotamia, and he extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Punjab, India. Alexander had already made plans prior to his death for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula, after which he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage, Rome and the Iberian Peninsula). His original vision, however, had been to the east, to the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea, as described by his boyhood tutor and mentor Aristotle. Alexander integrated many foreigners into his army, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion". He also encouraged marriages between his soldiers and foreigners, and he himself went on to marry two foreign princesses. Alexander died after twelve years of constant military campaigning, possibly a result of malaria, poisoning, typhoid fever, viral encephalitis or the consequences of alcoholism. His legacy and conquests lived on long after him and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic period, which featured a combination of Greek, Middle Eastern, Egyptian and Indian culture. Alexander himself featured prominently in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appeared as a legendary hero in the tradition of Achilles. Alexander probably had greater affection for Achilles than for any other historical figure. Lysimachus, one of his boyhood tutors, indulged this fancy by some shamelessly ingratiating nomenclature: Alexander he called Achilles, Philip Peleus and himself Phoenix. Certainly, it seems true that Alexander modelled himself to a degree on the central figure of Homer's Iliad: both of them were prone to stewing sulks, and both held their horses in lofty regard. Macedonian society in general, it seems, was self-consciously Homeric, especially in the art of war. Early life Alexander was born in July 356 BC, in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon. He was the son of King Philip II, the King of Macedon. His mother was Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, the king of the north Greek state of Epirus. According to Plutarch, Alexander's father claimed descent from Heracles through Caranus of Macedon and his mother from Aeacus through Neoptolemus and Achilles. McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 10.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 252* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 28* Durant, Life of Greece, p. 538 According to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt, causing a flame which spread "far and wide" before dying away. Some time after the marriage Philip was said to have seen himself, in a dream, sealing up his wife's womb with a seal upon which was engraved the image of a lion. Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 253. Plutarch offers a variety of interpretations of these dreams; that Olympia was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided as to whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, some claiming she told Alexander, others that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing himself for his siege on the Greek colony of Potidea, which bordered Macedon. On the day that Alexander was born, Philip also received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus -one the Seven Wonders of the World- was burnt leading Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it burnt because Artemis was attending the birth of Alexander. Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 21.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 254-55* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 28 In his early years, Alexander was raised by his nurse, Lanike (Lanike was the sister of Alexander's future general, Cleitus the Black). Later on in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother's uncle and by Lysimachus. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 33-34.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 257 When Alexander was ten years old, a horse trader from Thessaly (a region of Greece to the south of Macedon famed for their horsemanship), brought Philip a horse which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted by anyone and Philip ordered it to be taken away. Alexander, however, asked for a turn to tame the horse and eventually managed to mount the horse and Philip bought it for him. Alexander would name the horse Bucephalus, meaning ox-head, and take him all the way to India. Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 64.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 257-58* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 39* Durant, Life of Greece, p. 538 A bust depicting Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father When Alexander was thirteen years old, Philip decided that Alexander needed a higher education and he began to search for a tutor. Many people were passed over including Isocrates and Speusippus, Plato's successor at the Academy of Athens, who offered to resign to take up the post. Philip offered the job to Aristotle, a former pupil of Plato's, who had left Athens to live at Lesbos. Aristotle accepted and Philip gave them as their classroom the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza. In return for teaching Alexander, Aristole's payment was that Philip rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and that he repopulate it by buying and freeing the citizens who were slaves or pardoning those who were in exile. Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 65.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 258-59* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 44* MCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 15 Mieza acted like a boarding school for Alexander and the other noble children, like Ptolemy and Cassander that joined him there. Most of the children that were with Alexander there would be his future friends and generals. At Mieza, Artistotle taught and discussed with Alexander and his companions about healing, biology, philosophy, happiness, religion, classification, logic and art. It was also from Aristotle that Alexander got his undying love for the works of Homer and in particular the Iliad, with Aristotle giving him an annotated copy which he would take with him on campaign. Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 65-66.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 259-60* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 45-47* MCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 16 Regent When Alexander became sixteen years old his lessons with Aristotle stopped. When Philip departed to attack the city of Byzantium, the sixteen year old Alexander was left as regent of the kingdom. During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi tribe revolted against Macedon. Alexander responded quickly and crushed the Maedi insurgence and drove them from their region and colonised it with Greeks and founded a city call Alexandroupolis. Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 68.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 260* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 47* Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 43 Following Philip's return from Byzantium, he was sent with a small force to subdue some revolts in southern Thrace. He was also said to have saved his father's life during the siege of the Greek city of Perinthus. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to plough the lands that were sacred to the God Apollo near Delphi. Still occupied in Thrace, Philip ordered Alexander to muster a force but to stop intervention from other Greek states make it look like he was attacking Illyria. When the Illyrians heard of his they attacked Macedon but once again Alexander repelled the invaders. Renault, The Age of Alexander, p. 47-49.</ref> Battle of Chaeronea Philip joined Alexander with his army in 338 BC and they marched down through Thermopylae, which they took with a struggle from its Theban garrison and went on to occupy the city of Elatia, a few days march from both Athens and Thebes. Meanwhile, the Athenians led by Demosthenes voted for an alliance with Thebes in opposition to Macedon. Both Athens and Macedon sent embassies to Thebes in order to win Thebes' favour with Athens eventually gaining the alliance. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 50-51.* Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 44-45* McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 23 Philip carried out the mission appointed to him by the Sacred League and marched on Amphissa, captured the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepted the city's surrender. Philip retreated back to Elatea and sent a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes which was rejected. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 51.* Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 47* McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 24 The Macedonian army of 30,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry met the united Greek army of 30,000 men at Chaeronea in Boeotia. Philip commanded the Macedonian right and he gave Alexander command of the elite, Companion Cavalry on the left flank to counter the elite Theban Sacred Band on the Greek left flank, while Philip faced the Athenians lead by the inexperienced Demosthenes. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 51.* McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 24 Philip managed to draw the Athenian left flank out of its defense position on a slope by feigning retreat. This also drew the Athenian centre from their position and they advanced to attack Philip. Alexander exploited this opportunity and charged the gap between the Thebans and the Athenian centre. Following some strong resistance, Alexander managed to route the Theban and slaughter the Sacred Band to the last man before attacking the Athenian centre. Philip's men broke the Athenian right and they attacked Athenian centre at the same time as Alexander making it break a flee. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 51-52.* McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 24-26 Philip sold the captured Theban soldiers as slaves before establishing a garrison in Thebes and executing or banishing some of the city's anti-Macedonian leaders. From Thebes, he went to Athens were he gave them their captured soldiers back without a ransom. Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese and at Corinth, Philip was named 'Supreme Commander' of the Greek forces by the League of Corinth, a federation of all the Greek states except for Sparta, in the his planned war against the Persia Empire. Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 54.* McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 26 Exile and return After returning to Pella, Philip fell in love with a young Macedonian noblewoman by the name of Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of one of his generals, Attalus. This marriage made Alexander position as heir to the throne less secure as if Cleopatra Eurydice bore a son by Philip, the son would be full Macedonian while Alexander was only half Macedonian. McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 27. During the banquet after Philip's wedding to Cleopatra Eurydice, a drunken Attalus made a speech praying to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir to the Macedonian throne. Alexander shouted to Attalus, "What, am I then a bastard?" Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 253. and he threw his goblet at him. Philip who was also drunk drew his sword and advanced towards Alexander before collapsing leading Alexander to say, "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another." Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 253. Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 73-75.*Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 55 Alexander fled from Macedon taking his mother with him. He dropped off his mother at her brother's capital, Dodona, in Epirus before he went to Illyria where he sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated like a guest by the Illyrians despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. Alexander returned to Macedon after six months in exile due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus the Corinthian, who mediated between the two parties. Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 75.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 261* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 56 The following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria in Asia Minor, Pixodarus, offered the hand of his eldest daughter to Philip's mentally and physically disabled son, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends had it seem that this move showed that Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus, his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus from Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of Carian. Philip had four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erygius exiled and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 27.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 59* Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 71 Accession In 336 BC, while attending the wedding of his daughter by Olympias, Cleopatra and Olympias' brother, Alexander I of Epirus at Aegae, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguard, Pausanias, who reportedly had a grudge against Philip, who was his former lover. As Pausanias tried to escape he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's friends Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed King by the Macedonian army and by the Macedonian noblemen at the age of 20. McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62* Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72 Alexander began his reign by having his potential rivals to the throne murdered. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed, as well as having two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, while a third, Alexander Lyncestes, was spared. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and her daughter by Philip, Europa, burned alive. When Alexander found out about this, he was furious with his mother. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor. Attalus was at the time in correspondence with Demosthenes with intentions of defection to Athens. Alexander also spared the life of his half brother Arridaeus. McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 70-71* Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72 News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly and the Thracian tribes to the north of Macedon. When news of the revolt reached Alexander he responded quickly. Though his advisor's advised him to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 men and rode south towards Thessaly, Macedon's immediate neighbor to the south. When he found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, he had the men ride through Mount Ossa and, when the Thessalians awoke, they found Alexander at their rear. The Thessalians surrendered and added their cavalry to Alexander's force as he rode down towards the Peloponnese.<ref name="N31-M">McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.* Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72* Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104* Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 95 Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognised as the leader of the Sacred League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander received the envoy and pardoned anyone involved with the uprising. At Corinth, he was given the title 'Hegemon' of the Greek forces against the Persians. While at Corinth, he heard the news of the Thracian rising to the north. Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 96.* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72 Balkan Campaign Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt, which was led by the Illyrians and Triballi. He was reinforced along the way by the Agriani, a Thracian tribe under the command of Alexander's friend, Langarus. The Macedonian army marched up to Mount Haemus, where they met a Thracian garrison manning the heights. The Thracians had constructed a palisade of carts, which they intended to throw upon the approaching Macedonians. Alexander ordered his heavy infantry to march in loose formation and, when the carts were thrown, to either open the ranks or lay flat on the ground with their shields over them. The Macedonian archers opened fire and when the Macedonian infantry reached the top of the mountain they routed the Thracians. Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44.* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73 Meanwhile, a large Triballian army led by their king, Syrmus, advanced upon the Macedonian rear. The Triballians retreated to a gorge, where they were drawn out by Alexander's light infantry. On the open ground, they were crushed by Alexander's infantry and cavalry, leaving behind 3,000 dead. The Macedonians marched to the Danube River where they encountered the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. As Alexander's ships failed to enter the river, Alexander's army made rafts out of their leather tents. A force of 4,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry crossed the river, to the amazement of the Getae army of 14,000 men. The Getae army retreated after the first cavalry skirmish, leaving their town to the Macedonian army. Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 45-48.* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73-74 News reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against Macedonian authority. Alexander and his men started to besiege the Illyrians in a hill fort, Pelium. The following day, Glaukias arrived with his army to relieve the town. Philotas, one of Alexander's friends and generals, was trapped by the Taulanti while foraging. When Alexander heard of his friend's predicament he rushed in with his army and managed to frighten Glaukias off attacking Philotas. Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50-51.* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77 Alexander and his army were trapped between the Illyrians and the Taulanti, who each held high ground. When Alexander's army moved towards the Taulanti threat, yelling their war cries, the Taulanti fled from the heights and went into the town. After noticing Pelium's lack of defenses, Alexander feigned a retreat, and, in the night, stormed the town, forcing Cleitus and Glaukias to flee with their armies, leaving Alexander's northern frontier secure. Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 52-54.* Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77 While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once more. Alexander reacted immediately, but, while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided to resist with the utmost vigor. This resistance was useless, however, as the city was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, the Thebans themselves were sold into slavery. Alexander the Great. Encyclopædia Britannica. Alexander spared only priests, leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and descendants of Pindar, whose house was the only one left standing. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission. According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy, led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to give up his demand for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, most particularly Demosthenes. Period of conquests By the time of his death, Alexander had conquered most of the Ecumene, the extension of the "known world" at the time of ancient Greeks, concretely he conquered the extensions lying to the south and east of Greece, including places not explored until then. See map of conquers and compare with Hecataeus of Miletus's map, see an attempt to reconstruct what his map looked like at 6th century BC Fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont with approximately 42,000 soldiers from Macedon, various Greek city-states, mercenaries and tribute soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast. At Halicarnassus, Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left Caria in the hands of Ada, who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother Pixodarus. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia." According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but realized that the simplest way to undo the knot was to simply remove a central peg from the chariot—around which the knot was tied. Alexander's army crossed the Cilician Gates, met and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. Darius was forced to flee the battle after his army broke, and in doing so left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous amount of treasure. He afterwards offered a peace treaty to Alexander, the concession of the lands he had already conquered, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. Proceeding down the Mediterranean coast, he took Tyre and Gaza after famous sieges (see Siege of Tyre) suffered the most brutal attacks during Alexander's war in Asia. Yash Nandan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, "British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan", Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 2003, ISBN 8172763018, page 43: "Tyre and Gaza suffered the most brutal attacks during Alexander's war in Asia." John Gunther, Alexander the great, Sterling, 2007, ISBN 1402745192. page 84. It was after his capture of Tyre that Alexander crucified all the men of military age, and sold the women and children into slavery. Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, Michael Whitby, "The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome", Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0521782732, page 396. During 332–331 BC, Alexander was welcomed as a liberator 1.Alexander the Great By David J. Lonsdale 2.International dictionary of historic places By Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, K. A. Berney 3. Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus By Russell E. Gmirkin 4. Ancient Egypt By Barry J. Kemp 5.A History of the Jewish People By Margolis, Max Leopold, 1866-1932, Max Leopold Margolis, Alexander Marx 6. Egypt By Virginia Maxwell, Mary Fitzpatrick, Siona Jenkins, Anthony Sattin 7. History of Ancient Civilization By Albert Augustus Trever in an Egypt ruled by Persians and was pronounced the new Master of the Universe and son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him, adorned with ram horns as a symbol of his divinity. Although his boost of percepts about his divinity was sometimes coolly received in Greece, it was all but necessary for his Pharaonic rule of Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into Assyria (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius once more at the Battle of Gaugamela. Once again, Darius was forced to leave the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. While Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), Alexander marched to Babylon. From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its legendary treasury. Sending the bulk of his army to the Persian capital of Persepolis via the Royal Road, Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains), then sprinted for Persepolis before its treasury could be looted. It was here that Alexander was said to have stared at the crumbled statue of Xerxes and decided to leave it on the ground—a symbolic gesture of vengeance. During their stay at the capital, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city. Theories abound as to whether this was the result of a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War. The Book of Arda Wiraz, a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing "all the Avesta and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink" that were destroyed; but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism, because it is generally thought that for many centuries the Avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the Magi. Alexander then set off in pursuit of Darius anew. The Persian king was no longer in control of his destiny, having been taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Darius was found by one of Alexander's scouts, dying, in a baggage train being pulled by an ox. Before he died, Darius remarked that he was glad that he would not die alone. His remains were buried by Alexander next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander was turning into an eastern despot. Ultimately, however, the Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius. With the death of Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance over, and released his Greek and other allies from service in the League campaign (although he allowed those that wished to re-enlist as mercenaries in his army). His three-year campaign, first against Bessus and then against Spitamenes, the satrap of Sogdiana, took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia. In the process of doing so, he captured and refounded Herat and Maracanda. Moreover, he founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. In the end, both of his opponents were defeated after having been betrayed by their men—Bessus in 329 BC, and Spitamenes the year after. Hostility During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, a symbolic kissing of the hand that Persians paid to their social superiors, but a practice that the Greeks disapproved. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Here, too, a plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to bring the plot to his attention. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated by command of Alexander, so he might not make attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally slew the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a drunken argument at Maracanda. Later in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce proskynesis), was implicated in the plot, however, there never has been consensus among historians regarding his involvement in the conspiracy. The Persians referred to Alexander’s castle in Persia as the "Kelah-i-Dive-Sefid" meaning Castle of the White Demon (look under "III. The Persian Gates") with Alexander representing the Div-e Sepid of the Shahnameh epic. Invasion of India After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in 326 BC Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi (Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek:Hydaspes), complied. But the chieftains of some hill clans including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (classical names), known in Indian texts as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas (names referring to the equestrian nature of their society from the Sanskrit root word Ashva meaning horse), refused to submit. Alexander personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians and horse-javelin-men and led them against the clans—the Aspasioi of Kunar/Alishang valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. Writes one modern historian: "They were brave people and it was hard work for Alexander to take their strongholds, of which Massaga and Aornus need special mention." A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry and 30 elephants. They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds like cities of Ora, Bazira and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother Cleophis (q.v.) who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting. Alexander could only reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles." A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians people fled to a high fortress called Aornos. Alexander followed them close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort but only after the fourth day of a bloody fight. The story of Massaga was repeated at Aornos and a similar carnage of the tribal-people followed here too. Writing on Alexander's campaign against the Assakenoi, Victor Hanson comments: "After promising the surrounded Assacenis their lives upon capitulation, he executed all their soldiers who had surrendered. Their strongholds at Ora and Aornus were also similarly stormed. Garrisons were probably all slaughtered.” Sisikottos, or Sashigupta who had helped Alexander in this campaign, was made the governor of Aornos. According to H. C. Seth and Ranajit Pal, he was the same as Chandragupta Maurya. After reducing Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against a local ruler Porus (original Indian name Raja Puru), who ruled a region in the Punjab, in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC. After the battle, Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle, and therefore made an alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom, even adding some land he did not own before. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of the horse who had brought him to India, who had died during the Battle of Hydaspes. Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the Indus River. East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River (original Indian name Ganga), was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march further east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests: Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return, the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men agreed and turned south. Along the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern day Multan), reputed to be among the bravest and most warlike peoples in South Asia. During a siege, Alexander jumped into the fortified city alone with only two of his bodyguards and was wounded seriously by a Mallian arrow. See also: His forces, believing their king dead, took the citadel and unleashed their fury on the Malli who had taken refuge within it, perpetrating a massacre, sparing no man, woman or child. However, due to the efforts of his surgeon, Kritodemos of Kos, Alexander survived the injury. Following this, the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander's forces, and his beleaguered army moved on, conquering more Indian tribes along the way. He sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern Iran and Makran now part of Pakistan). In the territory of the Indus, he nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles. Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek satraps. After India Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia under Craterus, but his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis, refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return, Alexander learned some men had desecrated the tomb of Cyrus the Great, and swiftly executed them. For they were put in charge of guarding the tomb Alexander held in honor. His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training a regiment of Persian boys in the ways of Macedonians. Most historians believe that Alexander adopted the Persian royal title of Shahanshah (meaning: "The King of Kings"). It is claimed that Alexander wanted to overrun or integrate the Arabian peninsula, but this theory is widely disputed. It was assumed that Alexander would turn westwards and attack Carthage and Italy, had he conquered Arabia. After traveling to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possibly lover Aelian, Varia Historia; 12.7 Hephaestion died of an illness, or possibly of poisoning. Alexander, distraught over the death of his longtime companion, sacked a nearby town, and put all of its inhabitants to the sword, as a 'sacrifice' to Hephaestion's ghost. Alexander mourned Hephaestion for six months. Death On the afternoon of June 11, 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. He was one month short of 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include poisoning by the sons of Antipater or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. It is known that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend Medius of Larissa. After some heavy drinking, immediately before or after a bath, he was forced into bed due to severe illness. The rumors of his illness circulated with the troops causing them to be more and more anxious. On June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time. Because the king was too ill to speak, he confined himself to moving his hand. Plutarch records that on the same day, Python and Seleucus went to the Temple of the God Serapis and inquired of the God if Alexander should be moved there, yet the God replied that Alexander should remain where he was. http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plutarch_alexander.htm It is quite plausible that this event did indeed occur; however, it should be borne in mind that Plutarch was writing several centuries after the events themselves. Thus, it is possible that such a tale developed over time as an allegory for the breakup of Alexander's Empire. (The God Serapis replied that Alexander should remain in his palace in Babylon, which he had made the capital of his Empire. Hence, the Empire died with Alexander, which was indeed the case, divided as noted below among his generals.) At all events, what is certain is that on June 11, Alexander was dead. Cause The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that Cassander, son of Antipater, viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, Iollas, brother of Cassander and eromenos of Medius of Larissa, administered it. Waldemar Heckel (Ed.) Who's who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire p.143 Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and strychnine. In R. Lane Fox's opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, according to Unearthing Ancient Secrets, it might still have been possible if Alexander was poisoned first with hellebore during his drink, then later have been poisoned a second or third time, perhaps with poison on the feather used to encourage vomiting. The warrior culture of Macedon favoured the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like Plutarch and Arrian, maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes; malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis, whereas a recent analysis has identified pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis. Ashrafian H. The death of Alexander the Great--a spinal twist of fate. J Hist Neurosci. 2004 Jun;13(2):138-42. Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including acute pancreatitis or the West Nile virus. The West Nile virus theory holds sway because the symptoms match up, Alexander had been trekking through swamps prior to getting ill, and an ancient account of birds pecking each other in the air seen on Alexander's approach into Babylon, which was at the time seen as a bad omen, but could have also been the result of infected birds. Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease. Hellebore, believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results. Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in India that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him. Physical deformity and the cause of death More recently Alexander’s physical characteristics have been combined with the information of his final days to arrive at the cause of his death. Many descriptions and statues typically portray Alexander with a cervical neck deformity, typically with a gaze looking upward and outward (an image still used in modern day heroic photography). Both his father Philip II and his brother Philip Arridaeus also suffered from physical deformities, leading some to suggest a congenital scoliotic disorder (familial neck and spinal deformity). A familial scoliotic deformity has therefore been ascribed as the cause of his death by means of an ascending spinal infection (pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis), which would also explain the ascending spinal paralysis in his final days. Furthermore, such a condition has also been proposed as a potential cause for Alexander’s depictions with horns by way of a scoliosis associated neurocutaneous Epidermal Nevus Syndrome. No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 11, 323 BC. Leo Depuydt, 'The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 BC, ca. 4:00-5:00 PM' in: Die Welt des Orients 28 (1997) 117-135. Successor On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. Since Alexander had no obvious and legitimate heir (his son Alexander IV would be born after his death, and his other son was by a concubine, not a wife), it was a question of vital importance. There is some debate to what Alexander replied. Some believe that Alexander said, "Kratisto" (that is, "To the strongest!") or "Krat'eroi" (to the stronger). Alexander may have said, "Krater'oi" (to Craterus). This is possible because the Greek pronunciation of "the stronger" and "Craterus" differ only by the position of the accented syllable. Most scholars believe that if Alexander did intend to choose one of his generals, his obvious choice would have been Craterus because he was the commander of the largest part of the army (infantry), had proven himself to be an excellent strategist, and because he displayed traits of the "ideal" Macedonian. But Craterus was not around, and the others may have chosen to hear "Krat'eroi" — the stronger. Regardless of his reply, Craterus does not appear to have pressed the issue. The empire then split amongst his successors (the Diadochi). Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, and no contemporaneous source can be fully trusted. Body Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus, which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armour, in a gold carriage that had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The decoration of the carriage was very lavish and is described in great detail by Diodoros. According to one legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of honey (which can act as a preservative) and interred in a glass coffin. According to Aelian (Varia Historia 12.64), Ptolemy stole the body and brought it to Alexandria, where it was on display until Late Antiquity. It was here that Ptolemy IX, one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after, Ptolemy IX was killed. The Roman emperor Caligula was said to have looted the tomb, stealing Alexander's breastplate, and wearing it. Around 200 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, was a great admirer of Alexander, and visited the tomb in his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are sketchy. The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus," discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named, not because it was ever thought to have contained Alexander's remains but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians. Originally thought originally by Studniniczka Achäologische Jahrbook 9 (1894), pp 226ff; F. Winter, 1912. to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus, 331, J.D. Beazley and Bernard Ashmole, (Greek Sculpture and Painting 1932, p. 59, fig. 134), Margarete Bieber ("The Portraits of Alexander" Greece & Rome, Second Series, 12.2, Alexander the Great [October 1965], pp. 183-188) and Karl Schefold (Der Alexander-Sarkophag [Frankfort/Berlin] 1968) maintain this opinion; Schefold's is the modern monograph from which more recent opinion departs; its many photographs are by Max Seidel. some recent opinion makes it earlier than Abdalonymus' death. See Alexander Sarcophagus. Testament Some classical authors, such as Diodorus, relate that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Although Craterus had already started to implement Alexander's orders, such as the building of a fleet in Cilicia for expedition against Carthage, Alexander's successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds that they were impractical and extravagant. "At the same time he [Craterus] had received written instructions which the king had given him for execution; nevertheless, after the death of Alexander, it seemed best to the successors not to carry out these plans." Diodorus XVIII,4 The testament, described in Diodorus XVIII, called for military expansion into the Southern and Western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. Its most remarkable items were: The completion of a pyre to Hephaestion The building of "a thousand warships, larger than triremes, in Phoenicia, Syria, Cilicia, and Cyprus for the campaign against the Carthaginians and the other who live along the coast of Libya and Iberia and the adjoining coastal regions as far as Sicily" The building of a road in northern Africa as far as the Pillars of Heracles, with ports and shipyards along it. The erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, Cyrnus and Ilium. The construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt" The establishment of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties." (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historia, XVIII) Personal life Alexander's lifelong companion was Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion also held the position of second-in-command of Alexander's forces until his death, which devastated Alexander. The full extent of his relationship with Hephaestion is the subject of much historical speculation. Alexander married two women: Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian nobleman, Oxyartes; and Stateira, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia. There is also an accepted tradition of a third wife – Parysatis – whom he is supposed to have married in Persia, though nothing else is known about her. Another personage from the court of Darius III with whom he was intimate was the male eunuch Bagoas. His son by Roxana, Alexander IV of Macedon, was killed after the death of his father, before he reached adulthood. Alexander was admired during his lifetime for treating all his lovers humanely. Plutarch, Alexander, 21 Plutarc's Moralia II "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander", 6 Legacy and division of the empire After Alexander's death, in 323 BC, the rule of his Empire was given to Alexander's half-brother Philip Arridaeus and Alexander's son Alexander IV. However, since Philip was apparently feeble-minded and the son of Alexander still a baby, two regents were named in Perdiccas (who had received Alexander's ring at his death) and Craterus (who may have been the one mentioned as successor by Alexander), although Perdiccas quickly managed to take sole power. Perdiccas soon eliminated several of his opponents, killing about 30 (Diodorus Siculus), and at the Partition of Babylon named former generals of Alexander as satraps of the various regions of his Empire. In 321 BC Perdiccas was assassinated by his own troops during his conflict with Ptolemy, leading to the Partition of Triparadisus, in which Antipater was named as the new regent, and the satrapies again shared between the various generals. From that time, Alexander's officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states. Ultimately, the conflict was settled after the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia in 301 BC. Alexander's empire was divided at first into four major portions: Cassander ruled in Macedon, Lysimachus in Thrace, Seleucus in Mesopotamia and Persia, and Ptolemy I Soter in the Levant and Egypt. Antigonus ruled for a while in Anatolia and Syria but was eventually defeated by the other generals at Ipsus (301 BC). Control over Indian territory passed to Chandragupta Maurya, the first Maurya emperor, who further expanded his dominions after a settlement with Seleucus. By 270 BC, the Hellenistic states were consolidated, with The Antigonid Empire in Greece; The Seleucid Empire in Mesopotamia and Persia; The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, Palestine and Cyrenaica By the 1st century BC though, most of the Hellenistic territories in the West had been absorbed by the Roman Republic. In the East, they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the Parthian Empire. The territories further east seceded to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–140 BC), which further expanded into India to form the Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BC–10 AD). The Ptolemy dynasty persisted in Egypt until the epoch of the queen Cleopatra, best known for her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, just before the Roman republic officially became the Roman Empire. Alexander's conquests also had long term cultural effects, with the flourishing of Hellenistic civilization throughout the Middle East and Central Asia, and the development of Greco-Buddhist art in the Indian subcontinent. Alexander and his successors were tolerant of non-Greek religious practices, and interesting syncretisms developed in the new Greek towns he founded in Central Asia. The first realistic portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time; they are reminiscent of Greek statues of Apollo. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion; the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram. Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 A.D., "India Civilization To 1200–1978", page 312. and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. Zen Buddhism draws in part on the ideas of Greek stoics, such as Zeno. Pratt, James Bissett. Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. [S.l.]: South Asia Books, 1996, page 237. ISBN 8120611969. Among other effects, the Hellenistic, or koine dialect of Greek became the lingua franca throughout the so-called civilized world. For instance the standard version of the Hebrew Scriptures used among the Jews of the diaspora, especially in Egypt, during the life of Jesus was the Greek Septuagint translation, which was compiled ca 200 BC by seventy-odd scholars under the patronage of the Macedonian ruler Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Thus many Jews from Egypt or Rome would have trouble understanding the teachings of the scholars in the Temple in Jerusalem who were using the Hebrew original text and an Aramaic translation, being themselves only acquainted with the Greek version. There has been much speculation on the issue whether Jesus spoke Koine Greek as the Gospel-writers, themselves writing in Greek, do not say anything decisive about the matter. Spread of Greek ideas Alexander had been educated by Aristotle. An important part of this education was the knowledge of Homer's Iliad, the common root for Greek identity, and of the Athenian heroes. Alexander took especial favour with the Homeric hero Achilles, the mythical founder of his mother's tribe, and the statesman Pericles, who enabled the Golden Age of Athens. His imperial ambitions did contain an agenda for the conquered barbarians, according to Aristotle's definition, to learn Greek and study Greek ideas. The military success spread the concept over a large part of the world. This Greek heritage was in large parts Athenian merit and thus was ensured the survival of the historical and cultural legacy of the Delian League. During Alexander's campaign, he visited Achilles' tomb. Achilles was Alexander's role model and hero. For good luck, Alexander took Achilles' shield into his battle with the Persians. Unlike most leaders, Alexander actually fought shoulder to shoulder with his men. Each time Alexander conquered new lands, he built a city named Alexandria after himself. The Alexandrias were all built in Greek style. The most famous Alexandria was the one in Egypt. There was a library and a lighthouse (lighthouse of Alexandria) which was one of the ancient 7 wonders of the world. It also housed the temple of the Muses. Mueseums are named after the Muses. Concept of civilized world versus barbarian world At the time of Alexander there existed the concept of oikouménē (Ecumene), meaning literally "the inhabitated world". Alexander, with his conquers, changed it to mean "the civilized world", the group of civilizated nations which has common interests, as opposed to the barbarian nations. The concept would also include now not only the geography, but also its social, cultural and political dimensions. Alexander put it into practice by unifying Greece, the Near East, the Indus Valley, Central Asia and Egypt and then appointing himself as the guardian who would guard its frontiers so barbarians nations would not be able to attack the civilized nations inside. Influence on Ancient Rome In the late Republic and early Empire, educated Roman citizens used Latin only for legal, political, and ceremonial purposes, and used Greek to discuss philosophy or any other intellectual topic. No Roman wanted to hear it said that his mastery of the Greek language was weak. Throughout the Roman world, the one language spoken everywhere was Alexander's Greek. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements, although very little is known about Roman-Macedonian diplomatic relations of that time. Polybius started his Histories by reminding Romans of his role, and since then subsequent Roman leaders saw him as his inspirational role leader. Julius Caesar wept in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander's statue; when asked to see other great military leaders Caesar said Alexander was the only great one. Pompey the Great rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which the Roman general then wore as the costume of greatness. Augustus' empire was seen as the more perfect successor of Alexander's. However, in his zeal to honor Alexander, Augustus accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero's shrine in Alexandria, Egypt. The unbalanced emperor Caligula later took the dead king's armor from that tomb and donned it for luck. The Macriani, a Roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the 3rd century A.D., always kept images of Alexander on their persons, either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments. Even their dinnerware bore Alexander's face, with the story of the king's life displayed around the rims of special bowls. Frank L. Holt, Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions, University of California Press. In the summer of 1995, a statue of Alexander was recovered in an excavation of a Roman house in Alexandria, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the 1st century AD and occupied until the 3rd century. Character Modern opinion on Alexander has run the gamut, from the notion that he believed that he was on a divinely inspired mission to unite the human race to the view that he was a megalomaniac bent on world domination. Such views tend to be anachronistic, and sources allow for a variety of interpretations. Much about Alexander's personality and aims remains enigmatic: there were no disinterested commentators in his own time or soon afterwards, so all accounts ought to be read with scepticism. Alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in Europe and much of both Southwest and Central Asia, where he is known as Al-Iskander or Al-Iskandar Zulkarnain ("Alexander of the two horns" in Arabic). To Zoroastrians, however, he is the conqueror of their first great empire and as the destroyer of Persepolis. Ancient sources are generally written with the agenda either of glorifying or of denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate his actual character. Most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following Gaugamela, but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the Greek stereotype of an orientalising king. At any rate, it is difficult to see much in the claim of Plutarch that, despite his drive and passion, Alexander was a man of admirable self-restraint. The murder of his friend Cleitus, which he deeply and immediately regretted, is often cited as a sign of his paranoia, as is his execution of Philotas and his general Parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him. There is also the view, of course, that this was more prudence than paranoia. Modern Alexandrists, such as George Cawkwell, E. Badian and A. B. Bosworth, continue to debate these issues and others. One unresolved polemic involves whether Alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests or if his purpose was primarily to rule the world. Partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of Alexander, an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasises some of Alexander's negative aspects. Some proponents of this view cite the destructions of Thebes, Tyre, Persepolis and Gaza as atrocities, arguing that Alexander preferred fighting to negotiating. It is further claimed, in response to the view that he was generally tolerant of the cultures of the people whom he conquered, that his attempts at cultural fusion were strictly practical and that he never genuinely admired Persian art or culture. To this school of thought, Alexander was more a general than a statesman. Alexander's character also suffers the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the biases and ideals of their times. William Woodthorpe Tarn, of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, saw Alexander in an extremely positive light, while Peter Green, who wrote after World War II, saw little in him and his deeds that was not inherently selfish or expedient. Tarn wrote in an age during which world conquest and warrior-heroes were acceptable, even encouraged; Green wrote against the backdrop of World War II with its 70 million dead and nuclear weaponry. Greek and Latin sources There are numerous Greek and Latin texts about Alexander, as well as some non-Greek texts. The primary sources, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander, are all lost, apart from a few inscriptions and some letter-fragments of dubious authenticity. Contemporaries who wrote full accounts of his life include the historian Callisthenes, Alexander's general Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Nearchus, and Onesicritus. Another influential account is by Cleitarchus who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of these works survives, but we do have later works based on these primary sources. The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin. Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander in Greek) by the Greek historian Arrian of Nicomedia, writing in the 2nd century AD, and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is considered generally the most trustworthy source. Historiae Alexandri Magni, a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy; Life of Alexander (see Parallel Lives) and two orations On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see Moralia), by the Greek historian and biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Bibliotheca historia (Library of world history), written in Greek by the Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Timagenes's work. The books immediately before and after, on Philip and Alexander's "Successors," throw light on Alexander's reign. The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Justin, which contains factual errors and is highly compressed. It is difficult in this case to understand the source, since we only have an epitome, but it is thought that also Pompeius Trogus may have limited himself to use Timagenes for his Latin history. To these five main sources some scholars add the Metz Epitome, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania to India. Much is also recounted incidentally in other authors, including Strabo, Athenaeus, Polyaenus, Aelian, and others. The "problem of the sources" is the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander-historians. In effect, each presents a different "Alexander", with details to suit. Arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects, while Curtius veers to a more private and darker Alexander. Plutarch can't resist a good story, light or dark. All, with the possible exception of Arrian, include a considerable level of fantasy, prompting Strabo to remark, "All who wrote about Alexander preferred the marvelous to the true." Nevertheless, the sources tell us much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination. Perhaps Arrian's words are most appropriate: One account says that Hephaestion laid a wreath on the tomb of Patroclus; another that Alexander laid one on the tomb of Achilles, calling him a lucky man, in that he had Homer to proclaim his deeds and preserve his memory. And well might Alexander envy Achilles this piece of good fortune; for in his own case there was no equivalent: his one failure, the single break, as it were, in the long chain of his successes, was that he had no worthy chronicler to tell the world of his exploits. Legend Alexander was a legend in his own time. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, went so far as to invent a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time." (Plutarch, Alexander 46.2) In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, exhibiting a plasticity unseen in "higher" literary forms. Latin and Syriac translations were made in Late Antiquity. From these, versions were developed in all the major languages of Europe and the Middle East, including Armenian, Georgian, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Hebrew, Serbian, Slavonic, Romanian, Hungarian, German, English, Italian, and French. The "Romance" is regarded by many Western scholars as the source of the account of Alexander given in the Qur'an (Sura The Cave). It is the source of many incidents in Ferdowsi's "Shahnama". A Mongolian version is also extant. Some believe that, excepting certain religious texts, it is the most widely read work of pre-modern times. Alexander is also a character of Greek folklore (and other regions), as the protagonist of 'apocryphal' tales of bravery. A maritime legend says that his sister is a mermaid and asks the sailors if her brother is still alive. The unsuspecting sailor who answers truthfully arouses the mermaid's wrath and his boat perishes in the waves; a sailor mindful of the circumstances will answer "He lives and reigns, and conquers the world", and the sea about his boat will immediately calm. Alexander is also a character of a standard play in the Karagiozis repertory, "Alexander the Great and the Accursed Serpent". The ancient Greek poet Adrianus composed an epic poem on the history of Alexander the Great, called the Alexandriad, which was probably still extant in the 10th century, but which is now lost to us. In the Bible Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander. Alexander was briefly mentioned in the first Book of the Maccabees. All of Chapter 1, verses 1–7 was about Alexander and this serves as an introduction of the book. This explains how the Hellenistic influence reached the Land of Israel at that time. In the Qur'an Alexander the Great sometimes is identified in Persian and Arabic traditions as Dhul-Qarnayn, Arabic for the "Two-Horned One", possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn-headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient Middle Eastern coinage. Accounts of Dhul-Qarnayn appear in the Qur'an, and so may refer to Alexander. References to Alexander may also be found in the Persian tradition. The same traditions from the Pseudo-Callisthenes were combined in Persia with Sassanid Persian ideas about Alexander in the Iskandarnamah. In this tradition, Alexander built a wall of iron and melted copper in which Gog and Magog are confined. Some Muslim scholars disagree that Alexander was Dhul-Qarnayn. There are actually some theories that Dhul-Qarnayn was a Persian King with a vast Empire as well, possibly King Cyrus the Great. The reason being is Dhul-Qarnayn is described in the Quran as a monotheist believer who worshipped Allah (God). This would remove Alexander as a candidate for Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander was a polytheist. Yet contemporaneous Persian nobles would have practiced Zurvanism, thus disqualifying them on the same basis. In the Shahnameh The Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, one of the oldest books written in modern Persian, has a chapter about Alexander. It is a book of epic poetry written around 1000 AD, and is believed to have played an important role in the survival of the Persian language in the face of Arabic influence. It starts with a mythical history of Iran and then gives a story of Alexander, followed by a brief mention of the Arsacids. The accounts after that, still in epic poetry, portray historical figures. Alexander is described as a child of a Persian king, Daraaye Darab (the last in the list of kings in the book whose names do not match historical kings), and a daughter of Philip, a Roman king. However, due to problems in the relationship between the Persian king and Philip's daughter, she is sent back to Rome. Alexander is born to her afterwards, but Philip claims him as his own son and keeps the true identity of the child secret. Names Alexander is also known in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work Arda Wiraz Nāmag as "Alexander the accursed", Worthington (2004), p. 298 Religious persecution under Alexander the Great Livius.org in the Persian language Guzastag, Alexander the Great by Nigel Cawthorne due to his conquest of the Persian Empire and the destruction of its capital Persepolis. He is also known as Eskandar-e Maqduni(Alexander of Macedonia") in Persian, al-Iskandar al-Makduni al-Yunani Alexander Historiatus a Supplement by D. J. A. Ross ("Alexander the Macedonian, of Greece") in Arabic, אלכסנדר מוקדון, Alexander Mokdon in Hebrew, and Tre-Qarnayia in Aramaic (the two-horned one, apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god Ammon), الاسكندر الاكبر, al-Iskandar al-Akbar ("Alexander the Great") in Arabic, سکندر اعظم, Sikandar-e-azam in Urdu and Skandar in Pashto. Sikandar, his name in Urdu and Hindi, is also a term used as a synonym for "expert" or "extremely skilled". In ancient and modern culture Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander. Diodorus Siculus credits Alexander with planning cities on a grid plan. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historia, vol. 8 Alexander has figured in works of both "high" and popular culture from his own era to the modern day. Alexander was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 100 drachmas coin of 1990-2001. Bank of Greece. Drachma Banknotes & Coins: 100 drachmas. – Retrieved on 27 March 2009. During the last few years there have been many claims by the Government of the Republic of Macedonia that Alexander the Great is actually a part of the country's history, and that present-day ethnic Macedonians are the descendants of the Ancient Macedonians. This comes as a result of many DNA-researches funded by the Government of the Republic of Macedonia which show that today's Macedonians are for the most part genetically linked to Ancient Macedonians, as well as some other peoples that lived in the region in the past. These results, however, have not been accepted by any renowned historian on the subject. Many Albanians today also see themselves as descendants of Alexander the Great. Notes References Sources Primary Source Arrian, translated by Aubrey De Selincourt, (1987). The Campiagns of Alexander. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044253-7. Plutarch, translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert, (1988). The Age of Alexander. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044286-3. Secondary Sources Partha Bose, (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-113-3. Will Durant, (1966). The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-41800-9. Edited by Bill Fawcett, (2006). How To Loose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. ISBN 0-06-076024-9 Robin Lane Fox (1980). The Search For Alexander. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-29108-0. Nick McCarty (2004). Alexander the Great. Penguin Group. ISBN 0-670-04268-4. Mary Renault, (2001). The Nature of Alexander the Great. ISBN 0-141-39076-X. External linksPrimary SourcesPlutarch, Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources from Livius.org Wiki Classical Dictionary, extant sources and fragmentary and lost sourcesOther' A Bibliography of Alexander the Great by Waldemar Heckel Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web Alexander III the Great, entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Alexander the Great on the Web, a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites Alexander The Great in the French museum Le Louvre Alexander, The Great Mystery by T. Peter Limber in "Saudi Aramco Magazine" Trace Alexander's conquests on an animated map Alexander the Great of Macedon, a project by John J. Popovic Alexander in the Punjab. A Photo Essay, photos of all sites Alexander visited Alexander the Great Coins, a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image |- be-x-old:Аляксандар Македонскі

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Neuron

A neuron ( , also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signalling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and affect glands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, although astrocytes have been observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes pluripotent. Overview The complexity and diversity in nervous systems is dependent on the interconnections between neurons, which rely on a limited number of different signals transmitted within the neurons to other neurons or to muscles and glands. The signals are produced and propagated by chemical ions that produce an electrical charge that moves along the neuron. Neurons exist in a number of different shapes and sizes and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II without axons. Type I cells can be further divided by where the cell body or soma is located. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon which is covered by the myelin sheath. Around the cell body is a branching dendritic tree that receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching terminals (axon terminal) that release transmitter substances into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron. The anatomy and the properties of the surface membrane determine the behavior of a neuron. The surface membrane is not uniform over the entire length of a neuron, but is modified in specific areas: some regions secrete transmitter substances while other areas respond to the transmitter. Other areas of the neuron membrane have passive electrical properties that affect capacitance and resistance. Within the neuron membrane there are gated ion channels that vary in type, including fast response sodium channels that are voltage-gated and are used to send rapid signals. Neurons communicate by chemical and electrical synapses in a process known as synaptic transmission. The fundamental process that triggers synaptic transmission is the action potential, a propagating electrical signal that is generated by exploiting the electrically excitable membrane of the neuron. This is also known as a wave of depolarization. Fully differentiated neurons are permanently amitotic Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8, 368-378 (May 2007) | ; however, recent research shows that additional neurons throughout the brain can originate from neural stem cells found throughout the brain but in particularly high concentrations in the subventricular zone and subgranular zone through the process of neurogenesis. WSU | Ask Dr. Universe | The BIG Questions http://www.hhmi.org/cgi-bin/askascientist/highlight.pl?kw=&file=answers%2Fneuroscience%2Fans_006.html Sciam Observations Scientific American Community Brain Cell Regeneration Studies Princeton - PWB 040599 - Do brain cells regenerate? Past Peak: Neurons Regenerate After All History The neuron's place as the primary functional unit of the nervous system was first recognized in the early 20th century through the work of the Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Cajal proposed that neurons were discrete cells that communicated with each other via specialized junctions, or spaces, between cells. This became known as the neuron doctrine, one of the central tenets of modern neuroscience. To observe the structure of individual neurons, Cajal used a silver staining method developed by his rival, Camillo Golgi. The Golgi stain is an extremely useful method for neuroanatomical investigations because, for reasons unknown, it stains a very small percentage of cells in a tissue, so one is able to see the complete micro structure of individual neurons without much overlap from other cells in the densely packed brain. Anatomy and histology Diagram of a typical myelinated vertebrate motoneuron. Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given the diversity of functions performed by neurons in different parts of the nervous system, there is, as expected, a wide variety in the shape, size, and electrochemical properties of neurons. For instance, the soma of a neuron can vary from 4 to 100 micrometers in diameter. The Neuron: Size Comparison The soma is the central part of the neuron. It contains the nucleus of the cell, and therefore is where most protein synthesis occurs. The nucleus ranges from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter. Brain Facts and Figures The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches, and metaphorically this overall shape and structure is referred to as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs. Information outflow (i.e. from dendrites to other neurons) can also occur, but not across chemical synapses; there, the back flow of a nerve impulse is inhibited by the fact that an axon does not possess chemoreceptors and dendrites cannot secrete neurotransmitter chemicals. This unidirectionality of a chemical synapse explains why nerve impulses are conducted only in one direction. The axon is a finer, cable-like projection which can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon carries nerve signals away from the soma (and also carries some types of information back to it). Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may - and usually will - undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock is also the part of the neuron that has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily-excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon: in neurological terms it has the most negative action potential threshold. While the axon and axon hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input from other neurons. The axon terminal contains synapses, specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are released in order to communicate with target neurons. Although the canonical view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical components, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-called main function. Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10–25 micrometers in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a human motoneuron can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes. Sensory neurons have axons that run from the toes to the dorsal columns, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5–1 millimeters thick, several centimeters long). Classes Image of pyramidal neurons in mouse cerebral cortex expressing green fluorescent protein. The red staining indicates GABAergic interneurons. Source PLoS Biology SMI32-stained pyramidal neurons in cerebral cortex. Structural classification Polarity Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as: Unipolar or pseudounipolar: dendrite and axon emerging from same process. Bipolar: axon and single dendrite on opposite ends of the soma. Multipolar: more than two dendrites: Golgi I: neurons with long-projecting axonal processes; examples are pyramidal cells, Purkinje cells, and anterior horn cells. Golgi II: neurons whose axonal process projects locally; the best example is the granule cell. Other Furthermore, some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system and distinct shape. Some examples are: Basket cells, neurons with dilated and knotty dendrites in the cerebellum. Betz cells, large motor neurons. Medium spiny neurons, most neurons in the corpus striatum. Purkinje cells, huge neurons in the cerebellum, a type of Golgi I multipolar neuron. Pyramidal cells, neurons with triangular soma, a type of Golgi I. Renshaw cells, neurons with both ends linked to alpha motor neurons. Granule cells, a type of Golgi II neuron. anterior horn cells, motoneurons located in the spinal cord. Functional classification Direction Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system and are sometimes also called sensory neurons. Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells and are sometimes called motor neurons. Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system. Afferent and efferent can also refer generally to neurons which, respectively, bring information to or send information from the brain region. Action on other neurons A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors. The effect upon the target neuron is determined not by the source neuron or by the neurotransmitter, but by the type of receptor that is activated. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same type of key can here be used to open many different types of locks. Receptors can be classified broadly as excitatory (causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a decrease in firing rate), or modulatory (causing long-lasting effects not directly related to firing rate). In fact, however, the two most common neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate and GABA, have actions that are largely consistent. Glutamate acts on several different types of receptors, but most of them have effects that are excitatory. Similarly GABA acts on several different types of receptors, but all of them have effects (in adult animals, at least) that are inhbitory. Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to simplify the terminology by referring to cells that release glutamate as "excitatory neurons," and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons." Since well over 90% of the neurons in the brain release either glutamate or GABA, these labels encompass the great majority of neurons. There are also other types of neurons that have consistent effects on their targets, for example "excitatory" motor neurons in the spinal cord that release acetylcholine, and "inhibitory" spinal neurons that release glycine. The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute, however. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the target neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets, inhibitory effects on others, and modulatory effects on other still. For example, photoreceptors in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So-called OFF bipolar cells are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because they lack the typical ionotropic glutamate receptors and instead express a class of inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors. When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them. Discharge patterns Neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics: Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (or tonically) active. Example: interneurons in neurostriatum. Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic. Fast spiking. Some neurons are notable for their fast firing rates, for example some types of cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus pallidus, retinal ganglion cells http://ykolodin.50webs.com/ . Thin-spike. Action potentials of some neurons are more narrow compared to the others. For example, interneurons in prefrontal cortex are thin-spike neurons. Classification by neurotransmitter production Neurons differ in the type of neurotransmitter they manufacture. Some examples are cholinergic neurons - acetylcholine GABAergic neurons - gamma aminobutyric acid glutamatergic neurons - glutamate dopaminergic neurons - dopamine serotonergic neurons - serotonin Connectivity Neurons communicate with one another via synapses, where the axon terminal or en passant boutons (terminals located along the length of the axon) of one cell impinges upon another neuron's dendrite, soma or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory and will either increase or decrease activity in the target neuron. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically-conductive junctions between cells. In a chemical synapse, the process of synaptic transmission is as follows: when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 1011 (one hundred billion) neurons has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a three-year-old child has about 1015 synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 1014 to 5 x 1014 synapses (100 to 500 trillion). http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/full/64/12/2004?ijkey=76566208aeb98565697fdfc4e202f9d7755a155e&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha Mechanisms for propagating action potentials A signal propagating down an axon to the cell body and dendrites of the next cell. In 1937, John Zachary Young suggested that the squid giant axon could be used to study neuronal electrical properties. Milestones in Neuroscience Research Being larger than but similar in nature to human neurons, squid cells were easier to study. By inserting electrodes into the giant squid axons, accurate measurements were made of the membrane potential. The cell membrane of the axon and soma contain voltage-gated ion channels which allow the neuron to generate and propagate an electrical signal (an action potential). These signals are generated and propagated by charge-carrying ions including sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and calcium (Ca2+). There are several stimuli that can activate a neuron leading to electrical activity, including pressure, stretch, chemical transmitters, and changes of the electric potential across the cell membrane. Electrical activity of nerves Stimuli cause specific ion-channels within the cell membrane to open, leading to a flow of ions through the cell membrane, changing the membrane potential. Thin neurons and axons require less metabolic expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel faster than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed nodes of Ranvier which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels. Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system. Some neurons do not generate action potentials, but instead generate a graded electrical signal, which in turn causes graded neurotransmitter release. Such nonspiking neurons tend to be sensory neurons or interneurons, because they cannot carry signals long distances. All-or-none principle The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. The greater the intensity of stimulation does not produce a stronger signal but can produce more impulses per second. There are different types of receptor response to stimulus, slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. These tonic receptors most often respond to increased intensity of stimulus by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where to get greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) there has to be more photons, as the photons can't become "stronger" for a specific frequency. There are a number of other receptor types that are called quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with steady stimulus, examples include; skin when touched by an object causes the neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure against the skin the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function. The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure, it has concentric layers like an onion which form around the axon terminal. When pressure is applied and the corpuscle is deformed, mechanical stimulus is transferred to the axon, which fires. If the pressure is steady there is no more stimulus, thus typically these neurons respond with a transient depolarization during the initial deformation and again when the pressure is removed which cause the corpuscle to change shape again. Other types of adaptation are important in extending the function of a number of other neurons. Histology and internal structure Golgi-stained neurons in human hippocampal tissue. Nerve cell bodies stained with basophilic dyes show numerous microscopic clumps of Nissl substance (named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl, 1860–1919), which consists of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal RNA. The prominence of the Nissl substance can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are metabolically very active, and hence are involved in large amounts of protein synthesis. The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex meshwork of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment, byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines) and lipofuscin (yellowish-brown pigment that accumulates with age). There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Axons typically almost never contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, with diminishing amounts with distance from the cell body. The neuron doctrine The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting as metabolically distinct units. As with all doctrines, there are some exceptions. For example glial cells may also play a role in information processing. Also, electrical synapses are more common than previously thought, meaning that there are direct, cytoplasmic connections between neurons. In fact, there are examples of neurons forming even tighter coupling; the squid giant axon arises from the fusion of multiple neurons that retain individual cell bodies and the crayfish giant axon consists of a series of neurons with high conductance septate junctions. Cajal also postulated the Law of Dynamic Polarization, which states that a neuron receives signals at its dendrites and cell body and transmits them, as action potentials, along the axon in one direction: away from the cell body. Sabbatini R.M.E. April-July 2003. Neurons and Synapses: The History of Its Discovery. Brain & Mind Magazine, 17. Retrieved on March 19, 2007. The Law of Dynamic Polarization has important exceptions; dendrites can serve as synaptic output sites of neurons and axons can receive synaptic inputs. Neurons in the brain The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. Williams RW, Herrup K. (1988).The control of neuron number. Annu Rev Neurosci. 11:423-53. One estimate puts the human brain at about 100 billion () neurons and 100 trillion () synapses. Another estimate is 86 billion neurons of which 16.3 are in the cerebral cortex and 69. in the cerebellum. Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, Farfel JM, Ferretti RE, Leite RE, Jacob Filho W, Lent R, Herculano-Houzel S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. J Comp Neurol. 513(5):532-41. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons making it an ideal experimental subject as scientists have been able to map all of the organism's neurons. By contrast, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems. Neurologic diseases Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration together with declining activities of daily living and neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is loss of short-term memory (amnesia), which usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily more pronounced with illness progression, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains of language (aphasia), skilled movements (apraxia), recognition (agnosia), and functions such as decision-making and planning get impaired. Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's motor skills and speech. Parkinson's disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. It is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, a slowing of physical movement (bradykinesia), and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement (akinesia). The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia, normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which is produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain. Secondary symptoms may include high level cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. PD is both chronic and progressive. Myasthenia Gravis is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigability. Weakness is typically caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated with immunosuppressants, cholinesterase inhibitors and, in selected cases, thymectomy. Demyelination Demyelination is the act of demyelinating, or the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves. When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. This leads to certain neurodegenerative disorders like multiple sclerosis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Axonal degeneration Although most injury responses include a calcium influx signaling to promote resealing of severed parts, axonal injuries initially lead to acute axonal degeneration (AAD), which is rapid separation of the proximal and distal ends within 30 minutes of injury. Degeneration follows with swelling of the axolemma, and eventually leads to bead like formation. Granular disintegration of the axonal cytoskeleton and inner organelles occurs after axolemma degradation. Early changes include accumulation of mitochondria in the paranodal regions at the site of injury. Endoplasmic reticulum degrades and mitochondria swell up and eventually disintegrate. The disintegration is dependent on Ubiquitin and Calpain proteases (caused by influx of calcium ion), suggesting that axonal degeneration is an active process. Thus the axon undergoes complete fragmentation. The process takes about roughly 24 hrs in the PNS, and longer in the CNS. The signaling pathways leading to axolemma degeneration are currently unknown. Nerve regeneration Although neurons do not divide or replicate in most parts of the adult vertebrate brain, it is often possible for axons to regrow if they are severed. This can take a long time: after a nerve injury to the human arm, for example, it may take months for feeling to return to the hands and fingers. References Sources Kandel E.R., Schwartz, J.H., Jessell, T.M. 2000. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Bullock, T.H., Bennett, M.V.L., Johnston, D., Josephson, R., Marder, E., Fields R.D. 2005. The Neuron Doctrine, Redux, Science, V.310, p. 791-793. Ramón y Cajal, S. 1933 Histology, 10th ed., Wood, Baltimore. Roberts A., Bush B.M.H. 1981. Neurones Without Impulses. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Peters, A., Palay, S.L., Webster, H, D., 1991 The Fine Structure of the Nervous System, 3rd ed., Oxford, New York External links NeuronBankan online neuromics tool for cataloging neuronal types and synaptic connectivity. High Resolution Neuroanatomical Images of Primate and Non-Primate Brains. The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity, which presently offers two courses: Fundamentals of Neuroscience and Comparative Neuroscience. NIF Search - Renshaw Cell via the Neuroscience Information Framework Cell Centered Database - Neuron

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inhibitory_neurotransmitter:1 glutamate_receptor:2 metabotropic_glutamate:1 prefrontal_cortex:1 gamma_aminobutyric:1 aminobutyric_acid:1 en_passant:1 neuron_dendrite:1 axon_neuron:1 electrically_conductive:1 voltage_gated:3 postsynaptic_neuron:1 synaptic_connection:1 cgi_content:1 chloride_cl:1 glial_cell:2 schwann_cell:1 multiple_sclerosis:2 neurological_disorder:1 rough_endoplasmic:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:3 ribosomal_rna:1 neuron_synapsis:1 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 drosophila_melanogaster:1 alzheimer_disease:1 neurodegenerative_disease:1 decision_making:1 parkinson_disease:3 basal_ganglion:1 myasthenia_gravis:1 neuromuscular_disease:1 muscle_weakness:1 acetylcholine_receptor:1 neuromuscular_junction:1 neurotransmitter_acetylcholine:1 cholinesterase_inhibitor:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1

Clipper

A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century that had multiple masts and a square rig. They were generally narrow for their length, could carry limited bulk freight, small by later 19th century standards, and had a large total sail area. Clipper ships were mostly made in British and American shipyards, though France, the Netherlands and other nations also produced some. Clippers sailed all over the world, primarily on the trade routes between the United Kingdom and its colonies in the east, in trans-Atlantic trade, and the New York-to-San Francisco route round Cape Horn during the California Gold Rush. Dutch clippers were built beginning in 1850s for the tea trade and passenger service to Java. Origin "The Forteviot," 1896, by Antonio Jacobsen The term clipper as applied to ships may derive from the idea of them cutting through the water. Clipper bows were distinctively narrow and heavily raked forward, which allowed them to rapidly clip through the waves. The cutting notion is also suggested by the other class of vessel built for speed, the cutter. One of the meanings of clip since the 17th century is "to fly or move quickly", possibly deriving from the sound of wings. The term clipper originally applied to a fast horse and most likely derives from the term clip meaning "speed", as in "going at a good clip". The Oxford English Dictionary says its earliest quotation in English is from 1830. Cutler reports the first newspaper appearance was in 1835, and by then the term was apparently familiar. An often-quoted but probably incorrect derivation of the term clipper is "they clipped time off a voyage". It was a type of faster transportation. "Clipper Ship Lightning" by Bruce Von Stetina In the United States, "clipper" referred to the Baltimore clipper, a topsail schooner developed in Chesapeake Bay before the American Revolution. It was lightly armed in the War of 1812, sailing under Letters of Marque and Reprisal, when the type — exemplified by Chasseur, launched at Fells Point, Baltimore in 1814 — became known for her incredible speed; the deep draft enabled the Baltimore clipper to sail close to the wind. Villiers 1973 The first archetypal clipper, with sharply raked stem, counter stern and square rig, was Annie McKim, built in Baltimore in 1833 by Kennard & Williamson. Dear, I.C.B., & Kemp, Peter, eds. Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (Oxford University Press, 2005) Website "bruzelius.info". Accessed 30 March 2009. Clippers, running the British blockade of Baltimore, came to be recognized for speed rather than cargo space. "The Prinz Albert," 1897, by Antonio Jacobsen Clippers were built for seasonal trades such as tea, where an early cargo was more valuable, or for passenger routes. The small, fast ships were ideally suited to low-volume, high-profit goods, such as spices, tea, people, and mail. The values could be spectacular. The Challenger returned from Shanghai with "the most valuable cargo of tea and silk ever to be laden in one bottom". Competition among the clippers was public and fierce, with their times recorded in the newspapers. The ships had low expected lifetimes and rarely outlasted two decades of use before they were broken up for salvage. Given their speed and maneuverability, clippers frequently mounted cannon or carronade and were often employed in piracy, privateering, smuggling, or interdiction service. Clipper ship sailing card for the "Free Trade," printed by Nesbitt & Co., NY, early 1860s Departures of clipper ships, mostly from New York City and Boston, Massachusetts to San Francisco, California, were advertised by clipper ship sailing cards, and represented the first pronounced use of color in American advertising art. China clippers and the epitome of sail The Clipper Ship "Flying Cloud" off the Needles, Isle of Wight, by James E. Buttersworth, 1859-60. The most significant clippers were the China clippers, also called Tea clippers, designed to ply the trade routes between Europe and the East Indies. The last example of these still in reasonable condition is Cutty Sark, preserved in dry dock at Greenwich, United Kingdom, although she suffered extensive damage in a fire on 21 May 2007. The last China clippers were acknowledged as the fastest sail vessels. When fully rigged and riding a tradewind, they had peak average speeds over . The Great Tea Race of 1866 showcased their speed. China clippers are also the fastest commercial sailing vessels ever made. Their speeds have been exceeded many times by modern yachts, but never by a commercial sail vessel. Decline Decline in the use of clippers started with the economic slump following the Panic of 1857 and continued with the gradual introduction of the steamship. Although clippers could be much faster than early steamships, they depended on the vagaries of the wind, while steamers could keep to a schedule. The steam clipper was developed around this time, and had auxiliary steam engines which could be used in the absence of wind. An example was Royal Charter, built in 1857 and wrecked on the coast of Anglesey in 1859. The final blow was the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, which provided a great shortcut for steamships between Europe and Asia, but was difficult for sailing ships to use. With the absence of the tea trade, some clippers began operating in the wool trade, between Britain and Australia. Although many clipper ships were built in the mid-19th century, Cutty Sark was, perhaps until recently, the only survivor. Falls of Clyde is a well-preserved example of a more conservatively designed, slower contemporary of the clippers, which was built for general freight in 1878. Other surviving examples of clippers of the era are less well preserved, for example City of Adelaide (a.k.a. S.V. Carrick). During the first and second World Wars, several battleships and aircraft carriers were built with a "clipper bow" for improved hydrodynamic efficiency. The clipper bow on carriers was an American peculiarity, Japanese ships did not feature it and British ships had the similar but differently-shaped "hurricane bow," whose purpose was, like the clipper bow, to improve hydrodynamic efficiency and, unlike the clipper bow, protect the hangar deck from spray. In 2000, two new clippers were built: Stad Amsterdam and Cisne Branco (Brazilian Navy). They are not replicas of any one ship, but an attempt to combine what their builders consider the "best" qualities of clipper ships. Notable clipper ships See also William Jardine Donald McKay Samuel Hartt Pook Packet ship Sail-plan Clipper route Cutty Sark Cisne Branco Windjammer 1869 (video game) Russian navy steam clippers External links The "Telanak" Clipper Ship cards Clipper Ship Cards (from The Trade Card Place) The Shipslist: Baltimore Clipper "Baltimore Clippers - Pirates of the Chesapeake": career of ChasseurFootnotes References Carl C. Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea (1930, 3rd ed. Naval Institute Press 1984) Alexander Laing, Clipper Ship Men (1944) David R. MacGregor, Fast Sailing Ships: Their Design and Construction, 1775-1875 Naval Institute Press, 1988 ISBN 0-87021-895-6 index Oxford English Dictionary (1987) ISBN 0-19-861212-5. Bruce D. Roberts, Clipper Ship Cards: The High-Water Mark in Early Trade Cards, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 20-22. Bruce D. Roberts, Clipper Ship Cards: Graphic Themes and Images, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 22-24. Bruce D. Roberts, Museum Collections of Clipper Ship Cards, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 2, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 22-24. Bruce D. Roberts, Selling Sail with Clipper Ship Cards, Ephemera News 19, no. 2 (Winter 2001): 1, 11-14. Villiers, Capt. Alan, 1973. Men, Ships and the Sea'' (National Geographic Society)

Clipper |@lemmatized clipper:52 fast:8 sail:13 ship:28 century:4 multiple:1 mast:1 square:2 rig:3 generally:1 narrow:2 length:1 could:5 carry:1 limited:1 bulk:1 freight:2 small:2 later:1 standard:1 large:1 total:1 area:1 mostly:2 make:2 british:3 american:4 shipyard:1 though:1 france:1 netherlands:1 nation:1 also:5 produce:1 world:2 primarily:1 trade:13 route:4 united:3 kingdom:2 colony:1 east:2 trans:1 atlantic:1 new:3 york:2 san:2 francisco:2 round:1 cape:1 horn:1 california:2 gold:1 rush:1 dutch:1 build:9 begin:2 tea:7 passenger:2 service:2 java:1 origin:1 forteviot:1 antonio:2 jacobsen:2 term:5 apply:2 may:2 derive:2 idea:1 cut:2 water:2 bow:6 distinctively:1 heavily:1 rake:1 forward:1 allow:1 rapidly:1 clip:5 wave:1 notion:1 suggest:1 class:1 vessel:4 speed:8 cutter:1 one:3 meaning:1 since:1 fly:2 move:1 quickly:1 possibly:1 sound:1 wing:1 originally:1 horse:1 likely:1 derives:1 mean:1 go:1 good:2 oxford:4 english:3 dictionary:2 say:1 early:5 quotation:1 cutler:2 report:1 first:4 newspaper:2 appearance:1 apparently:1 familiar:1 often:2 quote:1 probably:1 incorrect:1 derivation:1 time:4 voyage:1 type:2 transportation:1 lightning:1 bruce:5 von:1 stetina:1 state:1 refer:1 baltimore:7 topsail:1 schooner:1 develop:2 chesapeake:2 bay:1 revolution:1 lightly:1 arm:1 war:2 letter:1 marque:1 reprisal:1 exemplify:1 chasseur:1 launch:1 fell:1 point:1 become:1 known:1 incredible:1 deep:1 draft:1 enable:1 close:1 wind:3 villiers:2 archetypal:1 sharply:1 raked:1 stem:1 counter:1 stern:1 annie:1 mckim:1 kennard:1 williamson:1 dear:1 c:2 b:1 kemp:1 peter:1 ed:2 companion:1 sea:3 university:1 press:3 website:1 bruzelius:1 info:1 access:1 march:1 run:1 blockade:1 come:1 recognize:1 rather:1 cargo:3 space:1 prinz:1 albert:1 seasonal:1 valuable:2 ideally:1 suit:1 low:2 volume:1 high:2 profit:1 spice:1 people:1 mail:1 value:1 spectacular:1 challenger:1 return:1 shanghai:1 silk:1 ever:2 lade:1 bottom:1 competition:1 among:1 public:1 fierce:1 record:1 expect:1 lifetime:1 rarely:1 outlast:1 two:2 decade:1 use:5 break:1 salvage:1 give:1 maneuverability:1 frequently:1 mount:1 cannon:1 carronade:1 employ:1 piracy:1 privateering:1 smuggle:1 interdiction:1 card:13 free:1 print:1 nesbitt:1 co:1 ny:1 departure:1 city:2 boston:1 massachusetts:1 advertise:1 sailing:2 represent:1 pronounced:1 color:1 advertising:4 art:1 china:4 epitome:1 cloud:1 needle:1 isle:1 wight:1 james:1 e:1 buttersworth:1 significant:1 call:1 design:3 ply:1 rout:1 europe:2 indie:1 last:2 example:5 still:1 reasonable:1 condition:1 cutty:3 sark:3 preserve:2 dry:1 dock:1 greenwich:1 although:3 suffer:1 extensive:1 damage:1 fire:1 acknowledge:1 fully:1 rid:1 tradewind:1 peak:1 average:1 great:2 race:1 showcased:1 commercial:2 exceed:1 many:2 modern:1 yacht:1 never:1 decline:2 start:1 economic:1 slump:1 follow:1 panic:1 continue:1 gradual:1 introduction:1 steamship:3 much:1 depend:1 vagary:1 steamer:1 keep:1 schedule:1 steam:3 around:1 auxiliary:1 engine:1 absence:2 royal:1 charter:1 wreck:1 coast:1 anglesey:1 final:1 blow:1 suez:1 canal:1 open:1 provide:1 shortcut:1 asia:1 difficult:1 operate:1 wool:1 britain:1 australia:1 mid:1 perhaps:1 recently:1 survivor:1 fall:1 clyde:1 well:2 preserved:1 conservatively:1 slow:1 contemporary:1 general:1 survive:1 era:1 less:1 adelaide:1 k:1 v:1 carrick:1 second:1 several:1 battleship:1 aircraft:1 carrier:2 improved:1 hydrodynamic:2 efficiency:2 peculiarity:1 japanese:1 feature:1 similar:1 differently:1 shape:1 hurricane:1 whose:1 purpose:1 like:1 improve:1 unlike:1 protect:1 hangar:1 deck:1 spray:1 stad:1 amsterdam:1 cisne:2 branco:2 brazilian:1 navy:2 replica:1 attempt:1 combine:1 builder:1 consider:1 best:1 quality:1 notable:1 see:1 william:1 jardine:1 donald:1 mckay:1 samuel:1 hartt:1 pook:1 packet:1 plan:1 windjammer:1 video:1 game:1 russian:1 external:1 link:1 telanak:1 place:1 shipslist:1 pirate:1 career:1 chasseurfootnotes:1 reference:1 carl:1 greyhound:1 naval:2 institute:2 alexander:1 laing:1 men:2 david:1 r:1 macgregor:1 construction:1 isbn:2 index:1 robert:4 mark:1 quarterly:3 spring:2 graphic:1 theme:1 image:1 summer:1 museum:1 collection:1 sell:1 ephemera:1 news:1 winter:1 capt:1 alan:1 national:1 geographic:1 society:1 |@bigram clipper_ship:16 san_francisco:2 clipper_bow:5 chesapeake_bay:1 ideally_suit:1 boston_massachusetts:1 isle_wight:1 cutty_sark:3 sailing_vessel:1 suez_canal:1 external_link:1

Free_to_Choose

Free to Choose is both a book (ISBN 978-0-15-633460-0) and a ten-part television series, advocating US free market policy. Overview Free to Choose: A Personal Statement by economists Milton and Rose D. Friedman provides examples of how the free market works, and shows how it can solve problems where other approaches have failed. Published in January 1980, the 297 page book contains 10 chapters dealing with issues such as: The misuse of Federal Reserve powers during the Great Depression, The decline of personal freedoms, and Government spending and economic controls. Milton Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1976. Contrary to normal practice the book was written after the TV series was produced, although the line "Basis for the acclaimed public television triumph" is written on the front cover, using the program transcripts as reference. The book was on the United States best sellers list for 5 weeks. PBS telecast the series, beginning in January 1980; the general format was that of Dr. Friedman visiting and narrating a number of success and failure stories in history, which Dr. Friedman attributes to capitalism or the lack thereof (e.g. Hong Kong is commended for its free markets, while India is excoriated for relying on centralized planning especially for its protection of its traditional textile industry). Following the primary show, Dr. Friedman would engage in discussion with a number of selected persons, such as Donald Rumsfeld (then of G.D. Searle & Company). The series was rebroadcast in 1990 with Linda Chavez moderating the episodes. Arnold Schwarzenegger, Ronald Reagan, Steve Allen and others give personal introductions for each episode in the series. This time, after the documentary part, Friedman sits down with a single opponent to debate the issues raised in the episode. Positions advocated The Friedmans advocate laissez faire economic policies, often criticizing interventionist government policies and their cost in personal freedoms and economic efficiency in the United States and abroad. Areas of focus include government taxation on gas and tobacco, government regulation of the public school systems, and the Federal Reserve's role in exacerbating the Great Depression by reducing the money supply in the years leading up to it. On the subject of welfare, the Friedmans argue that current welfare practices are creating "wards of the state", as opposed to "self-reliant individuals", and suggest a negative income tax as a less harmful alternative. Other ideas covered are: decriminalization of drugs, tighter control of Fed money supply, and the repeal of laws favoring unions. Video chapters (1980 version) The Power of the Market (Abstract) (Video) The Tyranny of Control (Abstract) (Video) Anatomy of Crisis (Abstract) (Video) From Cradle to Grave (Abstract) (Video) Created Equal (Abstract) (Video) What's Wrong with Our Schools? (Abstract) (Video) Who Protects the Consumer? (Abstract) (Video) Who Protects the Worker? (Abstract) (Video) How to Cure Inflation (Abstract) (Video) How to Stay Free (Abstract) (Video) Citations The Wealth of Nations: Representative Selection by Adam Smith, Capitalism and Freedom by Milton Friedman, The Declaration of Independence by Sam Fink, Democracy in America by Alexis de Tocqueville, Principles of Political Economy: and Chapters on Socialism by John Stuart Mill, Unsafe at Any Speed by Ralph Nader, Declaration of Independence by U.S Government, The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions by Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Income from Independent Professional Practice by Milton Friedman, The Pursuit of Equality in American History by J.R. Pole, Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960 by Milton Friedman, Education and the State by E.G. West, Tyranny of the Status Quo by Milton Friedman, The Economic Consequences of the Peace by John Maynard Keynes, Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money by Milton Friedman, John Lewis Biography by Melvin Dubofsky, Nineteen Eighty-four by George Orwell, The United States Bill of Rights by U.S Government, Government by Judiciary by Raoul Berger, Culture and the City: Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago from the 1880's to 1917 by Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz I, Pencil by Leonard Read External links Streaming of the original 1980 television series "Free to Choose" as well as an updated 1990 version. Streaming of the original 1980 television series "Free to Choose" in Spanish.

Free_to_Choose |@lemmatized free:8 choose:4 book:4 isbn:1 ten:1 part:2 television:4 series:7 advocate:3 u:3 market:4 policy:3 overview:1 personal:4 statement:1 economist:1 milton:7 rise:1 friedman:13 provide:1 example:1 work:1 show:2 solve:1 problem:1 approach:1 fail:1 publish:1 january:2 page:1 contain:1 chapter:3 deal:1 issue:2 misuse:1 federal:4 reserve:4 power:2 great:2 depression:2 decline:1 freedom:3 government:7 spending:1 economic:4 control:3 win:1 nobel:1 memorial:1 prize:1 economics:1 contrary:1 normal:1 practice:3 write:2 tv:1 produce:1 although:1 line:1 basis:1 acclaimed:1 public:2 triumph:1 front:1 cover:2 use:1 program:1 transcript:1 reference:1 united:4 state:6 best:1 seller:1 list:1 week:1 pbs:1 telecast:1 begin:1 general:1 format:1 dr:3 visiting:1 narrate:1 number:2 success:1 failure:1 story:1 history:3 attribute:1 capitalism:2 lack:1 thereof:1 e:2 g:3 hong:1 kong:1 commend:1 india:1 excoriate:1 rely:1 centralize:1 planning:1 especially:1 protection:1 traditional:1 textile:1 industry:1 follow:1 primary:1 would:1 engage:1 discussion:1 selected:1 person:1 donald:1 rumsfeld:1 searle:1 company:1 rebroadcast:1 linda:1 chavez:1 moderate:1 episode:3 arnold:1 schwarzenegger:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 steve:1 allen:1 others:1 give:1 introduction:1 time:1 documentary:1 sits:1 single:1 opponent:1 debate:1 raise:1 position:1 laissez:1 faire:1 often:1 criticize:1 interventionist:1 cost:1 efficiency:1 abroad:1 area:1 focus:1 include:1 taxation:1 gas:1 tobacco:1 regulation:1 school:2 system:3 role:1 exacerbate:1 reduce:1 money:3 supply:2 year:1 lead:1 subject:1 welfare:2 argue:1 current:1 create:2 ward:1 oppose:1 self:1 reliant:1 individual:1 suggest:1 negative:1 income:2 tax:1 less:1 harmful:1 alternative:1 idea:1 decriminalization:1 drug:1 tight:1 fed:1 repeal:1 law:1 favor:1 union:1 video:11 version:2 abstract:10 tyranny:2 anatomy:1 crisis:1 cradle:1 grave:1 equal:1 wrong:1 protect:2 consumer:1 worker:1 cure:1 inflation:1 stay:1 citations:1 wealth:1 nation:1 representative:1 selection:1 adam:1 smith:1 declaration:2 independence:2 sam:1 fink:1 democracy:1 america:1 alexis:1 de:1 tocqueville:1 principle:1 political:1 economy:1 socialism:1 john:3 stuart:1 mill:1 unsafe:1 speed:1 ralph:1 nader:1 purpose:1 function:1 board:1 governor:1 independent:1 professional:1 pursuit:1 equality:1 american:1 j:1 r:1 pole:1 monetary:1 education:1 west:1 status:1 quo:1 consequence:1 peace:1 maynard:1 keynes:1 study:1 quantity:1 theory:1 lewis:1 biography:1 melvin:1 dubofsky:1 nineteen:1 eighty:1 four:1 george:1 orwell:1 bill:1 right:1 judiciary:1 raoul:1 berger:1 culture:1 city:1 cultural:1 philanthropy:1 chicago:1 helen:1 lefkowitz:1 horowitz:1 pencil:1 leonard:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 stream:1 original:2 well:1 updated:1 streaming:1 spanish:1 |@bigram milton_friedman:6 lack_thereof:1 hong_kong:1 donald_rumsfeld:1 arnold_schwarzenegger:1 ronald_reagan:1 laissez_faire:1 income_tax:1 cradle_grave:1 declaration_independence:2 de_tocqueville:1 stuart_mill:1 ralph_nader:1 status_quo:1 maynard_keynes:1 nineteen_eighty:1 george_orwell:1 external_link:1

Chief_of_Naval_Operations

The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the highest ranking officer in the United States Navy and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 10 USC 151. Joint Chiefs of Staff: composition; functions The CNO reports directly to the Secretary of the Navy for the command, utilization of resources and operating efficiency of the operating forces of the Navy and of the Navy shore activities assigned by the Secretary. Under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. 10 USC 5013(f). Secretary of the Navy 10 USC 165. Combatant commands: administration and support The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under and those assigned by the secretary or delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in his administration under his name. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is an administrative position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The CNO is the principal naval adviser to the President of the United States, the Secretary of Defense and to the Secretary of the Navy on the conduct of war. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment and must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. A requirement for being Chief of Naval Operations is having significant experience in joint duty assignments, which includes at least one full tour of duty in a joint duty assignment as a flag officer. However the president may waive those requirements if he determines the officer is necessary for national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral. The position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by administrative law rather than statute. Organization of the CNO's Office Organization of the CNO's Office The Office of the Chief of Naval Operations includes the Chief of Naval Operations, the Vice Chief of Naval Operations, the Deputy Chiefs of Naval Operations, the Assistant Chiefs of Naval Operations, the Surgeon General of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Personnel, the Chief of Legislative Affairs, the Chief of Chaplains of the Navy, and other members of the Navy or Marines or civilians in the Department of the Navy assigned or detailed to the Office. Past Chief of Naval Operations Chief of Naval Operations Photo Term began Term ended 1 ADM William S. Benson 11 May 1915 25 September 1919 2 ADM Robert E. Coontz 1 November 1919 21 July 1923 3 ADM Edward W. Eberle 21 July 1923 14 November 1927 4 ADM Charles F. Hughes 14 November 1927 17 September 1930 5 ADM William V. Pratt 17 September 1930 30 June 1933 6 ADM William H. Standley 1 July 1933 1 January 1937 7 ADM William D. Leahy 2 January 1937 1 August 1939 8 ADM Harold R. Stark 1 August 1939 2 March 1942 9 FADM Ernest J. King 2 March 1942 15 December 1945 10 FADM Chester W. Nimitz 15 December 1945 15 December 1947 11 ADM Louis E. Denfeld 15 December 1947 2 November 1949 12 ADM Forrest P. Sherman 2 November 1949 22 July 1951 13 ADM William M. Fechteler 16 August 1951 17 August 1953 14 ADM Robert B. Carney 17 August 1953 17 August 1955 15 ADM Arleigh A. Burke 17 August 1955 1 August 1961 16 ADM George W. Anderson Jr. 1 August 1961 1 August 1963 17 ADM David L. McDonald 1 August 1963 1 August 1967 18 ADM Thomas H. Moorer 1 August 1967 1 July 1970 19 ADM Elmo R. Zumwalt 1 July 1970 29 June 1974 20 ADM James L. Holloway III 29 June 1974 1 July 1978 21 ADM Thomas B. Hayward 1 July 1978 30 June 1982 22 ADM James D. Watkins 30 June 1982 30 June 1986 23 ADM Carlisle A.H. Trost 1 July 1986 29 June 1990 24 ADM Frank B. Kelso II 29 June 1990 23 April 1994 25 ADM Jeremy M. Boorda 23 April 1994 16 May 1996 26 ADM Jay L. Johnson 16 May 1996 21 July 2000 27 ADM Vern Clark 21 July 2000 22 July 2005 28 ADM Michael Mullen 22 July 2005 29 September 2007 29 ADM Gary Roughead 29 September 2007 Present External links Notes Contact Information Chief of Naval Operations 2000 Navy Pentagon Washington, D.C. 20350-2000

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Bowls

Bowls is a sport in which the goal is to roll slightly asymmetric balls, called bowls, closest to a smaller—normally white—bowl called the "jack" or "kitty". Bowls, either flat- or crown-green, is usually played outdoors, on grass and synthetic surfaces. Flat-green bowls can also be played indoors on synthetic surfaces. Both variants are collectively known as "lawn bowls". Bowls belongs to the boules sport family, and so is related to bocce and pétanque. It is most popular in Australia, New Zealand (where the playing surface is predominately cotula), the United Kingdom, and in other Commonwealth nations. History Bowls match in progress at Wookey Hole It has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th. William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were "exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling, Casting of Stones [in jactu lapidum], and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by jactus lapidum, Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the game - and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn, - nevertheless the inference seems unwarranted. The jactus lapidum of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern "putting the weight," once even called "putting the stone." It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A manuscript of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. The world's oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299. Another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th century manuscript, Book of Prayers, in the Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (Sports and Pastimes) suggests that the first player's bowl may have been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the upright and the kneeling position. As the game grew in popularity, it came under the ban of king and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the practice of archery, then so important in battle. Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III, Richard II and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. The word "bowls" occurs for the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII confirmed previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act of 1541 - which was not repealed until 1845 - artificers, labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any time except Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence. It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly value of £100 might obtain licenses to play on their own private greens. In 1864 William Wallace Mitchell (1803-1884), a Glasgow Cotton Merchant, published his "Manual of Bowls Playing" following his work as the secretary formed in 1849 by Scottish bowling clubs which became the basis of the rules of the modern game. Young Mitchell was only 11 when he played on Kilmarnock Bowling green, the oldest club in Scotland, instituted in 1740. The Scottish Bowling Association was the very first one to be established in 1892, although there had been a failed attempt in 1848 by 200 Scottish clubs. Today the club is played in over 40 countries with more 50 member national authorities. The home of the modern game is still Scotland with the World Bowls centre in Edinburgh at Caledonia House,1 Redheughs Rigg, South Gyle, Edinburgh, EH12 9DQ. Game A bowls tournament in Berrigan, New South Wales, Australia. Lawn bowls is usually played on a large, rectangular, precisely leveled and manicured grass or synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks. An indoor variation on carpet is also played. In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents flips a coin to see who wins the "mat" and begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an "end"), by placing the mat and rolling the jack to the other end of the green to serve as a target. Once it has come to rest, the jack is aligned to the center of the rink and the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards the jack and thereby build up the "head". A bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink boundary to remain in play. Bowls falling into the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in the event when one has "touched" the jack on its way. "Touchers" are marked with chalk and remain alive in play even though they are in the ditch. Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a "dead" end which is replayed though according to international rules the jack is "respotted" to the center of the rink and the end is continued. After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles and pairs, three each in triples, and two bowls each in fours), the distance of the closest bowls to the jack is determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points, called "shots", are awarded for each bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack. For instance, if a competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their opponent's nearest, they are awarded two shots. The exercise is then repeated for the next end, a game of bowls typically being of twenty one ends. Lawn bowls is played on grass and variations from green to green are common. Greens come in all shapes and sizes, fast, slow, big crown, small crown etc. Scoring Scoring systems vary from competition to competition. Games can be decided when: a player in a singles game reaches a specified target number of shots (usually 21 or 25). a team (pair, triple or four) has the higher score after a specified number of ends. Games to a specified number of ends may also be drawn. The draw may stand, or the opponents may be required to play an extra end to decide the winner. These provisions are always published beforehand in the event's Conditions of Play. In the Laws of the Sport of Bowls the winner in a singles game is the first player to score 21 shots. In all other disciplines (pairs, triples, fours) the winner is the team who has scored the most shots after 18 ends of play. Often local tournaments will play shorter games (often 10 or 12 ends). Some competitions use a "set" scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-or-three or best-of-five set match. As well as singles competition, there can be two (pairs), three (triples) and four-player (fours) teams. In these, teams bowl alternately, with each player within a team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player. The team captain or "skip" always plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics. The current method of scoring in the professional tour (World Bowls Tour) is sets. Each set consists of nine ends and the player with the most shots at the end of a set wins the set. If the score is tied the set is halved. If a player wins two sets, or gets a win and a tie, that player wins the game. If each player wins a set, or both sets end tied, there is a 3-end tiebreaker to determine a winner. Swifts Creek Bowls Club Bias of bowls Two bowls with club stickers. The kitty is sitting in front of the bowls. Bowls are designed to travel a curved path because of a weight bias which was originally produced by inserting weights in one side of the bowl. This is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now produced entirely by the shape of the bowl. A bowler determines the bias direction of the bowl in his hand by a dimple or symbol on one side. Regulations determine the minimum bias allowed, and the range of diameters (11.6 to 13.1 cm), but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit their own preference. They were originally made from lignum vitae, a dense wood giving rise to the term "woods" for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material. Bowls were once only available coloured black or brown but they are now available in a variety of colours including a range of fluorescent hues. They have unique symbol markings engraved on them for identification. Since many bowls look the same, coloured, adhesive stickers or labels are also used to mark the bowls of each team in bowls matches. Some local associations agree specific colours for stickers for each of the clubs in their area. Provincial or national colors are often assigned in national and international competitions. These stickers are used by officials to distinguish teams. Bowls have symbols unique to the set of four for identification. The side of the bowl with a larger symbol within a circle indicates the side away from the bias. That side with a smaller symbol within a smaller circle is the bias side toward which the bowl will turn. It is not uncommon for players to deliver a "wrong bias" shot from time to time and see their carefully aimed bowl crossing neighbouring rinks rather than heading towards their jack. When bowling there are several types of delivery. "Draw" shots are those where the bowl is rolled to a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in the head. For a right-handed bowler, "forehand draw" or "finger peg" is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in to the left. The same bowler can deliver a "backhand draw" or "thumb peg" by turning the bowl over in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right. In both cases, the bowl is rolled as close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise. A "drive" or "fire" or "strike" involves bowling with force with the aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable (or, at least, much less) curve on the shot. An "upshot" or "yard on" shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight (often referred to as "controlled" weight or "rambler"), enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head without killing the end. A "block" shot is one that is intentionally placed short to defend from a drive or to stop an oppositions draw shot. The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or "green". Variations of play Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics. Teams "holding shot" with the closest bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head. 300pcx|A crown green at Edgworth, Lancashire. There are many different ways to set up the game. Crown Green Bowling utilises the entire green. A player can send the jack anywhere on the green in this game and the green itself is more akin to a golf green, with lots of undulation. Singles, triples and fours and Australian pairs are some ways the game can be played. In singles, two people play against each other and the first to win to either 21, 25 or 31 shots (how many bowls of ones are closest to the white jack or kitty are shots). The controlling body sets the game to either 21, 25 or 31. An additional scoring method is set play. This comprises two sets over nine ends, an end being the completion of both players delivering all their bowls. Should a player win a set each, they then play a further 3 ends that will decide the winner. Pairs allows both people on a team to play Skip and Lead. The lead throws two bowls, the skip delivers two, then the lead delivers his remaining two, the skip then delivers his remaining two bowls. Each end, the leads and skips switch positions. This is played over 21 ends or sets play. Triples is with three players while Fours is with four players in each team and is played over 21 ends. Bowls are played by the blind and Paraplegic. Blind bowlers are extremely skilful due to their extreme sense of hearing and feel . The world's best are a match for the best club level sighted bowlers . Popularity Merewether Bowling Club, Newcastle, New South Wales 700pcx|The Alberta Male Junior Champion for 2007. Taken at Royal Lawn Bowling Club in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Bowls is popular in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and parts of the United States. It is also gaining momentum in Japan. Because of its competitiveness, skill and the fact that it is a non-contact sport, the game suits people from teen years through to their nineties. However, there is a considerable professional competition with many younger men and women playing. Since the early 2000s, the sport has developed in Denmark as well . The World Championships held in the UK annually is a £100,000 competition and is watched by 3 million viewers via BBC TV . Another phenomenon is barefoot or corporate bowls, where established clubs in Australia open their greens to paying customers who are organised into teams for a social few hours on the green. Bowls is played at the Commonwealth Games; the last being held in Melbourne Australia, where Kelvin Kerkow (Australia) and Siti Zalina Ahmad (Malaysia) won the singles Gold Medals. 2010 sees the Games in Delhi, India. World Indoor Singles Champions 1979 David Bryant (1) England1980 David Bryant (2) England1981 David Bryant (3) England1982 John Watson Scotland1983 Bob Sutherland Scotland1984 Jim Baker Ireland1985 Terry Sullivan Wales1986 Tony Allcock (1) England1987 Tony Allcock (2) England1988 Hugh Duff (1) Scotland1989 Richard Corsie Scotland1990 John Price Wales1991 Richard Corsie (1) Scotland1992 Ian Schuback Australia1993 Richard Corsie (2) Scotland1994 Andy Thomson (1) England 1995 Andy Thomson (2) England 1996 David Gourlay Scotland1997 Hugh Duff (2) Scotland1998 Paul Foster Scotland1999 Alex Marshall Scotland2000 Robert Weale Wales2001 Paul Foster Scotland2002 Tony Allcock (3) England2003 Alex Marshall (1) Scotland2004 Alex Marshall (2) Scotland2005 Paul Foster Scotland2006 Mervyn King England2007 Alex Marshall (3) Scotland2008 Alex Marshall (4) Scotland2009 Billy Jackson England Wins by country: Scotland (16), England (10), Wales (3), Ireland (1), Australia (1) World Bowls Events These are the premier events between national bowls organisations affiliated to World Bowls Ltd. World Championship First held in Australia in 1966, the World Championships for men and women are held every 4 years. From 2008 the men's and women's events are held together. Qualifying national bowls organisations (usually countries) are represented by sides of 5 players, who play once as a single and a four, then again as a pair and a triple. Gold, silver, and bronze medals are awarded in each of the 4 disciplines, and there is also a trophy for the best overall 5-player side — the Leonard Trophy for men and the Taylor Trophy for women. The next World Bowls Championships will be held in Adelaide, Australia from 24 November – 9 December 2012. Men's Titles Year Venue Singles Champion Fours Champions * 1966 Sydney, Australia 1972 Worthing, England 1976 Johannesburg, South Africa 1980 Melbourne, Australia 1984 Aberdeen, Scotland 1988 Auckland, New Zealand 1992 Worthing, England 1996 Adelaide, South Australia 2000 Johannesburg, South Africa 2004 Ayr, Scotland 2008 Christchurch, New Zealand Year Pairs Champions * Triples Champions * Leonard Trophy 1966 1972 1976 1980 1984 ** 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 * Team order is Skip to Lead ** replaced for the 1984 pairs final Women's Titles Year Venue Singles Champion Fours Champions * 1969 Sydney, Australia 1973 Wellington, New Zealand 1977 Worthing, England 1981 Toronto, Canada ** 1985 Melbourne, Australia 1988 Auckland, New Zealand 1992 Ayr, Scotland 1996 Leamington Spa, England 2000 Moama, Australia 2004 Leamington Spa, England 2008 Christchurch, New Zealand Year Pairs Champions * Triples Champions * Taylor Trophy 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 * Team order is Skip to Lead. ** may have played as a replacement in the 1981 Fours final. Summary Country Men Women Total 7 9 16 4 9 13 9 3 12 5 7 12 6 4 10 4 6 10 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 World Champion of Champions Singles Contested annually between bowlers who have won their respective national singles title. Year Venue Women Men 2003 Moama, Australia 2004 Warilla, Australia 2005 Christchurch, New Zealand 2006 Christchurch, New Zealand 2007 Warilla, Australia 2008 Aberdeen, Scotland World Cup Singles Contested annually between bowlers from national bowls organisations. The senior event is played indoors, while in recent years the junior event (for under–25 players) has been played outdoors. YearVenueWorld CupWorld Junior Cup Women Men Women Men 2005 Hong Kong 2006 Warilla, Australia 2007 Warilla, Australia 2008 Warilla, Australia 2009 Warilla, Australia References in popular culture Blackball – a 2003 comedy film about a young bowls player, based upon Griff Sanders. Crackerjack - a 2002 Australian comedy film about a wisecracking layabout who joins a lawn bowls club in order to be allowed to use a free parking spot but is forced to play lawn bowls with the much older crowd when the club enters financial difficulty. Bowling was popularised in St Kilda, Victoria due to the success of the television show The Secret Life of Us. In the Borat Segment of the Ali G show, where the fictional Kazakhstani reporter repeatedly asks the bowls coach he's interviewing 'and when will Jack come?' See also Hastings Open Bowls Tournament Lawn game Trugo Short mat bowls References External links Bowls in Brazil

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Francesco_I_Sforza

Portrait of Francesco Sforza (c. 1460) by Bonifacio Bembo. Sforza insisted on being shown in his worn dirty old campaigning hat. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan. Francesco I Sforza (July 23, 1401 – March 8, 1466) was an Italian condottiero, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan, Italy. He was the brother of Alessandro, with whom he often fought. Biography Early life Francesco Sforza was old born in San Miniato, Tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero Muzio Sforza and Lucia da Torsano. He spent his childhood in Tricarico (in the modern Basilicata), the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by King Ladislas of Naples. In 1418, he married Polissena Ruffo, a Calabrese noblewoman. From 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and very skilled field commander. After the death of his father, he fought initially for the Neapolitan army and then for Pope Martin V and the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. After some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of Mortara as a prisoner de facto. He regained his status after a successful expedition against Lucca. In 1431, after a period during which he fought again for the Papal States, he led the Milanese army against Venice; the following year the duke's daughter, Bianca Maria, was betrothed to him. Despite these moves, the wary Filippo Maria never ceased to be distrustful of Sforza. The allegiance of mercenary leaders was dependent, of course, on pay; in 1433-1435, Sforza led the Milanese attack on the Papal States, but when he conquered Ancona, in the Marche, he changed sides, obtaining the title of vicar of the city directly from Pope Eugene IV. In 1436-39, he served variously both Florence and Venice. In 1440, his fiefs in the Kingdom of Naples were occupied by King Alfonso I, and, to recover the situation, Sforza reconciled himself with Filippo Visconti. On October 25, 1441, in Cremona, he could finally marry Bianca Maria. The following year, he allied with René of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and marched against southern Italy. After some initial drawbacks, he defeated the Neapolitan commander Niccolò Piccinino, who had invaded his possessions in Romagna and Marche, through the help of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (who had married his daughter Polissena) and the Venetians, and could return to Milan. Sforza later found himself warring against his son Francesco (whom he defeated at the Battle of Montolmo in 1444) and, later, the alliance of Visconti, Eugene IV, and Sigismondo Malatesta, who had allegedly murdered Polissena. With the help of Venice, Sforza was again victorious and, in exchange for abandoning the Venetians, received the title of capitano generale (commander-in-chief) of the Duchy of Milan's armies. Duke of Milan After the duke died without a male heir in 1447, fighting broke out to restore the so-called Ambrosian Republic. Sforza received the seigniory of several cities of the duchy, including Pavia and Lodi, and started to carefully plan the conquest of the ephemeral republic, allying with William VIII of Montferrat and (again) Venice. In 1450, after years of famine, riots raged in the streets of Milan and the city's senate decided to entrust to him the dukedom. It was the first time that such a title was handed over by a lay institution. While the other Italian states gradually recognized Sforza as the legitimate Duke of Milan, he was never able to obtain official investiture from the Holy Roman Emperor. That did not come to the Sforza Dukes until 1494, when Emperor Maximilian formally invested Francesco's son, Lodovico (also known as Ludovico Sforza), as Duke of Milan. Under his rule (which was moderate and skillful), Sforza modernised the city and duchy. He created an efficient system of taxation that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a center of Renaissance learning and culture, and the people of Milan grew to love him. In Milan, he founded the Ospedale Maggiore, restored the Palazzo dell'Arengo, and had the Naviglio d'Adda, a channel connecting with the Adda River, built. During Sforza's reign, Florence was under the command of Cosimo de' Medici and the two rulers became close friends. This friendship eventually manifested in first the Peace of Lodi and then the Italian League, a multi-polar defensive alliance of Italian states that succeeded in stabilising almost all of Italy for its duration. After the peace, Sforza renounced part of the conquests in eastern Lombardy obtained by his condottieri Bartolomeo Colleoni, Ludovico Gonzaga, and Roberto Sanseverino after 1451. As King Alfonso of Naples was among the signatories of the treaty, Sforza also abandoned his long support of the Angevin pretenders to Naples. He also aimed to conquer Genoa, then an Angevin possession; when a revolt broke out there in 1461, he had Spinetta Campofregoso elected as Doge, as his puppet. Sforza occupied Genoa and Savona until 1464. Sforza was the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power, and the first native Italian ruler to conduct extensive diplomacy outside the peninsula to counter the power of threatening states such as France. Sforza's policies succeeded in keeping foreign powers from dominating Italian politics for the rest of the century. Sforza suffered from hydropsy and gout. In 1462, rumours spread that he was dead and a riot exploded in Milan. He however survived for four more years, finally dying in March 1466. He was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza. A Clay model of the horse for equestrian statue to Francesco I Sforza was completed by Leonardo Da Vinci in Milan 1492-but the statue was never built; it was cast as a equine statue and placed in Milan outside the racetrack of Ippodromo del Galoppo in 1992. Culture Francesco Sforza is mentioned several times in Niccolò Machiavelli's book The Prince; he is generally praised in that work for his ability to hold his country and as a warning to a prince not to use mercenary troops. He was a moderate patron of the arts. The main humanist of his court was the writer Francesco Filelfo. See also Bianca Maria Visconti Condottieri Duchy of Milan Alessandro Sforza Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta Visconti-Sforza tarot deck References

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Emperor_Montoku

Emperor Montoku (文徳天皇 Montoku-tennō) (22 January 827- 27 August 858) was the 55th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. The years of his reign spanned the years from 850 through 858. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 112; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 264-265; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 165. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their iminia) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Michiyasu Shinnō (道康親王). Titsingh, p. 112; Brown p. 285. He was also known as Tamura-no-mikado. Varley, p. 165. He was the eldest son of Emperor Ninmyō. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Junshi (also called the Gojō empress 五条后), daughter of the minister of the left, Fujiwara Fuyutsugu. [see above] Montoku had six Imperial consorts and 29 Imperial sons. Brown, p. 285. Events of Montoku's life Kashō 3, on the 21st day of the 3rd month 850): In the 17th year of Ninmyō-tennōs reign (仁明天皇17年), the emperor died; and his eldest son received the succession (‘‘senso’’). Titsingh, p. 112; Brown, p. 284; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Kashō 3, in the 4th month 850):Emperor Montoku formally acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 112; Varley, p. 44 Kashō 3, in the 5th month (850): The widow of Emperor Saga, who was also the mother of Emperor Ninmyō and the grandmother of Emperor Montoku, died. This very devout Buddhist had founded a temple called on the site of present-day -- more formally known as , located in what is now Susukinobaba-chō, Ukyō Ward in Kyoto, Before her death, the former empress had been known by the honorific title, ; and she had been honored as if she were a saint. Titsingh, p. 112. Kashō 3, in the 11th month (850): The emperor named Korehito-shinnō, the 4th son of Emperor Montoku as his heir. Brown, p. 286. This 9-month-old baby was also the grandson of udaijin Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. Titsingh, p. 113. Ninju 3, in the 2nd month (853): The emperor visited the home of udaijin Yoshifusa, the grandfather of his designated heir. [see above] Saikō 1, on the 13th day of the 6th month (854): The saidaijin Minamoto no Tokiwa, also known as Minamoto no Tsune, died at age 43. Brown, p. 285; Titsingh, p. 113. Saikō 2, in the 1st month (855): The Emishi organized a rebellion; and in response, a force of 1,000 men and provisions were sent to the north. Titsingh, p. 114. Saikō 2, in the 5th month (855): The head of the great statute of Buddha in the Tōdai-ji fell off; and in consequence, the emperor ordered the then dainagon Fujiwara no Yoshisuke, the brother of sadaijin Yoshifusa, to be in charge of gathering the gifts of the pious from throughout the empire to make another head for the Daibutsu. [see above] Events during his reign included the repression of insurrections among the Ebisu people in Mutsu province in 855, and among the people of the island of Tsushima two years later. Ten'an 2''', on the 27th day of the 8th month (858): Montoku's died at the age of 32. Brown, p. 285-286; Varley, p. 165. KugyōKugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Montoku-tennō (in French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Montoku's reign), this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804-872. Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tokiwa　(源常), 812-854. Sadaijin, Minamoto no Makoto　(源信), 810-868. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804-872. Brown, p. 285. [Yoshifusa was the first minister to be promoted to Daijō-daijin -- that high office previously being filled by Imperial Princes only.] Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshimi　(藤原良相), 813-867. [see above] Naidaijin (not appointed) DainagonEras of Montoku's reign The years of Montoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. [see above] Kashō (848-851) Ninju (851-854) Saikō (854-857) Ten'an (857-859) Consorts and Children Nyōgo(Tai-Kotaigō): Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (藤原明子) (829-899), daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房) Imperial Prince Korehito (惟仁親王) (850-881) (Emperor Seiwa) Imperial Princess Gishi (儀子内親王) (?-879), 6th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 859-876 Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Koshi/Furuko (藤原古子), daughter of Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Takakiko (藤原多賀幾子) (?-858), daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Nenshi/Toshiko (藤原年子)) Nyōgo: Princess Azumako (東子女王) (?-865) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Koreko (藤原是子) Nyōgo: Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子), daughter of Tachibana no Ujikimi (橘氏公) Nyōgo: Tachibana no Chushi (橘忠子), daughter of Tachibana no Ujikimi (橘氏公) Koui: Ki no Shizuko (紀静子) (?-866), daughter of Ki no Natora (紀名虎) Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) (844-897) Imperial Prince Koreeda (惟条親王) (848-868) Imperial Princess Tenshi (恬子内親王) (?-913), 20th Saiō in Ise Shrine 859-876 Imperial Princess Jutsushi (述子内親王) (?-897), 5th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 857-858 Imperial Princess Chinshi (珍子内親王) (?-877) Court lady: Fujiwara no Retsushi (藤原列子), daughter of Fujiwara no Koreo (藤原是雄) Imperial Princess Anshi (晏子内親王) (?-900), 19th Saiō in Ise Shrine 850-858 Imperial Princess Akirakeiko (慧子内親王) (?-881), 4th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 850-857 Court lady: Shigeno no Okuko (滋野奥子), daughter of Shigeno no Sadanushi (滋野貞主) Imperial Prince Korehiko (惟彦親王) (850-883) Imperial Princess Nōshi (濃子内親王) (?-903) Imperial Princess Shōshi (勝子内親王) (?-871) Court lady: Fujiwara no Konshi/Imako (藤原今子), daughter of Fujiwara no Sadamori (藤原貞守) Imperial Prince Koretsune (惟恒親王) (?-904) Imperial Princess Reishi (礼子内親王) (?-899) Imperial Princess Keishi (掲子内親王) (?-914), 22nd Saiō in Ise Shrine 882-884 Court lady: Shigeno no Mineko (滋野岑子), daughter of Shigeno no Sadao (滋野貞雄) Minamoto no Motoari (源本有) Minamoto no Fuchiko/Shigeko (源淵子/滋子) (?-911) Court lady: A daughter of Tomo clan (伴氏の娘) Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有) (845-897), Udaijin 896-897 Court lady: A daughter of Fuse clan (布勢氏の娘) Minamoto no Yukiari (源行有) (854-887) Minamoto no Tomiari (源富有) (?-887) Court lady: A daughter of Tajihi clan (多治氏の娘) Minamoto no Tsuneari (源毎有) Court lady: A daughter of Kiyohara clan (清原氏の娘) Minamoto no Tokiari (源時有) Minamoto no Noriari (源載有) Court lady: A daughter of Sugano clan (菅野氏の娘) Court lady: A daughter of Sugawara clan (菅原氏の娘) Minamoto no Sadaari (源定有) Minamoto no Tomiko (源富子) (from unknown women) Minamoto no Hyōshi (源憑子) Minamoto no Kenshi (源謙子) Minamoto no Okuko (源奥子) Minamoto no Retsushi (源列子) Minamoto no Seishi (源済子), married to Emperor Seiwa Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Nihon Montoku Tennō Jitsuroku, one of the Six National Historys covering the reign of Emperor Montoku

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Natural_selection

Natural selection is the process where heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive long enough to reproduce become more common over successive generations of a population. It is a key mechanism of evolution. The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms means that some individuals will survive better than others in their current environment. For example, the peppered moth exists in both light and dark colors in the United Kingdom, but during the industrial revolution many of the trees on which the moths rested became blackened by soot, giving the dark-colored moths an advantage in hiding from predators. This gave dark-colored moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-colored offspring, and in just a few generations the majority of the moths were dark. Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype which gives a reproductive advantage will increase in frequency over the following generations (see allele frequency). Over time, this process can result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the emergence of new species. In other words, natural selection is an important process (though not the only process) by which evolution takes place within a population of organisms. Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The term was introduced by Charles Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book On the Origin of Species, Darwin C (1859) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life John Murray, London; modern reprint Published online at The complete work of Charles Darwin online: On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the modern evolutionary synthesis. Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution. General principles Darwin's illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the Galápagos Islands, which hold 13 closely related species that differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. The beak of each species is suited to its preferred food, suggesting that beak shapes evolved by natural selection. There is natural variation among the individuals of any population of organisms. Many of these differences do not affect survival (such as differences in eye color), but some differences may improve the chances of survival of a particular individual. A rabbit which runs faster than others may be more likely to escape from predators, and an algae which is more efficient at extracting the energy from sunlight will grow faster. Individuals that have better odds for survival also have better odds for reproduction. If the traits which give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to child, then there will be a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. This is known as differential reproduction. Even if the reproductive advantage is very slight, over many generations any heritable advantage will become dominant in the population, due to exponential growth. In this way the natural environment of an organism "selects" for traits that confer a reproductive advantage, causing gradual changes or evolution of life. This effect was first described, and named, by Charles Darwin. The concept of natural selection predates the understanding of genetics, which is the study of heredity. In modern times, it is understood that selection acts on an organism's phenotype, or observable characteristics, but it is the organism's genetic make-up or genotype which is inherited. The phenotype is the result of the genotype and the environment in which the organism lives (see Genotype-phenotype distinction). This is the link between natural selection and genetics, as described in the modern evolutionary synthesis. Although a complete theory of evolution also requires an account of how genetic variation arises in the first place (such as by mutation and sexual reproduction) and includes other evolutionary mechanisms (such as gene flow), natural selection is still understood as a fundamental mechanism for evolution. Nomenclature and usage The term natural selection has slightly different definitions in different contexts. It is most often defined to operate on heritable traits, because these are the traits that directly participate in evolution. However, natural selection is "blind" in the sense that changes in phenotype (physical and behavioral characteristics) can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable (non heritable traits can be the result of environmental factors or the life experience of the organism). Following Darwin's primary usage the term is often used to refer to both the evolutionary consequence of blind selection and to its mechanisms. Fisher RA (1930) The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection Clarendon Press, Oxford Works employing or describing this usage: It is sometimes helpful to explicitly distinguish between selection's mechanisms and its effects; when this distinction is important, scientists define "natural selection" specifically as "those mechanisms that contribute to the selection of individuals that reproduce", without regard to whether the basis of the selection is heritable. This is sometimes referred to as "phenotypic natural selection". Works employing or describing this usage:Lande R & Arnold SJ (1983) The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37:1210-26Futuyma DJ (2005) Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-87893-187-2Haldane, J.B.S. 1953. The measurement of natural selection. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Genetics. 1: 480-487 Traits that cause greater reproductive success of an organism are said to be selected for, whereas those that reduce success are selected against. Selection for a trait may also result in the selection of other correlated traits that do not themselves directly influence reproductive advantage. This may occur as a result of pleiotropy or gene linkage. Sober E (1984; 1993) The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-76748-5 Fitness The concept of fitness is central to natural selection. Broadly, individuals which are more "fit" have better potential for survival, as in the well-known phrase "survival of the fittest". However, as with natural selection above, the precise meaning of the term is much more subtle, and Richard Dawkins manages in his later books to avoid it entirely. (He devotes a chapter of his book, The Extended Phenotype, to discussing the various senses in which the term is used). Modern evolutionary theory defines fitness not by how long an organism lives, but by how successful it is at reproducing. If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes will become more common in the adult population of the next generation. Though natural selection acts on individuals, the effects of chance mean that fitness can only really be defined "on average" for the individuals within a population. The fitness of a particular genotype corresponds to the average effect on all individuals with that genotype. Very low-fitness genotypes cause their bearers to have few or no offspring on average; examples include many human genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis. Since fitness is an averaged quantity, it is also possible that a favorable mutation arises in an individual that does not survive to adulthood for unrelated reasons. Fitness also depends crucially upon the environment. Conditions like sickle-cell anemia may have low fitness in the general human population, but because sickle-cell anemia confers immunity from malaria, it has high fitness value in populations which have high malaria infection rates. Types of selection Natural selection can act on any phenotypic trait, and selective pressure can be produced by any aspect of the environment, including sexual selection and competition with members of the same species. However, this does not imply that natural selection is always directional and results in adaptive evolution; natural selection often results in the maintenance of the status quo by eliminating less fit variants. The unit of selection can be the individual or it can be another level within the hierarchy of biological organisation, such as genes, cells, and kin groups. There is still debate about whether natural selection acts at the level of groups or species to produce adaptations that benefit a larger, non-kin group. Selection at a different level such as the gene can result in an increase in fitness for that gene, while at the same time reducing the fitness of the individuals carrying that gene, in a process called intragenomic conflict. Overall, the combined effect of all selection pressures at various levels determines the overall fitness of an individual, and hence the outcome of natural selection. The life cycle of a sexually reproducing organism. Various components of natural selection are indicated for each life stage. Modified from Christiansen FB (1984) The definition and measurement of fitness. In: Evolutionary ecology (ed. Shorrocks B) pp65-79. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford by adding survival selection in the reproductive phase Natural selection occurs at every life stage of an individual. An individual organism must survive until adulthood before it can reproduce, and selection of those that reach this stage is called viability selection. In many species, adults must compete with each other for mates via sexual selection, and success in this competition determines who will parent the next generation. When individuals can reproduce more than once, a longer survival in the reproductive phase increases the number of offspring, called survival selection. The fecundity of both females and males (for example, giant sperm in certain species of Drosophila) Pitnick S & Markow TA (1994) Large-male advantage associated with the costs of sperm production in Drosophila hydei, a species with giant sperm. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:9277-81; Pitnick S (1996) Investment in testes and the cost of making long sperm in Drosophila. Am Nat 148:57-80 can be limited via "fecundity selection". The viability of produced gametes can differ, while intragenomic conflicts such as meiotic drive between the haploid gametes can result in gametic or "genic selection". Finally, the union of some combinations of eggs and sperm might be more compatible than others; this is termed compatibility selection. Sexual selection It is also useful to distinguish between "ecological selection" and the narrower term "sexual selection". Ecological selection covers any mechanism of selection as a result of the environment (including relatives, e.g. kin selection, competition, and infanticide), while "sexual selection" refers specifically to competition for mates. Sexual selection can be intrasexual, as in cases of competition among individuals of the same sex in a population, or intersexual, as in cases where one sex controls reproductive access by choosing among a population of available mates. Most commonly, intrasexual selection involves male-male competition and intersexual selection involves female choice of suitable males, due to the generally greater investment of resources for a female than a male in a single offspring. However, some species exhibit sex-role reversed behavior in which it is males that are most selective in mate choice; the best-known examples of this pattern occur in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae, though likely examples have also been found in amphibian and bird species. Eens M, Pinxten R. (2000). Sex-role reversal in vertebrates: behavioural and endocrinological accounts. Behav Processes 51(1-3):135-147. PMID 11074317 Some features that are confined to one sex only of a particular species can be explained by selection exercised by the other sex in the choice of a mate, for example, the extravagant plumage of some male birds. Similarly, aggression between members of the same sex is sometimes associated with very distinctive features, such as the antlers of stags, which are used in combat with other stags. More generally, intrasexual selection is often associated with sexual dimorphism, including differences in body size between males and females of a species. Barlow GW. (2005). How Do We Decide that a Species is Sex-Role Reversed? The Quarterly Review of Biology 80(1):28–35. PMID 15884733 Examples of Natural Selection Resistance to antibiotics is increased though the survival of individuals which are immune to the effects of the antibiotic, whose offspring then inherit the resistance, creating a new population of resistant bacteria. A well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, primarily as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment. This selective elimination of maladapted individuals from a population is natural selection. These surviving bacteria will then reproduce again, producing the next generation. Due to the elimination of the maladapted individuals in the past generation, this population contains more bacteria that have some resistance against the antibiotic. At the same time, new mutations occur, contributing new genetic variation to the existing genetic variation. Spontaneous mutations are very rare, and advantageous mutations are even rarer. However, populations of bacteria are large enough that a few individuals will have beneficial mutations. If a new mutation reduces their susceptibility to an antibiotic, these individuals are more likely to survive when next confronted with that antibiotic. Given enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. The widespread use and misuse of antibiotics has resulted in increased microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs. Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs. This is an example of what is known as an evolutionary arms race, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects. Arms races are not necessarily induced by man; a well-documented example involves the elaboration of the RNA interference pathway in plants as means of innate immunity against viruses. Lucy A, Guo H, Li W, Ding S (2000). "Suppression of post-transcriptional gene silencing by a plant viral protein localized in the nucleus". EMBO J 19 (7): 1672–80. PMID 10747034. Evolution by means of natural selection A prerequisite for natural selection to result in adaptive evolution, novel traits and speciation, is the presence of heritable genetic variation that results in fitness differences. Genetic variation is the result of mutations, recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes). Any of these changes might have an effect that is highly advantageous or highly disadvantageous, but large effects are very rare. In the past, most changes in the genetic material were considered neutral or close to neutral because they occurred in noncoding DNA or resulted in a synonymous substitution. However, recent research suggests that many mutations in non-coding DNA do have slight deleterious effects. Although both mutation rates and average fitness effects of mutations are dependent on the organism, estimates from data in humans have found that a majority of mutations are slightly deleterious. Eyre-Walker A, Woolfit M, Phelps T. (2006). The distribution of fitness effects of new deleterious amino acid mutations in humans. Genetics 173(2):891-900. PMID 16547091 The exuberant tail of the peacock is thought to be the result of sexual selection by females. This peacock is an albino; selection against albinos in nature is intense because they are easily spotted by predators or are unsuccessful in competition for mates. By the definition of fitness, individuals with greater fitness are more likely to contribute offspring to the next generation, while individuals with lesser fitness are more likely to die early or fail to reproduce. As a result, alleles which on average result in greater fitness become more abundant in the next generation, while alleles which generally reduce fitness become rarer. If the selection forces remain the same for many generations, beneficial alleles become more and more abundant, until they dominate the population, while alleles with a lesser fitness disappear. In every generation, new mutations and recombinations arise spontaneously, producing a new spectrum of phenotypes. Therefore, each new generation will be enriched by the increasing abundance of alleles that contribute to those traits that were favored by selection, enhancing these traits over successive generations. Some mutations occur in so-called regulatory genes. Changes in these can have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. Most, but not all, mutations in regulatory genes result in non-viable zygotes. Examples of nonlethal regulatory mutations occur in HOX genes in humans, which can result in a cervical rib Galis F (1999) Why do almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae? developmental constraints, Hox genes, and cancer. J Exp Zool 285:19-26 or polydactyly, an increase in the number of fingers or toes. Zakany J, FromentalRamain C, Warot X & Duboule D (1997) Regulation of number and size of digits by posterior Hox genes: a dose-dependent mechanism with potential evolutionary implications. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:13695-700 When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection will favor these phenotypes and the novel trait will spread in the population. X-ray of the left hand of a ten year old boy with polydactyly. Established traits are not immutable; traits that have high fitness in one environmental context may be much less fit if environmental conditions change. In the absence of natural selection to preserve such a trait, it will become more variable and deteriorate over time, possibly resulting in a vestigial manifestation of the trait. In many circumstances, the apparently vestigial structure may retain a limited functionality, or may be co-opted for other advantageous traits in a phenomenon known as preadaptation. A famous example of a vestigial structure, the eye of the blind mole rat, is believed to retain function in photoperiod perception. Sanyal S, Jansen HG, de Grip WJ, Nevo E, de Jong WW. (1990). The eye of the blind mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi. Rudiment with hidden function? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990 31(7):1398-404. PMID 2142147 Speciation Speciation requires selective mating, which result in a reduced gene flow. Selective mating can be the result of, for example, a change in the physical environment (physical isolation by an extrinsic barrier), or by sexual selection resulting in assortative mating. Over time, these subgroups might diverge radically to become different species, either because of differences in selection pressures on the different subgroups, or because different mutations arise spontaneously in the different populations, or because of founder effects - some potentially beneficial alleles may, by chance, be present in only one or other of two subgroups when they first become separated. A lesser-known mechanism of speciation occurs via hybridization, well-documented in plants and occasionally observed in species-rich groups of animals such as cichlid fishes. Salzburger W, Baric S, Sturmbauer C. (2002). Speciation via introgressive hybridization in East African cichlids? Mol Ecol 11(3): 619–625. PMID 11918795 Such mechanisms of rapid speciation can reflect a mechanism of evolutionary change known as punctuated equilibrium, which suggests that evolutionary change and particularly speciation typically happens quickly after interrupting long periods of stasis. Genetic changes within groups result in increasing incompatibility between the genomes of the two subgroups, thus reducing gene flow between the groups. Gene flow will effectively cease when the distinctive mutations characterizing each subgroup become fixed. As few as two mutations can result in speciation: if each mutation has a neutral or positive effect on fitness when they occur separately, but a negative effect when they occur together, then fixation of these genes in the respective subgroups will lead to two reproductively isolated populations. According to the biological species concept, these will be two different species. Historical development The modern theory of natural selection derives from the work of Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century. Pre-Darwinian theories Several ancient philosophers expressed the idea that nature produces a huge variety of creatures, apparently randomly, and that only those creatures survive that manage to provide for themselves and reproduce successfully; well-known examples include Empedocles and his intellectual successor, Lucretius, while related ideas were later refined by Aristotle. The struggle for existence was later described by al-Jahiz in the 9th century. Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123. Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", The Islamic Quarterly. London. Such classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin. While these forerunners had an influence on Darwinism, they later had little influence on the trajectory of evolutionary thought after Charles Darwin. Until the early 19th century, the prevailing view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic idealism (or typus) of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple, weak forces could act continuously over long periods of time to produce radical changes in the Earth's landscape. The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species. Early 19th century evolutionists such as Jean Baptiste Lamarck suggested the inheritance of acquired characteristics as a mechanism for evolutionary change; adaptive traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by that organism's progeny, eventually causing transmutation of species. Chevalier de Lamarck J-B, de Monet PA (1809) Philosophie Zoologique This theory has come to be known as Lamarckism and was an influence on the anti-genetic ideas of the Stalinist Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko. Joravsky D. (1959). Soviet Marxism and Biology before Lysenko. Journal of the History of Ideas 20(1):85-104. Darwin's theory In 1859, Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for adaptation and speciation. He defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation [of a trait], if useful, is preserved". The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between them, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations. If the variations are inherited, then differential reproductive success will lead to a progressive evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species. Darwin's ideas were inspired by the observations that he had made on the Beagle voyage, and by the work of two political economists. The first was the Reverend Thomas Malthus, who in An Essay on the Principle of Population, noted that population (if unchecked) increases exponentially whereas the food supply grows only arithmetically; thus inevitable limitations of resources would have demographic implications, leading to a "struggle for existence" as a divinely ordained law "in order to rouse man into action, and form his mind to reason" for the greater good despite the "partial evil" limiting population. The second was Adam Smith who, in The Wealth of Nations, identified a regulating mechanism in free markets, which he referred to as the "invisible hand", which suggests that prices self-adjust according to supplies and demand. Orrell, David (2007) Apollo's Arrow Toronto: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. When Darwin read Malthus in 1838 he was already primed by his work as a naturalist to appreciate the "struggle for existence" in nature and it struck him that as population outgrew resources, "favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species." Once he had his theory "by which to work", Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence as his "prime hobby" before making his idea public. He was in the process of writing his "big book" to present his researches when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell. Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided (without Wallace's knowledge) to present his essay together with unpublished writings which Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection was read to the Linnean Society announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858. Wallace, Alfred Russel (1870) Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection New York: Macmillan & Co. Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in On the Origin of Species in 1859. In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others — notably William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831 — had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications. Darwin thought of natural selection by analogy to how farmers select crops or livestock for breeding, which he called "artificial selection"; in his early manuscripts he referred to a 'Nature' which would do the selection. At the time, other mechanisms of evolution such as evolution by genetic drift were not yet explicitly formulated, and Darwin believed that selection was likely only part of the story: "I am convinced that [it] has been the main, but not exclusive means of modification." In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term "Natural Selection", preferring the term "Natural Preservation". For Darwin and his contemporaries, natural selection was essentially synonymous with evolution by natural selection. After the publication of The Origin of Species, educated people generally accepted that evolution had occurred in some form. However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its "unguided" and non-progressive nature, Eisley L. (1958). Darwin's Century: Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It. Doubleday & Co: New York, USA. a response that has been characterized as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance. Kuhn TS. [1962] (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolution 3rd ed. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, USA. ISBN 0-226-45808-3 However, some thinkers enthusiastically embraced natural selection; after reading Darwin, Herbert Spencer introduced the term survival of the fittest, which became a popular summary of the theory.   The fifth edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1869 included Spencer's phrase as an alternative to natural selection, with credit given: "But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer, of the Survival of the Fittest, is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient." Although the phrase is still often used by non-biologists, modern biologists avoid it because it is tautological if "fittest" is read to mean "functionally superior" and is applied to individuals rather than considered as an averaged quantity over populations. Mills SK, Beatty JH. [1979] (1994). The Propensity Interpretation of Fitness. Originally in Philosophy of Science (1979) 46: 263-286; republished in Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology 2nd ed. Elliott Sober, ed. MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. pp3-23. ISBN 0-262-69162-0. Modern evolutionary synthesis Natural selection relies crucially on the idea of heredity, but it was developed long before the basic concepts of genetics. Although Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, the father of modern genetics, was a contemporary of Darwin's, his work would lie in obscurity until the early 20th century. Only after the integration of Darwin's theory of evolution with a complex statistical appreciation of Gregor Mendel's 're-discovered' laws of inheritance did natural selection become generally accepted by scientists. The work of Ronald Fisher (who developed the required mathematical language and the genetical theory of natural selection), J.B.S. Haldane (who introduced the concept of the "cost" of natural selection), Haldane JBS (1932) The Causes of Evolution; Haldane JBS (1957) The cost of natural selection. J Genet 55:511-24(. Sewall Wright (who elucidated the nature of selection and adaptation), Wright S (1932) The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding and selection in evolution Proc 6th Int Cong Genet 1:356–66 Theodosius Dobzhansky (who established the idea that mutation, by creating genetic diversity, supplied the raw material for natural selection: see Genetics and the Origin of Species), Dobzhansky Th (1937) Genetics and the Origin of Species Columbia University Press, New York. (2nd ed., 1941; 3rd edn., 1951) William Hamilton (who conceived of kin selection), Ernst Mayr (who recognised the key importance of reproductive isolation for speciation: see Systematics and the Origin of Species) Mayr E (1942) Systematics and the Origin of Species Columbia University Press, New York. ISBN 0-674-86250-3 and many others formed the modern evolutionary synthesis. This synthesis cemented natural selection as the foundation of evolutionary theory, where it remains today. Impact of the idea Darwin's ideas, along with those of Adam Smith and Karl Marx, had a profound influence on 19th century thought. Perhaps the most radical claim of the theory of evolution through natural selection is that "elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner" evolved from the simplest forms of life by a few simple principles. This claim inspired some of Darwin's most ardent supporters—and provoked the most profound opposition. The radicalism of natural selection, according to Stephen Jay Gould, The New York Review of Books: Darwinian Fundamentalism (accessed May 6, 2006) lay in its power to "dethrone some of the deepest and most traditional comforts of Western thought". In particular, it challenged long-standing beliefs in such concepts as a special and exalted place for humans in the natural world and a benevolent creator whose intentions were reflected in nature's order and design. Social and psychological theory The social implications of the theory of evolution by natural selection also became the source of continuing controversy. Friedrich Engels, a German political philosopher and co-originator of the ideology of communism, wrote in 1872 that "Darwin did not know what a bitter satire he wrote on mankind when he showed that free competition, the struggle for existence, which the economists celebrate as the highest historical achievement, is the normal state of the animal kingdom". Engels F (1873-86) Dialectics of Nature 3d ed. Moscow: Progress, 1964 Interpretation of natural selection as necessarily 'progressive', leading to increasing 'advances' in intelligence and civilisation, was used as a justification for colonialism and policies of eugenics, as well as broader sociopolitical positions now described as Social Darwinism. Konrad Lorenz won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for his analysis of animal behavior in terms of the role of natural selection (particularly group selection). However, in Germany in 1940, in writings that he subsequently disowned, he used the theory as a justification for policies of the Nazi state. He wrote "... selection for toughness, heroism, and social utility...must be accomplished by some human institution, if mankind, in default of selective factors, is not to be ruined by domestication-induced degeneracy. The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect." Quoted in translation in Eisenberg L (2005) Which image for Lorenz? Am J Psychiatry 162:1760 Others have developed ideas that human societies and culture evolve by mechanisms that are analogous to those that apply to evolution of species. e.g. Wilson, DS (2002) Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-90134-3 More recently, work among anthropologists and psychologists has led to the development of sociobiology and later evolutionary psychology, a field that attempts to explain features of human psychology in terms of adaptation to the ancestral environment. The most prominent such example, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain is adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language. Pinker S. [1994] (1995). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. HarperCollins: New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-06-097651-9 Other aspects of human behavior and social structures, from specific cultural norms such as incest avoidance to broader patterns such as gender roles, have been hypothesized to have similar origins as adaptations to the early environment in which modern humans evolved. By analogy to the action of natural selection on genes, the concept of memes - "units of cultural transmission", or culture's equivalents of genes undergoing selection and recombination - has arisen, first described in this form by Richard Dawkins Dawkins R. [1976] (1989). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, p.192. ISBN 0-19-286092-5 and subsequently expanded upon by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett as explanations for complex cultural activities, including human consciousness. Dennett DC. (1991). Consciousness Explained. Little, Brown, and Co: New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-316-18066-1 Extensions of the theory of natural selection to such a wide range of cultural phenomena have been distinctly controversial and are not widely accepted. For example, see Rose H, Rose SPR, Jencks C. (2000). Alas, Poor Darwin: Arguments Against Evolutionary Psychology. Harmony Books. ISBN 0609605135 Information and systems theory In 1922, Alfred Lotka proposed that natural selection might be understood as a physical principle which could be described in terms of the use of energy by a system, Lotka AJ (1922a) Contribution to the energetics of evolution [PDF] Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 8:147–51Lotka AJ (1922b) Natural selection as a physical principle [PDF] Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 8:151–4 a concept that was later developed by Howard Odum as the maximum power principle whereby evolutionary systems with selective advantage maximise the rate of useful energy transformation. Such concepts are sometimes relevant in the study of applied thermodynamics. The principles of natural selection have inspired a variety of computational techniques, such as "soft" artificial life, that simulate selective processes and can be highly efficient in 'adapting' entities to an environment defined by a specified fitness function. Kauffman SA (1993) The Origin of order. Self-organization and selection in evolution. New York: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-507951-5 For example, a class of heuristic optimization algorithms known as genetic algorithms, pioneered by John Holland in the 1970s and expanded upon by David E. Goldberg, Goldberg DE. (1989). Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine Learning. Addison-Wesley: Boston, MA, USA identify optimal solutions by simulated reproduction and mutation of a population of solutions defined by an initial probability distribution. Mitchell, Melanie, (1996), An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Such algorithms are particularly useful when applied to problems whose solution landscape is very rough or has many local minima. Genetic basis of natural selection The idea of natural selection predates the understanding of genetics. We now have a much better idea of the biology underlying heritability, which is the basis of natural selection. Genotype and Phenotype See also: Genotype-phenotype distinction. Natural selection acts on an organism's phenotype, or physical characteristics. Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives. Often, natural selection acts on specific traits of an individual, and the terms phenotype and genotype are used narrowly to indicate these specific traits. When different organisms in a population possess different versions of a gene for a certain trait, each of these versions is known as an allele. It is this genetic variation that underlies phenotypic traits. A typical example is that certain combinations of genes for eye color in humans which, for instance, give rise to the phenotype of blue eyes. (On the other hand, when all the organisms in a population share the same allele for a particular trait, and this state is stable over time, the allele is said to be fixed in that population.) Some traits are governed by only a single gene, but most traits are influenced by the interactions of many genes. A variation in one of the many genes that contributes to a trait may have only a small effect on the phenotype; together, these genes can produce a continuum of possible phenotypic values. Falconer DS & Mackay TFC (1996) Introduction to Quantitative Genetics Addison Wesley Longman, Harlow, Essex, UK ISBN 0-582-24302-5 Directionality of selection When some component of a trait is heritable, selection will alter the frequencies of the different alleles, or variants of the gene that produces the variants of the trait. Selection can be divided into three classes, on the basis of its effect on allele frequencies. Rice SH. (2004). Evolutionary Theory: Mathematical and Conceptual Foundations. Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA. ISBN 0-87893-702-1 See esp. ch. 5 and 6 for a quantitative treatment. Directional selection occurs when a certain allele has a greater fitness than others, resulting in an increase in frequency of that allele. This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype. It is directional selection that is illustrated in the antibiotic resistance example above. Far more common is stabilizing selection (also known as purifying selection), which lowers the frequency of alleles that have a deleterious effect on the phenotype - that is, produce organisms of lower fitness. This process can continue until the allele is eliminated from the population. Purifying selection results in functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, being conserved over time due to selective pressure against deleterious variants. Finally, a number of forms of balancing selection exist, which do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population. This can occur in diploid species (that is, those that have two pairs of chromosomes) when heterozygote individuals, who have different alleles on each chromosome at a single genetic locus, have a higher fitness than homozygote individuals that have two of the same alleles. This is called heterozygote advantage or overdominance, of which the best-known example is the malarial resistance observed in heterozygous humans who carry only one copy of the gene for sickle cell anemia. Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favors genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of overdominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values. Finally, balancing selection can occur through frequency-dependent selection, where the fitness of one particular phenotype depends on the distribution of other phenotypes in the population. The principles of game theory have been applied to understand the fitness distributions in these situations, particularly in the study of kin selection and the evolution of reciprocal altruism. Hamilton WD. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 1-16 and 17-52. PMID 5875341 PMID 5875340 Trivers RL. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Q Rev Biol 46: 35-57. Selection and genetic variation A portion of all genetic variation is functionally neutral in that it produces no phenotypic effect or significant difference in fitness; the hypothesis that this variation accounts for a large fraction of observed genetic diversity is known as the neutral theory of molecular evolution and was originated by Motoo Kimura. Neutral variation was once thought to encompass most of the genetic variation in non-coding DNA, which was hypothesized to be composed of "junk DNA". However, more recently, the functional roles of non-coding DNA, such as the regulatory and developmental functions of RNA gene products, has been studied in depth; He L, Hannon GJ. (2004). MicroRNAs: small RNAs with a big role in gene regulation. Nat Rev Genet 5(7):522-31. PMID 15211354 large parts of non-protein-coding DNA sequences are highly conserved under strong purifying selection and thus do not vary much from individual to individual, indicating that mutations in these regions have deleterious consequences. Kryukov GV, Schmidt S & Sunyaev S (2005) Small fitness effect of mutations in highly conserved non-coding regions. Human Molecular Genetics 14:2221-9 Bejerano G, Pheasant M, Makunin I, Stephen S, Kent WJ, Mattick JS & Haussler D (2004) Ultraconserved elements in the human genome. Science 304:1321-5 When genetic variation does not result in differences in fitness, selection cannot directly affect the frequency of such variation. As a result, the genetic variation at those sites will be higher than at sites where variation does influence fitness. Mutation selection balance Natural selection results in the reduction of genetic variation through the elimination of maladapted individuals and consequently of the mutations that caused the maladaptation. At the same time, new mutations occur, resulting in a mutation-selection balance. The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavorable the mutation proves to be. Consequently, changes in the mutation rate or the selection pressure will result in a different mutation-selection balance. Genetic linkage Genetic linkage occurs when the loci of two alleles are linked, or in close proximity to each other on the chromosome. During the formation of gametes, recombination of the genetic material results in reshuffling of the alleles. However, the chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles depends on the distance between those alleles; the closer the alleles are to each other, the less likely it is that such a reshuffle will occur. Consequently, when selection targets one allele, this automatically results in selection of the other allele as well; through this mechanism, selection can have a strong influence on patterns of variation in the genome. Selective sweeps occur when an allele becomes more common in a population as a result of positive selection. As the prevalence of one allele increases, linked alleles can also become more common, whether they are neutral or even slightly deleterious. This is called genetic hitchhiking. A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are essentially the only ones that exist in the population. Whether a selective sweep has occurred or not can be investigated by measuring linkage disequilibrium, or whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Normally, genetic recombination results in a reshuffling of the different alleles within a haplotype, and none of the haplotypes will dominate the population. However, during a selective sweep, selection for a specific allele will also result in selection of neighbouring alleles. Therefore, the presence of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate that there has been a 'recent' selective sweep, and this can be used to identify sites recently under selection. Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep. If a specific site experiences strong and persistent purifying selection, linked variation will tend to be weeded out along with it, producing a region in the genome of low overall variability. Because background selection is a result of deleterious new mutations, which can occur randomly in any haplotype, it produces no linkage disequilibrium. See also Co-evolution Gene-centered view of evolution Negative selection Unit of selection Artificial selection References Further reading For technical audiences Popper, Karl (1978) Natural selection and the emergence of mind. Dialectica 32:339-55. See Sober, Elliott (1984) The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus. University of Chicago Press. Williams, George C. (1966) Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Oxford University Press. Williams George C. (1992) Natural Selection: Domains, Levels and Challenges. Oxford University Press. For general audiences Dawkins, Richard (1996) Climbing Mount Improbable. Penguin Books, ISBN 0-670-85018-7. Dennett, Daniel (1995) Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-684-82471-X. Gould, Stephen Jay (1997) Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History. Norton, ISBN 0-393-06425-5. Jones, Steve (2001) Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated. Ballantine Books ISBN 0-345-42277-5. Also published in Britain under the title Almost like a whale: the origin of species updated. Doubleday. ISBN 1-86230-025-9. Lewontin, Richard (1978) Adaptation. Scientific American 239:212-30 Weiner, Jonathan (1994) The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time. Vintage Books, ISBN 0-679-73337-X. Historical Zirkle C (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123. Kohm M (2004) A Reason for Everything: Natural Selection and the English Imagination. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-22392-3. For review, see van Wyhe J (2005) Human Nature Review 5:1-4 External links The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin - Chapter 4,Natural Selection Natural Selection- Modeling for Understanding in Science Education, University of Wisconsin Natural Selection from University of Berkeley education website

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genetic_linkage:2 linkage_disequilibrium:3 genetic_recombination:1 gene_centered:1 popper_karl:1 simon_schuster:1 faber_faber:1 external_link:1

Googolplex

A googolplex is the number 10googol, which can also be written as the number 1 followed by a googol of zeros (i.e. 10100 zeros). 1 googolplex = 10googol = 10(10100) = 1010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 History In 1938, Edward Kasner's nine-year-old nephew Milton Sirotta coined the term googol; Milton then proposed the further term googolplex to be "one, followed by writing zeroes until you get tired". Kasner decided to adopt a more formal definition "because different people get tired at different times and it would never do to have [boxing champion] Carnera be a better mathematician than Dr. Einstein, simply because he had more endurance". Size In the PBS science program Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, Episode 9: "The Lives of the Stars", astronomer and television personality Carl Sagan estimated that writing a googolplex in numerals (i.e., "10,000,000,000...") would be physically impossible, since doing so would require more space than the known universe occupies. An average book of 60 cubic inches can be printed with 5 x 105 '0's (5 characters per word, 10 words per line, 25 lines per page, 400 pages), or 8.3 × 103 '0's per cubic inch. The observable (i.e. past light cone) universe contains 6 × 1083 cubic inches (1.3 × π × (14 × 109 light year in inches)3). This implies that if the universe is stuffed with paper printed with '0's, it could only contain 5.3 × 1087 '0's—far short of a googol of '0's. Therefore a googolplex can not be written out since a googol of '0' can not fit into the observable universe. The time it would take to write such a number also renders the task implausible: if a person can write two digits per second, it would take around 1.1 × 1082 times the age of the universe (which is about 1.51 × 1092 years) to write a googolplex. Thinking of this another way, consider printing the digits of a googolplex in unreadable, one-point font. TeX one-point font is 0.35145989 mm per digit, Metric typographic units 23 February 2003. so it would take about 3.5 × 1096 meters to write a googolplex in one-point font. The visible universe is estimated to be 2.74 × 1027 meters in diameter, Britt, Robert Roy, "Universe Measured: We're 156 Billion Light-years Wide!", Space.com, 24 May 2004. so the distance required to write the necessary zeroes is longer than the estimated universe; however, going onto a new line would make this possible. One googol is also presumed to be greater than the number of hydrogen atoms in the observable universe, which has been variously estimated to be between 1079 and 1081. Mass, Size, and Density of the Universe Article from National Solar Observatory, 21 May 2001. A googol is also greater than the number of Planck times elapsed since the Big Bang, which is estimated at about 8 × 1060. Thus in the physical world it is difficult to give examples of numbers that compare closely to a googolplex. In analyzing quantum states and black holes, physicist Don Page writes that "determining experimentally whether or not information is lost down black holes of solar mass ... would require more than 101076.96 measurements to give a rough determination of the final density matrix after a black hole evaporates". Page, Don N., "Information Loss in Black Holes and/or Conscious Beings?", 25 Nov. 1994, for publication in Heat Kernel Techniques and Quantum Gravity, S. A. Fulling, ed. (Discourses in Mathematics and Its Applications, No. 4, Texas A&M University, Department of Mathematics, College Station, Texas, 1995) In a separate article, Page shows that the number of states in a black hole with a mass roughly equivalent to the Andromeda Galaxy is in the range of a googolplex. Page, Don, "How to Get a Googolplex", 3 June 2001. In pure mathematics, the magnitude of a googolplex could be related to other forms of large number notation such as tetration, Knuth's up-arrow notation, Steinhaus-Moser notation, or Conway chained arrow notation. Some sequences grow very quickly; for instance, the first two Ackermann numbers are 1 and 22 = 4; but then the third is 333, a power tower of threes more than seven trillion high. Yet, much larger still is Graham's number, perhaps the largest natural number mathematicians actually have a use for. Naming of Arbitrarily Large Numbers Even larger still is the "googol multiplex", which was defined by Paul Doyle (University of Maryland, College Park, 1981), using Knuth's up-arrow notation as , where "Gp" = a googolplex. A Turing machine formalizes the notion of a procedure or algorithm, and a busy beaver is the Turing machine of size n that can write down the biggest possible number. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BusyBeaver.html The bigger n is, the more complex the busy beaver, hence the bigger the number it can write down. For the numbers expressible are not huge, but research as of 2008 shows that for the busy beaver can write down a number at least as big as 1439. Marxen, Heiner, "Busy Beaver", 27 Oct., 2008. See also Large numbers Names of large numbers References External links

Googolplex |@lemmatized googolplex:13 number:18 also:5 write:13 follow:2 googol:7 zero:4 e:3 history:1 edward:1 kasner:2 nine:1 year:4 old:1 nephew:1 milton:2 sirotta:1 coin:1 term:2 propose:1 one:5 get:3 tired:1 decide:1 adopt:1 formal:1 definition:1 different:2 people:1 tire:1 time:4 would:8 never:1 box:1 champion:1 carnera:1 good:1 mathematician:2 dr:1 einstein:1 simply:1 endurance:1 size:3 pbs:1 science:1 program:1 cosmos:1 personal:1 voyage:1 episode:1 life:1 star:1 astronomer:1 television:1 personality:1 carl:1 sagan:1 estimate:4 numeral:1 physically:1 impossible:1 since:3 require:3 space:2 known:1 universe:10 occupies:1 average:1 book:1 cubic:3 inch:4 print:3 x:1 character:1 per:6 word:2 line:3 page:6 observable:3 past:1 light:3 cone:1 contain:2 π:1 imply:1 stuff:1 paper:1 could:2 far:1 short:1 therefore:1 fit:1 take:3 render:1 task:1 implausible:1 person:1 two:2 digit:3 second:1 around:1 age:1 thinking:1 another:1 way:1 consider:1 unreadable:1 point:3 font:3 tex:1 mm:1 metric:1 typographic:1 unit:1 february:1 meter:2 visible:1 diameter:1 britt:1 robert:1 roy:1 measure:1 billion:1 wide:1 com:2 may:2 distance:1 necessary:1 long:1 estimated:1 however:1 go:1 onto:1 new:1 make:1 possible:2 presume:1 great:2 hydrogen:1 atom:1 variously:1 mass:3 density:2 article:2 national:1 solar:2 observatory:1 planck:1 elapse:1 big:5 bang:1 thus:1 physical:1 world:1 difficult:1 give:2 example:1 compare:1 closely:1 analyze:1 quantum:2 state:2 black:5 hole:5 physicist:1 determine:1 experimentally:1 whether:1 information:2 lose:1 measurement:1 rough:1 determination:1 final:1 matrix:1 evaporate:1 n:3 loss:1 conscious:1 nov:1 publication:1 heat:1 kernel:1 technique:1 gravity:1 fulling:1 ed:1 discourse:1 mathematics:3 application:1 texas:2 university:2 department:1 college:2 station:1 separate:1 show:2 roughly:1 equivalent:1 andromeda:1 galaxy:1 range:1 june:1 pure:1 magnitude:1 relate:1 form:1 large:7 notation:5 tetration:1 knuth:2 arrow:3 steinhaus:1 moser:1 conway:1 chained:1 sequence:1 grow:1 quickly:1 instance:1 first:1 ackermann:1 third:1 power:1 tower:1 three:1 seven:1 trillion:1 high:1 yet:1 much:1 still:2 graham:1 perhaps:1 natural:1 actually:1 use:2 naming:1 arbitrarily:1 even:1 multiplex:1 define:1 paul:1 doyle:1 maryland:1 park:1 gp:1 turing:2 machine:2 formalize:1 notion:1 procedure:1 algorithm:1 busy:4 beaver:4 http:1 mathworld:1 wolfram:1 busybeaver:1 html:1 complex:1 hence:1 expressible:1 huge:1 research:1 least:1 marxen:1 heiner:1 oct:1 see:1 name:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram carl_sagan:1 cubic_inch:3 observable_universe:2 hydrogen_atom:1 big_bang:1 black_hole:5 quantum_gravity:1 andromeda_galaxy:1 knuth_arrow:2 turing_machine:2 busy_beaver:4 mathworld_wolfram:1 external_link:1

Enlil

Enlil (add the name in cuneiform please an=𒀭 shar=?), (EN = Lord + LIL = Loft, "Lord of the Open" or "Lord of the Wind") Halloran, John A.; "Sumerian Lexicon: Version 3.0"; December 10th, 2006 at http://sumerian.org/sumerlex.htm was the name of a chief deity listed and written about in ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Canaanite and other Mesopotamian clay and stone tablets. The name is perhaps pronounced and sometimes rendered in translations as Ellil in later Akkadian, Hittite, and Canaanite literature. Enlil was considered to be the god of breath, wind, loft, and breadth. Neo-Sumerian inscriptions clay, Babylonia, 1900–1700 BC, image with translations on display at http://earth-history.com/Sumer/Clay-tablets.htm Origins One story names his origins as the exhausted breath of An (god of the heavens) and Ki (goddess of the Earth) after sexual union. When Enlil was a young god, he was banished from Dilmun, home of the gods, to Kur, the underworld for raping a girl named Ninlil. Ninlil followed him to the underworld where she bore his first child, Nergal, and/or the moon god Sin (Sumerian Nanna/Suen). After fathering three more underworld deities (subtitutes for Sin), Enlil was allowed to return to Dilmun. . ^ Sumerian Mythology: A Review Article Thorkild Jacobsen Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2. (Apr., 1946), pp. 128-152. Enlil was also known as the inventor of the pickaxe/hoe (favorite tool of the Sumerians) and caused plants to grow Hooke. S.H., Middle Eastern Mythology, Dover Publications, 2004 . Cosmological role Enlil, along with Anu/An, Enki and Ninhursag were gods of the Sumerians Kramer, Samuel Noah, "The Sumerian Deluge Myth: Reviewed and Revised" Anatolian Studies, Vol. 33, Special Number in Honour of the Seventy-Fifth Birthday of Dr. Richard Barnett. (1983), pp. 115-121. . By his wife Ninlil or Sud, Enlil was father of the moon god Nanna/Suen (in Akkadian, Sin) and of Ninurta (also called Ningirsu). Enlil is the father of Nisaba the goddess of grain, of Pabilsag who is sometimes equated with Ninurta, and sometimes of Enbilulu. By Ereshkigal Enlil was father of Namtar. Cultural histories Enlil is associated with the ancient city of Nippur, sometimes referred to as the cult city of Enlil. William W. Hallo, "Review: Enki and the Theology of Eridu", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116:2 (Apr.–Jun. 1996), pp. 231–234 His temple was named Ekur, "House of the Mountain." Reallexikon der Assyriologie II, p. 385. Enlil was assimilated to the north "Pole of the Ecliptic". Jeremias, Alfred 1913. Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur. Leipzig. p. 74. His sacred number name was 50. Reallexikon der Assyriologie III. Götterzahlen. p. 500. At a very early period prior to 3000 BC, Nippur had become the centre of a political district of considerable extent. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where extensive excavations were carried on during 1888–1900 by John P Peters and John Henry Haynes, under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania, show that Enlil was the head of an extensive pantheon. Among the titles accorded to him are "king of lands", "king of heaven and earth", and "father of the gods". His chief temple at Nippur was known as Ekur, signifying 'House of the mountain', and such was the sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in embellishing and restoring Enlil's seat of worship, and the name Ekur became the designation of a temple in general. Grouped around the main sanctuary, there arose temples and chapels to the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that Ekur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of Nippur. The name "mountain house" suggests a lofty structure and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of the god on the top. Enlil was also the God of weather. According to the Sumerians, Enlil helped create the humans, but then got tired of their noise and tried to kill them by sending a flood. A mortal known as Utanapistim survived the flood through the help of another god, Ea, and he was made immortal by Enlil after Enlil's initial fury. References External links ETCSL "Enlil and Ninlil" and "Enlil and Sud": Unicode and ASCII. Gateway to Babylon: "Enlil and Ninlil", trans. Thorkild Jacobsen. ETCSL "Enlil in the Ekur": Unicode and ASCII. Houghton-Mifflin: A Hymn to the Sky-God Enlil. "The Song of the Hoe" in ETCSL—Songs, elegies and related compositions: Unicode and ASCII.

Enlil |@lemmatized enlil:23 add:1 name:10 cuneiform:1 please:1 𒀭:1 shar:1 en:1 lord:3 lil:1 loft:2 open:1 wind:2 halloran:1 john:3 sumerian:10 lexicon:1 version:1 december:1 http:2 org:1 sumerlex:1 htm:2 chief:2 deity:2 list:1 write:1 ancient:2 akkadian:3 hittite:2 canaanite:2 mesopotamian:1 clay:3 stone:1 tablet:2 perhaps:2 pronounced:1 sometimes:4 render:1 translation:2 ellil:1 late:2 literature:1 consider:1 god:13 breath:2 breadth:1 neo:1 inscription:2 babylonia:1 bc:2 image:1 display:1 earth:3 history:2 com:1 sumer:1 origins:1 one:2 story:1 origin:1 exhausted:1 heaven:2 ki:1 goddess:3 sexual:1 union:1 young:1 banish:1 dilmun:2 home:1 kur:1 underworld:3 rap:1 girl:1 ninlil:5 follow:1 bore:1 first:1 child:1 nergal:1 moon:2 sin:3 nanna:2 suen:2 father:5 three:1 subtitutes:1 allow:1 return:1 mythology:2 review:3 article:1 thorkild:2 jacobsen:2 journal:2 near:1 eastern:2 study:2 vol:2 apr:2 pp:3 also:3 know:3 inventor:1 pickaxe:1 hoe:2 favorite:1 tool:1 cause:1 plant:1 grow:1 hooke:1 h:1 middle:1 dover:1 publication:1 cosmological:1 role:1 along:1 anu:1 enki:2 ninhursag:1 kramer:1 samuel:1 noah:1 deluge:1 myth:1 revise:1 anatolian:1 special:1 number:2 honour:1 seventy:1 fifth:1 birthday:1 dr:1 richard:1 barnett:1 wife:1 sud:2 ninurta:2 call:1 ningirsu:1 nisaba:1 grain:1 pabilsag:1 equate:1 enbilulu:1 ereshkigal:1 namtar:1 cultural:1 associate:1 city:3 nippur:6 refer:1 cult:1 william:1 w:1 hallo:1 theology:1 eridu:1 american:1 oriental:1 society:1 jun:1 temple:4 ekur:5 house:3 mountain:4 reallexikon:2 der:3 assyriologie:2 ii:1 p:4 assimilate:1 north:1 pole:1 ecliptic:1 jeremias:1 alfred:1 handbuch:1 altorientalischen:1 geisteskultur:1 leipzig:1 sacred:3 iii:1 götterzahlen:1 early:1 period:1 prior:1 become:3 centre:1 political:1 district:1 considerable:1 extent:1 find:1 extensive:2 excavation:1 carry:1 peter:1 henry:1 haynes:1 auspex:1 university:1 pennsylvania:1 show:1 head:1 pantheon:1 among:1 title:1 accord:2 king:2 land:1 signify:1 sanctity:1 acquire:1 edifice:1 babylonian:1 assyrian:1 ruler:1 day:1 vie:1 another:2 embellish:1 restore:1 seat:1 worship:1 designation:2 general:1 group:1 around:1 main:1 sanctuary:1 arose:1 chapel:1 form:1 court:1 entire:1 precinct:1 suggest:1 lofty:1 structure:1 originally:1 staged:1 tower:1 build:1 imitation:1 shrine:1 top:1 weather:1 help:2 create:1 human:1 get:1 tire:1 noise:1 try:1 kill:1 send:1 flood:2 mortal:1 utanapistim:1 survive:1 ea:1 make:1 immortal:1 initial:1 fury:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 etcsl:3 unicode:3 ascii:3 gateway:1 babylon:1 trans:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 hymn:1 sky:1 song:2 elegy:1 related:1 composition:1 |@bigram sumerian_akkadian:1 clay_tablet:1 dover_publication:1 kramer_samuel:1 reallexikon_der:2 handbuch_der:1 sacred_precinct:1 external_link:1 houghton_mifflin:1

Kidneys,_ureters,_and_bladder_x-ray

In medicine, KUB refers to a diagnostic medical imaging technique and stands for kidneys, ureters, and bladder. A KUB is a plain frontal supine radiograph of the abdomen. It is often supplemented by an upright PA view of the chest (to rule out air under the diaphragm or thoracic etiologies presenting as abdominal complaints) and a standing view of the abdomen (to differentiate obstruction from ileus by examining gastrointestinal air/water levels). Despite its name, a KUB is not typically used to investigate pathology of the kidneys, ureters, or bladder, since these structures are difficult to assess (for example, the kidneys may not be visible due to overlying bowel gas.) In order to assess these structures with X-ray, a technique called an intravenous pyelogram is utilized. KUB is typically used to investigate gastrointestinal conditions such as a bowel obstruction and gallstones, and can detect the presence of kidney stones. The KUB is often used to diagnose constipation as stool can be seen readily. The KUB is also used to assess positioning of indwelling devices such as ureteric stents and nasogastric tubes. KUB is also a routine projection done as a scout film for other procedures such as barium enemas. Actually, the KUB should be called a KUBU, the last U standing for "Urethra". Commonly, it is still referred to as KUB only. It should include on the upright projections both right and left visualizations of the diaphragm. In at least one projection, the symphysis pubis must be present as the lower end of the area of interest. If the patient is large, more than one film loaded in the Bucky in a "landscape" direction may be used for each projection. This is done to ensure that the majority of bowel can be reviewed.

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America_the_Beautiful

"America the Beautiful" is an American patriotic song. The words are written by Katharine Lee Bates and the music composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward. Bates originally wrote the words as a poem, Pikes Peak, first published in the July 4th edition of the church periodical The Congretionalist in 1895. The poem was titled America for publication. As for the music, Ward had originally written the music Materna, for the old hymn, O Mother Dear, Jerusalem, in 1882. Ward's music combined with the Bates poem, was first published in 1910 and titled America the Beautiful. The song is one of the most beloved and popular of the many American patriotic songs. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100010615/full.html From time to time it has been proposed as a replacement for The Star-Spangled Banner as the National Anthem. History In 1893, at the age of thirty-three Katharine Lee Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 4; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Zebulon's Pikes Peak. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in The Congregationalist, to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1913. Several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem. A hymn tune composed by Samuel A. Ward was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward too was inspired to compose his tune. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home in New York City, after a leisurely summer day in 1882, and he immediately wrote it down. He was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on, thus perhaps the off the cuff analogy. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates' poem were first published together in 1910 and titled, America the Beautiful. http://209.85.173.132/search?q=cache:B6A_mmftHFYJ:www.cameronsbrown.com/Resources/Other/america%2520the%2520beautiful.pdf+o+mother+dear+jerusalem+august+ward&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ca Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain, as the music was only first applied to the song in 1904. Miss Bates was more fortunate, as the song's popularity was well-established by her death in 1929. At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn, or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner." Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. (Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason.) While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans. Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11, 2001 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the Late Show with David Letterman following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse. Ray Charles is credited with the song's most well known rendition in current times (although Elvis Presley had good success with it in the 1970s). His recording is very commonly played at major sporting events, such as the Super Bowl; Charles gave a live performance of the song prior to Super Bowl XXXV, the last Super Bowl played before the September 11 terrorist attacks. His unique take on it places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. In the third verse (see below), the author scolds the materialistic and self-serving robber barons of her day, and urges America to live up to its noble ideals and to honor, with both word and deed, the memory of those who died for their country. Symbolically, Marian Anderson (a noted opera singer of her day) sang a rendition of America on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1939 after being refused use of Constitution Hall by the Daughters of the American Revolution because of her skin color. When Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China in 1972, this song was played by Chinese as the welcome music. Interestingly, the Chinese characters for United States literally mean "Beautiful Country." The song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the United States. Idioms "From sea to shining sea" is an American idiom meaning from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean (or vice versa). Many songs have used this term, including the American patriotic songs "America, The Beautiful" and "God Bless the USA". In addition to these, it is also featured in Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". Although the United States has borders with the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, the phrase refers only to the West and East coasts of the Continental U.S. A term similar to this is the Canadian motto A Mari Usque Ad Mare ("From sea to sea.") See also Manifest Destiny. Popular culture A song as popular and familiar as "America the Beautiful" inevitably gets used out of its proper context or time frame, for humorous effect. Some examples: It is featured in the post-apocalyptic game Fallout 3, often played by Enclave Radio, a radio station claiming to broadcast "the voice of America", mingled with other well-known patriotic American tunes. In 1971, the song inspired the cross-country Cannonball Baker Sea-To-Shining-Sea Memorial Trophy Dash race from New York to Los Angeles that later was the topic of several movies with Burt Reynolds In The Muppet Movie (1979), Fozzie Bear sings the tune straightforwardly, then declares, "Patriotism swells in the heart of the American bear." A Far Side cartoon from 1982 (reprinted in Sherr's book) shows Christopher Columbus nearing land, with his crew of conquistador types, and saying, "Look, gentlemen! Purple mountains! Spacious skies! Fruited plains! ... Is someone writing this down?" In one of his comedy club routines in the early 1960s, Flip Wilson did a Columbus story with an African-American twist... ironically, the catchphrase repeated by Queen Isabel (an early "Geraldine") is "Chris gon' find Ray Charles!" When his Columbus sees land, he comments, "It's America, all right... just look at those spacious skies... those amber waves of grain... dig that purple mountain's majesty... I'll bet there's fruit out there on the plain!" In his satirical, musical record album, The United States of America, Volume 1, Stan Freberg plays Columbus, Jesse White plays a skeptical King Ferdinand, and Colleen Collins does Queen Isabella (mimicking Tallulah Bankhead), resulting in this bit of dialogue: Ferdinand: Look at him in that hat! Is that a crazy sailor? Isabella: Crazy? I'll tell you how crazy! He's a man with a dream, a vision, a vision of a new world, whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears, with purple mountain majesties above the Two Cents Plain . . . Ferdinand and Columbus: Fruited! Isabella: Fruited. Mel Brooks, on a talk show, once did an impression of how Frank Sinatra might sing the song, complete with tuxedo, black hat and coat, and cigarette, leaning up against a bar, and rendering the song in "lounge style". Mel Brooks also featured it in his 1968 film, The Producers, where Franz Liebkind, a Nazi refugee, sings the first verse to Max Bialystock and Leo Bloom to prove he is a patriotic American. George Carlin performed a satirical version on his 1972 album Class Clown, when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic: Oh beautiful, for smoggy skies, insecticided grain For strip-mined mountain's majesty above the asphalt plain. America, America, man sheds his waste on thee And hides the pines with billboard signs, from sea to oily sea! The Chicago-based death metal band Master recorded a parody of "America the Beautiful" on their 1991 album On the Seventh Day God Created...Master but instead called it "America the Pitiful". Two Gallants wrote the song "Waves of Grain" which satires the original America The Beautiful. Neil Young recorded a (presumably non-ironic) version for his 2006 folk-rock protest album "Living with War" which criticizes the Bush Administration. In the song "The Decline" by NOFX, the lyrics in the first verse are 'Bred on purple mountain range, feed amber waves of grains to lesser human beings'. Prince's 1985 song America, samples this song in the chorus. The next line is replaced with "America! America! Keep the children free!" Lyrics Note: some sources omit the second verse and substitute its refrain for that of the fourth verse. The United Methodist Hymnal © 1989 O beautiful, for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea. O beautiful, for pilgrim feet Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God mend thine ev'ry flaw; Confirm thy soul in self control, thy liberty in law! O beautiful, for heroes proved In liberating strife, Who more than self their country loved And mercy more than life! America! America! May God thy gold refine, Till all success be nobleness, and ev'ry gain divine! O beautiful, for patriot dream That sees beyond the years, Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea! Books Lynn Sherr's 2001 book America the Beautiful discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. ISBN 1-58648-085-5. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Barbara Younger has written a children's book about the writing of the song: Purple Mountain Majesties: The Story of Katharine Lee Bates and "America the Beautiful". The book has illustrations by artist Stacey Schuett. References Sources/external links Free sheet music in PDF format. MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress 1913 Lyrics (eight stanzas) Lyrics (four stanzas) Midi file of America the Beautiful from NetHymnal America the Beautiful in today's news media. Biography of the songwriter, Katharine Lee Bates, part of a Series poet's biographies. America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words. Page with lyrical transcription and low fidelity recording of Ray Charles's version of the song

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midi:1 file:1 nethymnal:1 news:1 medium:1 biography:2 songwriter:1 part:1 series:1 poet:1 park:1 name:1 page:1 lyrical:1 transcription:1 low:1 fidelity:1 |@bigram katharine_lee:5 pike_peak:2 loc_gov:1 colorado_spring:2 columbian_exposition:1 coney_island:1 hl_en:1 ct_clnk:1 gl_ca:1 star_spangle:4 spangle_banner:4 easily_recognizable:1 david_letterman:1 elvis_presley:1 super_bowl:3 bowl_xxxv:1 robber_baron:1 richard_nixon:1 pacific_ocean:1 atlantic_ocean:1 vice_versa:1 arctic_ocean:1 gulf_mexico:1 usque_ad:1 manifest_destiny:1 post_apocalyptic:1 memorial_trophy:1 los_angeles:1 burt_reynolds:1 christopher_columbus:1 queen_isabella:1 tallulah_bankhead:1 mel_brook:2 frank_sinatra:1 george_carlin:1 ev_ry:2 external_link:1

Griffith's_experiment

Griffith's experiment discovering the "transforming principle" in pneumococcus bacteria. Pneumococci in culture, rough form (left), smooth form (right Griffith's experiment, conducted in 1928 by Frederick Griffith, was one of the first experiments suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation. Griffith used two strains of Pneumococcus (which infects mice), a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system, resulting in the death of the host, while the II-R strain doesn't have that protective capsule and is defeated by the host's immune system. A German bacteriologist, Fred Neufeld, had discovered the three pneumococcal types (Types I, II, and III) and discovered the Quellung reaction to identify them in vitro. Lehrer, Steven. Explorers of the Body. 2nd edition 2006 p 44 Until Griffith's experiment, bacteriologists believed that the types were fixed and unchangeable, from one generation to another. In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither alone harmed the mice, the combination was able to kill its host. Griffith was also able to isolate both live II-R and live III-S strains of pneumococcus from the blood of these dead mice. Griffith concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria. Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith observed was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the protective polysaccharide capsule. Equipped with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host. The exact nature of the transforming principle (DNA) was verified in the experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty and by Hershey and Chase. See also Genetics Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment Hershey-Chase experiment References Cited (References the original experiment by Griffith. Original article and 35th anniversary reprint available.'') References: Books 854 pages. ISBN 0-7637-1511-5.

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John_Jellicoe,_1st_Earl_Jellicoe

Admiral of the Fleet John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, GCB, OM, GCVO (5 December 1859 – 20 November 1935) was a British Royal Navy admiral who commanded the Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland in World War I. His handling of the fleet at Jutland remains controversial. Jellicoe later served as First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, but he was removed by a new First Lord because of differences over policy and Britain's ability to carry on the war. Early career He was born in Southampton into a seafaring family. He joined the Royal Navy as a cadet in 1872. His first active service was during the Egyptian War of 1882. He was appointed to the Admiralty in 1888. Jellicoe was an intelligent and dedicated officer. Popular with his crews, he was very concerned with the well-being and morale of his sailors. He was also a micro manager, driving himself to the point of exhaustion at times. Promoted to commander in 1891, Jellicoe was the executive officer (i.e. second in command) of HMS Victoria when she was accidentally rammed and sunk with heavy loss of life in the Mediterranean in 1893. Jellicoe had a number of commands in the 1890s,and was promoted to the rank of Captain in 1897. In 1900, he was part of the command for the land relief of Beijing during the Boxer Rebellion, the First Peking Relief Expedition. He showed conspicuous bravery at this time and was seriously wounded. Director of Naval Ordnance Under Admiral John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher, Jellicoe was Director of Naval Ordnance (1905-1907) and then Controller of the Navy (1908-1910). Jellicoe had been promoted to Rear-Admiral in 1907 during his tenure as Director of Naval Ordnance. He pushed hard for funds to modernise the navy, supporting the construction of new classes of dreadnought battleships and submarines. Jellicoe became very knowledgeable about his profession, much more so than most of his contemporaries, especially appreciating the strong points of the Kaiserliche Marine (German navy). He supported F. C. Dreyer's improvements in gunnery fire-control systems, and favoured the adoption of Dreyer's "Fire Control Table", a form of mechanical computer for calculating firing solutions for warships. In a letter to Admiral Fisher dated 4 December 1911, Admiral Francis Bridgeman gave a shrewd summation of Jellicoe's most serious faults as he saw them at the time of his next promotion, to Vice-Admiral: "Directly I go, up he comes automatically to command of the 2nd Division, and a splendid opportunity for him! He has no experience of fleet work on a big scale, and is so extremely anxious about the work in it, that he really does too much. He must learn to work his captains and staff more, and himself less! At present he puts himself in the position of, say, a glorified gunnery lieutenant. This will not do when he gets a big fleet. He must trust his staff and captains, and if they don’t fit, he must kick them out! I am sure you will agree with me on this view, and I wish, if you get the opportunity, you would drop him a hint. He would take it from you, but perhaps not from me." World War I In 1911 Jellicoe became deputy to George Callaghan, the Commander of the British Home Fleet. At the start of World War I, 4 August 1914, Callaghan was prematurely put on the shelf by First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. Vice-Admiral Jellicoe was promoted to Admiral and assigned command of the renamed Grand Fleet in Admiral Callaghan's place, though he was appalled by the treatment of his predecessor. Churchill described Jellicoe later as 'the only man on either side who could lose the war in an afternoon'. Jellicoe was in command of the British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland (1916), the greatest clash of big-gun armoured warships ever. His handling of the Grand Fleet during the Battle remains controversial, with some historians faulting the battle cruiser commander, Admiral David Beatty, and others criticizing Jellicoe. However, Jellicoe certainly made no significant mistakes during the battle: based on limited intelligence, he correctly deployed the Grand Fleet with a turn to port, so as to "cross the T" of the German High Seas Fleet as it appeared. After suffering heavy shell damage the German fleet turned 180 degrees and headed away from the battle. Some critics claimed that he did not pursue the High Seas Fleet because he overestimated the danger from a massed attack by enemy destroyers. At the time the public were disappointed that the Royal Navy had not won a victory on the scale of Trafalgar, while the loss of more ships and men than the High Seas Fleet initially gave the impression of a German victory. Nevertheless Britain's fleet remained in strategic command of the sea, while Germany's fleet was almost entirely confined to port. At Jutland his Flag-Captain aboard the Flagship HMS Iron Duke was Dreyer. Admiral Jellicoe was appointed First Sea Lord in November 1916, and turned over command of the Grand Fleet to Admiral David Beatty. His term of office in 1917 saw Britain brought within danger of starvation by German Unrestricted U-Boat Warfare. Although modern writers tend to discount Lloyd George's self-serving claims to have imposed convoys onto a reluctant Admiralty (merchant ships traveling in groups, protected by warships - naval opinion had originally wrongly believed that this would make them a greater target), Jellicoe's pessimism (he doubted Britain's capacity to carry on fighting, a policy to which Lloyd George, whatever his quarrels with the generals, was committed) cost him the confidence of the Prime Minister. On Christmas Eve 1917, Admiral Jellicoe was rather abruptly dismissed as First Sea Lord by the new First Lord of the Admiralty, Sir Eric Campbell Geddes and was succeeded by Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss - who was to be present as the British representative when the Germans were granted an armistice by the Allied Generalissimo, Marshal Foch, in November 1918. Jellicoe was made a Viscount in 1918 and was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet in April 1919, along with David Beatty. Admiral of the Fleet the Viscount Jellicoe served as Governor-General of New Zealand from September 1920 to November 1924. On his return to England in 1925, he was made an Earl. He died in November, 1935 and his estate was probated at 13,370 pounds sterling. He was succeeded in the Earldom by his only son George, then styled Viscount Brocas. Jellicoe was a controversial figure after the war in British naval circles, with persons tending to be supporters of him or of Beatty. Part of his problem was a reluctance to engage in the political manoeuvring needed in such a post. Chronology (from The Royal Navy List, London, January 1916, and DNB and ODNB). Born 5 December 1859; Entered Navy 15 July 1872, to HMS Britannia, on the River Dart; passed out top of his term, promoted midshipman; joined wooden steam fully rigged frigate, HMS Newcastle of the flying squadron, September 1874-early 1877; joined HMS Agincourt, flagship of the channel squadron, July 1877; six months on HMS Alexandra, flagship of the Mediterranean, as signal sub-lieutenant; promoted Lieutenant, three firsts, 23 August 1880; specialized in gunnery; returned to HMS Agincourt, February 1881; Lieutenant of HMS Agincourt during Egyptian war, from May 1882 (Egyptian Medal, Khedive's Bronze Star); received prize of 80 pounds, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 1883; appointed to staff of HMS Excellent gunnery school, gunnery lieutenant, May 1884; awarded Board of Trade Silver Medal, May 1886 (on rescuing the crew of a capsized steamer near Gibraltar) when on HMS Monarch, a gunnery lieutenant; joined HMS Colossus, April 1886; in charge of HMS Excellent experimental department 6 December 1886 - 10 May 1888; assistant to Director of Naval Ordnance, 1888-91; promoted commander, June 1891; joined Mediterranean Fleet at Malta in HMS Sans Pareil; wrecked in HMS Victoria (when it collided with HMS Camperdown), Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon's flag-ship, when the Admiral, 21 officers and 350 men drowned, off Tripoli, 22 June 1893; was wounded in Admiral Sir E. H. Seymour's expedition to relieve the Legations at Pekin, June-July 1900, when he was Chief Staff Officer; C.B. for services rendered during this expedition, November 1900; Naval Assistant to Controller of the Navy, February 1902- August 1904; marries, in London, July 1902; Captain of HMS Drake, Cruiser Squadron, August 1903-January 1905; Decorated by the German Emperor with 2nd class of the Red Eagle, with Crossed Swords, 1902; CVO, 1904; Director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes, 1 February 1905, to August 1907; K.C.V.O., on occasion of Review of the Home Fleet in the Solent by HM King Edward VII, 3 August 1907; Aide-de-Camp to the King, 8 March 1906 to 8 February 1907; Rear-Admiral 8 February 1907; Rear-Admiral in the Atlantic Fleet, second-in-command, August 1907 to August 1908, flag hoisted on HMS Albemarle; a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty and Controller of the Navy, October 1908; appointed Vice-Admiral commanding Atlantic Fleet, 20 December 1910, flag hoisted on HMS Prince of Wales (1902), holding temporary acting rank until... appointed Vice-Admiral on 18 September 1911; K.C.B., on the Coronation of King George V, 19 June 1911; Vice-Admiral commanding Second of the 'Red' Fleet during the Naval Manoevres July-August 1913, with his flag in HMS Thunderer, retaining his seat at the Admiralty Board; Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleets, 4 August 1914, with acting rank of Admiral; on promotion to Admiral, was appointed by Order in Council (London Gazette, 9 March 1915), 'to retain seniority as Admiral of 4 August 1914, while holding his present command'. Battle of Jutland, 31 May 1916; HMS Hampshire sank with Lord Kitchener aboard, 5 June 1916; left Grand Fleet, 28 November 1916; arrived Admiralty, as First Sea Lord, 4 December 1916; sacked, 24 December 1917; enobled as Viscount Jellicoe, of Scapa, 15 January 1918; son and heir born, 4 April 1918; promoted to Admiral of the Fleet, and awarded 50,000 pounds, January 1919; left England for his year long mission to and tour of the Dominions aboard HMS New Zealand, 21 February 1919 - 4 February 1920. sailed for New Zealand, August 1920; re-embarked for home, November 1924; advanced to rank of Earl, June 1925. Dies Novemebr 1935 leaving effects valued at £13,363 2s 5d. Residences A bust of Jellicoe rests on Trafalgar Square in London, alongside those of Beatty and Andrew Cunningham, Admiral of the Fleet in World War II. A blue plaque stands on the wall of his house in Blacklands Terrace (25 Draycott Place), Chelsea, London. Some of Jellicoe's London residences: 14, Highbury Place, Islington, N.1. (house of JRJ's great-grandfather, Adam Jellicoe, who died there 30 August 1789) 67, Talgarth Road, Fulham, W.14. (visitor, 1891 census); 33, Hans Mansions, Hans Crescent, S.W.1. (above Harrods), (c1903); 25, Draycott Place, Cadogan Gardens, S.W.3. (c1905-1907); 29, Sussex Square, Hyde Park, W.2. (c1914,1916, 1919); 80, Portland Place, W.1. (c1926-1929); 19, Princes Gardens, S.W.7. (c1930); 39, Egerton Gardens, Chelsea, S.W. (dies there 20/11/1935). Two of Jellicoe's childhood homes in Southampton: 39, Anglesea Place, All Saints, Southampton (1861, census); 1, Essex Park Terrace, St. Mary, Southampton (1871, census); 12, Portland Terrace, Southampton (1909, an aunt, Miss Jellicoe). Ancestors +Some of Admiral Jellicoe's ancestors John Rushworth Jellicoe (1859-1935) Captain John Henry Jellicoe (1825-1914) of Southampton Samuel Jellicoe (1788-1861), contractor/banker of Millbrook (Hants) then 12, Portland Terrace, All Saints, Southampton. Samuel Jellicoe (c1758-1843), ironmaster/contractorof Fontley, then Uplands House, Fareham, then of Brighthelmstone, Brighton. Catherine Lee Elizabeth Jane Whalley (Smythe Gardiner) (1792-1872), also of 30 Portland Street, Southampton Sir James Whalley Smythe Gardiner, 2nd Bt. (d.1805) of Clerk Hill, Whalley, Lancs., & Tackley, & Cuddesdon (Oxon), & Roche Court, Fareham Jane Master Lucy Henrietta Keele (1834-1916) Dr. John Rushworth Keele (1787-1856) Mayor of Southampton 1823-26 John Keele (1760-1835) surgeon of Southampton & Hythe Elizabeth Rushworth (1761-1817), daughter of Capt. Edward Rushworth, RN, sister of Edward Rushworth, MP Constantia Patton (1798-1854) Admiral of the Red Philip Patton (1739-1815) of Fareham Elizabeth Dixon Legacy The junior boarding house at Bearwood College, Winnersh, UK, is named after Jellicoe. References Vanity Fair, 26 December 1906. (MXLVI). (Men of the Day : 'Naval Ordnance', Captain John Rushworth Jellicoe, RN). The Life of John Rushworth, Earl Jellicoe, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O, L.L.D., D.C.L., by Admiral Sir R. H. Bacon, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., D.S.O., Cassell, London, Toronto, Melbourne & Sydney, 1936. Geoffrey Callender in The Dictionary of National Biography, OUP, 1949. Jellicoe, by John Winton, Michael Joseph, London, 1981. Andrew Lambert in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, OUP, 2004-7. The First Sea Lords from Fisher to Mountbatten by Malcolm H. Murfett. Westport. ISBN 0-275-94231-7 The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734 - 1995. Heathcote T. A. Pen & Sword Ltd. ISBN 0 85052 835 6 External links John Jellicoe at Find-A-Grave |-

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Endangered_species

The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that is critically endangered; three subspecies of tiger are already extinct. Sundarbans tiger project. Tiger extinction information is found in the website's section on tigers. An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. An endangered species is usually a taxonomic species, but may be another evolutionary significant unit. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006. IUCN Red-list statistics (2006) (Note: the IUCN groups all threatened species for their summary purposes.) Many nations have laws offering protection to conservation reliant species: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves. Only a few of the many species at risk of extinction actually make it to the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more piespecies become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice. Conservation status The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that endangered species not living. Many factors are taken into account when assessing the conservation status of a species; not simply the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on. The IUCN Red List is the best known conservation status listing. Internationally, 194 countries have signed an accord agreeing to create Biodiversity Action Plans to protect endangered and other threatened species. In the United States this plan is usually called a species Recovery Plan. IUCN Red List Endangered species Endangered species under the IUCN Red List refers to a specific category of threatened species, and may include critically endangered species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species uses the term endangered species as a specific category of imperilment, rather than as a general term. Under the IUCN Categories and Criteria, endangered species is between critically endangered and vulnerable. Also critically endangered species may also be counted as endangered species and fill all the criteria The more general term used by the IUCN for species at risk of extinction is threatened species, which also includes the less-at-risk category of vulnerable species together with endangered and c an animal can help the environment in a spactaullar way IUCN categories include: Extinct: the last remaining member of the species has died, or is presumed beyond reasonable doubt to have died. Examples: Thylacine, Dodo, Passenger Pigeon, Caribbean Monk Seal Extinct in the wild: captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples:South China Tiger, Alagoas Curassow Critically endangered: faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Examples: Arakan Forest Turtle, Javan Rhino, Brazilian Merganser, Gharial Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Blue Whale, Giant Panda, Snow Leopard, African Wild Dog, Tiger, Albatross, Crowned Solitary Eagle, Dhole Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: Cheetah, Gaur, Lion, Sloth Bear, Wolverine, Manatee Conservation Dependent: The following animal is not severely threatened, but the animal must depend on conservation programs. Examples: Spotted Hyena, Leopard Shark, Black Caiman Near Threatened: may be considered threatened in the near future. Examples: Blue-billed Duck, Solitary Eagle, Small-clawed Otter , Maned Wolf Least Concern: no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: Brown Rat, Nootka Cypress, Wood Pigeon, Harp Seal United States "Endangered" in relation to "threatened" under the ESA. Under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, "endangered" is the more protected of the two categories. The Salt Creek tiger beetle (Cicindela nevadica lincolniana) is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. In the United States alone, the “number of known species threatened with extinction is ten times higher than the number protected under the Endangered Species Act” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 414). The US Fish and Wildlife Service as well as the National Marine Fisheries Service are held responsible for classifying and protecting endangered species, yet, adding a particular species to the list is a long, controversial process and in reality it represents only a fraction of imperiled plant and animal life (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 414). Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of controversy include: criteria for placing a species on the endangered species list, and criteria for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered; whether restrictions on land development constitute a "taking" of land by the government; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of uses of their lands; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws. Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with listing species is its effect of inciting the use of the "shoot, shovel, and shut-up" method of clearing endangered species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive a diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal on it. They have allegedly opted to silently kill and bury the animals or destroy habitat, thus removing the problem from their land, but at the same time further reducing the population of an endangered species. The effectiveness of the Endangered Species Act, which coined the term "endangered species", has been questioned by business advocacy groups and their publications, but is nevertheless widely recognized as an effective recovery tool by wildlife scientists who work with the species. Nineteen species have been delisted and recovered and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States have a recovering or stable population. Success Stories for Endangered Species Act Currently, 1,556 known species in the world have been identified as endangered, or near extinction, and are under protection by government law (Glenn, 2006, Webpage). This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the number of species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of such laws as the Endangered Species Act. According to NatureServe’s global conservation status, approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 415-416). Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of the United States’ known animals, fungi, and plants are near extinction (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416). This total is substantially more than the number of species protected under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, which means numerous species are inching closer and closer toward extinction. Question of ethics Even in the search to learn more about these species, many ecologists do not take into consideration the impact they leave on the environment and its inhabitants. It is apparent that the “quest for ecological knowledge, which is so critical for informing efforts to understand and conserve Earth’s biodiversity along with valued ecosystem goods and services, frequently raises complex ethical questions”, Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 332 and there is no clear way to identify and resolve these issues. Environmentalists tend to focus on the whole ecological sphere instead of the welfare of individual animals. Focusing on such a broad view tends to diminish the value of each individual creature. “Biodiversity conservation is currently a principle goal for resource management of 11.5% of the world’s surface area.” Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p. 179 Large portions of life occur outside these protected areas and must be taken into consideration if the conservation of endangered species is going to be effective. Impact on biodiversity and endangered species In order to conserve the biodiversity of the planet, one must take into consideration the reasons why so many species are becoming endangered. “Habitat loss is the most widespread cause of species endangerment in the U.S., affecting 85% of imperiled species” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416). When an animal’s ecosystem is not maintained, they lose their home and are either forced to adapt to new surroundings or perish. Pollution is another factor that causes many species to become endangered, especially a large proportion of aquatic life. Also, overexploitation, disease (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416), and climate change (Kotiaho et al., 2005, p. 1963) have led to the endangerment of several species. However, the most important factor leading to the endangerment of the majority of wildlife in the world is the human impact on the species and their environment. “As human use of resources, energy, and space intensified over the past few centuries, the diversity of life has been substantially diminished in most parts of the world” (Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). Basically, as the human impact on the environment increases, the diversity of life decreases. Humans are constantly using the resources and space of other species for themselves, negatively impacting the survival rate of many creatures. Humans have also set standards for which species they think should be saved and which species they find unimportant. For example, the coqui frog in Hawaii is so common that its “nocturnal singing” reduces the value of homes and prevents hotels from using rooms near forests. Hawaiians have proposed eliminating the frog, and several wildlife managers want to release a pathogen to kill the frogs (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The frog decreased the value of homes and lost business for several hotels, so the Hawaiians figured it was acceptable to get rid of the group of coqui frog living near them, without taking into consideration the environmental impact of destroying the species. Another example where the human impact affected the welfare of a species was in the instance of non-native mute swans establishing themselves at Arrowhead Lake in Vermont. When the population of swans grew to eight birds, the Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department decided to take action. Two swans were eventually killed, angering animal welfare organizations and people living near the lake (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The case of the Arrowhead Lake swans demonstrates what one considers the natural environment based on human assumptions. Simply because the swans were not normally living there does not mean it is not part of their natural habitat, and there is certainly no reason for them to be destroyed because of human dissatisfaction. Yet another example of the human impact in the lives of endangered species is that of the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse. Research has shown that the mouse is not taxonomically different from the Bear Lodge meadow jumping mouse and the US Fish and Wildlife Service has proposed removing the Preble’s mouse from the endangered species list based on this information (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). This example brings into consideration the role of science in determining the maintenance of a species. It brings into questions whether scientific evidence should be the only resource used to support conservation of biodiversity. A final example of the human impact on existing species is the issue of toe clipping in ecological research. While ecologists are doing research on different species to advance their knowledge of methods of conservation, they must take into consideration the impact they have on the wildlife they are studying. Toe clipping “has been reported to result in a number of adverse effects on the animals, including inflammation and infection of the feet and limbs” (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 334). This example demonstrates how humans must take into consideration the wellbeing of the animal even before they perform research to help conserve the species. The human impact on species and their environments has many negative effects. It is important for humans to help maintain all species in the world and not deter their development. Species maintaining importance== “Diversity of life and living systems are a necessary condition for human development” (Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). Many question the importance of maintaining biodiversity in today’s world, where conservation efforts prove costly and time consuming. The fact is that the preservation of all species is necessary for human survival. Species should be saved for “aesthetic and moral justifications; the importance of wild species as providers of products and services essential to human welfare; the value of particular species as indicators of environmental health or as keystone species crucial to the functioning of ecosystems; and the scientific breakthroughs that have come from the study of wild organisms” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418). In other words, species serve as a source of art and entertainment, provide products such as medicine for human wellbeing, indicate the welfare of the overall environment and ecosystem, and provided research that resulted in scientific discoveries. An example of an “aesthetic justification” in conserving endangered species is that of the introduction of the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park. The gray wolf has brought numerous amounts of tourists to the park and added to the biodiversity in the protected region (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418). Another example, supporting the conservation of endangered species as providers of products for human wellbeing, is the scrub mint. It has been found that the scrub mint contains an antifungal agent and a natural insecticide (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418). Also, the deterioration of the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon “alerted people to the potential health hazards associated with the widespread spraying of DDT and other persistent pesticides” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418). This serves as an example of how certain fish can serve as identifiers of environmental health and protect human life as well as other species. Finally, an example of species providing for scientific discoveries is the instance of the Pacific yew which “became the source of taxol, one of the most potent anticancer compounds ever discovered” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418-419). Endangered species could prove useful to human development, maintenance of biodiversity and preservation of ecosystems. Helping preserve endangered species It is the goal of conservationists to create and expand upon ways to preserve endangered species and maintain biodiversity. There are several ways in which one can aid in preserving the world’s species who are nearing extinction. One such way is obtaining more information on different groups of species, especially invertebrates, fungi, and marine organisms, where sufficient data is lacking. For example, to understand the causes of population declines and extinction an experiment was conducted on the butterfly population in Finland. In this analysis, the butterflies’ endangered list classification, distribution, density, larval specificity, dispersal ability, adult habitat breadth, flight period and body size were all recorded and examined to determine the threatened state of each species. It was found that the butterflies’ distribution has declined by fifty-one and a half percent, and they have a severely restricted habitat. One example of specific butterflies who have a declining distribution rate are the Frigga’s Fritillary and Grizzled Skipper, who have been affected by habitat loss due to extensive draining of the bogs where they live (Kotiaho et al., 2005, p. 1963-1967). This experiment proves that when we know the causes of endangerment, we can successfully create solutions for the management of biodiversity. Another way to help preserve endangered species is to create a new professional society dedicated to ecological ethics. This could help ecologists make ethical decisions in their research and management of biodiversity. Also, creating more awareness on environmental ethics can help encourage species preservation. “Courses in ethics for students, and training programs for ecologists and biodiversity managers” all could create environmental awareness and prevent violations of ethics in research and management (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 336). One final way in which one can conserve endangered species is through federal agency investments and protection enacted by the federal government. “Ecologists have proposed biological corridors, biosphere reserves, ecosystem management, and ecoregional planning as approaches to integrate biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic development at increasingly larger spatial scales” (Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). One example of a federal mandated conservation zone is the Northwest Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, the largest marine protected area in the world. The monument is essential to the preservation of underwater communities and overfished regions. Only researchers working in the area are permitted to fish, no corals may be removed, and the Department of Homeland Security will enforce restrictions on vessels passing through the waters via satellite imaging. The monument will serve as a home to an estimated seven thousand species, most of which cannot be found anywhere else in the world (Raloff, 2006, p. 92). This environmental monument demonstrates the fact that it is possible to create a safe environment for endangered species, as well as maintaining some of the world’s largest ecosystems. Captive breeding programs Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife preserves, zoos and other conservation facilities. This technique has been used with great success for many species for some time, with probably the oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, a case in point being the Pere David's Deer. However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for highly mobile species like some migratory birds (eg. cranes) and fishes (eg. Hilsa). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, inbreeding may occur due to a reduced gene pool; this may lead to the population lacking immunity to diseases. Legal private farming for profit Whereas legal poaching causes substantial reductions in endangered animal populations, legal private farming for profit has the opposite effect. Legal private farming has caused substantial increases in the populations of both the southern black rhinoceros and the southern white rhinoceros. Dr Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into the conservation programmes. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from eco-tourism or selling them on for a profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work. " He's black, and he's back! Private enterprise saves southern Africa's rhino from extinction, The Independent, June 17, 2008 Gallery See also Biodiversity CITES Conservation status Convention on Biological Diversity EDGE Species Endangered Species Act Ex-situ conservation Extinction Holocene extinction event Habitat fragmentation In-situ conservation IUCN Red List List of Conservation topics List of endangered animal species Rare species Red and Blue-listed Species at Risk Act Species-area curve Threatened species United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species Wildlife disease World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival (WCBESCAS) World Conservation Union (IUCN) World Wide Fund for Nature Notes Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures" (Online). Accessed 9/30/2008 at http://earthsendangered.com. Ishwaran, N., & Erdelen, W. (2005, May). Biodiversity Futures. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(4), 179. Retrieved September 23, 2008, from http://jstor.org/stable /3868449 Kotiaho, J. S., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A., Päivinen, J. P., & Ehrlich, P. R. (2005, February 8). Predicting the Risk of Extinction from Shared Ecological Characteristics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(6), 1963-1967. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from JSTOR database: http://www. jstor.org/stable/3374545 Minteer, B. A., & Collins, J. P. (2005, August). Why we need an “Ecological Ethics”. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(6), 332-337. Retrieved September 22, 2008, from JSTOR database: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3868567 Raloff, J. (2006, August 5). Preserving Paradise. Science News, 170(6), 92. Retrieved September 22, 2008, from JSTOR database: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4017054 Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. (2008, October). How Many Endangered Species are there in the United States? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(8), 414-420. Retrieved September 22, 2008, from JSTOR database: http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 3868674 There are more then 60,000 animals in the world External links Endangered Species from UCB Libraries GovPubs Endangered Species & Wetlands Report Independent print and online newsletter covering the ESA, wetlands and regulatory takings. Everything you wanted to know about endangered species — Provided by New Scientist. Endangered species charted by number of species and risk of extinction. The Whale Game The Whale Game from Environmental Education Games

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OpenGL

OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a standard specification defining a cross-language, cross-platform API for writing applications that produce 2D and 3D computer graphics. The interface consists of over 250 different function calls which can be used to draw complex three-dimensional scenes from simple primitives. OpenGL was developed by Silicon Graphics Inc. (SGI) in 1992 and is widely used in CAD, virtual reality, scientific visualization, information visualization, and flight simulation. It is also used in video games, where it competes with Direct3D on Microsoft Windows platforms (see Direct3D vs. OpenGL). OpenGL is managed by the non-profit technology consortium, the Khronos Group. Specification At its most basic level OpenGL is a specification, meaning it is simply a document that describes a set of functions and the precise behaviours that they must perform. From this specification, hardware vendors create implementations — libraries of functions created to match the functions stated in the OpenGL specification, making use of hardware acceleration where possible. Hardware vendors have to meet specific tests to be able to qualify their implementation as an OpenGL implementation. Efficient vendor-supplied implementations of OpenGL (making use of graphics acceleration hardware to a greater or lesser extent) exist for Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, Linux and many Unix platforms. Various software implementations exist, bringing OpenGL to a variety of platforms that do not have vendor support. Notably, the free software/open source library Mesa 3D is a fully software-based graphics API which is code-compatible with OpenGL. However to avoid licensing costs associated with formally calling itself an OpenGL implementation, it claims merely to be a "very similar" API. On some platforms, notably mobile phones, handhelds and game consoles, a reduced API OpenGL ES is often used. The OpenGL specification was revised by OpenGL Architecture Review Board (ARB) founded in 1992. The ARB was formed by a set of companies interested in the creation of a consistent and widely available API. Microsoft, one of the founding members, left the project in 2003. On 21 September 2006, control of OpenGL passed to the Khronos Group. This was done in order to improve the marketing of OpenGL, and to remove barriers between the development of OpenGL and OpenGL ES. The subgroup of Khronos that manages OpenGL was called the OpenGL ARB Working Group, for historical reasons. There is a list of members which make up the OpenGL ARB Working Group at section Members of Khronos Group. OpenGL is a general purpose API with lots of different possibilities because of the great number of companies with different interests which have made up the old ARB as well the current group. Mark Segal and Kurt Akeley authored the original OpenGL specification. Chris Frazier edited version 1.1. Jon Leech edited versions 1.2 through the present version 3.0. Jon Leech has retired as secretary of the old ARB, and Barthold Lichtenbelt has taken his place as Khronos OpenGL ARB Steering Group Chair . Design OpenGL serves two main purposes: To hide the complexities of interfacing with different 3D accelerators, by presenting the programmer with a single, uniform API. To hide the differing capabilities of hardware platforms, by requiring that all implementations support the full OpenGL feature set (using software emulation if necessary). OpenGL's basic operation is to accept primitives such as points, lines and polygons, and convert them into pixels. This is done by a graphics pipeline known as the OpenGL state machine. Most OpenGL commands either issue primitives to the graphics pipeline, or configure how the pipeline processes these primitives. Prior to the introduction of OpenGL 2.0, each stage of the pipeline performed a fixed function and was configurable only within tight limits. OpenGL 2.0 offers several stages that are fully programmable using GLSL. OpenGL is a low-level, procedural API, requiring the programmer to dictate the exact steps required to render a scene. This contrasts with descriptive (aka scene graph or retained mode) APIs, where a programmer only needs to describe a scene and can let the library manage the details of rendering it. OpenGL's low-level design requires programmers to have a good knowledge of the graphics pipeline, but also gives a certain amount of freedom to implement novel rendering algorithms. OpenGL has historically been influential on the development of 3D accelerators, promoting a base level of functionality that is now common in consumer-level hardware: Rasterised points, lines and polygons as basic primitives Simplified version of the Graphics Pipeline Process; excludes a number of features like blending, VBOs and logic ops A transform and lighting pipeline Z-buffering Texture mapping Alpha blending A brief description of the process in the graphics pipeline could be: Evaluation, if necessary, of the polynomial functions which define certain inputs, like NURBS surfaces, approximating curves and the surface geometry. Vertex operations, transforming and lighting them depending on their material. Also clipping non visible parts of the scene in order to produce the viewing volume. Rasterisation or conversion of the previous information into pixels. The polygons are represented by the appropriate colour by means of interpolation algorithms. Per-fragment operations, like updating values depending on incoming and previously stored depth values, or colour combinations, among others. Lastly, fragments are inserted into the Frame buffer. Many modern 3D accelerators provide functionality far above this baseline, but these new features are generally enhancements of this basic pipeline rather than radical revisions of it. Example This example will draw a green square on the screen. OpenGL has several ways to accomplish this task, but this is the easiest to understand. glClear( GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT ); This statement clears the color buffer, so that the screen will start blank. glMatrixMode( GL_PROJECTION ); /* Subsequent matrix commands will affect the projection matrix */ glLoadIdentity(); /* Initialise the projection matrix to identity */ glFrustum( -1, 1, -1, 1, 1, 1000 ); /* Apply a perspective-projection matrix */ These statements initialize the projection matrix, setting a 3d frustum matrix that represents the viewable area. This matrix transforms objects from camera-relative space to OpenGL's projection space. glMatrixMode( GL_MODELVIEW ); /* Subsequent matrix commands will affect the modelview matrix */ glLoadIdentity(); /* Initialise the modelview to identity */ glTranslatef( 0, 0, -3 ); /* Translate the modelview 3 units along the Z axis */ These statements initialize the modelview matrix. This matrix defines a transform from model-relative coordinates to camera space. The combination of the modelview matrix and the projection matrix transforms objects from model-relative space to projection screen space. glBegin( GL_POLYGON ); /* Begin issuing a polygon */ glColor3f( 0, 1, 0 ); /* Set the current color to green */ glVertex3f( -1, -1, 0 ); /* Issue a vertex */ glVertex3f( -1, 1, 0 ); /* Issue a vertex */ glVertex3f( 1, 1, 0 ); /* Issue a vertex */ glVertex3f( 1, -1, 0 ); /* Issue a vertex */ glEnd(); /* Finish issuing the polygon */ These commands draw a green square in the XY plane. Documentation OpenGL's popularity is partially due to the excellence of its official documentation. The OpenGL ARB released a series of manuals along with the specification which have been updated to track changes in the API. These are almost universally known by the colors of their covers: The Red Book – OpenGL Programming Guide, 6th edition. ISBN 0-321-48100-3 A readable tutorial and reference book – this is a 'must have' book for OpenGL programmers. The first edition is available online here and here. The Blue Book – OpenGL Reference manual, 4th edition. ISBN 0-321-17383-X Essentially a hard-copy printout of the man pages for OpenGL. Includes a poster-sized fold-out diagram showing the structure of an idealised OpenGL implementation. It is available here. The Green Book – OpenGL Programming for the X Window System. ISBN 0-201-48359-9 A book about X11 interfacing and GLUT. The Alpha Book (which actually has a white cover) – OpenGL Programming for Windows 95 and Windows NT. ISBN 0-201-40709-4 A book about interfacing OpenGL with Microsoft Windows. Then, for OpenGL 2.0 and beyond: The Orange Book – OpenGL Shading Language, 2nd edition. ISBN 0-321-33489-2 A readable tutorial and reference book for GLSL. Extensions The OpenGL standard allows individual vendors to provide additional functionality through extensions as new technology is created. Extensions may introduce new functions and new constants, and may relax or remove restrictions on existing OpenGL functions. Each vendor has an alphabetic abbreviation that is used in naming their new functions and constants. For example, NVIDIA's abbreviation (NV) is used in defining their proprietary function glCombinerParameterfvNV() and their constant GL_NORMAL_MAP_NV. It may happen that more than one vendor agrees to implement the same extended functionality. In that case, the abbreviation EXT is used. It may further happen that the Architecture Review Board "blesses" the extension. It then becomes known as a standard extension, and the abbreviation ARB is used. The first ARB extension was GL_ARB_multitexture, introduced in version 1.2.1. Following the official extension promotion path, multitexturing is no longer an optionally implemented ARB extension, but has been a part of the OpenGL core API since version 1.3. Before using an extension a program must first determine its availability, and then obtain pointers to any new functions the extension defines. The mechanism for doing this is platform-specific and libraries such as GLEW and GLEE exist to simplify the process. Specifications for nearly all extensions can be found at the official extension registry. http://www.opengl.org/registry/ Associated utility libraries Several libraries are built on top of or beside OpenGL to provide features not available in OpenGL itself. Libraries such as GLU can always be found with OpenGL implementations, and others such as GLUT and SDL have grown over time and provide rudimentary cross platform windowing and mouse functionality and if unavailable can easily be downloaded and added to a development environment. Simple graphical user interface functionality can be found in libraries like GLUI or FLTK. Still other libraries like GLAux (OpenGL Auxiliary Library) are deprecated and have been superseded by functionality commonly available in more popular libraries, but code using them still exists, particularly in simple tutorials. Other libraries have been created to provide OpenGL application developers a simple means of managing OpenGL extensions and versioning. Examples of these libraries include GLEW (the OpenGL Extension Wrangler Library) and GLEE (the OpenGL Easy Extension Library). In addition to the aforementioned simple libraries, other higher level object oriented scene graph retained mode libraries exist such as PLIB, OpenSG, OpenSceneGraph, and OpenGL Performer. These are available as cross platform free/open source or proprietary programming interfaces written on top of OpenGL and systems libraries to enable the creation of real-time visual simulation applications. Other solutions support parallel OpenGL programs for Virtual Reality, scalability or graphics clusters usage, either transparently like Chromium or through a programming interface like Equalizer. Mesa 3D is a free/open source implementation of OpenGL. It supports pure software rendering as well as providing hardware acceleration for several 3D graphics cards under Linux. As of June 22, 2007 it implements the 2.1 standard, and provides some of its own extensions for some platforms. Bindings In order to emphasize its multi-language and multi-platform characteristics, various bindings and ports have been developed for OpenGL in many languages. Some languages and their bindings are: Ada: AdaOpenGL 1.12 supports GL, GLU, GLUT, GLX and WGL BlitzMax: OOP language with no runtime. Supports Win32/64, Linux, Mac OS X (PowerPC/Intel). Built in OpenGL support. C#: The Open Toolkit library contains OpenGL, OpenAL and OpenCL bindings for .Net/Mono. Supports Win32/64, Linux and Mac OS X. The framework Tao for Microsoft .NET includes OpenGL between other multimedia libraries http://www.taoframework.com/ D: See bindings and Project Derelict Delphi: Dot Eiffel: EiffelOpenGL Fortran: f90gl supports OpenGL 1.2, GLU 1.2 and GLUT 3.7 FreeBASIC: Native OpenGL support. Built-in OpenGL context creation. Haskell: HOpenGL supports GL, GLU and GLUT. Included with the latest version of the Glasgow Haskell Compiler. Java: Java Bindings for OpenGL (JSR 231) and Java OpenGL (JOGL) Lightweight Java Game Library (LWJGL) Lisp: See the cl-opengl project at common-lisp.net Lua: Doris, LuaGL Mercury Prolog mtogl Ocaml: GLCaml and LablGL Perl: Perl OpenGL (POGL) module - shared libs written in C C vs Perl and Perl vs Python benchmarks Pike: It has a OpenGL native interface. Moreover, it supports GLU and GLUT http://pike.ida.liu.se/about/pike/modules.xml PHP: See http://phpopengl.sourceforge.net/ PureBasic: Native OpenGL support. Python: PyOpenGL supports GL, GLU and GLUT R (programming language): Ruby: ruby-opengl - supports GL, GLU and GLUT Scheme: Chicken Scheme has an OpenGL egg OpenGL bindings for PLT Scheme OpenGL bindings for Gauche Scheme Ypsilon Scheme comes with GL and GLUT bindings out of the box Smalltalk as seen in Croquet Project running on Squeak Smalltalk thinBasic - native interface for OpenGL 2.1, GLU library + language specific higher level module Visual Basic: ActiveX Control Visual Prolog commercial edition For more information on OpenGL Language bindings, see opengl.org's Wiki. Higher level functionality OpenGL was designed to be graphic output-only: it provides only rendering functions. The core API has no concept of windowing systems, audio, printing to the screen, keyboard/mouse or other input devices. While this seems restrictive at first, it allows the code that does the rendering to be completely independent of the operating system it is running on, allowing cross-platform development. However, some integration with the native windowing system is required to allow clean interaction with the host system. This is performed through the following add-on APIs: GLX – X11 (including network transparency) WGL – Microsoft Windows CGL – Mac OS X. Better integration with Mac OS X's application frameworks is provided by APIs layered on top of CGL: AGL for Carbon and NSOpenGL for Cocoa. Additionally, GLUT, SDL and the GLFW libraries provide functionality for basic windowing using OpenGL, in a portable manner. Some opensource crossplatform toolkits like GTK+, QT and WxWidgets include a widget to embed OpenGL contents. History In the 1980s, developing software that could function with a wide range of graphics hardware was a real challenge. Software developers wrote custom interfaces and drivers for each piece of hardware. This was expensive and resulted in much duplication of effort. By the early 1990s, Silicon Graphics (SGI) was a leader in 3D graphics for workstations. Their IRIS GL API was considered the state of the art and became the de facto industry standard, overshadowing the open standards-based PHIGS. This was because IRIS GL was considered easier to use, and because it supported immediate mode rendering. By contrast, PHIGS was considered difficult to use and outdated in terms of functionality. SGI's competitors (including Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard and IBM) were also able to bring to market 3D hardware, supported by extensions made to the PHIGS standard. This in turn caused SGI market share to weaken as more 3D graphics hardware suppliers entered the market. In an effort to influence the market, SGI decided to turn the IrisGL API into an open standard. SGI considered that the IrisGL API itself wasn't suitable for opening due to licensing and patent issues. Also, the IrisGL had API functions that were not relevant to 3D graphics. For example, it included a windowing, keyboard and mouse API, in part because it was developed before the X Window System and Sun's NeWS systems were developed. In addition, SGI had a large number of software customers; by changing to the OpenGL API they planned to keep their customers locked onto SGI (and IBM) hardware for a few years while market support for OpenGL matured. Meanwhile, SGI would continue to try to maintain their customers tied to SGI hardware by developing the advanced and proprietary Iris Inventor and Iris Performer programming APIs. As a result, SGI released the OpenGL standard. The OpenGL standardised access to hardware, and pushed the development responsibility of hardware interface programs, sometimes called device drivers, to hardware manufacturers and delegated windowing functions to the underlying operating system. With so many different kinds of graphic hardware, getting them all to speak the same language in this way had a remarkable impact by giving software developers a higher level platform for 3D-software development. In 1992, SGI led the creation of the OpenGL architectural review board (OpenGL ARB), the group of companies that would maintain and expand the OpenGL specification for years to come. OpenGL evolved from (and is very similar in style to) SGI's earlier 3D interface, IrisGL. One of the restrictions of IrisGL was that it only provided access to features supported by the underlying hardware. If the graphics hardware did not support a feature, then the application could not use it. OpenGL overcame this problem by providing support in software for features unsupported by hardware, allowing applications to use advanced graphics on relatively low-powered systems. In 1994 SGI played with the idea of releasing something called "OpenGL++" which included elements such as a scene-graph API (presumably based around their Performer technology). The specification was circulated among a few interested parties – but never turned into a product. Microsoft released Direct3D in 1995, which would become the main competitor of OpenGL. On 17 December 1997 , Microsoft and SGI initiated the Fahrenheit project, which was a joint effort with the goal of unifying the OpenGL and Direct3D interfaces (and adding a scene-graph API too). In 1998 Hewlett-Packard joined the project. It initially showed some promise of bringing order to the world of interactive 3D computer graphics APIs, but on account of financial constraints at SGI, strategic reasons at Microsoft, and general lack of industry support, it was abandoned in 1999. OpenGL 2.0 OpenGL 2.0 was conceived by 3Dlabs to address concerns that OpenGL was stagnating and lacked a strong direction. 3Dlabs proposed a number of major additions to the standard. Most of these were, at the time, rejected by the ARB or otherwise never came to fruition in the form that 3Dlabs proposed. However, their proposal for a C-style shading language was eventually completed, resulting in the current formulation of GLSL (the OpenGL Shading Language, also slang). Like the assembly-like shading languages that it was replacing, it allowed the programmer to replace the fixed-function vertex and fragment pipe with shaders, though this time written in a C-like language. The design of GLSL was notable for making relatively few concessions to the limitations of the hardware then available; this hearkened back to the earlier tradition of OpenGL setting an ambitious, forward-looking target for 3D accelerators rather than merely tracking the state of currently available hardware. The final OpenGL 2.0 specification http://www.opengl.org/documentation/specs/version2.0/glspec20.pdf includes support for GLSL. OpenGL 2.1 OpenGL 2.1 was released on August 2, 2006 and is backward compatible with all prior OpenGL versions. OpenGL 2.1 incorporates the following functionality: OpenGL Shading Language revision 1.20 (GLSL) Commands to specify and query non-square matrix uniforms for use with the OpenGL Shading Language Pixel buffer objects for efficient image transfers to and from buffer objects for commands such as glTexImage2D and glReadPixels. This functionality corresponds to the ARB_pixel_buffer_object extension. sRGB texture formats. This functionality corresponds to the EXT_texture_sRGB extension. OpenGL 3.0 Revision 3.0 http://www.opengl.org/registry/doc/glspec30.20080811.pdf of the OpenGL API was released on August 11, 2008 and is backward compatible with all prior OpenGL versions, though a deprecation mechanism has been introduced to simplify the API in future revisions. OpenGL Shading Language revision 1.30 (GLSL) Vertex Array Objects More flexible Framebuffer Objects 32-bit (single precision) floating-point textures and render buffers 16-bit (half precision) floating-point vertex and pixel data Ability to render vertex transformations into a buffer Texture arrays 32-bit (single precision) floating point depth buffer support Full use of OpenGL 3.0 requires the same level of hardware as is required for DirectX 10 support. Unlike DirectX 10, OpenGL 3.0 does not require Windows Vista and can be used on any OS for which the appropriate drivers are provided. Longs Peak and OpenGL 3.0 controversy Prior to the release of OpenGL 3.0 the new revision was known as the codename Longs Peak. At the time of its original announcement Longs Peak was presented as the first major API revision in OpenGL's lifetime. It consisted of an overhaul to the way that OpenGL works, calling for fundamental changes to the API. The draft introduced a change to object management. The GL 2.1 object model was built upon the state-based design of OpenGL. That is, in order to modify an object or to use it, one needs to bind the object to the state system, then make modifications to the state or perform function calls that use the bound object. Because of OpenGL's use of a state system, objects must be mutable. That is, the basic structure of an object can change at any time, even if the rendering pipeline is asynchronously using that object. A texture object can be redefined from 2D to 3D. This requires any OpenGL implementations to add a degree of complexity to internal object management. Under the Longs Peak API object creation would become atomic, using templates to define the properties of an object which would be created with a single function call. The object could then be used immediately across multiple threads. Objects would also be immutable; however, they could have their contents changed and updated. For example, a texture could change its image, but its size and format could not be changed. To support backwards compatibility the old state based API would still be available, but no new functionality would be exposed via the old API in later versions of OpenGL. This would have allowed legacy code bases, such as the majority of CAD products, to continue to run while other software could be written against or ported to the new API. Longs Peak was initially due to be finalized in September 2007 under the name OpenGL 3.0, but the Khronos group announced October 30 that it had run into several issues that it wished to address before releasing the specification. As a result the spec was delayed, and the Khronos group went into a media blackout until the release of the final OpenGL 3.0 spec. The final specification proved far less revolutionary than the Longs Peak proposal. Instead of removing all immediate mode and fixed functionality (non-shader mode), the spec included them as deprecated features. The proposed object model was not included, and no plans have been announced to include it in any future revisions. As a result the API remained largely the same with a few existing extensions being promoted to core functionality. Among some developer groups this decision caused something of an uproar http://tech.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=08/08/11/2135259 , with many developers professing that they would switch to DirectX in protest. Most complaints revolved around the lack of communication by Khronos to the development community and multiple features being discarded that were viewed favorably by many. Other frustrations included the requirement of DirectX 10 level hardware in order to use OpenGL 3.0 and the absence of geometry shaders and instanced rendering as core features. Other sources reported that the community reaction wasn't quite as severe as originally presented http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/opengl/zOLP/~3/365627409/ , with many vendors showing support for the update. http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/opengl/zOLP/~3/368325680/ http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/opengl/zOLP/~3/364953172/ OpenGL 3.1 Revision 3.1 (Longs Peak Reloaded) was released on March 24 2009 and introduces a range of features to make the API more convenient to use, in addition to performance oriented features: OpenGL Shading Language revision 1.40 (GLSL) Texture Buffer Objects - a new texture type that holds a one-dimensional array of texels Uniform Buffer Objects for fast data share/update Signed normalized textures (±1.0 range) A minimum of 16 texture units accessible by the vertex shader Primitive restart Instancing - drawing of objects multiple times through the re-use of vertex data CopyBuffer API for fast data copy; used in conjunction with OpenCL With the release of the OpenGL 3.1 specification, a compatibility extension that enables developers to access the OpenGL 1.X/2.X functionality removed in OpenGL 3.1 was also released. Notably, legacy functionality for wide line support is retained. Removed legacy functionality includes: All fixed-function options Direct mode Color index mode, i.e. pixel formats with color palettes Post OpenGL 3.1 Prior to the release of OpenGL 3.0 plans were discussed to add more functionality to OpenGL beyond 3.0. Some of the features planned for the future releases have been introduced the final 3.1 specification. Mt. Evans This revision, which was due to be released 3–5 months after 3.0, would bring OpenGL 3.0 up-to-date with more modern hardware features. These included geometry shaders, integers in shaders, texture arrays, and instanced rendering. However, it is worth noting that both the use of integers in shaders and texture arrays are already part of the final 3.0 spec. Sample renderings See also List of OpenGL programs - list of popular games and applications that use OpenGL ARB (GPU assembly language) - OpenGL's low-level shading language Cg – Nvidia's shading language that works with OpenGL GLSL - Open crossplatform high-level shading language that works with OpenGL List of computer standards OpenCL - Open crossplatform GPU general purpose language that works with OpenGL OpenGL ES – OpenGL for embedded systems OpenAL – The Open Audio Library – designed to work well with OpenGL. OpenSL ES – Another audio library. OpenML - The Open Media Library - designed to work well with OpenGL. Graphics pipeline Vertex Buffer Object OpenGL support libraries GLUT – The OpenGL utility toolkit. SDL – The Simple DirectMedia Layer. GLU – Some additional functions for OpenGL programs. GLee - The OpenGL Easy Extension library. GLEW – The OpenGL Extension Wrangler Library. GLUI - a GUI toolkit made with GLUT GLFW - a portable framework for OpenGL application development. GLM - C++ mathematics toolkit for OpenGL based on the GLSL specification. SFML - Simple and Fast Multimedia Library. Glux - The OpenGL Utility & Auxiliary Library. Other 3D graphics APIs Mesa 3D – An open source implementation of OpenGL. Direct3D – A competitor to OpenGL. See Comparison of OpenGL and Direct3D. VirtualGL - An OpenGL 3D model server that sends rendered images to a remote X server Other 2D graphics APIs Cairo (graphics) - a cross platform graphical vectorial draw and text toolkit. GTK+ - a cross platform graphical widget toolkit. Qt - a cross platform graphical widget toolkit. wxWidgets - a cross platform graphical widget toolkit. All can incorporate OpenGL 3D objects. Cairo can use OpenGL as backend. Benchmarks GLMark References Further reading Richard S. Wright, Benjamin Lipchak, Nicholas Haemel: OpenGL SuperBible: Comprehensive Tutorial and Reference, 4th Edition, Addison-Wesley, June 18 2007, ISBN 0-321-49882-8 Dave Shreiner, Mason Woo, Jackie Neider, Tom Davis: OpenGL Programming Guide: The Official Guide to Learning OpenGL, Version 2.1, 6th Edition, Addison-Wesley, July 30 2007, ISBN 0-321-48100-3 Fosner, Ron: OpenGL Programming for Windows 95 and Windows NT, Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40709-4 Kilgard, Mark: OpenGL for the X Window System, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-48359-9 Lengyel, Eric: The OpenGL Extensions Guide, Charles River Media, ISBN 1-58450-294-0 OpenGL Architecture Review Board, et al.: OpenGL Reference Manual: The Official Reference Document to OpenGL, Version 1.4, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-17383-X OpenGL Architecture Review Board, et al.: OpenGL Programming Guide: The Official Guide to Learning OpenGL, Version 2, Fifth Edition, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-33573-2 Rost, Randi J.: OpenGL Shading Language, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-19789-5 External links Official website SGI's OpenGL website Khronos Group, Inc. NeHe Tutorials, OpenGL tutorials Video tutorial by Bill Jacobs CodeSampler.com, OpenGL Code Samples Fahrenheit in Microsoft OpenGL Programming Guide on the web gDEBugger - OpenGL Debugger and Profiler Windows and Linux Example 3D underwater world code.

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Antipsychotic

Antipsychotics are a group of psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat psychosis, which is typified by schizophrenia. Over time a wide range of antipsychotics have been developed. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s. Most of the drugs in the second generation, known as atypical antipsychotics, have more recently been developed, although the first atypical anti-psychotic, clozapine, was discovered in the 1950s, and introduced clinically in the 1970s. Both classes of medication tend to block receptors in the brain's dopamine pathways, but antipsychotic drugs encompass a wide range of receptor targets. A number of side effects have been observed in relation to specific medications, including weight gain, agranulocytosis, tardive dyskinesia, tardive akathisia, tardive psychoses and tardive dysphrenia. The development of new antipsychotics, and the relative efficacy of different ones, is an important ongoing field of research. Antipsychotic medication is not generally regarded as a good treatment, just the best available. The most appropriate drug for an individual patient requires careful consideration. Terminology Antipsychotics are also referred to as neuroleptic drugs. The word neuroleptic is derived from (originally meaning sinew but today referring to the nerves) and "λαμβάνω" (meaning take hold of). Thus, the word means taking hold of one's nerves. This term reflects the drugs' ability to make movement more difficult and sluggish, which clinicians previously believed indicated that a dose was high enough. The lower doses used currently have resulted in reduced incidence of motor side effects and sedation, and the term is less commonly used than in the past. Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two groups, the typical or first-generation antipsychotics and the atypical or second-generation antipsychotics. There are also dopamine partial agonists, which are often categorized as atypicals. Typical antipsychotics are also sometimes referred to as tranquilizers, because some of them can tranquilize and sedate. This term is increasingly disused, as the terminology implies a connection with benzodiazepines ("minor" tranquilizers) when none exists. Usage Common conditions with which antipsychotics might be used include schizophrenia, mania, and delusional disorder. They might be used to counter psychosis associated with a wide range of other diagnoses, such as psychotic depression. In addition, these drugs are used to treat non-psychotic disorders. For example, some antipsychotics (haloperidol, pimozide) are used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome, whereas Aripiprazole is prescribed in some cases of Asperger's syndrome. History The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and were tested empirically for their effectiveness. The first antipsychotic was chlorpromazine, which was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a "chemical lobotomy". Lobotomy was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its "effectiveness" was (from a modern viewpoint) due to its tendency to markedly reduce behavior of all types. However, chlorpromazine quickly proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than the extreme lobotomy-like sedation it was known for. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent anti-psychotic drugs have been discovered by an approach that incorporates this sort of information. Common antipsychotics Chlorpromazine. Haloperidol. Quetiapine. Commonly used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses. First generation antipsychotics Butyrophenones Haloperidol (Haldol, Serenace) Droperidol (Droleptan) Phenothiazines Chlorpromazine (Thorazine, Largactil) Fluphenazine (Prolixin) - Available in decanoate (long-acting) form Perphenazine (Trilafon) Prochlorperazine (Compazine) Thioridazine (Mellaril, Melleril) Trifluoperazine (Stelazine) Mesoridazine Periciazine Promazine Triflupromazine (Vesprin) Levomepromazine (Nozinan) Promethazine (Phenergan) Pimozide (Orap) Thioxanthenes Chlorprothixene Flupenthixol (Depixol, Fluanxol) Thiothixene (Navane) Zuclopenthixol (Clopixol, Acuphase) Second generation antipsychotics Clozapine (Clozaril) - Requires weekly to biweekly complete blood count due to risk of agranulocytosis. Olanzapine (Zyprexa) - Used to treat psychotic disorders including schizophrenia, acute manic episodes, and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Dosing 2.5 to 20 mg per day. Risperidone (Risperdal) - Dosing 0.25 to 6 mg per day and is titrated upward; divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed, at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome and anxiety disorder. Quetiapine (Seroquel) - Used primarily to treat bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, and "off-label" to treat chronic insomnia and restless legs syndrome; it is a powerful sedative. Dosing starts at 25 mg and continues up to 800 mg maximum per day, depending on the severity of the symptom(s) being treated. Ziprasidone (Geodon) - Approved in 2006 to treat bipolar disorder. Dosing 20 mg twice daily initially up to 80 mg twice daily. Side-effects include a prolonged QT interval in the heart, which can be dangerous for patients with heart disease or those taking other drugs that prolong the QT interval. Amisulpride (Solian) - Selective dopamine antagonist. Higher doses (greater than 400 mg) act upon post-synaptic dopamine receptors resulting in a reduction in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as psychosis. Lower doses, however, act upon dopamine autoreceptors, resulting in increased dopamine transmission, improving the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Lower doses of amisulpride have also been shown to have antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in non-schizophrenic patients, leading to its use in dysthymia and social phobias. Amisulpride has not been approved for use by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States. Asenapine is a 5-HT2A- and D2-receptor antagonist under development for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute mania associated with bipolar disorder. Paliperidone (Invega) - Derivative of risperidone that was approved in 2006. Third generation antipsychotics Aripiprazole (Abilify) - Dosing 1 mg up to maximum of 30 mg has been used. Mechanism of action is thought to reduce susceptibility to metabolic symptoms seen in some other atypical antipsychotics. PMID 15257633 Partial agonists of dopamine Under clinical development - Bifeprunox; norclozapine (ACP-104). Other options Tetrabenazine is similar in function to antipsychotic drugs, though is not, in general, considered an antipsychotic itself. Its main usefulness is the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders such as Huntington's disease and Tourette syndrome, rather than for conditions such as schizophrenia. Also, rather than having the potential to cause tardive dyskinesia, which most antipsychotics have, tetrabenazine can be an effective treatment for the condition. Cannabidiol - One of the main psychoactive components of cannabis. A recent study has shown that cannabidiol may be as effective as atypical antipsychotics in treating schizophrenia, although its use for this purpose has not yet been widely accepted. The most common typical antipsychotic drugs are now off-patent, meaning any pharmaceutical company is legally allowed to produce generic versions of these medications. While this makes them cheaper than the atypical drugs that are still manufactured under patent constraints, atypical drugs are preferred as a first-line treatment because they are believed to have fewer side effects and seem to have additional benefits for the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 agonism has been seen as a promising strategy in the development of novel antipsychotics. When tested in patients, the research substance LY2140023 yielded promising results and had few side effects. The active metabolite of this prodrug targets the brain glutamate receptors mGluR2/3 rather than dopamine receptors. lay-summary Drug action All antipsychotic drugs tend to block D2 receptors in the dopamine pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. It is the blockade of dopamine receptors in this pathway that is thought to control psychotic experiences. Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block Dopamine receptors in the mesocortical pathway, tuberoinfundibular pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. Blocking D2 receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some of the unwanted side effects that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see below). They were commonly classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency referred to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug. High-potency antipsychotics such as haloperidol, in general, have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low-potency antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine, which have dosages of several hundred milligrams. The latter have a greater degree of anticholinergic and antihistaminergic activity, which can counteract dopamine-related side effects. Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D2 receptors. Some also block or partially block serotonin receptors (particularly 5HT2A, C and 5HT1A receptors):ranging from risperidone, which acts overwhelmingly on serotonin receptors, to amisulpride, which has no serotonergic activity. The additional effects on serotonin receptors may be why some of them can benefit the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia. PMID 16930948 Side effects Antipsychotics are associated with a range of side effects. It is well-recognized that many stop taking them (around two-thirds of people in controlled drug trials) due in part to adverse effects. Extrapyramidal reactions include acute dystonias, akathisia, parkinsonism (rigidity and tremor), tardive dyskinesia, tachycardia, hypotension, impotence, lethargy, seizures, intense dreams or nightmares, and hyperprolactinaemia. From a subjective perspective, antipsychotics heavily influence one's perceptions of pleasurable sensations, causing a severe reduction in feelings of desire, motivation, pensive thought, and awe. This does not coincide with the apathy and lack of motivation experienced by the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Detrimental effects on short term memory, which affect the way one figures and calculates (although this also may be purely subjective), may also be observed on high enough dosages. These are all the reasons why they are thought to affect "creativity". Also, for some individuals with schizophrenia, too much stress may cause "relapse". Following are details concerning some of the side effects of antipsychotics: Antipsychotics, particularly atypicals, appear to cause diabetes mellitus and fatal diabetic ketoacidosis, especially (in US studies) in African Americans. Antipsychotics may cause pancreatitis. The atypical antipsychotics (especially olanzapine) seem to cause weight gain more commonly than the typical antipsychotics. The well-documented metabolic side effects associated with weight gain include diabetes, which can be life-threatening. Clozapine also has a risk of inducing agranulocytosis, a potentially dangerous reduction in the number of white blood cells in the body. Because of this risk, patients prescribed clozapine may need to have regular blood checks to catch the condition early if it does occur, so the patient is in no danger. One of the more serious of these side effects is tardive dyskinesia, in which the sufferer may show repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements often of the lips, face, legs, or torso. It is believed that there is a greater risk of developing tardive dyskinesia with the older, typical antipsychotic drugs, although the newer antipsychotics are now also known to cause this disorder. A potentially serious side effect of many antipsychotics is that they tend to lower an individual's seizure threshold. Chlorpromazine and clozapine, in particular, have a relatively high seizurogenic potential. Fluphenazine, haloperidol, pimozide and risperidone exhibit a relatively low risk. Caution should be exercised in individuals that have a history of seizurogenic conditions such as epilepsy, or brain damage. Deterioration of teeth due to a lack of saliva. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, in which the drugs appear to cause the temperature regulation centers to fail, resulting in a medical emergency, as the patient's temperature suddenly increases to dangerous levels. Dysphoria. Following controversy over possible increased mortality (death) related to antipsychotics in indivdiuals with dementia, warnings have been added to packaging. Some people suffer few apparent side effects from taking antipsychotic medication, whereas others may have serious adverse effects. Some side effects, such as subtle cognitive problems, may go unnoticed. There is a possibility that the risk of tardive dyskinesia can be reduced by combining the anti-psychotics with diphenhydramine or benzatropine, although this remains to be established. Central nervous system damage is also associated with irreversible tardive akathisia and/or tardive dysphrenia. Structural effects Many studies now indicate that chronic treatment with antipsychotics affects the brain at a structural level, for example increasing the volume of the basal ganglia (especially the caudate nucleus), and reducing cortical grey matter volume in different brain areas. The effects may differ for typical versus atypical antipsychotics and may interact with different stages of disorders. Death of neurons in the cerebral cortex, especially in women, has been linked to the use of both typical and atypical antipsychotics for individuals with Alzheimers. The influence of psychotropic drugs on cerebral cell female neurovulnerability to antipsychotics, by Raphael M. Bonelli, Peter Hofmann, Andreas Aschoff, Gerald Niederwieser, Clemens Heuberger, Gustaf Jirikowski and Hans-Peter Kapfhammer, International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2005, 20:145-149 PMID 15812264 Recent studies on macaque monkeys have found that administration of haloperidol or olanzapine for about two years led to a significant overall shrinkage in brain tissue, in both gray and white matter across several brain areas, with lower glial cell counts, | URL = http://psychrights.org/Research/Digest/NLPs/MonkeysonNeuroleptics.pdf due to a decrease in astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and increased neuronal density. It has been said that these studies require serious attention and that such effects were not clearly tested for by pharmaceutical companies prior to obtaining approval for placing the drugs on the market. Efficacy There have been a large number of studies of the efficacy of typical antipsychotics, and an increasing number on the more recent atypical antipsychotics. The American Psychiatric Association and the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommend antipsychotics for managing acute psychotic episodes and for preventing relapse. American Psychiatric Association (2004) Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia. Second Edition. The Royal College of Psychiatrists & The British Psychological Society (2003). Schizophrenia. Full national clinical guideline on core interventions in primary and secondary care (PDF). London: Gaskell and the British Psychological Society. They state that response to any given antipsychotic can be variable so that trials may be necessary, and that lower doses are to be preferred where possible. Antipsychotic polypharmacy—prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual—is said to be a frequent practice but not necessarily evidence-based. Patrick V, Levin E, Schleifer S. (2005) Antipsychotic polypharmacy: is there evidence for its use? J Psychiatr Pract. 2005 Jul;11(4):248-57. PMID 16041235 Some doubts have been raised about the long-term effectiveness of antipsychotics because two large international World Health Organization studies found individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia tend to have better long-term outcomes in developing countries (where there is lower availability and use of antipsychotics) than in developed countries. Hopper K, Wanderling J (2000). Revisiting the developed versus developing country distinction in course and outcome in schizophrenia: results from ISoS, the WHO collaborative followup project. International Study of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26 (4), 835–46. PMID 11087016 The reasons for the differences are not clear, however, and various explanations have been suggested. Some argue that the evidence for antipsychotics from withdrawal-relapse studies may be flawed, because they do not take into account that antipsychotics may sensitize the brain and provoke psychosis if discontinued. Moncrieff J. (2006) Does antipsychotic withdrawal provoke psychosis? Review of the literature on rapid onset psychosis (supersensitivity psychosis) and withdrawal-related relapse. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Jul;114(1):3-13. PMID 16774655 Evidence from comparison studies indicates that at least some individuals recover from psychosis without taking antipsychotics, and may do better than those that do take antipsychotics. Harrow M, Jobe TH. (2007) Factors involved in outcome and recovery in schizophrenia patients not on antipsychotic medications: a 15-year multifollow-up study. J Nerv Ment Dis. May;195(5):406-14. PMID 17502806 Some argue that, overall, the evidence suggests that antipsychotics only help if they are used selectively and are gradually withdrawn as soon as possible. Whitaker R. (2004) The case against antipsychotic drugs: a 50-year record of doing more harm than good. Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(1):5-13. PMID 14728997 A dose response effect has been found in one study from 1971 between increasing neuroleptic dose and increasing number of psychotic breaks. Prevalence of use A large proportion of the population may be prescribed antipsychotic medications. It is estimated that the prevalence of schizophrenia is around 0.55% of the population. Similarly, the prevalence of bipolar disorder is estimated at around 2% (and around 8-12% for major depressive disorder). Typical versus atypical While the atypical, second-generation medications were marketed as offering greater efficacy in reducing psychotic symptoms while reducing side effects (and extra-pyramidal symptoms in particular) than typical medications, the results showing these effects often lack robustness. To remediate this problem, the NIMH conducted a recent multi-site, double-blind study (the CATIE project), which was published in 2005. This study compared several atypical antipsychotics to an older typical antipsychotic, perphenazine, among 1493 persons with schizophrenia. Perphenazine was chosen because of its lower potency and moderate side effect profile. The study found that only olanzapine outperformed perphenazine in the researchers' principal outcome, the discontinuation rate. The authors also noted the apparent superior efficacy of olanzapine to the other drugs for greater reduction in psychopathology, longer duration of successful treatment, and lower rate of hospitalizations for an exacerbation of schizophrenia. In contrast, no other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the typical perphenazine on those measures. Olanzapine, however, was associated with relatively severe metabolic effects: Subjects with olanzapine showed a major weight gain problem and increases in glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. The average weight gain (1.1 kg/month, or 44 pounds for the 18 months that the study lasted) casts serious doubt on the potentiality of long-term use of this drug. Perphenazine did not create more extrapyramidal side effects as measured by rating scales (a result supported by a meta-analysis by Dr. Leucht published in Lancet), although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8 percent vs. 2 percent to 4 percent, P=0.002). A phase 2 part of this study roughly replicated these findings. This phase consisted of a second randomization of the patients that discontinued taking medication in the first phase. Olanzapine was again the only medication to stand out in the outcome measures, although the results did not always reach statistical significance, due in part to the decrease of power. Perphenazine again did not create more extrapyramidal effects. A subsequent phase was conducted. This phase allowed clinicians to offer clozapine which was more effective at reducing medication drop-outs than other neuroleptic agents. However, the potential for clozapine to cause toxic side effects, including agranulocytosis, limits its usefulness. Over-prescribing Use of this class drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs use can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff. GPs under 'pressure' to issue neuroleptics, claims professor, Chemist + Druggist, 15 January 2009 References External links Bipolar Meds - The Antipsychotics FDA Public Health Advisory - Public Health Advisory for Antipsychotic Drugs used for Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Elderly Patients FROTA LH. Partial Agonists in the Schizophrenia Armamentarium. Tardive Dysphrenia: The newest challenge to the last generation atypical antipsychotics drugs? J Bras Psiquiatr 2003; Vol 52 Supl 1;14-24. Free full-text in Portuguese with Abstracts in English available here FROTA LH. Fifty Years of Antipsychotic Drugs in Psychiatry. "Cinqüenta Anos de Medicamentos Antipsicóticos em Psiquiatria." 1st ed; Ebook: CD-Rom/On-Line Portuguese, ISBN 85-903827-1-0, File .pdf (Adobe Acrobat) 6Mb, Informática, Rio de Janeiro, august 2003, 486pp. Free full-text on Portuguese available online here

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European_Convention_on_Nationality

The European Convention on Nationality (E.T.S. No. 166, signed in Strasbourg, 6 November, 1997) is a comprehensive convention of the Council of Europe dealing with the law of nationality. Common practice among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman was to have the nationality of her husband; thus upon marrying a foreigner she would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband, and lose her own nationality. Even once the nationality of a married woman was made no longer dependent on the nationality of her husband, legal provisions were still retained automatically naturalising married women, and sometimes married men as well. This could lead to a number of problems, including loss of the spouses' original nationality, the spouse losing the right to consular assistance (since consular assistance cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals), and becoming subject to military service obligations. For these reasons, the Convention provides that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage shall automatically affect the nationality of either spouse (article 4d). Article 5 provides that no discrimination shall exist in a state's internal nationality law on the grounds of "sex, religion, race, colour or national or ethnic origin". It also provides that a state shall not discriminate amongst its nationals on the basis of whether they are naturalised or native-born citizens. Article 6 relates to the acquisition of nationality. It provides for nationality to be acquired at birth by descent from either parent to those born within the territory of the state. (States may exclude partially or fully children born abroad). It also provides for nationality by virtue of birth in the territory of state; however, states may limit this to only children who would be otherwise stateless. It requires the possibility of naturalisation, and provides that the period of residence required for eligibility cannot be more than ten years lawful and habitual residence. It also requires to "facilitate" the acquisition of nationality by certain persons, including spouses of nationals, children of its nationals born abroad, children one of whose parents has acquired the nationality, children adopted by a national, persons lawfully and habitually resident for a period before the age of eighteen, and stateless persons and refugees lawfully and habitually resident on its territory. Article 7 regulates the involuntary loss of nationality. It provides that states may deprive their nationals of their nationality in only the cases of voluntary acquisition of another nationality, fraud or failure to provide relevant information when acquiring nationality, voluntary military service in a foreign military force, or adoption as a child by foreign nationals. It also provides for the possibility of loss of nationality for nationals habitually residing abroad. Finally it provides loss of nationality for "conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State Party". Article 8 provides nationals with the right to renounce their nationality, providing they do not thereby become stateless. States may however restrict this right with respect to nationals residing abroad. External links European Convention on Nationality

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Hastings

Hastings is a town and Borough on the coast of East Sussex in England. It includes originally separate settlements, as well as the inevitable growth of the town through the building of new estates. In historical terms, Hastings can claim fame through its connection with the Norman conquest of England; and also because it became one of the medieval Cinque Ports. Hastings was, for centuries, an important fishing port; although much reduced, it has the largest beach-based fishing fleet in England. As with many other such places, the town became a watering place in the 1760s, and then, with the coming of the railway, a seaside resort. The Town is sometimes referred to as "the birthplace of television" since the pioneer of television, John Logie Baird, lived at 21 Linton Crescent from 1922 to 1924. The attraction of Hastings as a tourist destination continues; although the numbers of hotels has decreased, it caters for wider tastes, being home to internationally-based cultural and sporting events, such as chess and running. It has set out to become "a modern European town" and seeks to attract commercial business in the many industrial sites round the borough. Toponymy The earliest mention of Hastings is found in the late 8th century in the form Hastingas. This is derived from the Old English tribal name Hæstingas, meaning "Hæsta's people", "the family/followers of Hæsta". Symeon of Durham records the victory of Offa in 771 over the Hestingorum gens, that is, "the people of the Hastings tribe", and the same tribe gave their name to Hastingleigh in Kent. An alternative form of the name, Hæstingaceaster, is found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 1050. Eilert Ekwall, The Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names, Oxford University Press 1936. Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, The Oxford Names Companion, Oxford University Press 2002. ISBN 0-19-860561-7 History Early history There is evidence of prehistoric settlements at the site of the town: flint arrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts have been found; Iron Age forts have been excavated on both the East and West Hills suggests an early move to the safety of the valley in between, so that the settlement was already a port when the Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC. At this time they began to exploit the iron (Wealden rocks provide a plentiful supply of the ore), and so the port was useful to them. One of the many local sites where the iron was worked at Beauport Park, to the north of the town, which employed up to one thousand men and is considered to have been the third largest in the Roman Empire. With the departure of the Romans the town suffered setbacks. The Beauport site had been abandoned; and natural and man-made attacks began. The Sussex coast has always suffered from occasional violent storms; with the additional hazard of longshore drift (the eastward movement of shingle along the coast) the coastline has been frequently changing. The original Roman port could now well be under the sea. Man-made attacks possibly included the Danish invaders, with their harbour in the west of the borough. Bulverhythe, where its original site is conjectured, suggests that: -hythe or hithe means a port or small haven. A royal mint in Hastings was established in AD 928 during the reign of Athelstan. Medieval Hastings The start of the Norman Conquest was the Battle of Hastings, fought on 14 October 1066; although the battle itself took place eight miles to the north at Senlac Hill, and William had landed on the coast between Hastings and Eastbourne at a site now known as Norman's Bay. It is thought that the Norman encampment was on the town’s outskirts, where there was open ground; a new town was already being built in the valley to the east. That "New Burgh" was founded in 1069, and is mentioned in the Domesday Book as such. William defeated and killed Harold Godwinson, the last Saxon King of England, and destroyed his army; thus opening England to the Norman conquest. William caused a castle to be built at Hastings probably using the earthworks of the existing Saxon castle. Hastings was a shown as a borough by the time of the Domesday Book (1086); it had also given its name to the Rape of Hastings, one of the six administrative divisions of Sussex. As a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of a "bailiff, jurats, and commonalty". By a Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589 the bailiff was replaced by a mayor. Hastings and the sea By the end of the Saxon period, the port of Hastings had moved eastward near the present town centre in the Priory Stream valley, whose entrance was protected by the White Rock headland (since demolished). It was to be a short stay: Danish attacks and huge floods in 1011 and 1014 motivated the townspeople to relocate to the New Burgh. In the Middle Ages Hastings became one of the Cinque Ports; Sandwich, Dover, and New Romney being the first, Hastings, and Hythe followed, all finally being joined by Rye and Winchelsea, at one point 42 towns were directly or indirectly affiliated to the group. In the 13th century much of the town was washed away by the sea. During a naval campaign of 1339, and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into a decline. As a port, Hastings' days were finished. Hastings had suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour, and there have been attempts to create a sheltered harbour. Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I, but the foundations were destroyed by the sea in terrible storms. The last harbour project began in 1896, but this also failed when structural problems and rising costs exhausted all the available funds. Today a fractured seawall is all that remains of what might have become a magnificent harbour. In 1897 the foundation stone was laid of a large concrete structure, but there was insufficient money to complete the work and the "Harbour arm" remains uncompleted. It was partially blown up to discourage possible use by German invasion forces during World War II. The fishing boats are still stored on and launched from the beach. Hastings was now a small fishing settlement, but it was soon discovered that the new taxes on luxury goods could be made profitable by smuggling, and the town was ideally located for that. Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are "St Clement's Caves", partly natural, but mainly excavated by hand by the smugglers from the soft sandstone. Their trade was to come to an end with the period following the Napoleonic Wars, for the town became one of the most fashionable resorts in Britain, brought about by the so-called properties of seawater. Once this came about the expansion of the town took place, to the west, since there was little space left in the valley. It was at this time that the elegant Pelham Crescent and Wellington Square were built: other building followed. In the Crescent is the classical style church of St Mary in the Castle (its name recalling the old chapel in the castle above) now in use as an arts centre. The building of the crescent and the church necessitated further cutting away of the castle hill cliffs. Once that move away from the old town had begun, it led to the further expansion along the coast, eventually linking up with the new St Leonards. Like many coastal towns, the population of Hastings grew significantly as a result of the construction of railway links and the fashionable growth of seaside holidays during the Victorian era. In 1801 its population was a mere 3,175; by 1831 it had reached over ten thousand; by 1891 it was almost sixty thousand, and the 2001 census reported over 85,000 inhabitants. In the 1930s the town underwent some rejuvenation. Seaside resorts were starting to go out of fashion: Hastings perhaps more than most. The town council set about a huge rebuilding project, among which the promenade was rebuilt; and an Olympic-size bathing pool was erected. The latter, regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, closed some years ago. The area is still known by locals as "The Bathing Pool". Seaside History: the Bathing Pool at Hastings and St Leonards Governance Hastings returned two Members of Parliament from the 14th century to 1885 since when it has returned one. Hastings, it is thought, was a Saxon town before the arrival of the Normans: the Domesday Book refers to a new Borough: as a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of a "bailiff, jurats, and commonalty". Its importance was such that it also gave its name to one of the six Rapes or administrative districts of Sussex. By a Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589 the bailiff was replaced by a mayor, by which time the town's importance was dwindling. In the Georgian era, patronage of such seaside places (such as nearby Brighton) gave it a new lease of life so that, when the time came with the reform of English local government in 1888, Hastings became a County Borough, responsible for all its local services, independent of the surrounding county, then Sussex (East); less than one hundred years later, by the in 1974, that status was abolished. Hastings Borough Council is now in the second tier of local government, below East Sussex County Council. The Borough is divided into sixteen electoral wards as shown on the map, they are in four areas, as below. Some explanation of the ward names is also given: Ward Notes including name origin Castle wardMost central ward, including town centre and sea frontBraybrookeBraybrooke Terrace is north of the town centreSilverhill wardWell-established area of HastingsSt Helens ward (part of Ore)Area north of town: included St Helens WoodOld Hastings Wardincludes Hastings Old TownOre wardOne-time separate village: largest ward in borough.Tressell ward (part of Ore)NNE of town centre; named after Robert TressellBaird wardNE of town centre; John Logie BairdCentral St Leonards ward Main part of St Leonards, including sea frontGensing wardN of Central St Leonards ward; includes Gensing GardensMaze Hill wardBetween Central and West wards; one-time maze in West St Leonards gardensWest St Leonards wardLarge ward extending to the Borough boundaryAshdown wardNorthernmost ward: contains Ashdown HouseConquest wardContains Conquest hospitalHollington wardOne time villageWishing Tree wardArea named after an ancient tree The most notable suburbs of Hastings are Ore, St Leonards on Sea, Silverhill, Bulverhythe, Hollington Geography Hastings town centre and the Memorial from an old postcard Hastings town centre in 2005 Hastings is situated where the sandstone beds, at the heart of the Weald, known geologically as the Hastings Sands, meet the English Channel, forming tall cliffs to the east of the town. Hastings Old Town is in a sheltered valley between the East Hill and West Hill (on which the remains of the Castle stand). In Victorian times and later the town has spread westwards and northwards, and now forms a single urban centre with the more suburban area of St Leonards-on-Sea to the west. Roads from the Old Town valley lead towards the Victorian area of Clive Vale and the former village of Ore, from which "The Ridge", marking the effective boundary of Hastings, extends north-westwards towards Battle. Beyond Bulverhythe, the western end of Hastings is marked by low-lying land known as Glyne Gap, separating it from Bexhill-on-Sea. The sandstone cliffs have been the subject of considerable erosion in relatively recent times: much of the Castle was lost to the sea before the present sea defences and promenade were built, and a number of cliff-top houses are in danger of disappearing around the nearby village of Fairlight. The beach is mainly shingle, although wide areas of sand are uncovered at low tide. The town is generally built upon a series of low hills rising to above sea level at "The Ridge" before falling back in the river valley further to the north. The town also has a large Victorian park, Alexandra Park. There are three Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the borough; Marline Valley Woods, Combe Haven and Hastings Cliffs To Pett Beach. Marline Valley Woods lies within the Ashdown ward of Hastings. It is an ancient woodland of pedunculate oak-hornbeam which is uncommon nationally. Sussex Wildlife trust own part of the site. Combe Haven is another site of biological interest, with alluvial meadows, and the largest reed bed in the county, providing habitat for breeding birds. It is in the West St Leonards ward, stretching into the parish of Crowhurst. The final SSSI, Hastings Cliffs to Pett Beach, is within the Ore ward of Hastings, extending into the neighbouring Fairlight and Pett parishes. The site runs along the coast and is of both biological and geological interest. The cliffs hold many fossils and has many habitats, including ancient woodland and shingle beaches. Demography Hastings suffers at a disadvantage insofar as growth is concerned because of its restricted situation, lying as it does with the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty to the north. Redevelopment of the area is partly hampered by the split administration of the combined Hastings and Bexhill economic region between Hastings and Rother district councils. There is little space for further large-scale housing and employment growth. Most of the jobs within the Borough are concentrated on health, public services, retail and education. 85% of the firms (in 2005) employed fewer than 10 people; as a consequence the unemployment rate was 3.3% (cf. East Sussex 1.7%); and almost one-third of the employable population had no skills at all in 2001. This situation has now become the subject of parliamentary consideration, House of Commons Select Committee: Stakeholders in Hastings 2006 and regeneration of the Borough is now being considered at that level. From being the third tourist resort in the country 50 years ago, Hastings has still not been able to shake off its over-reliance on tourism. Urban regeneration was deemed essential: too many of the buildings once used as hotels are still unfit for modern use; many of them are now refugee accommodation. There is a lack of highly-skilled job opportunities, and education standards are low. In addition Hastings has the highest proportion of elderly people in the UK. Crime + Crime rates in Hastings (per 1000 population) 2007-2008 Crime Statistics Offence Locally NationallyRobbery 1.21.1Theft of a motor vehicle3.1 2.7Theft from a motor vehicle10.86.9Sexual offences 1.50.9Violence against a person27.416.2Burglary4.5 4.3 Economy Two of Hastings' beach-launched fishing fleet with part of Old Town and East Cliff Railway in background Until the development of tourism, fishing was Hastings' major industry. The beach launched fishing fleet, based at the Stade remains Europe's largest and has recently won accreditation for its sustainable methods. The fleet has been based on the same beach, below the cliffs at Hastings, for at least 400, possibly 600, years. Its longevity attributed to the prolific fishing ground of Rye Bay nearby. Hastings fishing vessels are registered at Rye, and thus bear the letters "RX" (Rye,SusseX). Near the Royal Victoria Hotel there is the "Conquerors Stone" where William of Normandy was supposed to have eaten his first breakfast in England. Net "shops" On the beach near the Old Town are the so-called "net shops", said to be unique to Hastings, but similar buildings can be found in Whitby and Folkestone. Coastal Treasures - Hastings as a seaside resort These are wooden constructions, weatherboarded and tarred, of various shapes and sizes, used for storage. The buildings were built tall and narrow to avoid payment of ground tax. Net shops were not used for drying nets, instead they were used to store them. Fishing nets were made from natural material. They needed to be dry before being hung in a net shop otherwise they would rot. Nets were dried on the beach or on the piece of land known as the Minnis. The net huts are covered with traditional "clinker" weather-boarding and most of them measure about 25 feet in height by 8 feet square. During the past 150 years, many net huts have been destroyed by stormy seas, and in the 1950s some of them were demolished by the Hastings Council as part of a clearance scheme for development of the beach. About forty-five of these structures still survive and are regularly maintained. Transport Road There are two major roads in Hastings: the A21 trunk road to London; and the A259 coastal road. Both are beset with traffic problems: although the London road, which has to contend with difficult terrain, has had several sections of widening over the past decades there are still many delays. Long-term plans for a much improved A259 east–west route (including a Hastings bypass) were abandoned in the 1990s, but a new road to Bexhill-on-Sea is planned to relieve the congested coastal route.<ref>[http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/roadsandtransport/bexhillhastingslinkroad/ east Sussex County Council:Bexhill to Hastings link road]</ref> Hastings is also linked to Battle via the A2100, the original London road. The A28 road connects Hastings to Ashford, Canterbury and the Isle of Thanet. The A27 road starts nearby at Pevensey. The Ring road includes parts of most of the main roads. The town is served by Stagecoach buses on routes that serve the town; and also extend to Bexhill, Eastbourne and Dover. National Express Coaches run service 538 to London. Rail Hastings has four rail links, two to London, one to Brighton and one to Ashford. Of the London lines, the shorter is the former South Eastern Railway (SER) route to Charing Cross via Battle and Tunbridge Wells, which opened in 1852; and the longer is the former London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR) route to Victoria via Bexhill, Eastbourne and Lewes. Trains to Brighton also use this line. The Marshlink Line via Rye to Ashford where a connection can be made with Eurostar services. The town currently has four railway stations: from west to east they are West St Leonards station St Leonards Warrior Square, Hastings, and Ore (Which has been proposed to be renamed to Ore Valley). West Marina station (on the LBSCR line) was very near West St Leonards (on the SER line) and was closed some years ago. A new station has been proposed at Glyne Gap in Bexhill, which would also serve residents from western Hastings. A high speed railway from Bexhill to Ore has been proposed. There have always been problems connected with the Tunbridge Wells-St Leonards section of the Charing Cross line. It was built in a hurry by the SER in an attempt to compete with the passenger traffic to Hastings of the LBSCR; and as a result corners were cut in its construction. Most of the section runs through the hilly Weald, necessitating seven tunnels. The contractors on the line, in an attempt to keep up with a strict timetable, saved time by putting in fewer layers of bricks than were required through the tunnels: in 1862 the Wadhurst tunnel collapsed, revealing the truth. Instead of reboring the tunnels, the extra layers were laid on the inner surfaces of all seven tunnels, narrowing the bore, and thereby ensuring that specially-constructed rolling stock was required from then on; electrification of the line was also delayed for many years. Down the Line to Hastings Brian Jewell, The Baton Press ISBN 0 85936 223 X The East Hill Lift: one of the two funicular railways in Hastings There are two funicular railways, known locally as the West Hill and East Hill Lifts respectively. Paths The Saxon Shore Way , (a long distance footpath, 163 miles (262 km) in length from Gravesend, Kent traces the Kent and Sussex coast “as it was in Roman times” to Hastings, . The National Cycle Network route NCR2 links Dover to St Austell along the south coast, and passes through Hastings. Historical transport systems Turnpike Hastings became part of the Turnpike road system in 1837, when builder James Burton was building his new town of St Leonards. The route of the road is that taken by the A21 today. Trams Hastings had a network of trams from 1905 to 1929. The trams ran as far as Bexhill, and were worked by overhead electric wires, except for the stretch along the seafront from Bo-Peep to the Memorial, which was initially worked by the Dolter stud contact system. The Dolter system was replaced by petrol electric trams in 1914, but overhead electrification was extended to this section in 1921. Trolleybuses rather than trams were used in the section that included the very narrow High Street, and the entire tram system was replaced by trolleybuses in 1928–1929. Robert J Harley, Hastings Tramways. Middleton Press 1993. ISBN 1 873793 18 9. Maidstone and District bought the Hastings Tramway Company in 1935, but the trolleybuses still carried the "Hastings Tramways" logo until shortly before they were replaced by diesel buses in 1959, following the failure of the "Save our trolleys" campaign. Landmarks Marine Court The iconic landmarks, due to their being frequently used in the town's tourist publicity, are almost certainly the castle on its sandstone cliffs, and Hastings Pier. Little remains of the Castle apart from an arch of the chapel, some walls, and underground dungeons. The pier itself is closed due to its being considered in an unsafe condition. Violent storms during mid March 2008 have damaged the structure further. In a similar vein, the old town of Hastings is certainly a landmark. Many of the buildings there today date from the time when the Georgians arrived here to "take the waters", although the two churches (see below) are very much older. An example of the houses is East Cliff House, designed and built between 1760 and 1762 by Edward Capell, the Shakespearean critic and official censor of plays, at a cost of £5,000. The house was constructed on the site of the old East Fort, with a gun platform that may have been adapted to form the front terrace of the building. The house was abandoned during the Second World War and, from then on, it became a bingo centre and then a seafront cafe. An important former landmark was "the Memorial", a clock tower commemorating Albert the Prince Consort which stood for many years at the traffic intersection at the town centre, but was demolished following an arson attack in the 1970s. On the seafront at St Leonards is Marine Court, a 1930s block of flats in the Art Deco style that is said to represent an ocean liner. Education View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance at night The school founded by Rev William Parker in 1619 and that founded by James Saunders in 1709 were eventually amalgamated to form Hastings Grammar School, which later became the William Parker Sports College. It is now the only all-boys secondary school in East Sussex. There is also a single-sex school for girls in Hastings, called Helenswood, named after St Helenswood situated close by the school. East Sussex County Council has plans to close three mixed comprehensive schools (Filsham School, The Grove School and Hillcrest School) and replace them with two academy schools. The proposed sponsors for the academies are University of Brighton (lead sponsor), British Telecom and East Sussex County Council itself. As of December 2008 the proposals are awaiting approval of the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families. East Sussex County Council announcement of academy plans Religious buildings The most important buildings from the late medieval period are the two churches in the Old Town, St Clement's (probably built after 1377) and All Saints (early 15th century). Nairn, Ian, and Pevsner, Nikolaus, The Buildings of England: Sussex, Page 119. Penguin, 1965 There is also a Muslim mosque, formerly "Mercatoria School" until purchased by the East Sussex Islamic Association. Culture Hastings has three museums: the Hastings Museum and Art Gallery; the Old Town Hall Museum; Hastings Museum and Art Gallery and the Fishermen's Museum. Fishermen's Museum These are all open for the whole year. The Hastings Museum and Art Gallery includes a Durbar Hall representing an Indian palace, donated by Lord Brassey. There are two places providing a theatrical venue: the White Rock Theatre the town's multipurpose venue; and the Stables Theatre, which shows mainly local productions and acts as an arts exhibition centre. Among other uses to which the main theatre is put is to host the annual Hastings Music Festival. There is a small Odeon cinema in Hastings, however there are plans to renovate an area known as the 'Priory Quarter' in the town centre. Some of the plans include large office spaces, retail units and a new large multiplex cinema. The town has its own independent cinema known as "Electric Palace". Electric Palace The Hastings International Chess Congress Hastings International Chess Congress which started in 1882 attracts international players to Hastings. The Hastings Writers' Group claims to be one of the oldest in the country: it was established in 1947. Hastings Writers' Group Hastings has long been known as a retreat for artists and painters. For example, the pre-Raphaelite painters including Dante Gabriel Rossetti (who married here in Hastings) and William Holman Hunt, who painted pictures of nearby cliffs at Fairlight, The Earthly Paradise - Our English Coasts admired the town for its light and clear air . Visitor attractions The town has its fair share of "visitor attractions". These are mostly clustered around the Fishmarket, near the dropping-off place for the coaches, and include a miniature railway, fairground rides and amusement arcades; there are also many refreshment places in this area of the town. The nearby cliff railways take visitors further afield: to the Caves; and to Hastings Country Park, an area of 12.67 km² (6.9 miles²) of lightly wooded and open land extending from Hastings approximately 3 miles (5 km) along the cliff tops to Fairlight. The Blue Reef Aquarium (formerly Underwater World) is a popular visitor attraction, as is the Smugglers' Adventure in St Clement's Caves. Events Hastings Pier and beach in the Winter Hastings Pier at sunset The largest annual event is the May Day bank holiday weekend, which features a Jack-in-the-Green festival (revived since 1983), Hastings Traditional Jack-in-the-Green and the Maydayrun, when tens of thousands of motorbikes drive to Hastings. There is also a yearly carnival, and Old Town Week during August, a beer festival in Alexandra Park, and a Seafood and Wine Festival in the Old Town. During Hastings week held each year around 14 October the Hastings Bonfire Society Hastings Boroughs Bonfire Society stages a torchlight procession through the streets, with a beach bonfire and spectacular firework display. In 2007 the World Crazy Golf Championship was held at the Adventure Crazy Golf Course. Sport There are many organisations and venues catering for the sports enthusiast including angling, golf, lawn tennis, riding, rowing and swimming. The Summerfields Leisure Centre Summerfields Leisure provides the largest venue. Another family pool (although outside the borough) with wave machine and water slide is situated at Glyne Gap, on the coast mid-way between Bexhill and Hastings. The Hastings Half Marathon is becoming well-known around the country, being voted the best race of its kind three years running, and has become known as the unofficial "Great South Run". With numbers increasing every year, in 2009 the race had nerly 5,000 entries. As for team sports, Hastings is home to one senior football club, Hastings United, who play in the Isthmian League Premier Division and use The Pilot Field as their home ground. There are also many other football clubs in Hastings that play in the East Sussex Football League, such as Hollington United and Hastings Rangers. The town's premier cricket venue is now Horntye Park Sports Complex, home of Hastings Priory. The previous venue, where Priory Meadow Shopping Centre now stands, saw the final game played in 1989. Hastings is home to two major rugby clubs, Hastings & Bexhill R.F.C and Cinque Ports Rugby Club. Hastings & Bexhill play their home matches at William Parker Sports College and play in Division Four of the London Rugby Union League. Cinque Ports play in the Sussex Rugby Union League and play at The Grove School. Hastings' main hockey club is South Saxons, who play and train on the town's only AstroTurf surface at Horntye Park Sports Complex. The AstroTurf is also used for other sports such as football. One of the athletics clubs in the Hastings & Rother Area is Hastings Athletics Club: it uses the running track at William Parker Sports College, the only running track in the area. A very popular sport in the town is bowls: there are plenty of greens in the town. The Hastings Open Bowls Tournament has been held annually in June since 1911 and attracts many entrants country-wide. Hastings Open Bowls Tournament Noted residents Filmography Is Anybody There? (2007). Foyle's War. (TV, 2002 onwards). When I was 12 (2001). The Final Curtain (2000). Some Voices (2000). Last of the Blonde Bombshells (1999). Grey Owl (1999). I Want You (1998). External links Hastings Borough Council official website Hastings and 1066 Country tourist information References Notes BibliographyDown the Line to Hastings Brian Jewell, The Baton Press ISBN 0 85936 223 X Robert J Harley, Hastings Tramways. Middleton Press 1993. ISBN 1 873793 18 9. Nairn, Ian, and Pevsner, Nikolaus, The Buildings of England: Sussex'', Page 119. Penguin, 1965

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Montreux_Convention_Regarding_the_Regime_of_the_Straits

The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits was a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus Straits and the Dardanelles and regulates military activity in the region. Signed on 20 July 1936, it permitted Turkey to remilitarise the Straits and imposed new restrictions on the passage of combatant vessels. It is still in force today, with some amendments. The Convention gives Turkey full control over the Straits and guarantees the free passage of civilian vessels in peacetime. It severely restricts the passage of non-Turkish military vessels and prohibits some types of warships, such as aircraft carriers, from passing through the Straits. The terms of the convention have been the source of controversy over the years, most notably concerning the Soviet Union's military access to the Mediterranean Sea. Background The Dardanelles (bottom left), Sea of Marmara (centre) and Bosporus Straits (top right) The convention was one of a series of agreements in the 19th and 20th centuries that sought to address the long-running "Straits Question" of who should control the strategically vital link between the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne had demilitarised the Dardanelles and opened the Straits to unrestricted civilian and military traffic, under the supervision of the International Straits Commission of the League of Nations. By the late 1930s, the strategic situation in the Mediterranean had significantly altered with the rise of Fascist Italy, which controlled the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese islands off the west coast of Turkey and had significantly militarised the region with the construction of fortifications on Rhodes, Leros and Kos. The Turks feared that Italy would seek to exploit access to the Straits to expand its power into Anatolia and the Black Sea region. There were also significant fears of a Bulgarian rearmament. Christos L. Rozakis, Petros N. Stagos, The Turkish Straits, p. 101. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987. ISBN 9024734649 Although Turkey was not permitted to refortify the Straits it nonetheless did so secretly. "Dardanelles or Çanakkale Bogazi." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004. In April 1935, the Turkish government despatched a lengthy diplomatic note to the signatories of the Treaty of Lausanne proposing a conference on the agreement of a new regime for the Straits and requested that the League of Nations authorise the reconstruction of the Dardanelles forts. In the note, Turkish foreign minister Tevfik Rüştü Aras explained that the international situation had changed greatly since 1923. At that time, Europe had been moving towards disarmament and an international guarantee to defend the Straits. The Abyssinia Crisis of 1934-1935, the denunciation by Germany of the Treaty of Versailles and international moves towards rearmament meant that "the only guarantee intended to guard against the total insecurity of the Straits has just disappeared in its turn." Indeed, Aras said, "the Powers most closely concerned are proclaiming the existence of a threat of general conflagration." The key weaknesses of the present regime were that the machinery for collective guarantees were too slow and ineffective, there was no contingency for a general threat of war and no provision for Turkey to defend itself. Turkey was therefore prepared "to enter into negotiations with a view to arriving in the near future at the conclusion of agreements for regulations of the regime of the Straits under the conditions of security which are indespensable for the inviolability of Turkey's territory, in most liberal spirit, for the constant development of commercial navigation between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea." The response to the note was generally favourable, and Australia, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, the Soviet Union, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia agreed to attend negotiations at Montreux in Switzerland, which began on 22 June 1936. Two major powers were not represented: Italy, whose aggressively expansionist policies had prompted the conference in the first place, refused to attend and the United States declined even to send an observer. Christos L. Rozakis, Petros N. Stagos, The Turkish Straits, p. 123. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987. ISBN 9024734649 Turkey, the UK and the Soviet Union each put forward their own set of proposals, aimed chiefly at protecting their own interests. The British favoured the continuation of a relatively restrictive approach, while the Turks sought a more liberal regime that reasserted their own control over the Straits and the Soviets proposed a regime that would guarantee absolute freedom of passage. The British, supported by France, sought to exclude the Soviet fleet from the Mediterranean Sea, where it might have threatened the vital shipping lanes to India, Egypt and the Far East. James C. F. Wang, Handbook on Ocean Politics and Law, p. 88. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0313264341 In the end, the British conceded some of their requests while the Soviets succeeded in ensuring that the Black Sea countries - including the USSR - were given some exemptions from the military restrictions imposed on non-Black Sea nations. The agreement was ratified by all of the conference attendees with the exception of Australia and Germany, which had not been signatories to the Treaty of Lausanne, and with reservations by Japan, "Montreux Convention (1936)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004 and came into force on 9 November 1936. Britain's willingness to make concessions has been attributed to a desire to avoid Turkey being driven to ally itself with, or fall under the influence of Adolf Hitler or Benito Mussolini. "Montreux Convention." Chambers Dictionary of World History, 2005. Dilek Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey, pp. 166-170. BRILL, 1998. ISBN 9004108556 It was thus the first in a series of steps by Britain and France to ensure that Turkey would either remain neutral or tilt towards the Western Allies in the event of any future conflict with the Axis. Terms and consequences of the Convention The Convention consists of 29 Articles, four annexes and one protocol. Articles 2-7 consider the passage of merchant ships. Articles 8-22 consider the passage of war vessels. The key principle of freedom of passage and navigation is stated in articles 1 and 2. Article 1 provides that "The High Contracting Parties recognise and affirm the principle of freedom of passage and navigation by sea in the Straits". Article 2 states that "In time of peace, merchant vessels shall enjoy complete freedom of passage and navigation in the Straits, by day and by night, under any flag with any kind of cargo." The International Straits Commission was abolished, authorising the full resumption of Turkish military control over the Straits and the refortification of the Dardanelles. Turkey was authorised to close the Straits to all foreign warships in wartime or when it was threatened by aggression; additionally, it was authorised to refuse transit from merchant ships belonging to countries at war with Turkey. A number of highly specific restrictions were imposed on what type of warships are allowed passage. Non-Turkish warships in the Straits must be under 15,000 tons. No more than nine non-Turkish warships, with a total aggregate tonnage of no more than 30,000 tons, may pass at any one time, and they are permitted to stay in the Black Sea for no longer than three weeks. The number of foreign warships permitted in the Straits at any one time is restricted to one. Black Sea states are given more leeway, being authorised to send capital ships of any tonnage through the Straits (but only one at a time and specifically excluding aircraft carriers). They are also allowed to send submarines through the Straits, with prior notice, as long as the vessels have been constructed, purchased or sent for repair outside the Black Sea. The less restrictive rules applicable to Black Sea states were agreed as, effectively, a concession to the Soviet Union, the only Black Sea state other than Turkey with any significant number of capital ships or submarines. Robin Rolf Churchill, Alan Vaughan Lowe, The law of the sea, p. 115. Manchester University Press, 1999. ISBN 0719043824 The passage of civil aircraft between the Mediterranean and Black Seas is permitted, but only along routes authorised by the Turkish government. Jozef Goldblat, Arms control: the new guide to negotiations and agreements, pp. 175-177. The terms of the Convention were largely a reflection of the international situation in the mid-1930s. They largely served Turkish and Soviet interests, enabling Turkey to regain military control of the Straits and assuring Soviet dominance of the Black Sea. Although the Convention restricted the Soviets' ability to send naval forces into the Mediterranean sea - thereby satisfying British concerns about Soviet intrusion into what was considered a British sphere of influence - it also ensured that outside powers could not exploit the Straits to threaten the Soviet Union. This was to have significant repercussions during World War II when the Montreux regime prevented the Axis powers from sending naval forces through the Straits to attack the Soviet Union. The Axis powers were thus severely limited in naval capability in their Black Sea campaigns, relying principally on small vessels that had been transported overland by rail and canal networks. Auxiliary vessels and armed merchant ships occupied a grey area, however, and the transit of such vessels through the straits led to friction between the Allies and Turkey. Repeated protests from Moscow and London led to the Turkish government banning the movements of "suspicious" Axis ships with effect from June 1944 after a number of German auxiliary ships were permitted to transit the Straits. Christos L. Rozakis, Petros N. Stagos, The Turkish Straits, p. 125. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987. ISBN 9024734649 Selim Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An 'Active' Neutrality, pp. 169-171. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 052152329X Development of the Convention since 1936 Type 209/1400 (Preveze class) submarine of the Turkish Navy at the Bosporus in Istanbul. The Convention remains in force today, with amendments, though not without dispute. It was repeatedly challenged by the Soviet Union during World War II and the Cold War. As early as 1939, Joseph Stalin sought to reopen the Straits Question and proposed joint Turkish and Soviet control of the Straits, complaining that "a small state [i.e. Turkey] supported by Great Britain held a great state by the throat and gave it no outlet." Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, p. 203. Princeton University Press, 1989. ISBN 0691023034 After the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was signed by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, the Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed his German counterparts that the USSR wished to take military control of the Straits and establish its own military base there. Christos L. Rozakis, Petros N. Stagos, The Turkish Straits, p. 44. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987. ISBN 9024734649 The Soviets returned to the issue in 1945 and 1946, demanding a revision of the Montreux Convention at a conference excluding most of the Montreux signatories, a permanent Soviet military presence and joint control of the Straits. This was firmly rejected by Turkey, despite an ongoing Soviet "strategy of tension". For several years after World War II, the Soviets exploited the restriction on the number of foreign warships by ensuring that one of theirs was always in the Straits, thus effectively blocking any nation other than Turkey from sending warships through the Straits. "Montreux Convention (1936)." The Companion to British History, Routledge. 2001. Soviet pressure eventually resulted in Turkey abandoning its policy of neutrality; in 1947 it became the recipient of US military and economic assistance under the Truman Doctrine of "containment" and joined NATO, along with Greece, in 1952. "Turkey 1." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004. The Soviet Union and its successor, the Russian Federation, have repeatedly sought to evade the ban on aircraft carriers passing through the Straits by designating large aircraft-carrying warships as "heavy aircraft carrying cruisers", although Western nations regard such ships as aircraft carriers. In 1976, the USSR sent the aircraft carrier Kiev through the Straits. The episode was repeated in 1991 when the Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov transited the straits. The passage of US warships through the Straits also raised controversy, as the convention forbids the transit of non-Black Sea nations' warships with guns of a calibre larger than eight inches (203 mm). In the 1960s, the US sent warships carrying 305 mm calibre ASROC missiles through the Straits, prompting Soviet protests. The Turkish government rejected the Soviet complaints, pointing out that guided missiles were not guns and that such weapons had not even existed at the time of the Convention's agreement so were not restricted. Bing Bing Jia, The Regime of Straits in International Law, p. 112. Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0198265565 In April 1982, the Convention was amended to allow Turkey to close the Straits at its discretion in peacetime as well as during wartime. "TURKEY." The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS Convention), which entered into force in November 1994, has prompted calls for the Montreux Convention to be revised and adapted to make it compatible with the LOS Convention's regime governing straits used for international navigation. However, Turkey's long-standing refusal to sign the LOS Convention has meant that Montreux remains in force without further amendments. "Montreux Convention". Boleslaw Adam Boczek, International Law: A Dictionary, pp. 305-306. Scarecrow Press, 2005. ISBN 0810850788 The safety of vessels passing through the Bosporus has become a major concern in recent years as the volume of traffic has increased greatly since the Convention was signed - from 4,500 in 1934 to 49,304 by 1998. As well as obvious environmental concerns, the Straits bisect the city of Istanbul with over 11 million people living on its shores; maritime incidents in the Straits therefore pose a considerable risk to public safety. The Convention does not, however, make any provision for the regulation of shipping for the purposes of safety and environmental protection. In January 1994 the Turkish government adopted new "Maritime Traffic Regulations for the Turkish Straits and the Marmara Region". This introduced a new regulatory regime "in order to ensure the safety of navigation, life and property and to protect the environment in the region" but without violating the Montreux principle of free passage. The new regulations provoked some controversy when Russia, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Ukraine and Bulgaria raised objections. However, they were approved by the International Maritime Organisation on the grounds that they were not intended to prejudice "the rights of any ship using the Straits under international law". The regulations were revised in November 1998 to address Russian concerns. Gennady Chufrin, The Security of the Caspian Sea Region, pp. 155-156. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0199250200 Since the 2008 South Ossetia war On August 27 2008, in the aftermath of the 2008 South Ossetia War, Russia said all countries should comply with the Montreux Convention and called for full implementation of the agreement restricting the movement of non-Turkish military shipping in Turkey’s straits. The Russian deputy Chief of General Staff General Anatoliy Alekseyevich Nogovitsyn reminisced that the maximum permitted volume of the vessels of external countries is 45 000 tonnes and NATO cannot augment its naval forces incessantly. On 27 August 2008 there were 10 NATO vessels and according to the Russian military there were 8 more due. NATO has no right to accrue its military forces in the Black Sea He stated that it is already getting too tight for the naval forces in the Black Sea. Russia is not going to augment its the number of ships in the Black Sea Russia's Ambassador to Ankara's remarks came after the United States demanded to use straits to send two hospital ships carrying aid to Georgia in an apparent move that would violate the Convention. Turkey did not allow the passage of another two United States naval vessels, which exceeded the weight limit defined in the convention, instead allowing three lighter warships to pass through the straits Russia calls full compliance to Montreux Convention . References Further reading Anthony Rocco De Luca, The Montreux Conference of 1936: A Diplomatic Study of Anglo-Soviet Rivalry. Stanford University, 1973. Nihan Ünlü, The Legal Regime of the Turkish Straits, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002. ISBN 9041119043 [http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/45906,features,the-timebomb-in-the-heart-of-istanbul, The Timebomb in the Heart of Istanbul,

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Crossfire

Depiction of crossfireA crossfire (also known as "interlocking fire") is a military term for the siting of weapons (often automatic weapons such as machine guns) so that their arcs of fire overlap. This tactic came to prominence in World War I Siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of mutual support. The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find a covered approach to any one defensive position. Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, and stealth are tactics that may be used to assault a defensive position. However when combined with land-mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century. Trench warfare The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during World War I where it was a feature of trench warfare. Machine guns were placed in groups, called machine gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches. Many lives were lost in futile attempts to charge across the no man's land where these crossfires were set up. Though World War II had more casualties overall, the relative number of deaths compared to the number of soldiers was more than twice as high in WWI, and the soldiers died much more quickly in the battles of World War I as they went "over the top" into the meat grinder known as no man's land. Three things changed between WWI and WWII, rendering crossfire tactics obsolete: the advance of armored vehicles (especially tanks), the advent of aerial bombardment, and the invention of the proximity fuze. Tanks were invented in WWI specifically because they were immune to machine gun fire, and could thus cross no man's land to destroy the machine gun nests. Their armored hulls also provided cover for the infantry to advance around the tanks. The tanks in WWI were ponderously slow and prone to stalling, however, so they tipped the balance in the favor of the British, but not decisively. In WWII, the tanks improved greatly in speed and reliability, and could reach a machine gun nest at reduced risk since it spent less time exposed. Airplanes were present in WWI, but they were used primarily for recon and the outcome of the battle in the air didn't have a lot of effect on the ground battle. The pilots often experimented with carrying things like hand grenades to drop on the enemy, but they were largely ineffective. In WWII airplanes could bomb enemy lines, rendering any large stationary target vulnerable to destruction. Fighters also strafed enemy lines with machine gun fire. The proximity fuze allowed bombs and munitions to detonate when an object passed within a certain range (usually about 50 feet (15 m)) rather than using an impact or timed fuze. Timed fuzes are tricky because the range has to be pre-set correctly. Impact fuzes are ineffective against flying targets because they have a very small targeting silhouette, and ineffective against ground targets because the projectile has time to embed in the ground before it explodes, deflecting the explosive power upward. Proximity fuzes were developed by the U.S. Navy during WWII, and they proved instrumental in defending the fleets from aerial attack since a gunner using bullets with proximity fuzes only had to get close to hitting the enemy to knock him from the sky. Proximity fuzes were also instrumental in the Battle of Britain. Their effectiveness against German air raids is demonstrated by the fact that, after the British flak batteries changed to proximity fuzes, not a single German bomb made it past the guns. The fuze also permitted the heavy artillery to detonate above ground, permitting the explosive power to be fully utilized against targets on the ground. The trenches of WWI, for instance, wouldn't have been effective protection against a bombardment using proximity fuzes. Any of the above three technologies would have rendered the crossfire useless. Modern warfare has not returned to big blocks of infantry because the above inventions also kill massed infantry well; to survive heavy combat in the post-WWI environment, infantry must disperse into smaller, more independent units designed to take full advantage of cover and concealment. With the perfection of shoulder-launched rockets (such as the ubiquitous Bazooka) and precision bombing, stationary targets are too vulnerable to be as deadly as the crossfire was in WWI. "Caught in the crossfire" This often refers to unintended casualties (bystanders, etc) who were killed or wounded by being exposed to the gunfire of a battle or gun fight.

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Lou_Ferrigno

Louis "Lou" Jude Ferrigno (born November 9, 1951 Although Ferrigno's official site does not list a year of birth, it says he was 21 when he won the first of two successive Mr. Universe titles, which occurred in 1973 ("History of the Men's World Amateur Championships", IFBB.com, Accessed 2007-01-01). The results were reported in the July 1973 issue of Muscle magazine ("Lou Ferigno, Mr Universe, 1973". IFBB.com) Some sources report a birthdate in 1952, but in that case Ferrigno would not have turned 21 until November 1973. See also "History of Mr. Olympia: Lou Ferrigno". ) is an American bodybuilder and actor. Ferrigno has appeared in such television series and movies as Bill Bixby's bulky alter ego, The Hulk, in The Incredible Hulk, Pumping Iron, Sinbad of the Seven Seas, Hercules, and most recently in the 2009 comedy I Love You, Man. He is best known for playing the Hulk. He has more recently played a recurring role, as himself, in the sitcom The King of Queens. Early life and career Ferrigno was born in Brooklyn, New York to an Italian American family, the son of Matthew, a New York City Police Department Lieutenant who, according to Lou, was also a weightlifter and was often very critical and negative towards him and mother Victoria. Jim Schmaltz (February 2004). Matt Ferrigno: 1925-2003. Flex. Accessed 2008-08-01. At the age of three, Lou suffered an ear infection and permanently lost 80% of his hearing. Ferrigno started weight training at age 13, citing body builder and Hercules star Steve Reeves as one of his role models. David Robson. The Incredible Hulk Returns: Lou Ferrigno Speaks About His Role & Acting Life!. Bodybuilding.com. Accessed 2008-08-01. After graduating from Brooklyn Technical High School in 1969, Ferrigno won his first major titles, IFBB Mr. America and IFBB Mr. Universe, four years later. In 1974, he came in second on his first attempt at the Mr. Olympia competition. He then came third the following year, and his attempt to beat Arnold Schwarzenegger was the subject of the 1975 documentary Pumping Iron. Following this, Ferrigno left the competition circuit for many years, a period that included a stint as a defensive lineman for the Toronto Argonauts in the Canadian Football League. Ferrigno competed in the first World's Strongest Man contest in 1977, where he finished fourth in a field of eight competitors. Bonnie Siegler. Fame & Fortune: Lou Ferrigno. Accessed 2008-08-01. While competing, Ferrigno commonly went to see a physician who checked up on whether he was doing damage to his body. Ferrigno signed up with Universal Studios in 1977, and beat out both Arnold Schwarzenegger and Richard Kiel for the title role opposite Bill Bixby as the Hulk in The Incredible Hulk. Richard Kiel was hired for the series first, and scenes were filmed. It was quickly determined he was not muscular enough, and Ferrigno was signed. One quick shot of Kiel remains in the pilot movie. Although he did not share a line with Bixby on the set (except for once episode, "King of the Beach"), the two were friends. Ferrigno continued playing the Hulk role until 1981, although the last two episodes were not broadcast until May 1982. Later, he and Bixby co-starred in three The Incredible Hulk TV movies. There were major talks of another movie, The Rebirth of The Incredible Hulk, but due to Bixby's death, the project never went beyond the earliest stages of development. Ferrigno continued to keep in touch with Bixby until his death on November 21, 1993. Ferrigno attended Bixby's funeral in California. During competition, the 6 ft 5 in (195 cm) Ferrigno's contest weight was 285 lb (130 kg) in 1975, and 316 lb (143 kg) in 1992; he was one of the tallest professional bodybuilders at that time. Lou Ferrigno in the episode "Married" of TV's The Incredible Hulk (1978) In the early 1990s, Ferrigno returned to bodybuilding, competing for the 1992 and 1993 Mr. Olympia titles. Finishing 12th and 10th, respectively, he then turned to the Masters Olympia, coming second in 1994 to Robby Robinson. After this, he retired from competition. He made a cameo in the 2003 film Hulk as a security guard and was in one deleted scene. He has also done guest appearances and advertisements. He again appeared as a security guard in 2008's feature film The Incredible Hulk as well as voicing the Hulk. Furthermore, Ferrigno has been the favorite choice to play the voice of the Hulk in several animated adaptations as well as in the most recent film after being publicly offered at the 2008 New York Comic Con by The Incredible Hulk director Louis Leterrier. Jeff Otto (May 27, 2008). Special Report: "Hulk" Edit Bay Visit. Dark Horizons. Accessed 2008-05-27. Personal life Ferrigno sees his loss of hearing as influential towards bodybuilding and his life: "...if I hadn't lost some of my hearing, I wouldn't be where I am now. It forced me to maximize my own potential. I had to be better than the average person to succeed." Biography. LouFerrigno.com. Version of February 20, 2006 available at archive.org. Accessed 2007-06-23. Ferrigno's personal heroes as a child were Spider-Man and the Hulk. The Incredible Lou. Appropriately, he would later play the role of the Hulk himself in the Incredible Hulk television series and related TV movies. He was also a fan of the Hercules films that starred Steve Reeves. Ferrigno frequently points to Reeves as one of his primary role models and would later play Hercules just as Reeves had. He married Susan Groff in 1978, divorcing a year later. On May 3, 1980, he married psychotherapist Carla Green, who then also began serving as his manager and later became a personal trainer. They have three children, Shanna, born 1981; Louis, Jr., born 1984; and Brent, born 1990. Shanna has a recurring role as Nurse Janice in Days of our Lives, and appears in the NBC series Windfall, as well as the television movie Within, and in 2005 she appeared in the E! reality television series, Filthy Rich: Cattle Drive. Louis, Jr. was a linebacker for the University of Southern California Trojans football team. Player Bio: Lou Ferrigno Jr. USCTrojans.cstv.com. Accessed 2007-01-01. Lou Ferrigno at Comic-Con International Ferrigno played himself during intermittent guest appearances on the CBS television show, The King of Queens, beginning in 2000 and continuing until the program's conclusion in 2007. He and his wife Carla were depicted as the main characters' next-door neighbors. Because of his role as the title character on The Incredible Hulk, he is often the target of "Hulk jokes" by Doug and his friends. Ferrigno once used his celebrity status to make calls for Hollywood is Calling, a company which allows people to have a celebrity call them on a special occasion, such as a birthday. FilmStew.com • A Humble Calling In February 2006 he was sworn in as a Los Angeles County, California reserve sheriff's deputy. Lou Ferrigno becomes reserve LA County sheriff's deputy (February 13, 2006) AP. Accessed 2008-08-01. In June 2006, Ferrigno attended the first Bionicon in Tampa, Florida, one of his many convention appearances. He still trains daily and also sells his own line of fitness equipment through his company, Ferrigno Fitness. In a January 2009 taping, Ferrigno Fitness provided equipment to The Price Is Right for use as a One Bid prize, and he demonstrated the equipment himself, including a mention as part of the prize. Ferrigno currently lives in Arroyo Grande, California. Contests 1971 Pro Mr. America — WBBG, Teen 1st History of Mr. Olympia: Lou Ferrigno. Schwarzenegger.it Accessed 2007-01-01. 1971 Teen Mr. America — AAU, 4th, Most Muscular 5th 1972 Pro Mr. America — WBBG, 2nd 1972 NABBA Mr. Universe, Tall 2nd 1973 IFBB Mr. America, Overall Winner 1973 IFBB Mr. Universe, Tall 1st, Overall Winner "History of the Men's World Amateur Championships". IFBB.com. Accessed 2007-01-01. 1974 IFBB Mr. International 1974 IFBB Mr. Universe, Tall 1st, Overall Winner 1974 Mr. Olympia, Heavyweight 2nd 1975 Mr. Olympia, Tall class, 3rd place 1992 Mr. Olympia, 12th 1993 Mr. Olympia, 10th 1994 Olympia Masters, 2nd Magazine covers His handprints at Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park. Total: 37 10 Muscle & Fitness ('82, '83, '86, '87, '88, '89, '93, '94) 8 Flex ('83, '85, '89, '92, '93, '94) 7 Muscle Builder ('74, '77, '79, '80) 4 Iron Man ('73, '88, '92, '94) 2 Muscle Mag International ('83, '94) 2 Bodybuilding Lifestyle ('91, '92) 1 Strength & Health ('83) 1 Muscular Development ('81, '09) 1 Natural Bodybuilding ('83) 1 Muscle Training Illustrated ('72) Filmography Pumping Iron (1977) The Incredible Hulk (1978-1982) (as The Hulk) Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (self appearances, 1980) Hercules (1983)The Fall Guy (guest, 1982, 1983, 1984)Hercules II a.k.a. The Adventures of Hercules (1984)Seven Magnificent Gladiators (1985, but filmed simultaneously with Hercules)Desert Warrior (1987)Family Double Dare (celebrity contestant, 1988)The Incredible Hulk Returns (1988) (as The Hulk)Sinbad of the Seven Seas (1989)The Trial of the Incredible Hulk (1989) (as The Hulk)Cage (1989)The Death of the Incredible Hulk (1990) as The Hulk)Cage II (1994)The Incredible Hulk (voice, 1996 animated series)Home Improvement (1997)The King of Queens (recurring, 2000-2007) (as himself)Hulk (cameo, 2003) (as a security guard)My Wife and Kids (guest, 2004)Reno 911! (guest, 2004)The Incredible Hulk (voice, cameo, 2008) (as The Hulk's voice and a security guard)I Love You, Man (2009) (as himself)The Avengers'' (voice, 2010) (as The Hulk) References External links Official website Interview at incrediblehulktvseries.com Gallery at builtreport.com Audio interview at BBC Wiltshire

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Balsall_Heath

Balsall Heath is a working class, inner-city area of Birmingham, England. It is home to a diverse cultural mix including Afro-Caribbean, Indian, Pakistani, Irish and English, and the home of the Balti Triangle, a collection of Asian Balti restaurants and sweet centres. History Balsall Heath, circa 1890. Balsall Heath Baths and Library. Balsall Heath was agricultural land between Moseley village and the city of Birmingham until the 1850s when expansion along Moseley Road joined the two. The area was originally part of the Worcestershire parish of King's Norton, and was added to the county borough of Birmingham in Warwickshire on October 1, 1891. During negotiations in the previous year it had been promised a public baths, to be built by the City of Birmingham Baths Department, and a free library, to be constructed by the Free Libraries Committee. In 1895 the library was opened on Moseley Road and in 1907 Balsall Heath Baths were opened in an adjoining building. The small lake (Lady Pool on old maps) at the end of Ladypool Road was also filled-in to create a park. In 1900, the area became home to the city's College of Art. Balsall Heath initially had a reasonably affluent population, which can still be seen in the dilapidated grandeur of some of the larger houses. A train station on Brighton Road (on the Birmingham to Bristol line) led to further expansion and the end of the 19th century saw a proliferation of high-density small terraced houses. A Muslim community was started in June 1940 when two Yemenis purchased an artisan cottage on Mary Street. They went on to establish the first mosque in the city. With the mosque being located in the area, more Muslim immigrants began to move into private lodgings in Balsall Heath. Balsall Heath remained a respectable working-class suburb until the 1950s when street prostitution first appeared. Property values fell attracting Birmingham's poorer immigrants. By the 1970s the area was notorious for street robberies and drug dealing. Prostitutes also sat semi-naked in the windows of houses on Cheddar Road, openly touting for trade. By 1980, many of Balsall Heath's houses were in a dilapidated condition, and some were still without bathrooms or indoor toilets. The local authority considered demolishing these properties but chose to refurbish them as part of an Urban Renewal scheme. Most of these Victorian terraces still exist and characterize the area today. The area's traditional 'brick' pavements were replaced at this time by the more modern and conventional paving slabs. Balsall Heath's low rents also attracted a bohemian student population. Its proximity to the University of Birmingham, the city centre and the ‘trendy’ area of Moseley were also contributing factors. There was little conflict between the students and locals despite their vastly differing lifestyles. However a knife-incident in 1991 led to an article in Redbrick warning students not to live in the area. In September 1992, a report was published encouraging the formation of a zone of tolerance towards prostitution in Balsall Heath. This was opposed by a local police inspector and by residents. The following year Samo Paull, a woman working as a prostitute, was abducted from Balsall Heath and murdered. In 1994, local residents began to organize street patrols forcing the prostitutes and street criminals out of the area. These patrols had the qualified support of the police but were regarded as vigilantes by some. During this time the Sisters of Charity, a Christian organisation, offered outreach support to the prostitutes. The area subsequently enjoyed a slow revival. House prices are now similar to other inner-city areas while the crime rate is amongst the lowest. Property developers were also confident enough to convert the former Robinson's warehouse on Moseley Road into up-market flats, something that would have been incredible ten years earlier. Balsall Heath was hit by a tornado in July 2005 which devastated many buildings around Church Road and Ladypool Road. Birmingham City Council offered loans to those who were unable to repair their properties and the area has now made a full recovery. Notable people from Balsall Heath Alan Deakin, former Aston Villa captain. Don Maclean, comedian. Donnaleigh Bailey, actress. Howard R. Davies, racing motorcyclist. John Kenneally V.C. Percy Bullock, Worcestershire cricketer. UB40, a reggae band. References V.M. Hart (1992) Balsall Heath: A History. Brewin Books Limited J. Moth (1951) The City of Birmingham Baths Department 1851 – 1951. External links About Balsall Heath Balsall Heath Library Images of Balsall Heath in 1970 Geolinks for Balsall Heath

Balsall_Heath |@lemmatized balsall:19 heath:19 working:1 class:2 inner:2 city:9 area:13 birmingham:9 england:1 home:3 diverse:1 cultural:1 mix:1 include:1 afro:1 caribbean:1 indian:1 pakistani:1 irish:1 english:1 balti:2 triangle:1 collection:1 asian:1 restaurant:1 sweet:1 centre:2 history:2 circa:1 bath:5 library:5 agricultural:1 land:1 moseley:5 village:1 expansion:2 along:1 road:8 join:1 two:2 originally:1 part:2 worcestershire:2 parish:1 king:1 norton:1 add:1 county:1 borough:1 warwickshire:1 october:1 negotiation:1 previous:1 year:3 promise:1 public:1 build:1 department:2 free:2 construct:1 committee:1 open:2 adjoining:1 building:2 small:2 lake:1 lady:1 pool:1 old:1 map:1 end:2 ladypool:2 also:5 fill:1 create:1 park:1 become:1 college:1 art:1 initially:1 reasonably:1 affluent:1 population:2 still:3 see:1 dilapidated:2 grandeur:1 large:1 house:5 train:1 station:1 brighton:1 bristol:1 line:1 lead:2 century:1 saw:1 proliferation:1 high:1 density:1 terrace:2 muslim:2 community:1 start:1 june:1 yemeni:1 purchase:1 artisan:1 cottage:1 mary:1 street:5 go:1 establish:1 first:2 mosque:2 locate:1 immigrant:2 begin:2 move:1 private:1 lodging:1 remain:1 respectable:1 work:2 suburb:1 prostitution:2 appear:1 property:4 value:1 fell:1 attract:2 poorer:1 notorious:1 robbery:1 drug:1 dealing:1 prostitute:4 sit:1 semi:1 naked:1 window:1 cheddar:1 openly:1 tout:1 trade:1 many:2 condition:1 without:1 bathroom:1 indoor:1 toilet:1 local:4 authority:1 consider:1 demolish:1 choose:1 refurbish:1 urban:1 renewal:1 scheme:1 victorian:1 exist:1 characterize:1 today:1 traditional:1 brick:1 pavement:1 replace:1 time:2 modern:1 conventional:1 paving:1 slab:1 low:2 rent:1 bohemian:1 student:3 proximity:1 university:1 trendy:1 contribute:1 factor:1 little:1 conflict:1 despite:1 vastly:1 differ:1 lifestyle:1 however:1 knife:1 incident:1 article:1 redbrick:1 warning:1 live:1 september:1 report:1 publish:1 encourage:1 formation:1 zone:1 tolerance:1 towards:1 oppose:1 police:2 inspector:1 resident:2 following:1 samo:1 paull:1 woman:1 abduct:1 murder:1 organize:1 patrol:2 force:1 criminal:1 qualified:1 support:2 regard:1 vigilante:1 sister:1 charity:1 christian:1 organisation:1 offer:2 outreach:1 subsequently:1 enjoy:1 slow:1 revival:1 price:1 similar:1 crime:1 rate:1 amongst:1 developer:1 confident:1 enough:1 convert:1 former:2 robinson:1 warehouse:1 market:1 flat:1 something:1 would:1 incredible:1 ten:1 earlier:1 hit:1 tornado:1 july:1 devastate:1 around:1 church:1 council:1 loan:1 unable:1 repair:1 make:1 full:1 recovery:1 notable:1 people:1 alan:1 deakin:1 aston:1 villa:1 captain:1 maclean:1 comedian:1 donnaleigh:1 bailey:1 actress:1 howard:1 r:1 davy:1 race:1 motorcyclist:1 john:1 kenneally:1 v:2 c:1 percy:1 bullock:1 cricketer:1 reggae:1 band:1 reference:1 hart:1 brewin:1 book:1 limited:1 j:1 moth:1 external:1 link:1 image:1 geolinks:1 |@bigram balsall_heath:19 afro_caribbean:1 urban_renewal:1 aston_villa:1 external_link:1

Metre_(poetry)

In poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular order. Prosody is a more general linguistic term, that includes poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal. The scansion of a poem is the analysis of its metrical structure. Fundamentals The meter usually depends on acoustic properties of the spoken words, such as the length or stress of their syllables, independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions. Feet In most Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse can be described as a sequence of feet, each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types—such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry). The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called iambic pentameter, is a sequence of five iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ("da-DUM") : So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho. Caesurae Another component of a verse's meter are the caesurae (literally, cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a break within a line. Metric variations Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': 'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) Fast withereth too' (2 feet) Meter in various languages Greek and Latin The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical meter. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical meter is the dactylic hexameter, the meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first four feet are dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: Armă vĭ | rumquĕ că | nō, Troi | ae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs</font> ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy. . . ") In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem Evangeline: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a caesura. Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from Ovid's Tristia: Vergĭlĭ | um vī | dī tan | tum, nĕc ă | māră Tĭ | bullō</font> Tempŭs ă | mīcĭtĭ | ae || fātă dĕ | dērĕ mĕ | ae.</font> ("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for me.") The Greeks and Romans also used a number of lyric meters, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In Aeolic verse, one important line was called the hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used most often in the Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31): Illĕ | mī pār | essĕ dĕ | ō vĭ | dētŭr; illĕ, | sī fās | est, sŭpĕ | rārĕ | dīvōs, quī sĕ | dēns ad | versŭs ĭ | dentĭ | dem tē spectăt ĕt | audĭt ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes at you and listens to you.") The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: Saw the white implacable Aphrodite, Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled Shine as fire of sunset on western waters; Saw the reluctant... Old English The metric system of Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older Germanic languages. It used alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major role in Old English poetry. Modern English Most English meter is classified according to the same system as Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) Metrical systems The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon. For example, Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay 'Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in David Baker (editor), Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. ISBN 1-55728-444-X. The four major types see for example, Paul Fussell, Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. ISBN 0-07-553606-4. are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse. The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English). Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters "continue to resist importation in English" (Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, page 34). It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but exceptional. According to Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. ISBN 1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'. Frequently-used meters The most frequently encountered line of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. John Milton's Paradise Lost, most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson (Ulysses, The Princess) and Wordsworth (The Prelude) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet, a verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope. Another important meter in English is the ballad meter, also called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common of the named hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as Amazing Grace: The ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as Amazing Grace, the Ballad of Gilligan's Isle, House of the Rising Sun, theme from the Mickey Mouse Club, and others. Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound That saved a wretch like me; I once was lost, but now am found; Was blind, but now I see. Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter: Great streets of silence led away To neighborhoods of pause; Here was no notice — no dissent — No universe — no laws. French In French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse). The most frequently encountered meter in French is the alexandrine, composed of two hemistiches of six syllables each. Classical French poetry also had a complex set of rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the meter of a poem. Spanish In Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables. Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line. For example: Cuando salí de Collores, fue en una jaquita baya, por un sendero entre mayas, arropás de cundiamores... This stanza from Valle de Collores by Luis Llorens Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This license is called a synalepha (Spanish: sinalefa). There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants. Some common meters in Spanish verse are: Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs. Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things. Alexandrine: A line consisting of thirteen or more poetic syllables. Italian In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse. Some common meters in Italian verse are: Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti) Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one. Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this meter is particularly well-suited. Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other works. The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable. Ottoman Turkish In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic meter (وزن vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language. Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed meter. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types: Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak") Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse") Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water") In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows: fa‘ (–)fe ul (. –)fa‘ lün (– –)fe i lün (. . –)     fâ i lün (– . –)fe û lün (. – –)mef’ û lü (– – .)fe i lâ tün (. . – –)     fâ i lâ tün (– . – –)fâ i lâ tü (– . – .)me fâ i lün (. – . –)me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)     me fâ î lü (. – – .)müf te i lün (– . . –)müs tef i lün (– – . –)mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –) These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are the following: me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün. – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – – Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānāMaḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of loveOh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology. ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93. —Bâkî (1526–1600) me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün. – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . – Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degilEgerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verseThe fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words —Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799) fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün– . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . – Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beniNīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smileOh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough Ibid. p. 134. —Nedîm (1681?–1730) fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün. . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . – Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayānḲamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my loveI know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart —Fuzûlî (1483?–1556) mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün– – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – . Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuzḤūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingaleWe are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose Ibid. p. 131. —Neşâtî (?–1674) Brazilian Portuguese Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably during Parnassianism. The most notable ones were: Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables. Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables. Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in Parnassian sonnets. Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables. Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables. Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables. Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables. Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables. Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two hemistiches. Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables. Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two hemistiches of 8 syllables each. Sanskrit Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and Latin meter. The Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some Tristubh. For example, when Krishna reveals his divinity to Arjuna the meter changes to Tristubh. Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of the ancient Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses. History Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda. That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attemtps to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g. by Gustav Bickell "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 or Julius Ley "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887 , but they remained inconclusive the Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. (see Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to Homer and Hesiod. Latin verse survives from the Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c. BC), in the Saturnian meter. Persian poetry arises in the Sassanid era. Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible exception of the Chinese Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment of Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the Gallehus horns (ca. AD 400). Irish and Arabic poetry both have early records dating from about the 6th century. Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European Minnesang, Trouvère or Bardic poetry, Classical Persian and Sanskrit poetry, Tang dynasty Chinese poetry or the Japanese Heian period Man'yōshū. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of Shakespeare and Milton. Dissent Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry. Twentieth century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, and Robinson Jeffers, were poets who believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic lines from her famous poem "Poetry" illustrate her contempt for meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent): nor is it valid to discriminate against "business documents and school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. Notes See also Foot (prosody) Meter (music) List of classical meters.

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International_Court_of_Justice

ICJ redirects here, see also International Commission of Jurists The International Court of Justice (; commonly referred to as the World Court or ICJ) is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly. The ICJ should not be confused with the International Criminal Court, which also potentially has "global" jurisdiction. Activities Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court. Statute of the International Court of Justice. Accessed 31 August 2007. The Court's workload is characterised by a wide range of judicial activity. The ICJ has dealt with relatively few cases in its history, but there has clearly been an increased willingness to use the Court since the 1980s, especially among developing countries. The United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986, and so accepts the court's jurisdiction only on a case-to-case basis. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce World Court rulings, but such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council. Presently there are twelve cases on the World Court's docket. Composition Public hearing at the ICJ. The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine year terms by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4–12 of the ICJ statute. Judges serve for nine year terms and may be re-elected for up to two further terms. Elections take place every three years, with one-third of the judges retiring (and possibly standing for re-election) each time, in order to ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge of the same nationality to complete the term. No two may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world". Essentially, this has meant common law, civil law and socialist law (now post-communist law). Since the 1960s four of the five permanent members of the Security Council (France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have always had a judge on the Court. The exception was China (the Republic of China until 1971, the People's Republic of China from 1971 onwards), which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967–1985, because it did not put forward a candidate. The rule on a geopolitical composition of the bench exists despite the fact that there is no provision for it in the Statute of the ICJ. Article 2 of the Statute provides that all judges should be "elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high moral character", who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt specifically with in Articles 16-18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post, nor act as counsel. In practice the Members of the Court have their own interpretation of these rules. This allows them to be involved in outside arbitration and hold professional posts as long as there is no conflict of interest. A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of other members of the Court. ICJ Statute, Article 18(1) Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the Nicaragua Case, the USA issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the Court because of the presence of judges from Eastern bloc states. Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158-60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs. Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive. This occurred in the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Opinion requested by WHO), [1996] ICJ Reports 66. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions. Ad hoc judges Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. This system allows any party to a contentious case to nominate a judge of their choice (usually of their nationality), if a judge of their nationality is not already on the bench. Ad hoc judges participate fully in the case and the deliberations, along with the permanent bench. Thus, it is possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case. This system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases to the Court. For example, if a state knows it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, that state may be more willing to submit to the Court's jurisdiction. Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. Ad hoc judges usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out. Chambers Generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26-29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993 a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with environmental matters (although this chamber has never been used). Ad hoc chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to hear the Gulf of Maine Case (USA v Canada). Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978 (as amended on 5 December 2000). Accessed 17 December 2005. See also Practice Directions I-XII (as at 30 July 2004). Accessed 17 December 2005. In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the Court appointed judges to the chamber who were acceptable to the parties. Judgments of chambers may have less authority than full Court judgments, or may diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of chambers might encourage greater recourse to the Court and thus enhance international dispute resolution. Schwebel S "Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 American Journal of International Law 831. Current composition As of 6 February 2009, the composition of the Court is as follows: Name Country Position Elected Term EndHisashi Owada Japan President 2003 2012 Peter Tomka Slovakia Vice-President 2003 2012Shi Jiuyong China Member 1994, 2003 2012 Abdul G. Koroma Sierra Leone Member 1994, 2003 2012Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh Jordan Member 2000, 2009 2018 Thomas Buergenthal United States Member 2000, 2006 2015Bruno Simma Germany Member 2003 2012Ronny Abraham France Member 2005, 2009 2018Sir Kenneth Keith New Zealand Member 2006 2015Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor Mexico Member 2006 2015Mohamed Bennouna Morocco Member 2006 2015Leonid Skotnikov Russia Member 2006 2015Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade Brazil Member 2009 2018Abdulqawi Yusuf Somalia Member 2009 2018Sir Christopher John Greenwood United Kingdom Member 2009 2018 Results of the last election of 6 November 2008: Re-elected were France's Ronny Abraham and Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh (terms expired on 5 February 2009), while 's Christopher Greenwood, Brazil’s Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and Somalia's Abdulqawi Yusuf (terms began on 6 February 2009) were newly elected. The declared candidates Sayeman Bula-Bula (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Miriam Defensor-Santiago (Philippines) and Maurice Kamto (Cameroon) lost in the final voting. The 3 new judges replaced 's Rosalyn Higgins (as ICJ President), Gonzalo Parra Aranguren of Venezuela and Madagascar’s Raymond Ranjeva (terms all expired on 5 February 2009). www.un.org, Five judges elected to serve on UN International Court of Justic etaiwannews.com,World's top court among nations gets new judges Jurisdiction As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 192 UN members are automatically parties to the Court's statute. The jurisdiction is discussed in the entire Chapter XIV of the UN Charter (Articles 92-96. Full text Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, before becoming a UN member state, Switzerland used this procedure in 1948 to become a party. And Nauru became a party in 1988. Once a state is a party to the Court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of jurisdiction is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions. Contentious issues In contentious cases (adversarial proceedings seeking to settle a dispute), the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court. Only states may be parties in contentious cases. Individuals, corporations, parts of a federal state, NGOs, UN organs and self-determination groups are excluded from direct participation in cases, although the Court may receive information from public international organisations. This does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings if one state brings the case against another. For example, a state may, in case of "diplomatic protection", bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations. See the Nottebohm Case (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), [1955] ICJ Reports 4. Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the Court in contentious cases. (See Procedure below.) The key principle is that the ICJ has jurisdiction only on the basis of consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the Court's jurisdiction may be founded. First, 36(1) provides that parties may refer cases to the Court (jurisdiction founded on "special agreement" or "compromis"). This method is based on explicit consent rather than true compulsory jurisdiction. It is, perhaps, the most effective basis for the Court's jurisdiction because the parties concerned have a desire for the dispute to be resolved by the Court and are thus more likely to comply with the Court's judgment. Second, 36(1) also gives the Court jurisdiction over "matters specifically provided for ... in treaties and conventions in force". Most modern treaties will contain a compromissory clause, providing for dispute resolution by the ICJ. See List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ. Cases founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded on special agreement, since a state may have no interest in having the matter examined by the Court and may refuse to comply with a judgment. For example, during the Iran hostage crisis, Iran refused to participate in a case brought by the US based on a compromissory clause contained in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, nor did it comply with the judgment. Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (USA v Iran), [1979] ICJ Reports 7. Since the 1970s, the use of such clauses has declined. Many modern treaties set out their own dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of arbitration. See Charney J "Compromissory Clauses and the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 American Journal of International Law 855. Third, Article 36(2) allows states to make optional clause declarations accepting the Court's jurisdiction. The label "compulsory" which is sometimes placed on Article 36(2) jurisdiction is misleading since declarations by states are voluntary. Furthermore, many declarations contain reservations, such as exclusion from jurisdiction certain types of disputes ("ratione materia"). See Alexandrov S Reservations in Unilateral Declarations Accepting the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995). The principle of reciprocity may further limit jurisdiction. As of October 2006, sixty-seven states had a declaration in force. For a complete list of countries and their stance with the ICJ, see Declarations Recognizing as Compulsory the Jurisdiction of the Court. Accessed 31 August 2008. Of the permanent Security Council members, only the United Kingdom has a declaration. In the Court's early years, most declarations were made by industrialised countries. Since the Nicaragua Case, declarations made by developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the Court since the 1980s. Industrialised countries however have sometimes increased exclusions or removed their declarations in recent years. Examples include the USA, as mentioned previously and Australia who modified their declaration in 2002 to exclude disputes on maritime boundaries (most likely to prevent an impending challenge from East Timor who gained their independence two months later). Australia, East Timor strike oil, gas deal by Bob Burton, Asia Times, 17 May 2005, accessed 4-21-06. Finally, 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under the Permanent Court of International Justice's statute. Article 37 of the Statute similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ. In addition, the Court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (forum prorogatum). In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction will be established if the respondent accepts ICJ jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads on the merits. The notion arose in the Corfu Channel Case (UK v Albania) (1949) in which the Court held that a letter from Albania stating that it submitted to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to grant the court jurisdiction. Advisory opinion An advisory opinion is a function of the Court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. On receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory Opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the Court's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates. In principle, the Court's advisory opinions are only consultative in character, though they are influential and widely respected. Whilst certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, they are inherently non-binding under the Statute of the Court. This non-binding character does not mean that advisory opinions are without legal effect, because the legal reasoning embodied in them reflects the Court's authoritative views on important issues of international law and, in arriving at them, the Court follows essentially the same rules and procedures that govern its binding judgments delivered in contentious cases submitted to it by sovereign states. An advisory opinion derives its status and authority from the fact that it is the official pronouncement of the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. The UN General Assembly Requests a World Court Advisory Opinion On Israel's Separation Barrier, Pieter H.F. Bekker, ASIL (American Society of International Law) Insights, December 2003. Advisory Opinions have often been controversial, either because the questions asked are controversial, or because the case was pursued as an indirect "backdoor" way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the Court. Examples of advisory opinions can be found in the section advisory opinions in the List of International Court of Justice cases article. One such well-known advisory opinion is the Nuclear Weapons Case. The ICJ and the Security Council Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the Court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the Security Council for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement would then be vetoed. This occurred, for example, after the Nicaragua case, when Nicaragua brought the issue of the U.S.'s non-compliance with the Court's decision before the Security Council. Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158-60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs. Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply. The relationship between the ICJ and the Security Council, and the separation of their powers, was considered by the Court in 1992 in the Pan Am case. The Court had to consider an application from Libya for the order of provisional measures to protect its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the United Kingdom and United States. The problem was that these sanctions had been authorised by the Security Council, which resulted with a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the Court. The Court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the Montreal Convention, prima facie could not be regarded as appropriate since the action was ordered by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations. Nevertheless the Court declared the application admissible in 1998. A decision on the merits has not been given since the parties (United Kingdom, United States and Libya) settled the case out of court in 2003. There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the Court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The Court stated in the Nicaragua case that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, where there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council. Should either party fail "to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court", the Security Council may be called upon to "make recommendations or decide upon measures" if the Security Council deems such actions necessary. In practice, the Court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the Court's ruling, and by the Security Council's unwillingness to impose consequences. However, in theory, "so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal," and "by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party." For example, the United States had previously accepted the Court's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in 1946, but in Nicaragua v. United States withdrew its acceptance following the Court's judgment in 1984 that called on the U.S. to "cease and to refrain" from the "unlawful use of force" against the government of Nicaragua. The Court ruled (with only the American judge dissenting) that the United States was "in breach of its obligation under the Treaty of Friendship with Nicaragua not to use force against Nicaragua" and ordered the United States to pay war reparations (see note 2). Examples of contentious cases include: A complaint by the United States in 1980 that Iran was detaining American diplomats in Tehran in violation of international law. A dispute between Tunisia and Libya over the delimitation of the continental shelf between them. A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and Canada in the Gulf of Maine area. A complaint by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against the member states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation regarding their actions in the Kosovo War. This was denied on 15 December 2004 due to lack of jurisdiction, because the FRY was not a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application. Generally, the Court has been most successful resolving border delineation and the use of oceans and waterways. While the Court has, in some instances, resolved claims by one State espoused on behalf of its nationals, the Court has generally refrained from hearing contentious cases that are political in nature, due in part to its lack of enforcement mechanism and its lack of compulsory jurisdiction. The Court has generally found it did not have jurisdiction to hear cases involving the use of force. Law applied When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38. Article 38 of the ICJ Statute provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom, and the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations". It may also refer to academic writing ("the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations") and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law, although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions under the doctrine of stare decisis. Article 59 makes clear that the common law notion of precedent or stare decisis does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court's decision binds only the parties to that particular controversy. Under 38(1)(d), however, the Court may consider its own previous decisions. In reality, the ICJ rarely departs from its own previous decisions and treats them as precedent in a way similar to superior courts in common law systems. Additionally, international lawyers commonly operate as though ICJ judgments had precedential value. If the parties agree, they may also grant the Court the liberty to decide ex aequo et bono ("in justice and fairness"), Statute of the International Court of Justice, Article 38(2) granting the ICJ the freedom to make an equitable decision based on what is fair under the circumstances. This provision has not been used in the Court's history. So far the International Court of Justice has dealt with about 130 cases. Procedure The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978 (as amended on 29 September 2005). Schwebel S "Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 American Journal of International Law 831. Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant who files a written memorial setting out the basis of the Court's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the Court's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case. Preliminary objections A respondent who does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the Court may raise Preliminary Objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the Court can address the merits of the applicant's claim. Often a separate public hearing is held on the Preliminary Objections and the Court will render a judgment. Respondents normally file Preliminary Objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and/or the admissibility of the case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the Court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction; for example, that the issue is not justiciable or that it is not a "legal dispute". In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the Court. If the case necessarily requires the Court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the Court's jurisdiction, the Court will not proceed to issue a judgment on the merits. If the Court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent will then be required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim. Once all written arguments are filed, the Court will hold a public hearing on the merits. Once a case has been filed, any party (but usually the Applicant) may seek an order from the Court to protect the status quo pending the hearing of the case. Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to interlocutory injunctions in United States law. Article 41 of the statute allows the Court to make such orders. The Court must be satisfied to have prima facie jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before granting provisional measures. Applications to intervene In cases where a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case, and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state "with an interest of a legal nature" may apply; however, it is within the Court's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare - the first successful application occurred in 1990. Judgment and remedies Once deliberation has taken place, the Court will issue a majority opinion. Individual judges may issue separate opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority). No appeal is possible, though any party may ask for the court to clarify if there is a dispute as to the meaning or scope of the court's judgment. Statute of the International Court of Justice, Article 60 Criticisms The International Court has been criticised with respect to its rulings, its procedures, and its authority. As with United Nations criticisms as a whole, many of these criticisms refer more to the general authority assigned to the body by member states through its charter than to specific problems with the composition of judges or their rulings. Major criticisms include: "Compulsory" jurisdiction is limited to cases where both parties have agreed to submit to its decision, and, as such, instances of aggression tend to be automatically escalated to and adjudicated by the Security Council. Organizations, private enterprises, and individuals cannot have their cases taken to the International Court, such as to appeal a national supreme court's ruling. U.N. agencies likewise cannot bring up a case except in advisory opinions (a process initiated by the court and non-binding). Other existing international thematic courts, such as the ICC, are not under the umbrella of the International Court. The International Court does not enjoy a full separation of powers, with permanent members of the Security Council being able to veto enforcement of even cases to which they consented in advance to be bound. Building See also List of International Court of Justice cases List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ UN Economic and Social Council UN Secretariat UN Trusteeship Council International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda International Criminal Court Mundialization World citizen Notes Further reading Rosenne S, Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003). External links International Court of Justice, Official site List of cases ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946 Hague Justice Portal: Academic gateway to The Hague organisations concerning international peace, justice and security. be-x-old:Міжнародны Суд Слушнасьці

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Jackson_Pollock

Paul Jackson Pollock (January 28, 1912 – August 11, 1956) was an influential American painter and a major figure in the abstract expressionist movement. In October 1945, he married the artist Lee Krasner. Naifeh, Steven and Smith, Gregory White, Jackson Pollock:an American saga, p.503, Published by Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.1989, ISBN 0-517-56084-4 During his lifetime, Pollock enjoyed considerable fame and notoriety. He was regarded as a mostly reclusive artist, but had a volatile personality and struggled with alcoholism all of his life. He died at the age of 44 in an alcohol-related, single-car crash. In December 1956, he was given a memorial retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, and a larger more comprehensive exhibition there in 1967. More recently, in 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at The Tate in London. Varnedoe, Kirk and Karmel, Pepe, Jackson Pollock: Essays, Chronology, and Bibliography. Exhibition catalog, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, Chronology pp. 315-329, 1998, ISBN 0-87070-069-3. In 2000, Pollock was the subject of an Academy Award-winning film directed by and starring Ed Harris. Early life Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming in 1912. Piper, David. The Illustrated History of Art, ISBN 0753701790, p460-461. His father was a farmer and later a land surveyor for the government. He grew up in Arizona and Chico, California, studying at Los Angeles' Manual Arts High School. During his early life, he experienced Native American culture while on surveying trips with his father. when he was young he was also fascinated by card tricks, especially those of Charles Jordan. In 1930, following his brother Charles, he moved to New York City, where they both studied under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League of New York. Benton's rural American subject matter shaped Pollock's work only fleetingly, but his rhythmic use of paint and his fierce independence were more lasting influences. From 1935 to 1943, Pollock worked for the WPA Federal Art Project. The Springs period and the unique technique No. 5, 1948 In October 1945, Pollock married another important American painter, Lee Krasner, and in November they moved to what is now known as the Pollock-Krasner House and Studio in Springs on Long Island, New York. Peggy Guggenheim loaned them the down payment for the wood-frame house with a nearby barn that Pollock made into a studio. It was there that he perfected the technique of working spontaneously with liquid paint. Pollock was introduced to the use of liquid paint in 1936, at an experimental workshop operated in New York City by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros. He later used paint pouring as one of several techniques in canvases of the early 1940s, such as "Male and Female" and "Composition with Pouring I." After his move to Springs, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor, and developed what was later called his "drip" technique. The drip technique required paint with a fluid viscosity. Therefore Pollock turned to synthetic resin-based paints called alkyd enamels, at that time a novel medium. Pollock described this use of household paints, instead of artist’s paints, as "a natural growth out of a need". He used hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes as paint applicators. Pollock's technique of pouring and dripping paint is thought to be one of the origins of the term action painting. With this technique, Pollock was able to achieve a more immediate means of creating art, the paint now literally flowing from his chosen tool onto the canvas. By defying the convention of painting on an upright surface, he added a new dimension, literally, by being able to view and apply paint to his canvases from all directions. In the process of making paintings in this way, he moved away from figurative representation, and challenged the Western tradition of using easel and brush. He also moved away from the use of only the hand and wrist, since he used his whole body to paint. In 1956, Time magazine dubbed Pollock "Jack the Dripper" as a result of his unique painting style. Pollock's One: Number 31, 1950 occupies an entire wall by itself at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City Pollock observed Indian sandpainting demonstrations in the 1940s. Other influences on his dripping technique include the Mexican muralists and also Surrealist automatism. Pollock denied "the accident"; he usually had an idea of how he wanted a particular piece to appear. His technique combined the movement of his body, over which he had control, the viscous flow of paint, the force of gravity, and the absorption of paint into the canvas. It was a mixture of controllable and uncontrollable factors. Flinging, dripping, pouring, and spattering, he would move energetically around the canvas, almost as if in a dance, and would not stop until he saw what he wanted to see. Studies by Taylor, Micolich and Jonas have examined Pollock's technique and have determined that some works display the properties of mathematical fractals. Pollock or Not? Can Fractals Spot a Fake Masterpiece?, by JR Minkel for Scientific American, 31 October 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2009 They assert that the works become more fractal-like chronologically through Pollock's career. The authors even speculate that Pollock may have had an intuition of the nature of chaotic motion, and attempted to form a representation of mathematical chaos, more than ten years before "Chaos Theory" itself was proposed. Other experts Jennifer Ouellette, Discover magazine, on Physicist Richard Taylor's study, Retrieved January 28, 2009 suggest that Pollock may have merely imitated popular theories of the time in order to give his paintings a depth not previously seen. In 1950, Hans Namuth, a young photographer, wanted to photograph and film Pollock at work. Pollock promised to start a new painting especially for the photographic session, but when Namuth arrived, Pollock apologized and told him the painting was finished. Namuth's comment upon entering the studio: Pollock's Studio in Springs, New York. The 1950s and beyond Pollock's most famous paintings were made during the "drip period" between 1947 and 1950. He rocketed to popular status following an August 8, 1949 four-page spread in Life Magazine that asked, "Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?" At the peak of his fame, Pollock abruptly abandoned the drip style. The Tempest by Jerry Saltz (repinted on artnet.com) Pollock's work after 1951 was darker in color, including a collection painted in black on unprimed canvases. This was followed by a return to color , and he reintroduced figurative elements. During this period Pollock had moved to a more commercial gallery and there was great demand from collectors for new paintings. In response to this pressure, along with personal frustration, his alcoholism deepened. From naming to numbering Pollock wanted an end to the viewer's search for representational elements in his paintings, thus he abandoned titles and started numbering the paintings instead. Of this, Pollock commented: "...look passively and try to receive what the painting has to offer and not bring a subject matter or preconceived idea of what they are to be looking for." Pollock's wife, Lee Krasner, said Pollock "used to give his pictures conventional titles... but now he simply numbers them. Numbers are neutral. They make people look at a picture for what it is - pure painting." Death Jackson Pollock's grave in the rear with Lee Krasner's grave in front in the Green River Cemetery. Pollock did not paint at all in 1955. After struggling with alcoholism his entire life, Pollock's career was cut short on August 11, 1956 at 10:15pm when he died in a single-car crash in his Oldsmobile convertible while driving under the influence of alcohol. One of the passengers, Edith Metzger, also was killed in the accident, which occurred less than a mile from Pollock's home. The other passenger, Pollock's girlfriend Ruth Kligman, survived. Varnedoe, Kirk and Karmel, Pepe, Jackson Pollock: Essays, Chronology, and Bibliography. Exhibition catalog, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, Chronology, p.328, 1998, ISBN 0-87070-069-3 After Pollock's death at the age of 44, his wife, Lee Krasner, managed his estate and ensured that Pollock's reputation remained strong despite changing art-world trends. They are buried in Green River Cemetery in Springs with a large boulder marking his grave and a smaller one marking hers. Legacy The Pollock-Krasner House and Studio is owned and administered by the Stony Brook Foundation, a non-profit affiliate of the State University of New York at Stony Brook. There are regular tours of the house and studio from May through October. A separate organization, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation, was established in 1985. The Foundation not only functions as the official Estate for both Pollock and his widow Lee Krasner, but also, under the terms of Krasner's will, serves "to assist individual working artists of merit with financial need." The Pollock-Krasner Foundation website: Press Release page The U.S. copyright representative for the Pollock-Krasner Foundation is the Artists Rights Society (ARS) Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights Society . Pollock in Pop Culture & News In 1960, Ornette Coleman's album "Free Jazz" featured a Pollock painting as its cover artwork. In 1973, Blue Poles (Blue Poles: Number 11, 1952), was purchased by the Australian Whitlam Government for the National Gallery of Australia for US $2 million (AU $1.3 million at the time of payment). At the time, this was the highest price ever paid for a modern painting. In the conservative climate of the time, the purchase created a political and media scandal. The painting is now one of the most popular exhibits in the gallery, and is thought to be worth between $100 and $150 million, according to 2006 estimates. It was a centerpiece of the Museum of Modern Art's 1998 retrospective in New York, the first time the painting had returned to America since its purchase. In 1999 a CD intitled Jackson Pollock Jazz was released. The CD was only available at the MOMA the CD had 17 tracks with Jazz music that is inspired by Pollock. The CD is now discontinued. In 2000, the biographical film Pollock was released. Marcia Gay Harden won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Lee Krasner. The movie was the project of Ed Harris who portrayed Pollock and directed it. He was nominated for Academy Award for Best Actor. In 2003, twenty-four Pollock-esque paintings and drawings were found in a Wainscott, New York locker. There is an inconclusive ongoing debate about whether or not these works are Pollock originals. Physicists have argued over whether fractals can be used to authenticate the paintings. Analysis of the synthetic pigments shows that some were not patented until the 1980s, and therefore that it is highly improbable that Pollock could have used such paints. The Case of Pollock’s Fractals Focuses on Physics by Randy Kennedy - New York Times - December 2, 2006 Seeing Is Believing? Is this a real Jackson Pollock? A mysterious trove of pictures rocks the art world. Cathleen McGuigan, Newsweek Aug. 20-27, 2007 issue In November 2006, Pollock's "No. 5, 1948" became the world's most expensive painting, when it was sold privately to an undisclosed buyer for the sum of $140,000,000. The previous owner was film and music-producer David Geffen. It is rumored that the current owner is a German businessman and art collector. Also in 2006 a documentary, Who the #$&% Is Jackson Pollock? was made concerning Teri Horton, a truck driver who in 1992 bought an abstract painting for the price of five dollars, at a thrift store in California. This work may be a lost Pollock painting. If so it would be worth millions; its authenticity, however, remains debated. Relationship to Native American art Pollock stated: “I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk round it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting. This is akin to the methods of the Indian sand painters of the West.” Jackson Pollock, "My Painting", in Pollock: Painting (edited by Barbara Rose), Agrinde Publications Ltd: New York (1980), page 65; originally published in Possibilities I, New York, Winter 1947-8 Critical debate Pollock's work has always polarized critics and has been the focus of many important critical debates. In a famous 1952 article in ARTnews, Harold Rosenberg coined the term "action painting," and wrote that "what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event. The big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint.' The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation from value — political, aesthetic, moral." Many people assumed that he had modeled his "action painter" paradigm on Pollock. Clement Greenberg supported Pollock's work on formalistic grounds. It fit well with Greenberg's view of art history as a progressive purification in form and elimination of historical content. He therefore saw Pollock's work as the best painting of its day and the culmination of the Western tradition going back via Cubism and Cézanne to Manet. Some posthumous exhibitions of Pollock's work were sponsored by the Congress for Cultural Freedom, an organization to promote American culture and values backed by the CIA. Certain left-wing scholars, most prominently Eva Cockcroft, argue that the U.S. government and wealthy elite embraced Pollock and abstract expressionism in order to place the United States firmly in the forefront of global art and devalue socialist realism. Expression of an age Saunders, F. S. (2000), The Cultural Cold War. The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters, New York: Free Press. In the words of Cockcroft, Pollock became a "weapon of the Cold War". Eva Cockcroft, ‘Abstract Expressionism, Weapon of the Cold War’ in Artforum vol.12, no.10, June 1974, pp. 43-54. Painter Norman Rockwell's work Connoisseur Rockwell, Norman the Artchive also appears to make a commentary on the Pollock style. The painting features what seems to be a rather upright man in a suit standing before a Jackson Pollock-like spatter painting. Others such as artist, critic, and satirist Craig Brown, have been "astonished that decorative 'wallpaper', essentially brainless, could gain such a position in art history alongside Giotto, Titian, and Velázquez." BBC2 Late Review: review of Jackson Pollock exhibition at the Tate Gallery, London, 1999 Reynolds News in a 1959 headline said, "This is not art — it's a joke in bad taste." List of major works Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. (1942) Male and Female Philadelphia Museum of Art (1942) Stenographic Figure Museum of Modern Art (1943) Mural University of Iowa Museum of Art , currently housed at the Figge Art Museum (1943) Moon-Woman Cuts the Circle (1943) The She-Wolf Museum of Modern Art (1943) Blue (Moby Dick) Ohara Museum of Art (1945) Troubled Queen Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (1946) Eyes in the Heat Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (1946) The Key Art Institute of Chicago (1946) The Tea Cup Collection Frieder Burda (1946) Shimmering Substance, from The Sounds In The Grass Museum of Modern Art (1947) Portrait of H.M. University of Iowa Museum of Art , currently housed at the Figge Art Museum (1947) Full Fathom Five Museum of Modern Art (1947) Cathedral (1947) Enchanted Forest Peggy Guggenheim Collection (1947) Lucifer San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1948) Painting (1948) Number 5 (4ft x 8ft) Private collection (1948) Number 8 (1948) Summertime: Number 9A Tate Modern (1949) Number 1 Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1949) Number 3 (1949) Number 10 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (1950) Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist) National Gallery of Art (1950) Autumn Rhythm (Number 30), 1950 Metropolitan Museum of Art (1950) Number 29, 1950 National Gallery of Canada (1950) One: Number 31, 1950 Museum of Modern Art (1950) No. 32 (1951) Number 7 National Gallery of Art (1952) Convergence Albright-Knox Art Gallery (1952) Blue Poles: No. 11, 1952 National Gallery of Australia (1953) Portrait and a Dream (1953) Easter and the Totem The Museum of Modern Art (1953) Ocean Greyness (1953) The Deep Notes References Herskovic, Marika.American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4 Herskovic, Marika. New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6 Karmel, Pepe, (Ed),Jackson Pollock: Key Interviews, Articles and Reviews Museum of Modern Art, Pepe Karmel, and Kirk Varnedoe (Editors), Publisher: Abrams,Harry N Inc., ISBN 0-87070037-5, 1999. Varnedoe, Kirk and Karmel, Pepe, Jackson Pollock: Essays, Chronology, and Bibliography. Exhibition catalog, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1998, ISBN 0-87070-069-3. O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock [exhibition catalogue] (New York, Museum of Modern Art, [1967]) OCLC 165852 Taylor, Richard; Micolich, Adam; Jonas, David: Fractal Expressionism, Physics World, October 1999 Naifeh, Steven and Smith, Gregory White, Jackson Pollock:an American saga, Published by Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.1989, ISBN 0-517-56084-4 http://www.jackson-pollock.com/didyouknow.html External links Pollock-Krasner House and Study Center Pollock-Krasner Foundation Pollock art at Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Pollock collection at Guggenheim NY site Pollock on Museum Web Paris Pollock and The Law National Gallery of Art web feature, includes highlights of Pollock's career, numerous examples of his work, photographs and motion footage of Pollock, plus an in-depth discussion of his 1950 painting Lavender Mist. Blue Poles- at the NGA One. Number 31, 1950- smARThistory Fractal Expressionism – the fractal qualities of Pollock's drip paintings. Understanding Abstract Art- by Harley Hahn Ed Pilkington, Pollock cache may have been painted after artist's death, The Guardian, 30 November 2007 Jackson Pollock Papers at the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art Works by Jackson Pollock (public domain in Canada) Museums Pollock art at Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Pollock collection at Guggenheim NY site Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), Los Angeles, California Museum of Contemporary Art (MoCA), Los Angeles, California

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Internet_Explorer

Windows Internet Explorer (formerly Microsoft Internet Explorer; abbreviated to MSIE or, more commonly, IE), is a series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems starting in 1995. It has been the most widely used, and still most widely used web browser since 1999, attaining a peak of about 95% usage share during 2002 and 2003 with IE5 and IE6. It has been alleged that Internet Explorer's share would have been lower if it was not bundled with Windows http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/23/technology/companies/23soft.html?ref=technology . That percentage share has since declined in the face of renewed competition from other web browsers – Mozilla Firefox most of all. Microsoft spent over $100 million a year on IE in the late 1990s, with over 1,000 people working on it by 1999. The latest release is version Internet Explorer 8, which is available as a free update for Windows XP with Service Pack 2 or later, Windows Server 2003 with Service Pack 1 or later, Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008, and is planned for inclusion with Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2. Up until Internet Explorer 7, the IE logo was a blue 'e' with a matching blue ring around it. IE 7 and 8 have a new logo, with the blue 'e' with a golden ring around it. Overview Internet Explorer was first released as part of the add-on package Plus! for Windows 95 in 1995. Later versions were available as free downloads, or in service packs, and included in the OEM service releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows. Other versions available since the late 1990s include an embedded OEM version called Internet Explorer for Windows CE (IE CE) available for WinCE based platforms and is currently based on IE6. Internet Explorer for Pocket PC, later rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile for Windows Mobile was also developed, and remain in development alongside the more advanced desktop versions. History Internet Explorer 3.0.1 for Windows 3.1 banner The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon and subsequently led by Benjamin Slivka, leveraging source code from Spyglass, Inc. Mosaic, an early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering NCSA Mosaic browser. In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to NCSA Mosaic, Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly. Other versions available since the late 1990s include an embedded OEM version called Internet Explorer for Windows CE (IE CE), which is available for WinCE based platforms and currently based on IE6. Internet Explorer for Pocket PC, later rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile for Windows Mobile was also developed, and remain in development alongside the more advanced desktop versions. Internet Explorer 1 Internet Explorer 1 Internet Explorer 1 debuted on August 16, 1995. It was a reworked version of Spyglass Mosaic which Microsoft had licensed, like many other companies initiating browser development, from Spyglass Inc. It came with Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 and OEM release of Windows 95. It was installed as part of the Internet Jumpstart Kit in Plus!. The Internet Explorer team began with about half a dozen people in early development. Internet Explorer 1.5 was released several months later for Windows NT and added support for basic table rendering. However, by including it for free on their OS they did not have to pay royalties to Spyglass Inc., which resulted in a lawsuit and multi-million USD settlement. Internet Explorer 2 Internet Explorer 2 was released for Windows 95, Windows NT 3.5, and NT 4.0 on November 22, 1995 (following a 2.0 beta in October). It featured support for SSL, cookies, VRML, RSA, and Internet newsgroups. Version 2 was also the first release for Windows 3.1 and Macintosh System 7.0.1 (PPC or 68k), although the Mac version was not released until January 1996 for PPC, and April for 68k. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist/comp1996.htm Computer History Version 2.1 for the Mac came out in August 1996, although by this time Windows was getting 3.0. Version 2 was included in Windows 95 OSR 1 and Microsoft's Internet Starter Kit for Windows 95 in early 1996, It launched with twelve languages including English but this expanded to 24, 20, and 9 for Win 95, Win 3.1 and Mac respectively by April 1996. http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/1996/apr96/iemompr.mspx Microsoft Internet Explorer Web Browser Available on All Major Platforms, Offers Broadest International Support The 2.0i version supported double-byte character-set. Usage share of Internet Explorer, 1994–2009 Usage share of web browsers Internet Explorer 3 Internet Explorer 3, was released in August 1996, and went on to be much more popular than its predecessors. It was developed without Spyglass source code, although still crediting Spyglass "technology" in the program's documentation. Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with CSS support, although this support was only partial. Released on August 13, 1996, it also introduced support for ActiveX controls, Java applets, inline multimedia, and the PICS system for content metadata. Version 3 also came bundled with Internet Mail and News, NetMeeting, and an early version of the Windows Address Book, and was itself included with Windows 95 OSR 2. Version 3 proved to be the first more popular version of Internet Explorer, which brought with it increased scrutiny. In the months following its release, a number of security and privacy vulnerabilities were found by researchers and hackers. This version of Internet Explorer was the first to have the 'blue e' logo. http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/columns/historyofie.mspx MS History The Internet Explorer team consisted of roughly 100 people during the development of three months. The first major IE security hole, the Princeton Word Macro Virus Loophole, was discovered on August 22, 1996 in IE3. Backwards compatibility was handled by allowing users who upgraded to IE3 to still use the last IE, because the installation converted the previous version to separate directory. "By having IE3 rename your previous version, Microsoft gives you a fallback in case IE3 crashes. IE3 also scans for Netscape bookmarks and converts them to IE3 favorites." http://www.windowsitpro.com/article/articleid/2801/internet-explorer-30.html Internet Explorer 4 Internet Explorer 4, released in September 1997 deepened the level of integration between the web browser and the underlying operating system. Installing version 4 on a Windows 95 or Windows NT 4 machine and choosing Windows Desktop Update would result in the traditional Windows Explorer being replaced by a version more akin to a web browser interface, as well as the Windows desktop itself being web-enabled via Active Desktop. The integration with Windows, however, was subject to numerous packaging criticisms (see United States v. Microsoft). This option was no longer available with the installers for later versions of Internet Explorer but was not removed from the system if already installed. Internet Explorer 4 introduced support for Group Policy, allowing companies to configure and lock down many aspects of the browser's configuration. Internet Mail and News was replaced with Outlook Express, and Microsoft Chat and an improved NetMeeting were also included. This version also was included with Windows 98. New features were added which allow you to save and retrieve posts in comment forms which are still not being used today. Internet Explorer 4.5 offered new features such as easier 128-bit encryption. It also offered a dramatic stability improvement over prior versions, particularly the 68k version which was especially prone to freezing. http://cws.internet.com/file/11708.htm WinPlanet IE4 Review http://www.pcpro.co.uk/broadband/reviews/671/internet-explorer-4.html PC Pro IE4 Review http://www.macuser.co.uk/macuser/reviews/16079/microsoft-internet-explorer-v40.html MacUser IE 4 Review Internet Explorer 5 Internet Explorer 5, launched on March 18, 1999, and subsequently included with Windows 98 Second Edition and bundled with Office 2000, was another significant release that supported bi-directional text, ruby characters, XML, XSLT and the ability to save web pages in MHTML format. IE5 was bundled with Outlook Express 5. Also, with the release of Internet Explorer 5.0, Microsoft released the first version of XMLHttpRequest, giving birth to Ajax (even though the term "Ajax" wasn't coined until years later.) It was the last with a 16-bit version. Internet Explorer 5.01, a bug fix version, was released in December 1999. Windows 2000 includes this version. Internet Explorer 5.5 followed in July 2000, improving its print preview capabilities, CSS and HTML standards support, and developer APIs; this version was bundled with Windows Me. Version 5.5 also included support for 128-bit encryption. However, version 5 was the last version for Mac and UNIX. Version 5.5 was the last to have Compatibility Mode, which allowed Internet Explorer 4 http://support.microsoft.com/kb/197311/EN-US/ KB197311 to be run side by side with the 5.x. http://support.microsoft.com/kb/237787 MS Article ID 237787 The IE team consisted of over 1,000 people by 1999, with funding on the order of 100 million USD per year. Market Share for February, 2005 http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=6&qpmr=55&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=73 IE4 - .07% IE5 - 6.17%IE6 - 82.79% Internet Explorer 6 Internet Explorer 6 was released on August 27, 2001, a few months before Windows XP. This version included DHTML enhancements, content restricted inline frames, and partial support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1 and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the Internet Explorer Administration Kit (IEAK), Media bar, Windows Messenger integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, P3P, and a new look-and-feel that was in line with the Luna visual style of Windows XP, when used in Windows XP. Internet Explorer 6.0 SP1 offered several security enhancements and coincided with XP SP1 patch release. In 2002, the Gopher protocol was disabled and support for it was dropped in Internet Explorer 7. Internet Explorer 6.0 SV1 SV1 stands for "Security Version 1", referring to the set of security enhancements made for that release. This version of Internet Explorer is more popularly known as IE6 SP2, given that it is included with Windows XP Service Pack 2, but this can lead to confusion when discussing Windows Server 2003, which includes the same functionality in the SP1 update to that operating system. came out August 6, 2004 for Windows XP SP2 and offered various security enhancements and new color buttons on the user interface. IE6 updated the original 'blue e' logo to a lighter blue and more 3-d look. Internet Explorer 7 Internet Explorer 7 was released on October 18, 2006. It includes bug fixes, enhancements to its support for web standards, tabbed browsing with tab preview and management, a multiple-engine search box, a web feeds reader, Internationalized Domain Name support (IDN), and anti-phishing filter. With IE7, Internet Explorer has been decoupled from the Windows Shell - unlike previous versions, the Internet Explorer ActiveX control is not hosted in the Windows Explorer process, but rather runs in a separate Internet Explorer process. It is included with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, and is available for Windows XP Service Pack 2 and later, and Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and later. The original release of Internet Explorer 7 required the computer to pass a Windows Genuine Advantage validation check prior to installing, but on October 5, 2007, Microsoft removed this requirement. As some statistics show, by mid-2008, Internet Explorer 7 market share exceeded that of Internet Explorer 6 in a number of regions. Internet Explorer 8 Internet Explorer 8 was released on March 19, 2009. It had been in development since August 2007 at the latest. On March 5, 2008, the first public beta (Beta 1) was released to the general public. Internet Explorer 8 Readiness Toolkit On August 27, 2008, the second public beta (Beta 2) was released. Internet Explorer 8 It supports Windows XP SP2 and SP3, Windows Server 2003 SP2, Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 on both 32-bit as well as 64-bit architectures. Internet Explorer 8 (IE8) RC1 was released on January 26, 2009. Internet Explorer 8 "Final" was released on March 19, 2009. Security, ease of use, and improvements in RSS, CSS, and Ajax support are Microsoft's priorities for IE8. It includes much stricter compliance with web standards, including a planned full Cascading Style Sheets 2.1 compliance for the release version. All these changes allow Internet Explorer 8 to pass the Acid2 test. However, to prevent compatibility issues, IE8 also includes the IE7 rendering behavior. Sites that expect IE7 quirks can disable IE8's breaking changes by including a meta element in the HEAD section of the HTML document. IE8 also includes numerous improvements to JavaScript support as well as performance improvements, although it still does not pass the Acid3 test, with version 8.0 scoring 20/100. It includes support for Accelerators - which allow supported web applications to be invoked without explicitly navigating to them - and WebSlices - which allows portions of page to be subscribed to and monitored from a redesigned Favorites Bar. Other features include InPrivate privacy features, and SmartScreen phishing filter. Features Internet Explorer has been designed to view a broad range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including Microsoft Update. During the heyday of the historic browser wars, Internet Explorer superseded Netscape only when it caught up technologically to support the progressive features of the time. Browser History: Netscape explains that "By the fourth generations of both browsers, Internet Explorer had caught up technologically with Netscape's browser.... Netscape 6.0 was considered slow and buggy, and adoption was slow to occur", Access Date: 2008-03-25 Standards support Internet Explorer, using the Trident layout engine: fully supports HTML 4.01, CSS Level 1, XML 1.0 and DOM Level 1, with minor implementation gaps. fully supports XSLT 1.0 as well as an obsolete Microsoft dialect of XSLT often referred to as WD-xsl, which was loosely based on the December 1998 W3C Working Draft of XSL. Support for XSLT 2.0 lies in the future: semi-official Microsoft bloggers have indicated that development is underway, but no dates have been announced. partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with major implementation gaps and conformance issues. Full conformance to the CSS 2.1 has been added in the Internet Explorer 8 release. . does not support XHTML, though it can render XHTML documents authored with HTML compatibility principles and served with a text/html MIME-type. does not support SVG, neither for current version 7.0, nor for the 8.0 version . Internet Explorer uses DOCTYPE sniffing to choose between "quirks mode" (renders similarly to older versions of MSIE) and standards mode (renders closer to W3C's specifications) for HTML and CSS rendering on screen (Internet Explorer always uses standards mode for printing). It also provides its own dialect of ECMAScript called JScript. Internet Explorer has been subjected to criticism over its limited support for open web standards. Non-standard extensions Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS and the DOM. This has resulted in a number of web pages that appear broken in standards-compliant web browsers and has introduced the need for a "quirks mode" to allow for rendering improper elements meant for Internet Explorer in these other browsers. Internet Explorer has introduced a number of extensions to JScript which have been adopted by other browsers. These include the innerHTML property, which returns the HTML string within an element; the XMLHttpRequest object, which allows the sending of HTTP request and receiving of HTTP response; and the designMode attribute of the contentDocument object, which enables rich text editing of HTML documents. Some of these functionalities were not possible until the introduction of the W3C DOM methods. Its Ruby character extension to HTML is also accepted as a module in W3C XHTML 1.1, though it is not found in all versions of W3C HTML. Microsoft submitted several other features of IE for consideration by the W3C for standardization. These include the 'behavior' CSS property, which connects the HTML elements with JScript behaviors (known as HTML Components, HTC); HTML+TIME profile, which adds timing and media synchronization support to HTML documents (similar to the W3C XHTML+SMIL); and the VML vector graphics file format. However, all were rejected, at least in their original forms. VML was, however, subsequently combined with PGML (proposed by Adobe and Sun), resulting in the W3C-approved SVG format, currently one of the few vector image formats being used on the web, and which IE is now virtually unique in not supporting. SVG Support Tables Other non-standard behaviors include, support for vertical text, but in a syntax different from W3C CSS3 candidate recommendation. Support for a variety of image effects Filter Tool (WebFX). Published on May 12, 2005 and page transitions, which are not found in W3C CSS. Support for obfuscated script code, in particular JScript.Encode(). Using Script Encoder. Published on May 12, 2005 Support for embedding EOT fonts in web pages. Font Embedding for the Web Favicon The favicon (short for "favorites icon") introduced by Internet Explorer is now also supported and extended in other browsers. It allows web pages to specify a 16-by-16 pixel image for use in bookmarks. Originally, support was provided only for the native Windows ICO format, however it has now been extended to other types of images such as PNG and GIF. Usability and accessibility Organizing Favorites in Internet Explorer 6 Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows. Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of Windows Explorer (although this feature requires a shell window to be opened in recent versions of the browser, rather than natively within the browser). Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is not supported, but available via extension (iMacros). Recent versions feature pop-up blocking and tabbed browsing. Tabbed browsing can also be added to older versions by installing Microsoft's MSN Search Toolbar or Yahoo's Yahoo Toolbar. Cache Internet Explorer caches visited content in the Temporary Internet Files folder to allow quicker access (or offline access) to previously visited pages. The content is indexed in a database file, known as Index.dat. Multiple Index.dat files exist which index different content - visited content, web feeds, autocomplete entries, visited URLs, cookies etc. Prior to IE7, clearing the cache used to clear the index but the files themselves were not removed. This feature can be a potential security risk for both individuals and companies. From IE7, both the index entries and the files themselves are removed when the cache is cleared. Group Policy Internet Explorer is fully configurable using Group Policy. Administrators of Windows Server domains can apply and enforce a variety of settings that affect the user interface (such as disabling menu items and individual configuration options), as well as underlying security features such as downloading of files, zone configuration, per-site settings, ActiveX control behavior, and others. Policy settings can be configured for each user and for each machine. Internet Explorer also supports Integrated Windows Authentication. Architecture The architecture of IE8. Previous versions had a similar architecture, except that both tabs and the UI were within the same process. Consequently, each browser window could have only one "tab process". Internet Explorer uses a componentized architecture built around the Component Object Model (COM) technology. It is made up of five major components, each of which is contained in a separate .dll and exposes a set of COM interfaces that enables it to be hosted by the Internet Explorer main executable, iexplore.exe: WinInet.dll WinInet.dll is the protocol handler for HTTP and FTP. It handles all network communication over these protocols. URLMon.dll URLMon.dll is responsible for MIME-type handling and download of web content. MSHTML.dll MSHTML.dll houses the Trident rendering engine introduced in Internet Explorer 4, which is responsible for displaying the pages on-screen and handling the Document Object Model of the web pages. MSHTML.dll parses the HTML/CSS file and creates the internal DOM tree representation of it. It also exposes a set of APIs for runtime inspection and modification of the DOM tree. The DOM tree is further processed by a layout engine which then renders the internal representation on screen. IEFrame.dll IEFrame.dll contains the user interface and window of IE in Internet Explorer 7 and above. ShDocVw.dll ShDocVw.dll provides the navigation, local caching and history functionalities for the browser. BrowseUI.dll BrowseUI.dll is responsible for the browser user interface, including the browser chrome, which houses all the menus and toolbars. Internet Explorer does not include any scripting functionality natively. Rather MSHTML.dll exposes another set of APIs that allow any scripting environment to be plugged-in and access the DOM tree. Internet Explorer 8 includes the bindings for the Active Scripting engine (which is a part of Microsoft Windows) is provided, which allows any language implemented as an Active Scripting module to be used for client-side scripting. By default, only the JScript and VBScript modules are provided; third party implementations like ScreamingMonkey (for ECMAScript 4 support) can also be used. Microsoft also makes available the Microsoft Silverlight runtime that allows CLI languages, including DLR-based dynamic languages like IronPython and IronRuby, to be used for client-side scripting. Internet Explorer 8 introduces some major architectural changes, called Loosely Coupled IE (LCIE). LCIE separates the UI processes from the process hosting the different web applications in different tabs (tab processes). A UI process can create multiple tab processes, each of which can be of a different integrity level; each tab process can host multiple web sites. Each tab process has its own cookie cache. The two processes use asynchronous Inter-Process Communication to synchronize themselves. Generally, there will be a single tab process for all web sites. In Windows Vista with protected mode turned on, however, opening privileged content (such as local HTML pages) will create a new tab process as it will not be constrained by protected mode of operation. Extensibility Internet Explorer exposes a set of Component Object Model (COM) interfaces that allow other components to extend the functionality of the browser. Extensibility is divided into two types: Browser extensibility and Content extensibility. The browser extensibility interfaces can be used to plug in components to add context menu entries, toolbars, menu items or Browser Helper Objects (BHO). BHOs are used to extend the feature set of the browser, whereas the other extensibility options are used to expose the feature in the UI. Content extensibility interfaces are used by different content-type handlers to add support for non-native content formats. BHOs not only have unrestricted access to the Internet Explorer DOM and event model, they also can access the filesystem, registry and other OS components. Content extensibility can be either in terms of Active Documents (Doc Objects) (e.g., SVG or MathML) or ActiveX controls. ActiveX controls are used for content handlers that render content embedded within an HTML page (e.g., Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight). Doc objects are used when the content type won't be embedded in HTML (e.g., Microsoft Word, PDF or XPS). In fact, the Trident rendering engine itself exposed as a Doc object, so HTML in itself is treated as an Active Document. Add-on Manager from Windows XP SP2 Internet Explorer 6 SV1 Interner Explorer add-on components run with the same privileges as the browser itself, unlike client-side scripts that have a very limited set of privileges. Add-ons can be installed either locally, or directly by a web site. Since the add-ons have a more privileged access to the system, malicious add-ons can and have been used to compromise the security of the system. Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 onwards provide various safeguards against this, including an Add-on Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects and a "No Add-Ons" mode of operation as well as greater restrictions on sites installing add-ons. Internet Explorer itself can be hosted by other applications via a set of COM interfaces. This can be used to embed the browser functionality inside the application. Also, the hosting application can choose to host only the MSHTML.dll rendering engine, rather than the entire browser. Security Internet Explorer uses a zone-based security framework that groups sites based on certain conditions, including whether it is an Internet- or intranet-based site as well as a user-editable whitelist. Security restrictions are applied per zone; all the sites in a zone are subject to the restrictions. Internet Explorer 6 SP2 onwards uses the Attachment Execution Service of Microsoft Windows to mark executable files downloaded from the Internet as being potentially unsafe. Accessing files marked as such will prompt the user to make an explicit trust decision to execute the file, as executables originating from the Internet can be potentially unsafe. This helps in preventing accidental installation of malware. Internet Explorer 7 introduced the phishing filter, that restricts access to phishing sites unless the user overrides the decision. With version 8, it also blocks access to sites known to host malware. Downloads are also checked to see if they are known to be malware-infected. In Windows Vista, Internet Explorer by default runs in what is called Protected Mode, where the privileges of the browser itself is severely restricted - it cannot make any system-wide changes. One can optionally turn this mode off but this is not recommended. This also effectively restricts the privileges of any add-ons. As a result, even if the browser or any add-on is compromised, the damage the security breach can cause is limited. Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through the Windows Update service, as well as through Automatic Updates. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most feature additions and security infrastructure improvements are only made available on operating systems which are in Microsoft's mainstream support phase. On December 16, 2008 , Trend Micro recommended users switch to rival browsers until an emergency IE patch was released to fix a potential security risk which "could allow outside users to take control of a person's computer and steal their passwords". Microsoft representatives countered this recommendation, claiming that "0.02% of internet sites" were affected by the flaw. On December 17, 2008, a fix to the security problem above became available, with the release of the Security Update for Internet Explorer KB960714, which is available from Microsoft Windows Update's webpage. Microsoft has said that this update fixes the security risk which was found by Trend Micro the previous day. http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/breaking-news/world/north-america/security-risk-detected-in-internet-explorer-software-14110209.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7784908.stm Security vulnerabilities Internet Explorer has been subjected to many security vulnerabilities and concerns: Much of the spyware, adware, and computer viruses across the Internet are made possible by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer, sometimes requiring nothing more than viewing of a malicious web page in order to install themselves. This is known as a "drive-by install". There are also attempts to trick the user into installing malicious software by misrepresenting the software's true purpose in the description section of an ActiveX security alert. A number of security flaws affecting IE originated not in the browser itself, but ActiveX-based add-ons used by it. Because the add-ons have the same privilege as IE, the flaws can be as critical as browser flaws. This has led to the ActiveX-based architecture being criticized for being fault-prone. More recently, other experts have maintained that the dangers of ActiveX have been overstated and there are safeguards in place. Other browsers that use NPAPI as their extensibility mechanism are suffering the same problems. In an April 2005 eWeek opinions column, Larry Seltzer stated: While there has been a striking lack of actual evidence that ActiveX is unsafe, there has been no shortage of baseless assertions and cheap shots against it. My favorite was the "Internet Exploder" incident in which Sun actually paid someone to write a malicious ActiveX control. The test system brought up all the warning dialogs about the program that you usually get and the Sun employee actually had the nerve to keep whacking on the enter key quickly so they would close as quickly as possible and didn't mention that there were any such warnings. Meanwhile, they also didn't mention that a signed Java applet could also perform dangerous privileged operations and would provide similar warnings. Most ActiveX criticism is simply uninformed, but this example was hypocritical and dishonest. While Internet Explorer in 2008 had a comparable number of security vulnerabilities to Safari and Opera, and significantly fewer than its primary competitor, Mozilla Firefox, its comparative ubiquity has resulted in many more affected computers when vulnerabilities are found. According to research done by security research firm Secunia, Microsoft has not responded as quickly as competitors in fixing security holes and making patches available. The firm also reported 366 vulnerabilities in ActiveX controls, an increase from the prior year. Market adoption and usage share The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since the integration of Internet Explorer 2.0 with Windows 95 OSR 1 in 1996, and especially after version 4.0's release, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000. A CNN article noted at the release of Internet Explorer 4: "Microsoft's Internet Explorer has made inroads and various estimates put its share of the browser market 30 to 35 percent from about 10 percent a year ago." A CNN article noted at the release of Internet Explorer 4, "Microsoft's Internet Explorer has made inroads and various estimates put its share of the browser market 30 to 35 percent from about 10 percent a year ago." - CNN - It's out: Microsoft unveils Internet Explorer 4.0 - Sept. 30, 1997 By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market with up to 95 percent market share. After having fought and won the browser wars of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer gained almost total dominance of the browser market. Having attained a peak of about 95% during 2002 and 2003, its market share has since declined at a slow but steady pace. This is mainly due to the adoption of Mozilla Firefox, which statistics indicate is currently the most significant competition. Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a global usage share of around 75% (though measurements vary). Usage is higher in Asia and lower in Europe. Firefox 1.0 had surpassed Internet Explorer 5 in early 2005 with Firefox 1.0 at roughly 8 percent market share. http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=40&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=74 An article notes at the release of Internet Explorer 7 in October 2006 that "IE6 had the lion's share of the browser market with 77.22%. Internet Explorer 7 had climbed to 3.18%, while Firefox 2.0 was at 0.69%." http://news.softpedia.com/news/IE7-and-Firefox-2-0-Are-Slaughtering-Internet-Explorer-6-77994.shtml IE7 and Firefox 2.0 Are Slaughtering Internet Explorer 6 - Out with the old, in with the new By: Marius Nestor, Linux Editor Internet Explorer 7 was released at the same time as Firefox 2.0, and overtook Firefox 1.x by November 2006, at roughly 9% market share. http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=40&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=94 Firefox 2.0 had overtaken 1.x by January 2007, http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=40&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=95 , but IE7 did not surpass IE6 until December 2007. http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=40&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=107 By January 2008, their respective version market share stood at 43% IE7, 32% IE6, 16% FF2, 4% Safari 3 and both FF1.x and IE5 versions at less than half a percent. http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=40&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=108 Approximate usage over time based on various usage share counters averaged for the year overall, or for the fourth quarter, or for the last month in the year depending on availability of reference. http://marketshare.hitslink.com/ Industry adoption The ActiveX extension mechanism is used by many public websites and web applications, including eBay. Similarly, Browser Helper Objects are also used by many search engine companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, such as search engine toolbars. Because of the use of COM, it is possible to embed web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of Internet Explorer shells, and a number of content-centric applications like RealPlayer also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing web pages within the applications. OS compatibility IE versions, over time, have had widely varying OS compatibility, ranging from being available for many platforms and several versions of Windows to only a few versions of Windows. Many versions of IE had some support for an older OS but stopped getting updates. The increased growth of the Internet in the 1990s and 2000s means that current browsers with small market shares have more total users than the entire market early on. For example, 90% market share in 1997 would be roughly 60 million users, but by the start of 2007 90% market share would equate to over 900 million users. The result is that later versions of IE6 had many more users in total than all the early versions put together. The release of IE7 at the end of 2006 resulted in a collapse of IE6 market share; by February 2007 market version share statistics showed IE6 at about 50% and IE7 at 29%. Regardless of the actual market share, the most compatible version (across operating systems) of IE was 5.x, which had Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X, Unix, and most Windows versions available and supported for a short period in the late 1990s (although 4.x had a more unified codebase across versions) By 2007, IE had much narrower OS support, with the latest versions supporting only Windows XP Service Pack 2 and above. Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, and 7.0 (Experimental) have also been unofficially ported to the Linux operating system from the project "ies4linux" at . Years Layout engine Microsoft Windows IBM OS/2 Apple Inc. Macintosh Unix <small> (HP-UX, Solaris) <small> 7, WS 08 R2 Vista, WS 08 WS 03 XP Me 2000 98 NT 4.0 95 3.1/NT 3.x X PPC 9 PPC 8 PPC/68k 7 PPC/68kYears - - 2009 2006 2003 2001 2000 2000 1998 1996 1995 1992 1988 2001 1999 1997 1991 (1990s) IE 8 2008- Trident 4.0 (with SP2) (with SP2/SP3) IE 7 2006- Trident (with SP1/SP2) (with SP2/SP3****) IE 6 2001 Trident ***** 6.0 SP1 6.0 SP1 6.0 SP1 6.0 SP1 IE 5.5 2000 Trident *** IE 5.0 1999 Trident (Win) Tasman (Mac) rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" *** rowspan="2" 5.01 rowspan="2" 5.0 rowspan="2" 5.2.3 Included 5.1.7 Included colspan="2" 5.1.7 5.01 SP1 IE 4.0 1997 Trident ** IE 3.0 1996 - *** *** *** ** Win 3.1 version IE 2.0 1995 - ** IE 1.5 1996 Spyglass rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" rowspan="2" IE 1.0 1995 Spyglass Plus! * Internet Explorer 6 SP2 is only available as part of Windows XP SP2 or Windows Server 2003 SP1 or SP2. ** The version of Internet Explorer included with Windows 95 varied by OSR release; 2.0 was included with OSR1, 3.0 was included with OSR2, and 4.0 was included with OSR2.5. *** No native support, but possible with third-party "Standalone" installer. **** Final version of Windows XP Service Pack 3 does not include IE7. ***** No native support, but possible with third party Standalone installer of IE6 Alpha. You can download IE6 Alpha here: http://tredosoft.com/files/ie6vista/ie6vista-alpha.msi See also Internet Explorer Mobile. Non-desktop versions of IE have supported Windows CE also. "Standalone" Internet Explorer Early versions of Internet Explorer such as 5 had a compatibility mode to run Internet Explorer 4, though this feature was dropped (also MacUsers could still use 4.5 after installing 5). While Microsoft claims it is impossible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some hackers have successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer, making them standalone applications. These are referred to as "standalone" IEs and have included versions 3 through 7. Multiple IEs in Windows Web Design — The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution. Xenocode Browser Sandbox — Xenocode application virtualization Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, there are unofficial procedures for downloading the complete install package. Internet Explorer standalone hacks exploit a known workaround to DLL hell, which was introduced in Windows 2000, called DLL redirection. IE Collection. An installer for the standalone versions of IE8.0, IE7.0, IE6.0, IE5.51, IE5.01, IE4.01, IE3.0, IE2.01, IE1.5, and IE1.0 Microsoft Support document, with instructions for downloading the entire set of installation files. Internet Explorer 6 running on Linux in Wine. It is also possible to install Internet Explorer via Wine. IEs4Linux automatically sets up Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.5, and 6.0 in Wine. Supporting Internet Explorer 7 is currently in development; as of August 2007, the IE7 rendering engine can be used with the IE6 user interface. After Internet Explorer 7 is installed, an Internet Explorer 6 executable is still available in C:\WINDOWS\ie7, hidden by default. Launching this executable provides the user with the older IE6 interface, however web pages are rendered using the IE7 engine. The IE6 engine can be re-enabled by placing a file named "iexplore.exe.local" into the IE7 folder. As an alternative to using IE standalone, Microsoft now makes available Microsoft Virtual PC images containing pre-activated copies of Windows XP with either IE 6 or IE 7 installed. Microsoft recommends this approach for web developers seeking to test their pages in the different versions of IE as the standalone versions are unsupported and may not work the same way as a properly installed copy of IE. Removal While a major upgrade of Internet Explorer can be uninstalled in a traditional way if the user has saved the original application files for installation, the matter of uninstalling the version of the browser that has shipped with an operating system remains a controversial one. The idea of removing a stock install of Internet Explorer from a Windows system was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft case. Critics felt that users should have the right to uninstall Internet Explorer freely just like any other application software. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability. Removing Internet Explorer does have a number of consequences. Applications that depend on libraries installed by IE will fail to function, or have unexpected behaviors. The Windows help and support system will also not function due to the heavy reliance on HTML help files and components of IE. In versions of Windows before Vista, it is also not possible to run Microsoft's Windows Update or Microsoft Update with any other browser due to the service's implementation of an ActiveX control, which no other browser supports. In Windows Vista, Windows Update is implemented as a Control Panel applet. With Windows 7, Microsoft added the ability to safely remove Internet Explorer 8 from Windows. Microsoft does not allow the dependencies to be removed through this process, but the Internet Explorer executable (iexplore.exe) is removed without harming any other Windows components. References See also Mozilla Firefox Opera Safari Google Chrome List of feed aggregators Comparison of feed aggregators Comparison of web browsers External links Internet Explorer: Home Page IEBlog - MSDN Blogs — The weblog of the Internet Explorer team Internet Explorer Architecture Internet Explorer Community — The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community Internet Explorer History List of vulnerabilities by SecurityFocus Secunia – Vulnerability Report – Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x Secunia – Vulnerability Report – Microsoft Internet Explorer 7.x Drip — A utility to detect and measure IE's memory leaks. IE Leak Patterns — Microsoft's analysis of IE's memory leak problem. Internet Explorer Exploits Rendering problems in Internet Explorer How the web was almost won — Just how close did we come to a Net ruled by Microsoft? The "server wars" show a grim counterpart to the browser wars Portable Internet Explorer Internet Explorer keyboard shortcuts

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reliance:1 panel:1 safely:1 dependency:1 harm:1 google:1 list:2 aggregator:2 comparison:2 external:1 link:1 home:1 ieblog:1 msdn:1 blog:1 weblog:1 securityfocus:1 drip:1 utility:1 measure:1 memory:2 leak:3 pattern:1 analysis:1 net:1 rule:1 grim:1 counterpart:1 portable:1 keyboard:1 shortcut:1 |@bigram internet_explorer:158 web_browser:12 microsoft_window:6 http_www:8 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 browser_mozilla:1 mozilla_firefox:4 window_xp:12 window_vista:6 vista_windows:2 windows_server:4 ncsa_mosaic:3 reworked_version:1 window_nt:2 windows_nt:1 nt_nt:2 activex_control:9 java_applet:2 macro_virus:1 backwards_compatibility:1 bi_directional:1 bug_fix:2 http_marketshare:7 marketshare_hitslink:7 hitslink_com:7 aspx_qprid:6 gopher_protocol:1 user_interface:6 xp_windows:1 windows_vista:1 netscape_browser:1 quirk_mode:2 file_folder:1 mshtml_dll:5 menu_toolbars:1 microsoft_silverlight:2 protected_mode:3 adobe_flash:1 add_ons:9 severely_restrict:1 uk_hi:1 closely_relate:1 mac_os:2 windows_xp:1 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Korn_shell

The Korn shell (ksh) is a Unix shell which was developed by David Korn (AT&T Bell Laboratories) in the early 1980s. It is backwards-compatible with the Bourne shell and includes many features of the C shell as well, such as a command history, which was inspired by the requests of Bell Labs users. The main advantage of ksh over the traditional Unix shell is in its use as a programming language. Since its conception, several features were gradually added, while maintaining strong backwards compatibility with the Bourne shell. The ksh93 version supports associative arrays and built-in floating point arithmetic. For interactive use, ksh provides the ability to edit the command line in a WYSIWYG fashion, by hitting the appropriate cursor-up or previous-line key-sequence to recall a previous command, and then edit the command as if the users were in edit line mode. Three modes are available, compatible with , emacs and gmacs. ksh aims to respect the Shell Language Standard (POSIX 1003.2 "Shell and Utilities Language Committee"). Until 2000, Korn Shell remained AT&T's proprietary software. Since then it has been open source software, originally under a license peculiar to AT&T but, since the 93q release in early 2005, it has been licensed under the Common Public License. Korn Shell is available as part of the AT&T Software Technology (AST) Open Source Software Collection. As ksh was initially only available through a commercial license from AT&T, a number of free and open source alternatives were created. These include the public domain pdksh, the Free Software Foundation's Bourne-Again-Shell bash, and zsh. Although the ksh93 version added many improvements (associative arrays, floating point arithmetic, etc.), some vendors still ship their own version of the older ksh88 as /bin/ksh, sometimes with extensions ( only Solaris and NCR UNIX (a.k.a. MP-RAS) ship ksh88, all other Unix vendors migrated to ksh93 and even Linux distributions started shipping ksh93). There are also two modified versions of ksh93 which add features for manipulating the graphical user interface: dtksh which is part of CDE and tksh which provides access to the Tk widget toolkit. SKsh is an AmigaOS version, that offers several Amiga-specific features such as ARexx interoperability. MKS Inc.'s MKS Korn shell is another commercial ksh reimplementation. It was included with Microsoft's Services for Unix (SFU) up to version 2.0. According to David Korn, the MKS Korn shell was not fully compatible with his own Korn shell implementation in 1998. Slashdot - David Korn Tells All Jerry Feldman - USENIX NT/LISA NT conference attendee With the introduction of SFU Version 3.0, Microsoft has replaced the MKS Korn shell with a new and fully POSIX compliant Korn shell as part of the new native Interix subsystem technology. Windows Services for UNIX Version 3.0 It is supported on Windows NT 4.0 SP6a+, Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional and Windows Server 2003. It is also available in the Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications (SUA) of Windows Vista Enterprise and Ultimate Editions and Windows Server 2008. Welcome to Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications Download details: Utilities and SDK for Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications in Microsoft Windows Vista SP1/Windows Server 2008 RTM See also Comparison of computer shells test (Unix) References External links Korn shell home page unix ksh man page ksh93 man page ksh88 man page Public Domain Korn shell (pdksh)

Korn_shell |@lemmatized korn:13 shell:19 ksh:8 unix:11 develop:1 david:3 bell:2 laboratory:1 early:2 backwards:2 compatible:3 bourne:3 include:3 many:2 feature:4 c:1 well:1 command:4 history:1 inspire:1 request:1 lab:1 user:3 main:1 advantage:1 traditional:1 use:2 programming:1 language:3 since:3 conception:1 several:2 gradually:1 add:3 maintain:1 strong:1 compatibility:1 version:8 support:2 associative:2 array:2 build:1 float:2 point:2 arithmetic:2 interactive:1 provide:2 ability:1 edit:3 line:3 wysiwyg:1 fashion:1 hit:1 appropriate:1 cursor:1 previous:2 key:1 sequence:1 recall:1 mode:2 three:1 available:4 emacs:1 gmacs:1 aim:1 respect:1 standard:1 posix:2 utility:2 committee:1 remain:1 proprietary:1 software:5 open:3 source:3 originally:1 license:4 peculiar:1 release:1 common:1 public:3 part:3 technology:2 ast:1 collection:1 initially:1 commercial:2 number:1 free:2 alternative:1 create:1 domain:2 pdksh:2 foundation:1 bash:1 zsh:1 although:1 improvement:1 etc:1 vendor:2 still:1 ship:3 old:1 bin:1 sometimes:1 extension:1 solaris:1 ncr:1 k:1 mp:1 ra:1 migrate:1 even:1 linux:1 distribution:1 start:1 also:3 two:1 modify:1 manipulate:1 graphical:1 interface:1 dtksh:1 cde:1 tksh:1 access:1 tk:1 widget:1 toolkit:1 sksh:1 amigaos:1 offer:1 amiga:1 specific:1 arexx:1 interoperability:1 mks:4 inc:1 another:1 reimplementation:1 microsoft:3 service:2 sfu:2 accord:1 fully:2 implementation:1 slashdot:1 tell:1 jerry:1 feldman:1 usenix:1 nt:3 lisa:1 conference:1 attendee:1 introduction:1 replace:1 new:2 compliant:1 native:1 interix:1 subsystem:4 window:6 windows:3 xp:1 professional:1 server:3 base:3 application:3 sua:1 vista:2 enterprise:1 ultimate:1 edition:1 welcome:1 download:1 detail:1 sdk:1 rtm:1 see:1 comparison:1 computer:1 test:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:4 man:3 |@bigram korn_shell:10 backwards_compatible:1 bourne_shell:3 bell_lab:1 backwards_compatibility:1 associative_array:2 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 widget_toolkit:1 posix_compliant:1 window_nt:1 windows_xp:1 windows_server:2 window_vista:2 microsoft_window:1 vista_windows:1 external_link:1

Alfonso_III_of_Aragon

Alfonso III (1265 – 18 June 1291), called the Liberal (el Liberal) or the Free (also "the Frank," from el Franc), was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona (as Alfons II) from 1285. He conquered the Kingdom of Majorca between his succession and 1287. He was a son of Peter III of Aragon and his Queen consort Constantia of Sicily, daughter and heiress of Manfred of Sicily. His maternal grandmother Beatrice of Savoy was a daughter of Amadeus IV of Savoy and Anne of Burgundy. Soon after assuming the throne, he conducted a campaign to reincorporate the Balearic Islands into the Kingdom of Aragon - which had been lost due to the division of the kingdom by his grandfather, James I of Aragon. Thus in 1285 he declared war on his uncle, James II of Majorca, and conquered both Majorca (1285) and Ibiza (1286), effectively reassuming suzerainty over the Kingdom of Majorca. He followed this with the conquest of Minorca - until then, an autonomous Muslim state (Manûrqa) under the Kingdom of Majorca - on 17 January 1287, the anniversary of which now serves as Minorca's national holiday. He initially sought to maintain the Aragonese control over Sicily early in his reign by supporting the claims to island of his brother, James II of Aragon. However, he later pressed his brother to retract the claims and instead supported claim from the Papal States. His reign was marred by a constitutional struggle with the Aragonese nobles, which eventually culminated in the articles of the Union of Aragon - the so called "Magna Carta of Aragon", which devolved several key royal powers into the hands of lesser nobles. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles was to leave a heritage of disunity in Aragon and further dissent amongst the nobility, who increasingly saw little reason to respect the throne, and brought the Kingdom of Aragon close to anarchy. During his lifetime a dynastic marriage with Princess Eleanor of England http://edwardthesecond.blogspot.com/2008/05/sisters-of-edward-ii-1-eleanor.html , daughter of King Edward I of England, was arranged. However Alfonso died before meeting his bride. He died at the age of 27 in 1291, and was buried in Franciscan convent at Barcelona; his rests are, from 1852, buried in Barcelona Cathedral. Dante Alighieri, in the Divine Comedy, recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of Purgatory with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of Europe during the 13th century. Notes Sources Alighieri, Dante, Purgatorio, Canto VII, l. 115ff. Nelson, Lynn. The Chronicle of San Juan De LA Pena: A Fourteenth-Century Official History of the Crown of Aragon (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991) ISBN 0-8122-1352-1 O'Callaghan, Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain (Cornell University Press, 1983) ISBN 0-8014-9264-5

Alfonso_III_of_Aragon |@lemmatized alfonso:3 iii:2 june:1 call:1 liberal:2 el:2 free:1 also:1 frank:1 franc:1 king:2 aragon:10 count:1 barcelona:3 alfons:1 ii:4 conquer:2 kingdom:6 majorca:5 succession:1 son:1 peter:1 queen:1 consort:1 constantia:1 sicily:3 daughter:3 heiress:1 manfred:1 maternal:1 grandmother:1 beatrice:1 savoy:2 amadeus:1 iv:1 anne:1 burgundy:1 soon:1 assume:1 throne:2 conduct:1 campaign:1 reincorporate:1 balearic:1 island:2 lose:1 due:1 division:1 grandfather:1 jam:3 thus:1 declare:1 war:1 uncle:1 ibiza:1 effectively:1 reassuming:1 suzerainty:1 follow:1 conquest:1 minorca:2 autonomous:1 muslim:1 state:3 manûrqa:1 january:1 anniversary:1 serve:1 national:1 holiday:1 initially:1 seek:1 maintain:1 aragonese:2 control:1 early:1 reign:2 support:2 claim:3 brother:2 however:2 later:1 press:3 retract:1 instead:1 papal:1 mar:1 constitutional:1 struggle:1 noble:3 eventually:1 culminate:1 article:1 union:1 called:1 magna:1 carta:1 devolve:1 several:1 key:1 royal:1 power:1 hand:1 less:1 inability:1 resist:1 demand:1 leave:1 heritage:1 disunity:1 dissent:1 amongst:1 nobility:1 increasingly:1 saw:2 little:1 reason:1 respect:1 bring:1 close:1 anarchy:1 lifetime:1 dynastic:1 marriage:1 princess:1 eleanor:2 england:2 http:1 edwardthesecond:1 blogspot:1 com:1 sister:1 edward:2 html:1 arrange:1 die:2 meet:1 bride:1 age:1 bury:2 franciscan:1 convent:1 rest:1 cathedral:1 dante:3 alighieri:2 divine:1 comedy:1 recount:1 spirit:1 seat:1 outside:1 gate:1 purgatory:1 monarch:1 blame:1 chaotic:1 political:1 europe:1 century:2 note:1 source:1 purgatorio:1 canto:1 vii:1 l:1 nelson:1 lynn:1 chronicle:1 san:1 juan:1 de:1 la:1 pena:1 fourteenth:1 official:1 history:2 crown:1 university:2 pennsylvania:1 isbn:2 callaghan:1 joseph:1 medieval:1 spain:1 cornell:1 |@bigram queen_consort:1 maternal_grandmother:1 balearic_island:1 magna_carta:1 blogspot_com:1 dante_alighieri:1 alighieri_divine:1 san_juan:1 crown_aragon:1

Freeware

Freeware (from "free" + "software") is computer software that is available for use at no cost or for an optional fee. Merriam-Webster definition of freeware History The term freeware was coined by Andrew Fluegelman when he wanted to sell a communications program named PC-Talk that he had created but for which he did not wish to use traditional methods of distribution because of their cost. http://textfiles.fisher.hu/news/freeware.txt Fluegelman actually distributed PC-Talk via a process now referred to as shareware. Current use of the term freeware does not necessarily match the original concept by Andrew Fluegelman. Criteria The only criterion for being classified as freeware is that the software must be fully functional for an unlimited time with no cost, monetary or otherwise. The software license may impose restrictions on the type of use including personal use, individual use, non-profit use, non-commercial use, academic use, commercial use or any combination of these. For instance, the license may be "free for personal, non-commercial use". Accordingly, freeware may or may not be free software / open source software, the principal difference being that free software can be used, studied, and modified without restriction; free software embodies the concept of 'libre' while freeware that of 'gratis'. Freeware is also different from shareware; the latter obliges the user to pay after some trial period or to gain additional functionality. See also List of freeware games List of commercial games released as freeware Gratis versus Libre Creative Commons licenses Shareware References External links

Freeware |@lemmatized freeware:11 free:5 software:8 computer:1 available:1 use:12 cost:3 optional:1 fee:1 merriam:1 webster:1 definition:1 history:1 term:2 coin:1 andrew:2 fluegelman:3 want:1 sell:1 communication:1 program:1 name:1 pc:2 talk:2 create:1 wish:1 traditional:1 method:1 distribution:1 http:1 textfiles:1 fisher:1 hu:1 news:1 txt:1 actually:1 distributed:1 via:1 process:1 refer:1 shareware:3 current:1 necessarily:1 match:1 original:1 concept:2 criteria:1 criterion:1 classify:1 must:1 fully:1 functional:1 unlimited:1 time:1 monetary:1 otherwise:1 license:3 may:4 impose:1 restriction:2 type:1 include:1 personal:2 individual:1 non:3 profit:1 commercial:4 academic:1 combination:1 instance:1 accordingly:1 open:1 source:1 principal:1 difference:1 study:1 modify:1 without:1 embody:1 libre:2 gratis:2 also:2 different:1 latter:1 oblige:1 user:1 pay:1 trial:1 period:1 gain:1 additional:1 functionality:1 see:1 list:2 game:2 release:1 versus:1 creative:1 common:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 external_link:1

Economy_of_Burma

Burma is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. Burma’s GDP grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion. , Under British administration and until the early 1960s, Burma was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia. It was once the world's largest exporter of rice. During British administration, Burma supplied oil through the Burmah Oil Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak and had a highly literate population. The country was believed to be on the fast track to development. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu attempted to make Burma a welfare state and adopted central planning. Rice exports fell by two thirds and mineral exports by over 96%. Plans were partly financed by printing money, which led to inflation. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries. Burma's admittance to Least Developed Country status by the UN in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy. After 1988, the regime retreated from totalitarian socialism. It permitted modest expansion of the private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received needed foreign exchange. The economy is still rated as the least free in Asia (tied with North Korea). All fundamental market institutions are suppressed. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by state. The corruption watchdog organization Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on September 26, 2007 ranked Burma the most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia. 2007 CPI http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 The national currency is Kyat. Burma has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba. The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006. Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007. Inflation is a serious problem for the economy. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis." In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma. Foreign investment comes primarily from People's Republic of China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand. The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas. , Facts About Cooperation, International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy. Today, the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border, where most illegal drugs are exported and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late nineteenth century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. Burma is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of illegal drugs, including amphetamines. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade to fund their regime. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (125 miles) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires. Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in the country. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually. Aung San Suu Kyi has requested that international tourists not visit Burma. The junta's forced labour programmes were focused around tourist destinations which have been heavily criticised for their human rights records. Even disregarding the obviously governmental fees, Burma’s Minister of Hotels and Tourism Maj-Gen Saw Lwin recently admitted that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services. Not to mention the fact that only a very small minority of impoverished ordinary people in Burma ever see any money with any relation to tourism. http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2006/12/24/re.htm Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people. http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk/action_holiday.html The private sector dominates in agriculture, light industry, and transport activities, while the military government controls energy, heavy industry, and rice trade. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Burma at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Myanma kyats. Year Gross Domestic Product US dollar exchange - MIRT. Team, "Exchange rate between the United States dollar and Myats, 1913 -1999", 2002. Inflation index (2000=100) 1965 7,627 1970 10,437 1975 23,477 1980 38,608 1985 55,988 1990 151,941 1995 604,728 Though foreign investment has been encouraged, it has so far met with only moderate success. This is because foreign investors have been adversely affected by the junta government policies and because of international pressure to boycott the junta government. The United States has placed trade sanctions on Burma. The European Union has placed embargoes on arms, non-humanitarian aid, visa bans on military regime leaders, and limited investment bans. Both the European Union and the U.S. have placed sanctions on grounds of human rights violations in the country. However, many nations in Asia, particularly India, Thailand and China have actively traded with Burma. The public sector enterprises remain highly inefficient and also privatization efforts have stalled. The estimates of Burmese foreign trade are highly ambiguous because of the great volume of black market trading. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Due to this, Burma remains a poor country with no improvement of living standards for the majority of the population over the past decade. The main causes for continued sluggish growth are poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment and the large trade deficit. One of the recent government initiatives is to utilize Burma's large natural gas deposits. Currently, Burma has attracted investment from Thai, Malaysian, Russian, Australian, Indian, and Singaporean companies. http://www.financialexpress-bd.com/index3.asp?cnd=12/15/2006&section_id=24&newsid=46742&spcl=no Burma is the poorest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita. (nominally $97 as in 2005) According to the CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html#Econ Economy Today Locals in Amarapura, Mandalay Division Today, Burma lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. Burma is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of narcotics, including amphetamines. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country’s total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in Burma between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country’s ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy. 1.1 Inflation is a serious problem for the Burmese economy. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. “Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006,” said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. “Inflation is also correlated with corruption.” Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: “Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis.” Trade Burmese exports in 2006 +2006-2007 Financial Year Trade volume (in US$ 000,000) Sr. No. Description 2006-2007 Budget Trade Volume 2006-2007 Real Trade Volume Export Import Trade Volume Export Import Trade Volume 1 Normal Trade 4233.60 2468.40 6702.00 4585.47 2491.33 7076.80 2 Border Trade 814.00 466.00 1280.00 647.21 445.40 1092.61 Total 5047.60 2934.40 7982.00 5232.68 2936.73 8169.41 +Total Trade Value for Financial year 2003-2004 to Financial year 2006-2007 No Financial Year Export Value Import Value Trade Value (US$, 000,000) 1 2003-2004 2356.82 2239.97 4596.79 2 2004-2005 2927.83 1973.58 4901.41 3 2005-2006 3558.03 1984.41 5542.44 4 2006-2007 5232.68 2936.73 8169.41 Oil Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) is a national oil and gas company of Burma. The company is a sole operator of oil and gas exploration and production, as well as domestic gas transmission through a onshore pipeline grid. The Yadana Project is a project to exploit the Yadana gas field in the Andaman Sea and to carry natural gas to Thailand through Myanmar. Sino-Burma pipelines refers to planned oil and natural gas pipelines linking the Burma's deep-water port of Kyaukphyu (Sittwe) in the Bay of Bengal with Kunming in Yunnan province of China. Gemstones Of the world's rubies, the finest are found in Myanmar (Burma). Burmese gems are prized for their hue and high degree of saturation. Thailand buys the majority of Myanmar's gems. Myanmar's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (125 miles) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires. Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact Working conditions in the Mogok Valley are primitive and as such similar to mining conditions in other parts of the world. The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade to fund their regime. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. In 2007, following the crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Myanmar, human rights organizations, gem dealers, and US First Lady Laura Bush called for a boycott of a Myanmar gem auction held twice yearly, arguing that the sale of the stones profits the dictatorial regime in that country. CBC - Gem dealers push to ban Burmese rubies after bloody crackdown Debbie Stothard of the Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma stated that mining operators used drugs on employees to improve productivity, with needles shared, raising the risk of HIV infection: "These rubies are red with the blood of young people." Brian Leber (41-year-old jeweler who founded The Jewellers' Burma Relief Project) stated that: "For the time being, Burmese gems should not be something to be proud of. They should be an object of revulsion. It's the only country where one obtains really top quality rubies, but I stopped dealing in them. I don't want to be part of a nation's misery. If someone asks for a ruby now I show them a nice pink sapphire." Reuters, Move over, blood diamonds Richard W. Hughes, author of Ruby and Sapphire, a Bangkok based gemologist who has made many trips to Burma makes the point that for every ruby sold through the junta, another gem that supports subsistence mining is smuggled over the Thai border http://www.ruby-sapphire.com/burma-embargo2.htm . Tourism Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually. Tourism remains nevertheless a growing sector of the economy of Burma. Burma has diverse and varied tourist attractions and is served internationally by numerous airlines via direct flights. Domestic and foreign airlines also operate flights within the country. Cruise ships also dock at Yangon. Overland entry with a border pass is permitted at several border checkpoints. The government requires a valid passport with an entry visa for all tourists and business people. Both the tourist visa and business visa are valid for 28 days, renewable for an additional 14 days for tourism and 3 months for business. Seeing Burma through a personal tour guide is popular. Travelers can hire guides through travel agencies. Humanitarian Aid In April 2007, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified the financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance in the Southeast Asian country. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma," outlines the specific efforts of the Burmese government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organizations, including by restricting the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. Furthermore, the reports states that the military government passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalized Burma's restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organizations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable. "The shameful behavior of Burma's military regime in tying the hand of humanitarian organizations is laid out in these pages for all to see, and it must come to an end," said U.S. Representative Tom Lantos (D-CA). "In eastern Burma, where the military regime has burned or otherwise destroyed over 3,000 villages, humanitarian relief has been decimated. At least one million people have fled their homes and many are simply being left to die in the jungle." U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL) said that the report "underscores the need for democratic change in Burma, whose military regime arbitrarily arrests, tortures, rapes and executes its own people, ruthlessly persecutes ethnic minorities, and bizarrely builds itself a new capital city while failing to address the increasingly urgent challenges of refugee flows, illicit narcotics and human trafficking, and the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases." Other statistics Electricity - production: 7.393 billion kWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 61.72% hydro: 38.28% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 6.875 billion kWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: paddy rice, maize, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas Exchange rates: kyats per US dollar - 5.82 (2005), 5.7459 (2004), 6.0764 (2003), 6.5734 (2002), 6.6841 (2001) note: these are official exchange rates; unofficial exchange rates ranged in 2004 from 815 kyat/US dollar to nearly 970 kyat/US dollar, and by year-end 2005, the unofficial exchange rate was 1,065 kyat/US dollar (Tuesday, May 05, 2009)Sayar (talk) 13:08, 5 May 2009 (UTC). Footnotes See also External links News, information, journals, magazines related to Burmese business and commerce Myanmar Commerce Online Licence Services, Information Services website Myanmar Commerce Information Services website

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Abbreviation

An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning "short") is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr. or abbrev. In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance. . However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors). History Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. An increase in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation Spelling Society : Shortcuts 1483-1660 . At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, specific phoneme sets like "er" were dropped from words and replaced with ɔ, like "mastɔ" instead of "master" or exacɔbate instead of "exacerbate". While this seems trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503: In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a fad. For example, during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of "Father of modern etymology" J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and other members of the Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence. After World War II, the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive" — "S.O.,E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely. Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter. Style conventions in English In modern English there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Questions which arise include those in the following subsections. Lowercase letters If the original word was capitalized, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no need for capitalization. Periods (full stops) and spaces A period (full stop) is sometimes written after an abbreviated word, but there are exceptions and a general lack of consensus about when this should happen. There is some confusion over the strict distinction between an abbreviation (a word shortened by omission of its end part)—requiring a full point (or full stop or period)—and a contraction (a word or compound shortened by omission of a middle part)—which does not need a full point or period. American English usage is less strict about this distinction and thus more likely to conclude a contraction , e.g., Jr. for "Junior" with a period. There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, "kilometer" is abbreviated as km and not as k.m.. However, "miles per hour" can be abbreviated by the acronym m.p.h. or, increasingly common, mph. In British English, according to Hart's Rules, the general rule is that abbreviations terminate with a full point (period), whereas contractions do not. ExampleCategoryShort formSourceDoctorContractionDrD–rProfessorAbbreviationProf.Prof...The ReverendContraction (or Abbreviation)Revd (or Rev.)Rev–dThe Right HonourableContraction and AbbreviationRt Hon.R–t Hon... In American English, the period is usually added if the abbreviation might otherwise be interpreted as a word, but some American writers do not use a period here. Sometimes, periods are used for certain initialisms but not others; a notable instance in American English is to write United States, European Union, and United Nations as U.S., EU, and UN respectively. A third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (both "Saint" and "Street" become "St"). The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, "Northwest Blvd", "W. Jefferson", and "PED XING" all follow this recommendation.) Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, and scuba. Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U. S.". When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, use only one period: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C. Plural forms To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase s to the end. A group of MPs The roaring '20s Mind your Ps and Qs When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, put the s after the final one. Ph.D.s M.Phil.s the d.t.s However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as: PhDs MPhils the DTs (delirium tremens). (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.) An apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects. The x's of the equation Dot the i's and cross the t's However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes: The xs of the equation Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well. Singular abbreviationSingular WordPlural abbreviationPlural WordDisciplined. didotdd. didots typographyf. following line or page ff. following lines or pages notesh. handhh. hands horse heightl. linell. linesnotesMS manuscriptMSS manuscriptsnotesop. opusopp. operanotesp.pagepp. pagesnotesP.popePP.popess.sectionss. (or §)sectionsnotes v.volumevv.volumesnotes Conventions followed by publications and newspapers United States Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of the Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press. The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. However, there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. The New York Times is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to omit periods for convenience. United Kingdom Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation: For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include: Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would usually not have had full stops — see above) Capt, Prof, etc.; Two-letter abbreviations for countries ("US", not "U.S."); Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms); Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters ("PR", instead of "p.r.", or "pr") Names ("FW de Klerk", "GB Whiteley", "Park JS"). A notable exception is the newspaper The Economist which writes "Mr F. W. de Klerk". Scientific units (see Measurement below). Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation can be abbreviated as "Nato" or "NATO", and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as "Sars" or "SARS" (compare with "laser" which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all). Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the "British Broadcasting Corporation" is abbreviated to "BBC", never "Bbc". An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word. When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard, see below.) Miscellaneous and general rules A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George. Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States. A repeatedly-used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage. Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided. Measurement The International System of Units (SI) defines a set of base units, from which other "derived" units may be obtained. The abbreviations, or more accurately "symbols" (using Roman letters, Greek letters in the case of ohm and micro and other characters in the case of degrees celsius) for these units are also clearly defined together with a set of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols. There should never be a period after or inside a unit; both '10 k.m.' and '10 k.m' are wrong — the only correct form is '10 km' (only followed with a period when at the end of a sentence). A period "within" a compound unit denotes multiplication of the base units on each side of it. Ideally, this period should be raised to the centre of the line, but often it is not. For instance, '5 ms' means 5 millisecond(s), whereas '5 m.s' means 5 metre·second(s). The "m.s" here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental SI units — metre and second. However, the middle dot symbol (·, unicode U+00B7, HTML ·) is the preferred way to represent compound units when available, e.g. "5 m·s". There should always be a (non-breaking) space between the number and the unit — '25 km' is correct, and '25km' is incorrect. In Section 5.3.3. of The International System of Units (SI), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) states "The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number. … The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle." The case of letters (uppercase or lowercase) has meaning in the SI system, and case should never be changed in order to follow an abbreviation style. For example, "10 S" denotes 10 siemens (a unit of conductance), while "10 s" denotes 10 seconds. Any unit named after a person is denoted by a symbol with an upper case first letter (S, Pa, A, V, N, Wb, W), but spelt out in full in lower case, (siemens, pascal, ampere, volt, newton, weber and watt). By contrast g, l, m, s, cd, ha represent gram, litre, metre, second, candela and hectare respectively. The one slight exception to this rule is that the symbol for litre is allowed to be L to help avoid confusion with an upper case i or a one in some typefaces — compare l, I, and 1. Likewise, the abbreviations of the prefixes denoting powers of ten are case-sensitive: m (milli) represents a thousandth, but M (mega) represents a million, so by inadvertent changes of case one may introduce (in this example) an error of a factor of 1 000 000 000. When a unit is written in full, the whole unit is written in lowercase, including the prefix: millivolt for mV, nanometre for nm, gigacandela for Gcd. The above rules, if followed, ensure that the SI system is always unambiguous, so for instance mK denotes millikelvin, MK denotes megakelvin, K.m denotes kelvin.metre, and km denotes kilometre. Forms such as k.m and Km are ill-formed and technically meaningless in the SI system, although the intended meaning might be inferred from the context. Syllabic abbreviation A syllabic abbreviation is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol = International + police. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus. Usage Different languages Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English or French. The United States Navy, however, often uses syllabic abbreviations, such as Desron for "destroyer squadron", and sometimes combines acronyms with syllables, such as CincLantFleet for "commander-in-chief, Atlantic fleet". On the other hand, they prevailed in Germany under the Nazis and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, Gestapo stands for Geheime Staats-Polizei, or "secret state police". Similarly, Comintern stands for the Communist International. This has caused syllabic abbreviations to have negative connotation, notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in Germany even before the Nazis came to power, e.g., Schupo for Schutzpolizei. Syllabic abbreviations were also typical for the German language used in the German Democratic Republic, e.g. Stasi for Staatssicherheit ("state security", the secret police) or Vopo for Volkspolizist ("people's policeman"). East Asian languages whose writing uses Chinese-originated ideograms instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese). The syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities: for instance, Běidà (北大) for Běijīng Dàxué (北京大学, Peking University) and Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō daigaku (東京大学, University of Tokyo). Organisations Syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used (in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6," while COMNAVFORLANT would be "Commander, Naval Force (in the) Atlantic." See also Acronym and initialism List of abbreviations in use in 1911 List of acronyms and initialisms List of classical abbreviations List of medieval abbreviations The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary References External links Abbreviations.com — a database of acronyms and abbreviations Acronym Finder — a database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 750,000 entries) All Acronyms — a database of acronyms, initialisms and abbreviations (over 750,000 entries) AcronymCreator.net - a language tool to make new meaningful acronyms and abbreviations Rimship AS - a list of abbreviation used in shipping (350 entries)

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asian:1 whose:1 chinese:1 originated:1 ideogram:1 alphabet:1 key:1 japanese:2 kokusai:1 rengō:1 国際連合:1 kokuren:1 国連:1 ryakugo:1 略語:1 frequently:1 běidà:1 北大:1 běijīng:1 dàxué:1 北京大学:1 peking:1 tōdai:1 東大:1 tōkyō:1 daigaku:1 東京大学:1 tokyo:1 prefer:1 readability:1 amidst:1 large:1 fit:1 hence:1 comnavforlant:1 naval:1 force:1 list:5 medieval:1 edition:1 webster:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 database:3 finder:1 entry:3 acronymcreator:1 net:1 tool:1 meaningful:1 rimship:1 shipping:1 |@bigram universally_accept:1 delirium_tremens:1 uppercase_letter:2 compact_disc:1 de_klerk:2 acute_respiratory:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 prime_minister:1 degree_celsius:1 avoid_confusion:1 syllabic_abbreviation:10 commander_chief:1 soviet_union:1 negative_connotation:1 external_link:1 acronym_abbreviation:3 abbreviation_acronym:1

Book_of_Amos

The Book of Amos is one of the books of the Nevi'im (Hebrew: "prophets") and of the Christian Old Testament. Amos is one of the minor prophets. Amos was the first biblical prophet whose words were recorded in a book, an older contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. He was active c 750 BC during the reign of Jeroboam II. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. He lived in the kingdom of Judah but preached in the northern kingdom of Israel. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. His major themes of social justice, God's omnipotence, and divine judgment became staples of prophecy. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Without dispute, the Book of Amos has been accepted as canonical by Jews, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and Protestants. Authorship Amos was a prophet during the reign of Jeroboam ben Joash (Jeroboam II), ruler of Israel from 793 BC to 753 BC, and the reign of Uzziah, King of Judah, at a time when both kingdoms (Israel in the North and Judah in the South) were peaking in prosperity. He was a contemporary of the prophet Hosea, but likely preceded him. Many of the earlier accounts of prophets found in the Old Testament are found within the context of other accounts of Israel's history. Amos, however, is the first prophet whose name also serves as the title of the corresponding biblical book in which his story is found. Time when written Most scholars believe that Amos gave his message in the autumn of 750 BC or 749 BC. It is generally understood that his preaching at Bethel lasted only a single day at the least and a few days at the most. Leading up to this time, Assyrian armies battled against Damascus for a number of years, which greatly diminished Syria's threat to Israel. As a result of the fighting amongst its neighbors, Israel had the benefit of increasing its borders almost to those of the time of David and Solomon. It should also be noted that Amos preached about two years before a very large earthquake, and made reference to it twice in his book. Zechariah remembers this earthquake over 200 years later (). Place where written Some scholars believe that Amos' message was recorded after he delivered it to the Northern Kingdom, upon returning to his southern homeland of Tekoa, a town eight kilometres south of Bethlehem. It is mentioned many times in the Old Testament (Joshua 15:39, 2 Samuel 14:9 and 23:26, 1 Chronicles 11:28). Rehoboam is reported to have fortified Tekoa along with other cities in Judah in 2 Chronicles 11:5-6. There are some differing opinions as to the location of the Tekoa Amos was presumably from. It is believed by most that Amos was a southern farmer, called by God to deliver his prophetic message in the North. However, some believe that Amos was actually from a Tekoa in the North, near Galilee. They believe that it is more probable that Amos was from the North because it has conditions more suitable for the cultivation of sycamore figs than the Tekoa of the South. Sycamore figs grow at a low elevation, lower than the Tekoa of Judah, which is at a relatively high elevation of 850 metres (overlooking both Jerusalem and Bethlehem). Others have discredited the theory about the Galilean Tekoa, citing that the difference in elevation between the two locations is not significant. Scholars in support of the idea of Amos being from the North also say it makes more sense because of Amaziah's accusation of conspiracy found in chapter seven, verse 10. A conspirator, they argue, is more likely to be a national. Two other opinions of where Amos' writings were recorded deserve mention. They are that 1) disciples of Amos followed him and recorded his message and 2) that someone in his audience in the North recorded his message. Purpose The Book of Amos is set in a time when the people of Israel have reached a low point in their devotion to YHWH - the people have become greedy and have stopped following and adhering to their values. The wealthy elite are becoming rich at the expense of others. Peasant farmers who once practiced subsistence farming are being forced to farm what is best for foreign trade, mostly wine and oil. YHWH speaks to Amos, a farmer and herder, and tells him to go to Samaria, the capital of the Northern kingdom. Through Amos, YHWH tells the people that he is going to judge Israel for its sins, and it will be a foreign nation that will enact his judgment. The people understand judgment as the coming of "the Day of the Lord." "The Day of the Lord" was widely celebrated and highly anticipated by the followers of YHWH. However, Amos came to tell the people that "the Day of the Lord" was coming soon and that it meant divine judgment and justice for their own iniquity. Themes Many scholars break the book of Amos up into three sections. Chapters one and two look at the nations surrounding Israel and then Israel itself through an ethical lens. Chapters three to six are a collection of verses that look more specifically at Israel's transgressions. Chapters seven to nine include visions that Yahweh gave Amos as well as Amaziah's rebuke of the prophet. The last section of the book (7:1 to 9:8), commonly referred to as the Book of Visions, contains the only narrative section. In the first two visions, Amos is able to convince Yahweh not to act out the scenes of discipline presented to him. The ideas of discipline and justice, although not enacted here, correspond to the central message in what some refer to as the Book of Woes (5:1 to 6:14). This message can be seen most clearly in verse 24 of chapter five. The plagues in the preceding chapter, chapter four, were supposed to be seen as acts of discipline that turned Israel back to Yahweh. However, the people did not interpret the acts this way, and the discipline turned into judgment for the people's disobedience. In the second set of visions (7:7-9) there is no intercession by Amos, and Yahweh says that he "will never pass by them again." The plight of Israel has become hopeless. God will not hold back judgment because Israel refuses to listen to the prophets and even goes so far as to try to silence them (2:12, 3:8, 7:10-17). The central idea of the book of Amos, according to most scholars, is that Yahweh puts his people on the same level as the nations that surround it -- Yahweh expects the same sinlessness of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of Yahweh, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of Yahweh because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents Yahweh must be made pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of Yahweh. Yahweh's name must be exalted. Other major themes in the book of Amos include: social justice and concern for the disadvantaged; the idea that Israel's covenant with Yahweh did not exempt them from his position on sin; Yahweh is God of all nations; Yahweh is judge of all nations; Yahweh is God of moral righteousness; Yahweh made all people; Yahweh elected Israel and then redeemed Israel so that he would be known throughout the world; election by Yahweh means that those elected are responsible to live according to the purposes clearly outlined to them in the law; Yahweh will only destroy the unjust and a remnant will remain; and Yahweh is free to judge, redeem and act as savior to Israel. References Sources Bulkeley, Tim Amos: Hypertext Bible Commentary. Auckland: Hypertext Bible, 2005. Amos: Hypertext Bible Commentary Carroll R., M. Daniel Amos: The Prophet and His Oracles. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002. Coote, Robert B. Amos Among the Prophets: Composition and Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981. Doorly, William J. Prophet of Justice: Understanding the Book of Amos. New York: Paulist Press 1989. Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. Hasel, Gerhard F. Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991. Haynes, John H. Amos the Eighth Century Prophet: His Times and His Preaching. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1988. Keil, C.F. et al. Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1986. LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Metzger, Bruce M. et al. The Oxford Companion to the Bible. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Möller, Karl. A Prophet in Debate: The Rhetoric of Persuasion in the Book of Amos. London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003. External links Online translations of Book of Amos: Jewish translations: Amos (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (English Standard Version) Amos at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) Nicholas Whyte on Amos

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Moroccan_cuisine

Moroccan cuisine is a very diverse cuisine, with many influences, due to the interaction of Morocco with the outside world for centuries. The cuisine of Morocco is a mix of Arab, Berber, Moorish, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, African, and influences. The cooks in the royal kitchens of Fez, Meknes, Marrakech, Rabat and Tetouan refined Moroccan cuisine over the centuries and created the basis for what is known as Moroccan cuisine today. Ingredients Morocco produces a large range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables and even some tropical ones. The country produces large quantities of sheep, cattle, poultry, and seafood which serve as a base for the cuisine. To be exact, fruits are not common. Half-and-half is used in almost everything. Characteristic flavoring ingredients in cooked dishes include Preserved lemon, cold-pressed, unrefined olive oil and dried fruits. Use of spices Spices at central market in Agadir Spices are used extensively in Moroccan food. While spices have been imported to Morocco for thousands of years, many ingredients, like saffron from Tiliouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fez, are home-grown. Common spices include karfa (cinnamon), kamoun (cumin), kharkoum (turmeric), skingbir (ginger), libzar (pepper) , tahmira (paprika), anis seed, sesame seed, kasbour (coriander), maadnous (parsley), zaafrane beldi (saffron) and mint. Structure of meals The midday meal is the main meal, with the exception of the holy month of Ramadan. The typical formal meal begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by a tagine. Bread is eaten with every meal. Often a lamb or chicken dish is next, followed by couscous topped with meats and vegetables. A cup of sweet mint tea is commonly used to end the meal. It is common for Moroccans to eat using the fingers of their hand, and use bread as a "utensil." Main dishes Fresh Couscous with vegetables and chickpeas. See also: List of Moroccan dishes The main Moroccan dish most people are familiar with is couscous, an old delicacy probably of Berber origin. Beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco. Lamb is preferred, but is not as common due to its higher cost. Poultry was historically used and the importance of seafood is increasing in Moroccan food. The breed of sheep in North Africa has much of its fat concentrated in its tail, which means that Moroccan lamb does not have the pungent flavor that Western lamb and mutton can have. Among the most famous Moroccan dishes are Couscous, Pastilla (also spelled Bsteeya or Bastilla), Tajine, Tanjia and Harira. Although the latter is a soup, it is considered as a dish in itself and is served as such or with dates especially during the month of Ramadan. Desserts Sweets are not usually served at the end of a Moroccan meal. Seasonal fruits are typically served at the end of meals. A common dessert is kaab el ghzal ("gazelle's horns"), which is a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar. Another dessert is " Halwa shebakia " it is honey cake, which is essentially pretzel-shaped pieces of dough deep-fried and dipped into a hot pot of honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds. Halwa Shebakia are cookies eaten during the month of Ramadan. Zucre Coco are coconut fudge cakes. Drinks The most popular drink is green tea with mint. Traditionally, making good mint tea in Morocco is considered an art form and the drinking of it with friends and family members is one of the important rituals of the day. The technique of pouring the tea is as crucial as the quality of the tea. The tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps. Moroccan tea pots have long, curved pouring spouts and this allows the tea to be poured evenly into tiny glasses from a height. To acquire the optimum taste, glasses are filled in two stages. The Moroccans traditionally like tea with bubbles, so while pouring they hold the teapot high above the glasses. The tea is sold all around the country for 2-3 dh per cup although it is often served free when you are negotiating a purchase. You can also buy it as loose tea from all kinds of markets around the country for various prices. Snacks and Fastfood Selling fast food in the street has long been a tradition, and the best example is Djemaa el Fna square in Marrakech. Starting in the 1980s, new snack restaurants started serving "Bocadillo" (which is a Spanish word for a sandwich, widely used in Morocco). Though the composition of a bocadillo varies by region, usually the bocadillo is a baguette filled with salad and a choice of meats, fish (usually tuna), or a dense egg omelette. Dairy product shops (Mahlaba in Moroccan Arabic) are open throughout cities in Morocco. Those mahlabas generally offer all types of dairy products, juices, and breakfasts as well as bocadillos, competing with former established snack restaurants. The late 1990s experienced the opening of franchises of multinational fast food chains, especially in major cities. The tea is sold all around the country usually around 5-6 dh a cup. One could also purchase it from supermarkets around the country for different prices. Moroccan food abroad Couscous is one of the most popular North African dishes globally. Markets, stores and restaurants in Europe, especially in France and lately the UK feature tajines which is lamb and couscous which is ground semolina. Gallery See also List of Moroccan dishes Middle Eastern cuisine Mediterranean cuisine African cuisine Jewish cuisine Berber cuisine Culture of Morocco External links Moroccanlinx.com Moroccan cuisine videos References Recipe books Cooking at the Kasbah: Recipes from My Moroccan Kitchen, by: Kitty Morse, Laurie Smith ISBN 0-8118-1503-X Scent of Orange Blossoms: Sephardic Cuisine from Morocco, by: Kitty Morse, Owen Morse ISBN 1-58008-269-6 Couscous and Other Good Food from Morocco, by: Paula Wolfert, Gael Greene ISBN 0-06-091396-7 Food of Morocco: Authentic Recipes from the North African Coast, by: Fatema Hal ISBN 962-593-992-X Cuisine des palais d'orient, by: Alain Mordelet ISBN 2-87678-868-3

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Loglan

Loglan is a constructed language originally designed for linguistic research, particularly for investigating the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The language was developed beginning in 1955 by Dr. James Cooke Brown with the goal of making a language so different from natural languages that people learning it would think in a different way if the hypothesis were true. Loglan is the first among, and the main inspiration for, the languages known as logical languages, which also includes Lojban and Ceqli. Dr. Brown founded The Loglan Institute to develop the language and other applications of it. He always considered the language an incomplete research project, and although he released many papers about its design, he continued to claim legal restrictions on its use. Because of this, a group of his followers later formed The Logical Language Group to create the language Lojban along the same principles, but with the intention to make it freely available and encourage its use as a real language. Supporters of Lojban use the term Loglan as a generic term to refer to both their own language, and that of The Loglan Institute. They refer to the latter language as TLI Loglan when in need of disambiguation. Although the non-trademarkability of the term Loglan was eventually upheld by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, many supporters and members of The Loglan Institute find this usage offensive, and reserve Loglan for the TLI version of the language. Grammar Brown intended Loglan to be as culturally neutral as possible, and metaphysically parsimonious, which means that obligatory categories are kept to a minimum. An example of an obligatory category in English is the time-tense of verbs, as it is impossible to express a finite verb without also expressing a tense. Also, Brown intended the language to be totally regular and unambiguous. In particular, phonemes that could be confused with each other were to be avoided. The language’s grammar is based on predicate logic, which is why it was named Loglan, an abbreviation for "logical language". This has been thought to make it suitable for human-computer communication, which led Robert A. Heinlein to mention the language in his science fiction novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, and as a fully fledged computer language in The Number of the Beast. Loglan has no distinction between nouns and verbs. The predicate words can serve as verbs, nouns, adjectives or adverbs depending on where they occur in a sentence. Each predicate has its argument structure with places for arguments, which may be variables. For example: vedma, "X sells Y to P for price Q". Prefixes allow one to reorder the argument structure of predicates, to emphasize one of the variables by putting it first. For example, to make price the first variable, use ju vedma (with the "little word" ju). Similarly, the sentence can be reordered to speak about seller, ware, or buyer. Modifications for time, location, actor, type of action, and others are provided by "little words" which are optional. Predicates can be compounded: a predicate can act as an argument of another predicate, when the former is prefixed by a "little word". The language is designed so that the patterns of phonemes always parse into words uniquely. Even when run together, the words can be separated in only one way. In Loglan, one can directly and precisely say any of the different meanings of the English phrase "a pretty little girls’ school." This feature is so pronounced that people fluent in Loglan say impossible things as a sort of joke—a type of humor not supported by the linguistic machinery of other languages. For example, in Loglan it is possible to say that John, a person, is literally a short word. Loglan has a wide range of words used for expressing emotions and attitudes about what one is saying, but unlike natural languages, these are kept clearly distinct from the actual statements being made. This may be surprising to people who assume that a language based on logic would be computer-like, and devoid of human emotion. In popular culture Loglan was mentioned in a couple of science fiction works: Robert A. Heinlein’s well-known books The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress and The Number of the Beast, and Robert Rimmer’s utopian book Love Me Tomorrow. Loglan’s inventor, James Cooke Brown, also wrote a utopian science fiction novel The Troika Incident that uses Loglan phrases but calls the language a different name, "Panlan". Loglan is used as the official interspecies language in the roleplaying game FTL:2448. See also Artificial language Linguistics Lojban Philosophy of language Sapir–Whorf hypothesis External links and references James Cooke Brown, "Loglan" in Scientific American, June 1960. Loglan Institute homepage Loglan in Russia be-x-old:Лаглан

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Albertus_Magnus

Saint Albertus Magnus, O.P. (1193/1206 - November 15, 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican friar and bishop who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. He was the first among medieval scholars to apply Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought. The Roman Catholic Church honors him as a Doctor of the Church, one of only 33 persons with that honor. Biography He was born sometime between 1193 and 1206, to the Count of Bollstädt in Lauingen in Bavaria. Contemporaries such as Roger Bacon applied the term "Magnus" to Albertus during his own lifetime, referring to his immense reputation as a scholar and philosopher. Albertus was educated principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1221) he became a member of the Dominican Order, against the wishes of his family, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg and Hildesheim. In 1245 he went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time as a master of theology with great success. During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus. Bust of Albertus Magnus by Vincenzo Onofri, c. 1493 In 1254 Albertus was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on St John, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Arabian philosopher Averroes. In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him Bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse--in accord with the dictates of the Dominican order--instead walking back and forth across his huge diocese. This earned him the affectionate sobriquet, "boots the bishop," from his parishioners. After his stint as bishop, he spent the remainder of his life partly in retirement in the various houses of his order, yet often preaching throughout southern Germany. In 1270 he preached the eighth Crusade in Austria. Among the last of his labours was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albertus. After suffering a collapse of health in 1278, he died on November 15, 1280, in Cologne, Germany. His tomb is in the crypt of the Dominican church of St. Andreas in Cologne, and his relics at the Cologne Cathedral. Albertus is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his Divine Comedy, Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun. Albertus is also mentioned, along with Agrippa and Paracelsus, in Mary Shelly's Frankenstein, where his writings serve as an influence to a young Victor Frankenstein. Albertus was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1931 by Pope Pius XI. St Albert's feast day is celebrated on November 15. Writings Painting by Joos (Justus) van Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 Albertus' writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, chemistry, zoology, physiology, phrenology and others; all of which were the result of logic and observation. He was perhaps the most well-read author of his time. He digested, interpreted and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albertus. Albertus' activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former. Albertus as a scientist Albertus Magnus monument in Cologne Albertus's knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, his protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition. His scholarly legacy justifies his contemporaries' bestowing upon him the honourable surname Doctor Universalis. It must, however, be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he regarded Plato and Speusippus as Stoics. In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albertus as an alchemist and magician. On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, he wrote treatises on Alchemy; Metals and Materials; the Secrets of Chemistry; the Origin of Metals; the Origins of Compounds, and a Concordance which is a collection of Observations on the philosopher's stone; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of Theatrum Chemicum. Walsh, John, The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries. 1907:46.Available online. He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic . He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work De mineralibus. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments. Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the Secreta Alberti or the Experimenta Alberti, were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors in order to increase the prestige of the text through association. According to legend, Albertus Magnus is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Magnus does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation." Julian Franklyn and Frederick E. Budd. A Survey of the Occult. Electric Book Company. 2001. p. 28-30. ISBN 1843270870. Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albertus Magnus' death, this legend as stated is unlikely. However, it is true that Albertus was deeply interested in astrology, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli. Paola Zambelli, "The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma" Dordrecht. While today we would view this as evidence of superstition, in the high Middle Ages--and well into the early modern period--few intellectuals, if any, questioned the basic assumptions of astrology: humans live within a web of celestial influences that affect our bodies, and thereby motivate us to behave in certain ways. Within this worldview, it was logical to believe that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albertus made this a central component of his philosophical system, arguing that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts. The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work he authored around 1260, now known as the Speculum astronomiae. However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early Summa de bono to his last work, the Summa theologiae. Music Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics. He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He also wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music. Cultural references Iconography inspired by writings of Albertus Magnus The iconography of the tympanum and archivolts of the late-13th century portal of Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by the writings of Albertus Magnus. France: A Phaidon Cultural Guide, Phaidon Press, 1985, ISBN 0-7148-2353-8, p. 705 Albertus is recorded as having made a mechanical automaton in the form of a brass head that would answer questions put to it. Such a feat was also attributed to Roger Bacon. Ephraim Chambers. Cyclopaedia (1728). Androides. In The Concept of Anxiety Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert Magnus, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites G. O. Marbach who he quotes as saying "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus" [Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass]. The Concept of Anxiety, Princeton University Press, 1980, ISBN 0-691-02011-6, pp. 150-151 The typeface Albertus is named in his memory. In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Albertus Magnus is referred to as one of Victor Frankenstein's chosen readings. He is also referred to in Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Birth-mark and Herman Melville's The Bell Tower. In 1968, he was cited by William F. Buckley as one of several historical figures whose best qualities would be emulated by the ideal President. In Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels, the character of Alberto Mallich (founder of the Unseen University and later Death's manservant Albert) is a sly nod to Albertus Magnus in his more legendary and esoteric guise. Quotes "Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena." Influence and tribute A number of schools are named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School, in Bardonia, New York, the Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium in Regensburg, and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut. The main science building at Providence College is named in honor of Albertus Magnus See also History of science in the Middle Ages Christian mystics Albertus Magnus College Brazen Head The Incorruptibles, a list of Catholic saints and beati whose bodies are reported to be incorrupt. References Further reading Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-140-51312-4. External links Albertus Magnus on Astrology & Magic "Albertus Magnus & Prognostication by the Stars" Albertus Magnus: "Secrets of the Virtues of Herbs, Stones and Certain Beasts" London, 1604, full online version.

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Carl_von_Clausewitz

Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz (; July 1, 1780 Christopher Bassford. (2002). Clausewitz and his Works. Clausewitz.com. Accessed 2007-06-30. – November 16, 1831) was a Prussian soldier, military historian and military theorist. He is most famous for his military treatise Vom Kriege, translated into English as On War. Life and times Clausewitz, considered an author of contemporary military strategy, was born in Burg bei Magdeburg, Kingdom of Prussia, to a poor but middle-class family. His grandfather, the son of a Lutheran Pastor, had been a professor of theology. Clausewitz's father was once a lieutenant in the Prussian army and held a minor post in the Prussian internal revenue service. Carl was the fourth and youngest son. He entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve years as a Lance-Corporal, eventually attaining the rank of Major-General. Clausewitz served in the Rhine Campaigns (1793–1794) e.g. the Siege of Mainz, when the Prussian army invaded France during the French Revolution, and later served in the Napoleonic Wars from 1806 to 1815. Clausewitz entered the Kriegsakademie in Berlin (also cited variously as "The German War School," the "Military Academy in Berlin," and the "Prussian Military Academy") in 1801 (age 21 years), studied the writings of the philosopher Immanuel Kant, and won the regard of General Gerhard von Scharnhorst, the future first chief of staff of the new Prussian Army (appointed 1809). Clausewitz, along with Hermann von Boyen (1771–1848) and Karl von Grolman (1777–1843), were Scharnhorst's primary allies in his efforts to reform the Prussian army, between 1807 and 1814. Both Clausewitz and Hermann von Boyen served during the Jena Campaign. Clausewitz, serving as Aide-de-Camp to Prince August, was captured in October 1806 when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed Prussian-Saxon army commanded by Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick (who was mortally wounded), in twin battles at Jena and Auerstedt (see Battle of Jena-Auerstedt) on October 14, 1806. Carl von Clausewitz, at the age of twenty-six years, became one of the 25,000 prisoners captured that day as the Prussian army disintegrated. Clausewitz was held prisoner in France from 1807 to 1808. Returning to Prussia, he assisted in the reform of the Prussian army and state. He also married the socially prominent Countess Marie von Brühl and socialized with Berlin's literary and intellectual elites. Opposed to Prussia's enforced alliance to Napoleon, he left the Prussian army and subsequently served in the Russian army from 1812 to 1813 during the Russian Campaign. Like many Prussian officers living in Russia, he joined the Russo-German Legion in 1813. In the service of the Russian Empire, Clausewitz helped negotiate the Convention of Tauroggen (1812), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom that ultimately defeated Napoleon I of France and his allies. In 1815, the Russo-German Legion was integrated into the Prussian Army and Clausewitz thus re-entered Prussian service. He was soon appointed chief of staff to Johann von Thielmann's III Corps. In that capacity, he served at the Battle of Ligny and the Battle of Wavre during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. The Prussians were defeated at Ligny (south of Mont-Saint-Jean and the village of Waterloo) by an army led personally by Napoleon, but Napoleon's failure to actually destroy the Prussian forces led to his eventual defeat a few days later at the Battle of Waterloo when the Prussian forces arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon and joined the Anglo-Dutch forces pressing Napoleon's front. At Wavre, Thielmann's corps, greatly outnumbered, prevented Marshall Grouchy from reinforcing Napoleon with his corps. Clausewitz was promoted to Major-General in 1818 and appointed director of the Kriegsakademie, where he served until 1830. In the latter year, the outbreak of several revolutions around Europe and a crisis in Poland appeared to presage another major European war. Clausewitz was appointed chief-of-staff to the only army Prussia was able to mobilize, which was sent to the Polish border. He subsequently died in a cholera outbreak in 1831. His magnum opus on the philosophy of war was written during this period, and was published posthumously by his widow in 1832. Although Carl von Clausewitz participated in many military campaigns, he was primarily a military theorist interested in the examination of war. He wrote a careful, systematic, philosophical examination of war in all its aspects, as he saw it and taught it. The result was his principal work, On War, the West's premier work on the philosophy of war. His examination was so carefully considered that it was only partially completed by the time of his death. Other soldiers before this time had written treatises on various military subjects, but none undertook a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of Clausewitz's and Tolstoy's, both of which were inspired by the events of the Napoleonic Era. Clausewitz's work is still studied today, demonstrating its continued relevance. Lynn Montross writing on that topic in War Through the Ages said; "This outcome...may be explained by the fact that Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy. The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons." Clausewitz introduced systematic philosophical contemplation into Western military thinking, with powerful implications not only for historical and analytical writing but for practical policy, military instruction, and operational planning. Principal ideas A young Carl von Clausewitz. Vom Kriege (On War) is a long and intricate investigation of Clausewitz's observations based on his own experience in the Wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and on considerable historical research into those wars and others. It is shaped not only by purely military and political considerations but by Clausewitz's strong interests in art, science, and education. Some of the key ideas discussed in On War include: the dialectical approach to military analysis the methods of "critical analysis" the nature of the balance-of-power mechanism the relationship between political objectives and military objectives in war the asymmetrical relationship between attack and defense the nature of "military genius" (involving matters of personality and character, beyond intellect) the "fascinating trinity" (wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit) of war philosophical distinctions between "absolute" or "ideal war," and "real war" in "real war," the distinctive poles of a) limited war and b) war to "render the enemy helpless" "war" belongs fundamentally to the social realm—rather than to the realms of art or science "strategy" belongs primarily to the realm of art "tactics" belongs primarily to the realm of science the importance of "moral forces" (more than simply "morale") as opposed to quantifiable physical elements the "military virtues" of professional armies (which do not necessarily trump the rather different virtues of other kinds of fighting forces) conversely, the very real effects of a superiority in numbers and "mass" the essential unpredictability of war the "fog" of war "friction" strategic and operational "centers of gravity" the "culminating point of the offensive" the "culminating point of victory" Clausewitz used a dialectical method to construct his argument, leading to frequent modern misinterpretation. As described by Christopher Bassford, professor of strategy at the National War College of the United States: One of the main sources of confusion about Clausewitz's approach lies in his dialectical method of presentation. For example, Clausewitz's famous line that "War is merely a continuation of politics," ("Der Krieg ist eine bloße Fortsetzung der Politik mit anderen Mitteln") while accurate as far as it goes, was not intended as a statement of fact. It is the antithesis in a dialectical argument whose thesis is the point—made earlier in the analysis—that "war is nothing but a duel [or wrestling match, a better translation of the German Zweikampf] on a larger scale." His synthesis, which resolves the deficiencies of these two bold statements, says that war is neither "nothing but" an act of brute force nor "merely" a rational act of politics or policy. This synthesis lies in his "fascinating trinity" [wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit]: a dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation. Another example of this confusion is the idea that Clausewitz was a proponent of total war as used in the Third Reich's propaganda in the 1940s. He did not coin the phrase as an ideological ideal—indeed, Clausewitz does not use the term "total war" at all. Rather, he discussed "absolute war" or "ideal war" as the purely logical result of the forces underlying a "pure," Platonic "ideal" of war. In what Clausewitz called a "logical fantasy," war cannot be waged in a limited way: the rules of competition will force participants to use all means at their disposal to achieve victory. But in the real world, such rigid logic is unrealistic and dangerous. As a practical matter, the military objectives in real war that support one's political objectives generally fall into two broad types: "war to achieve limited aims" and war to "disarm” the enemy—i.e., “to render [him] politically helpless or militarily impotent." Thus the complete defeat of one's enemies may be neither necessary, desirable, nor even possible. In modern times the reconstruction and hermeneutics of Clausewitzian theory has been a matter of some dispute. One prominent analysis was that of Panagiotis Kondylis, a Greek-German writer and philosopher who opposed the popular views on Clausewitz of Raymond Aron (in Penser la Guerre, Clausewitz) and other liberal writers. One of his most famous works on the subject was titled Theory of War and first published in German, later translated into Greek by Kondylis himself. In this very influential book, Kondylis opposes Raymond Aron's liberal perception of Clausewitzian theory. According to Aron, in Penser La Guerre, Clausewitz, Clausewitz was one of the very first writers condemning the militarism of the military staff and its war-proneness (based on Clausewitz's argument that "war is a continuation of politics by other means"). Kondylis claims that this is a reconstruction not coherent with Clausewitzian thought. He claims that Clausewitz was morally indifferent to war and that his advice regarding politics' dominance over the conduct of war has nothing to do with pacifistic ideas—but then, very few writers have accused Clausewitz of pacifism. For Clausewitz, war is just a means to the eternal quest for power, of raison d'État in an anarchic and unsafe world. Other famous writers who have studied Clausewitz's texts and translated them into English are the war specialists Peter Paret (Princeton University) and Sir Michael Howard, and the philosopher, musician, and game theorist Anatol Rapoport. Sir Michael edited the widely used Penguin edition of On War and has produced comparative studies of Clausewitz and other theorists, such as Tolstoi. Bernard Brodie's A Guide to the Reading of "On War", in the 1976 Princeton translation, expressed his own interpretations of the Prussian's theories and provided students with an influential synopsis of this vital work. Influence Despite his death just prior to completing On War, Clausewitz' ideas have been widely influential in military theory. Later Prussian and German generals such as Helmuth Graf von Moltke were clearly influenced by Clausewitz: Moltke's famous statement that "No campaign plan survives first contact with the enemy" is a classic reflection of Clausewitz's insistence on the roles of chance, friction, "fog," and uncertainty in war. The idea that actual war includes "friction" which deranges, to a greater or lesser degree, all prior arrangements, has become common currency in other fields as well (e.g., business strategy, sports). Some claim that nuclear proliferation makes Clausewitzian concepts obsolescent after a period—i.e., the 20th century—in which they dominated the world. John E. Sheppard, Jr., argues that, by developing nuclear weapons, state-based conventional armies simultaneously both perfected their original purpose (to destroy a mirror image of themselves) and made themselves obsolete. No two nuclear powers have ever used their nuclear weapons against each other, instead using conventional means or proxy wars to settle disputes. If, hypothetically, such a conflict did in fact occur, presumably both combatants would be effectively annihilated. Therefore, the beginning of the 21st century has found many instances of state armies attempting to suppress terrorism, bloody feuds, raids and other intra/supra-state conflict while using conventional weaponry. Others, however, argue that the essentials of Clausewitz's theoretical approach remain valid, but that our thinking must adjust to changed realities. Knowing that "war is an expression of politics" does us no good unless we have a valid definition of "politics" and an understanding of how it is reflected in a specific situation. The latter may well turn on religious passions, private interests and armies, etc. While many commentators are quick to dismiss Clausewitz's political context as obsolete, it seems worthwhile to note that the states of the twentieth century were very different from Clausewitz's Prussia, and yet the World Wars are generally seen as "Clausewitzian warfare"; similarly, North and South Vietnam, and the United States as well, were quite unlike 18th century European states, yet it was the war in Indochina that brought the importance of Clausewitzian theory forcefully home to American thinkers. The idea that states cannot suppress rebellions or terrorism in a nuclear-armed world does not bear up well in the light of experience: Just as some rebellions and revolutions succeeded and some failed before 1945, some rebellions and revolutions have succeeded and some have failed in the years since. Insurgencies were successfully suppressed in the Philippines, Yemen, and Malaysia—just a few of many examples. Successful revolutions may destroy some states, but the revolutionaries simply establish new and stronger states—e.g., China, Vietnam, Iran—which seem to be quite capable of handling threats of renewed insurgency. The real problem in determining Clausewitz's continuing relevance lies not with his own theoretical approach, which has stood up well over nearly two centuries of intense military and political change. Rather, the problem lies in the way that thinkers with more immediate concerns have adapted Clausewitzian theory to their own narrowly defined eras. When times change, people familiar only with Clausewitz's most recent interpreters, rather than with the original works, assume that the passing of cavalry, or Communism, or the USSR's Strategic Rocket Forces, means that Clausewitz is passé. Yet we always seem to be comfortable describing the age of warfare just past as "Clausewitzian"—even though Clausewitz never saw a machinegun, a tank, a Viet Cong, or a nuclear weapon. The phrase fog of war derives from Clausewitz's stress on how confused warfare can seem while one is immersed within it. The term center of gravity, used in a specifically military context, derives from Clausewitz's usage (which he took from Newtonian Mechanics). In the simplified and often confused form in which it appears in official US military doctrine, "Center of Gravity" refers to the basis of an opponent's power (at either the operational, strategic, or political level). Name Clausewitz's Christian name is sometimes given in non-German sources as Carl Philipp Gottlieb, Carl Maria, or misspelled Karl due to reliance on mistaken source material, conflations with his wife's name, Marie, or mistaken assumptions about German orthography. Carl Philipp Gottfried appears on Clausewitz's tombstone and is thus most likely to be the correct version. The tombstone reads: Hier ruht in Gott Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz koenigl. General-Major u. Inspecteur der Artillerie geboren 1 Juni 1780 gestorben 16 Nov 1831 Which translates as: Here rests with God Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz In the royal service, Major General and Inspector of the Artillery Born June 1, 1780 Died November 16, 1831 There is no single "correct" spelling for German names before the early 19th century. Vital records were kept by pastors in their parish records. Different pastors used different spellings and commonly ignored how their predecessor may have spelled the same name. The name of the same individual can be found spelt differently in the same parish record, for example, if a pastor registered his birth and a different one his marriage and/or his death. It appears that pastors recorded names as they heard them and spelled them as they believed they should be spelled. Pastors treated persons of importance or high status such as nobility or civil or military officials more deferentially. For the names of such persons it can make sense to distinguish between such spellings as "Carl" or "Karl" even then. The situation changed radically in the Napoleonic era when French civil servants introduced greater discipline in keeping vital records in German lands. Spellings of family and given names were "frozen" in whatever state they happened to be in then. It was, however, not unusual for brothers who made their homes in different parishes to have their family names spelled differently. Such variations endure to this day and confound amateur genealogists who are not familiar with the fluidity of German spellings before the Napoleonic reforms. While spellings of names were fluid when Clausewitz was born, they had become firm by the time of his death. That is why it makes sense to accept the spelling of his name as recorded on his tombstone which, presumably, agrees with the vital records of his death. Cultural references In the film Crimson Tide, the naval officers of the nuclear submarine have a discussion about the meaning of the quote "War is a continuation of politics by other means." The executive officer (played by Denzel Washington) contends that the captain (played by Gene Hackman) has taken a too simplistic reading of Clausewitz, perhaps ignoring the dialectic style, as described in the main article. In That Hideous Strength, by C. S. Lewis, Lord Feverstone (Dick Devine) defends rudely cutting off another professor by saying "[...] but then I take the Clauswitz view. Total war is the most humane in the long run." In Ian Fleming's novel Moonraker, James Bond reflects that he has achieved Clausewitz's first principle in securing his base, though this base is a relationship for intelligence purposes and not a military installation. In Lawrence of Arabia (1962), General Allenby (Jack Hawkins) contends to T. E. Lawrence (Peter O'Toole) that "I fight like Clausewitz, you fight like Saxe." To which Lawrence replies, "We should do very well indeed, shouldn't we?" In Sam Peckinpah's Cross of Iron (1977), Feldwebel Steiner (James Coburn) has an ironic conversation in the trenches between hostilities with the advancing Red Army with his comrade, Cpl. Schnurrbart, in which they refer to German philosophers and their views on war. Cpl. Schnurrbart: " ...and von Clausewitz said, 'war is a continuation of state policy by other means.'" "Yes," Steiner says, overlooking the trenches, " ...by other means." In the Horatio Hornblower novel, The Commodore by C. S. Forester, the protagonist meets von Clausewitz during the events surrounding the defence of Riga. In the film Lions for Lambs, during a military briefing in Afghanistan Lt. Col. Falco (played by Peter Berg) says (paraphrasing): "Remember your von Clausewitz: 'Never engage the same enemy for too long or he will ...'", "adapt to your tactics" - completes another soldier. Bob Dylan mentions Clausewitz on pages 41 and 45 of his Chronicles: Volume 1, saying he had "a morbid fascination with this stuff," that "Clausewitz in some ways is a prophet" and reading Clausewitz can make you "take your own thoughts a little less seriously." Dylan says that Vom Kriege was one of the books he looked through among those he found in his friend's personal library as a young man playing at the Gaslight club in Greenwich Village. See also Principles of War Famous military writers Christopher Bassford Michael Howard (historian) John Keegan Sun Tzu Robert Greene Antoine-Henri Jomini Total war Absolute war Philosophy of war Notes References Bassford, Christopher. Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America, 1815-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Full text on-line here. Clausewitz, Carl von. Col. J. J. Graham, translator. Vom Kriege. On War — Volume 1, Project Gutenberg eBook. Gerhard Muhm : German Tactics in the Italian Campaign , http://www.larchivio.org/xoom/gerhardmuhm2.htm Gerhard Muhm, La tattica tedesca nella campagna d'Italia, in Linea gotica avamposto dei Balcani, a cura di Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993 Paret, Peter. Clausewitz and the State: The Man, His Theories, and His Times. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976. Rogers, Clifford J. "Clausewitz, Genius, and the Rules", The Journal of Military History, Vol. 66, No. 4. (2002), pp. 1167–1176. Rothfels, Hans “Clausewitz” pages 93–113 from The Makers of Modern Strategy edited by Edward Mead Earle, Gordon A. Craig & Felix Gilbert, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1943. Edward J. Villacres and Christopher Bassford, “Reclaiming the Clausewitzian Trinity,” Parameters, Autumn 95, pp. 9–19, http://www.clausewitz.com/readings/Bassford/Trinity/TRININTR.htm John Keegan, A History of Warfare (London: Hutchinson, 1993) External links Clausewitz homepage, large amounts of information. The Influence of Clausewitz on Jomini's Le Précis de l'Art de la Guerre Two Letters On Strategy, addressed to the Prussian general-staff officer, Major von Roeder, respectively of 22 and 24 December 1827.

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Manama

Manama (Arabic: المنامة, transliteration: al-Manāma) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain with an approximate population of 155,000 people. Manama has emerged as the capital of independent Bahrain after periods of domination by Portugal and Persians earlier in its history. Today, it is a modern capital with an economy based around the sales promotion industry as crude oil takes a less pronounced role in the economy. (See Economy of Bahrain). Because of its thriving economy, a Danish firm has proposed a skyscraper that would be over tall, called the Murjan Tower. Currently only a concept, if built it would be the world's tallest man-made structure, even surpassing the supertall Burj Dubai skyscraper, although it would be shorter than the Nakheel Tower in Dubai if both are built. __TOC__ History Manama was mentioned in Islamic chronicles at least as far back as 1345. It was conquered by Portugal in 1521 and then by the Persians in 1602 Encyclopædia Britannica - Manama (retrieved 25 November 2006) . Since [1783] it has been under the control of the Al-Khalifa dynasty. Manama was declared a free port in 1958, and in 1971 it became the capital of independent Bahrain Encyclopaedia of the Orient - Manama (retrieved 25 November 2006) . Manama seen from a SPOT satellite. The north of Bahrain’s main island which is dominated by Manama today has seen human activity for roughly 5,000 years, as is indicated from the remains around Bahrain Fort. The Dilmun Civilisation made this area their capital, burying their dead farther south at the tombs of A'ali. The islanders were soon, however, disturbed by a series of invaders that arrived here by sea, beginning with the Assyrians during the BC period and ending with the Arabs. During these many centuries Dilmun, as it was at first known before its name was changed many times by each new invading power, was a trading post whose importance fluctuated depending on which empire dominated. Manama and its inhabitants first discovered Islam during the 7th century and by the 9th century began to lean to a more conservative almost socialist belief system that caused considerable friction with the surrounding Muslim lands. The Qarmartians, as this group was known, ransacked Mecca in 930 during the sacred Hajj, killing hundreds before escaping with the much revered Black Stone. A feud with the Baghdad-based Abbasids less than 50 years later saw the Qarmartians run out of town. The next major foreign intervention in Bahrain came at the beginning of the 1500s when the Portuguese naval fleets arrived, quickly crushing the small local population in Manama and the surrounding areas. Bahrain Fort was built during this era, probably to keep out the Persians who nevertheless managed a series of invasions as the whole island swapped hands between the Portuguese, Persians and Oman for the proceeding two centuries. Once the Persians eventually triumphed, it wasn’t long before the Al Khalifa family appeared from nowhere, or at least from nearby Qatar, to take control of the whole of the island at the end of the 18th century. The new rulers, whose dynasty continues to this day, sought protection against the Persians from the now dominant, empire-building British as Manama entered a period of colonialism that increased over time, not least when oil was discovered south in the centre of the island and first extracted in 1931. After World War II, Bahrain moved slowly towards independence and eventually in 1971 the British pulled out leaving Manama in charge of its own affairs. This was the beginning of a period that has seen it grow and flourish mainly thanks to considerable wealth accumulated through oil production and processing. Climate A scenic view of the Manama skyline on clear night, with the Bahrain WTC visible on the right. In common with the rest of Bahrain, Manama experiences extreme climatic conditions, with summer temperatures up to , and winter as low as with even hail at rare occasions. Average temperatures of the summer and winter seasons are generally from to about . The most pleasant time in Bahrain is autumn when sunshine is low, along with warm temperatures tempered by soft breezes. Geography The city is located in the far north-eastern corner of Bahrain on a small peninsula, due to this fact the city obtains a pleasant and a reasonable waterfront. As in the rest of Bahrain, the land is generally flat (or gently rolling) and arid. Manama is served by Bahrain International Airport on the nearby island of Al Muharraq, to which it is connected via a causeway. Law and government Manama is part of the Capital Governorate, one of five Governorates of Bahrain. Until 2002 it was part of the municipality of Al-Manamah. Councils exist within the governorates; eight constituencies are voted upon within Capital Governorate in 2006 Bahrain News Agency - ELECTION 2006 (retrieved 2 December 2006) . Economy Manama is the focal point of the Bahraini economy. While oil has decreased in importance in recent years due to depleting reserves, petroleum is still the mainstay of the economy, while heavy industry (e.g. aluminum smelting, ship repair), banking and finance, and tourism are increasing in importance. Several multinationals have facilities and offices in and around Manama CIA World Factbook - Bahrain (retrieved 2 December 2006) . The economic base for Manama itself is financial services, with over two hundred financial institutions and banks based in the CBD and the Diplomatic Area. There is also a large retail sector in the shopping malls around Seef, while the center of Manama is dominated by small workshops and traders. Transport Road network Manama is the main hub of the country's road network. At the moment the city's road network is under a huge wave of development, as the Ministry of Works is taking all the pressure to improve the road network in Manama, due to the fact that it is the capital and the main city in the country, where most of the government and the commercial offices and facilities are established, along with the entertainment centers. The Ministry of Works has set several plans and projects to ameliorate the situation of traffic in the city; it is concluded with some potential points. Roundabouts considered as one of the busiest spots in Manama, for that it was necessary to remove most of the roundabouts in the city and replace them with traffic signalised junctions. In additions, some of the junctions on the main routes around the city are being replaced and improved to interchanges, tunnels, flyover bridges and exits. Besides the traffic-jams, the vehicle population is increasing rapidly, which makes it difficult for the authorities to cope with the traffic problem. The outline of the present road network was traced in the early 1930s, soon after the discovery of oil. The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads. There were of roadways in 2002, of which were paved. A causeway stretching over , connect Manama with Muharraq Island, and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island. A four-lane highway atop a causeway, linking Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an-Nasan was completed in December 1986, and financed by Saudi Arabia. In 2000, there were 172,684 passenger vehicles and 41,820 commercial vehicles. Bahrain's port of Mina Sulman can accommodate 16 oceangoing vessels drawing up to . In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 270,784 GRT. Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city. Buses Manama has a comprehensive bus service which is far more economical than other modes of transport. A minimum fare of 150-200 fils allows you to travel by bus. There are bus routes to other towns such as Muharraq and Isa Town. Air traffic Bahrain International Airport is located on Muharraq Island, approximately from the CBD. It is a premier hub airport in the Middle East. Strategically located in the Northern Persian Gulf between the major markets of Saudi Arabia and Iran, the airport has one of the widest range and highest frequency of regional services with ideal connections to major international destinations in Europe, Asia and Africa. Education Manama has a wide range of universities, colleges and schools. The following are some of the most popular: Colleges & Universities Ahlia University AMA International University, Bahrain Applied Science University Arab Open University Arabian Gulf University Bahrain Institute of Banking and Finance (BIBF) College of Health Sciences Delmon University The Kingdom University New York Institute of Technology Culture Bahrain is not fully Islamic and Arabic, the country attracts a large number of foreigners and foreign influences, with just under ⅓ of the population hailing from abroad - Trip Advisor - Manama Culture (retrieved 2 December 2006) . Alcohol is legal in the country, with bars and nightclubs operating in the city. This is in contrast neighbouring Saudi Arabia, which bans alcohol under all circumstances. This is seen as a sign by most people that while both Manama and Bahrain are strongly Islamic, they are open-minded and tolerant with others and other cultures. Soccer is a popular sport, with three teams from Manama participating in the Bahraini Premier League. Manama photo gallery See also Bahrain Islands of Bahrain List of tallest buildings and structures in Bahrain Notes and references External links Manama, Government Homepage be-x-old:Манама

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Answer

Generally, an answer is a reply to a question or is a solution, a retaliation, or a response. In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. Answer - LoveToKnow 1911 In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an optional "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment. The answer establishes which allegations (cause of action in civil matters) set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and states all the defendant's defenses, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment. The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. Answer - LoveToKnow 1911 In music an "answer" (also known as countersubject) is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition or modification by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another. References See also echo answer response

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Blue_law

A blue law is a type of law, typically found in the United States, designed to enforce religious standards, particularly the observance of Sunday as a day of worship or rest, and a restriction on Sunday shopping. Most have been repealed, have been declared unconstitutional, or are simply unenforced, although prohibitions on the sale of alcoholic beverages, and occasionally almost all commerce, on Sundays are still enforced in many areas. Blue laws often prohibit an activity only during certain hours and there are usually exceptions to the prohibition of commerce, like grocery and drug stores. In some places blue laws may be enforced due to religious principles, but others are retained as a matter of tradition or out of convenience. Answers.com: Encyclopedia Britannica, Columbia Encyclopedia and The Reader's Companion to American History, accessed August 13, 2006 Laws of this type are also found in non-Christian cultures such as Israel, where the day concerned is Saturday rather than Sunday, and Saudi Arabia, where the month of Ramadan is involved http://ukinsaudiarabia.fco.gov.uk/en/help-for-british-nationals/living-in-saudi-arabia/ . In the Cook Islands, blue laws were first written legislation, enacted by the London Missionary Society in 1827, with the consent of ariki (chiefs). In Tonga, the Vava'u Code (1839) was inspired by Methodist missionary teachings, and was a form of blue law. In Niue, certain activities remain forbidden on Sunday, reflecting the country's strong Christian heritage. History The first usage of the word blue law may have been by the Reverend Samuel Peters (1735–1826) in his 1781 book General History of Connecticut. He used it to describe various laws first enacted by Puritan colonies in the 17th century, prohibiting certain business activities on specific days of the week (usually Sunday). Sometimes the sale of certain types of merchandise was prohibited, and in some cases all retail and business activity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence to support the assertion that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word blue was commonly used in the 18th century as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them (e.g., "bluenoses", blue movies). Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term blue law was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable, and it is more likely that he simply invented the term himself. Snopes.com: American "blue laws" were so named because they were originally printed on blue paper., accessed July 12, 2006 In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of false etymology. Another version is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers. (See related article: Blue Laws) Southern and mid-western states also passed numerous laws to protect the Sabbath during the mid to late nineteenth century. Laws targeted numerous groups including saloon owners, Jews, Seventh-day Adventists, and non-religious peoples. These Sunday laws enacted at the state and local levels would sometimes carry penalties for doing non-religious activities on Sunday as part of an effort to enforce religious observance and church attendance. Numerous people were arrested for playing cards, baseball, and even fixing wagon wheels on Sunday. Some of these laws still exist today. Many European countries still place strong restrictions on store opening hours on Sundays, an example being Germany's Ladenschlussgesetz. In Henry Taber's Faith or Fact, he writes: In Texas, for example, blue laws prohibited selling housewares such as pots, pans, and washing machines on Sunday until 1985. In Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, car dealerships continue to operate under blue-law prohibitions in which an automobile may not be purchased or traded on a Sunday. Maryland permits Sunday automobile sales only in the counties of Prince George's, Montgomery, and Howard. Texas and Utah prohibit car dealerships from operating over consecutive weekend days. In some cases these laws were created or retained with the support of those whom they affected, to allow them a day off each week without fear of their competitors still being open. Good Question: Why Can't We Buy Alcohol On Sunday?, WCCO-TV, November 20, 2006 Many states still prohibit selling alcohol on Sunday, or at least before noon on Sunday, under the rationale that people should be in church on Sunday morning, or at least not drinking. At least one unusual feature of American culture—the ability to buy groceries, office supplies, and housewares from a drug store—can be traced to blue laws (under blue laws, drug stores are generally allowed to remain open on Sunday to accommodate emergency medical needs). Blue laws may also prohibit retail activity on days other than Sunday. In Massachusetts and Connecticut, for example, blue laws dating to the Puritans of the 17th century still prohibit most retail stores, including grocery stores, from opening on Thanksgiving and Christmas. "A turkey of a blue law", Boston Globe, accessed November 25, 2006. Seventh-day Adventist Church The Seventh-day Adventist Church has always taken a stance against blue laws. Church members observe the Sabbath on Saturday as stated in one of the Ten Commandments of the Bible, thus conflicting with Sunday laws. In the early days of the church in the mid 1800s, many Adventists in America were imprisoned for a short time for working in their fields on Sunday. Seventh-day Adventists believe that Sunday worship will be legislated nationwide in the United States, and eventually world wide. Historically this was introduced into Seventh-day Adventist beliefs during its conception. It was stated that the Catholic Church under the direction of the Pope will spearhead this legislation. It's believed that accepting this legislation—choosing to worship on Sunday vs. Saturday, and agreeing not to buy or sell on Sunday—is "taking the mark of the beast," the mark and the beast that is described in the book of Revelation in the Christian Bible. They believed persecution to the point of death will result from such legislation, and various Adventist-aligned ministries are known for their attempts to show the credulity of this belief today, despite statements by experts, Seventh-day Adventist leaders, and Seventh-day Adventist congressmen to the contrary. Adventist News Network 12/13/96, "Sunday Laws not an Option Now" Des Moines Register 01/05/01, "Anti-Catholic Newspaper Ad" "AllExperts.com: National Sunday Law" Some Adventists, in lieu of such statements, have opted for alternative views of the fulfillment of this prophecy. "Adventist News: Sunday Laws Not Likely" United States Arizona In the state of Arizona, alcohol sales are not permitted between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m. However, stores may not start selling alcohol until 10 a.m. on Sundays. Arkansas The sale of any "intoxicating alcoholic liquor" on Sunday is prohibited by state law. "Arkansas Code 3-3-210" However, restaurants or hotels that have appropriate alcohol licenses and are in jurisdictions that voted to allow Sunday sales are allowed to serve alcohol on Sunday for on-premises consumption. "Arkansas Code 3-9-215" The same rule applies to large attendance facilities. "Arkansas Code 3-9-216" California In the state of California, alcohol sales are not permitted between the hours of 2 a.m. and 6 a.m. Colorado The sale of alcohol was prohibited statewide in Colorado on Sundays until July 1, 2008. Car sales remain prohibited on Sundays. Connecticut Since the founding of the puritanical theological colony of New Haven in 1638, Connecticut had some of the harshest blue laws in the country. Until the 1970s, no stores were allowed to open on Sundays, save Jewish-owned businesses, which had to be closed on Saturdays. To this day, liquor sales and hunting on Sundays are illegal. Stores are not allowed to sell liquor after 9 p.m. and bars and restaurants are forbidden to sell liquor after 2 a.m. Georgia Alcohol sales are generally prohibited on Sundays, with some exceptions made at the discretion of local governments. Cities and counties of sufficiently large populations may authorize Sunday alcohol sales by the drink at festivals, large events, and "eating establishments," which are defined as licensed establishments in which most revenue is generated through sales of prepared food. O.C.G.A. § 3-3-7 Illinois Car sales are prohibited on Sundays. ILCS 5/5‑106 Horse racing is prohibited on Sundays unless authorized by the local municipality. ILCS 5/19 Indiana Off-premises alcohol sales are completely prohibited on Sundays. Restaurants and taverns generally still serve it. IC7.1-3-1-14 Additionally, alcohol sales are prohibited Christmas Day and election days until the polls close. IC7.1-5-10-1 Vehicle sales are also banned on Sundays. Massachusetts Most Off-premises alcohol sales were not permitted on Sundays until 2004. Exceptions were made in 1990 for municipalities that fell within 10 miles of the New Hampshire or Vermont border. Since 1992 cities and towns statewide were able to sell on Sundays from the Sunday prior to Thanksgiving to New Years Day. In both exceptions sales were not allowed before noon. Since the law changed in 2004, off-premises sales are now allowed anywhere in the state, with local approval, after noon. Retail alcohol sales remain barred on Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Day, and New Year's Day (or the Monday following Christmas or New Year's Day should either fall on a Sunday). Hunting on Sunday is prohibited. Massachusetts also has a "Day of Rest" statute that provides that all employees are entitled to one day off from work in seven calendar days. While this provision retains the blue-law enforcement of a religious practice (weekly rest) recast as a state-beneficial practice, it uncharacteristically neglects to specify any particular weekday. Michigan The sale of alcohol is banned from the time bars close on Saturday night (2 a.m. except Dec. 31, in which case it's 4 a.m.) until noon the following Sunday. Alcohol sale is likewise banned from 9 p.m. Dec. 24 until 7 a.m. Dec. 26. Specific localities may petition for exceptions for either on-site or off-site consumption. MCL 436.2113 Additionally, vehicle sales are banned on Sunday, with no exceptions. MCL Act 66 of 1953 Minnesota The sale of alcohol in liquor stores is prohibited state-wide on Sundays. Car dealerships are not allowed to be open for sales on Sunday Mississippi The sale of alcohol is prohibited in most of Mississippi on Sundays. Also, the sale of liquor is not allowed at all in nearly half of the state's counties. New Jersey In 1677, the General Assembly of East New Jersey banned the "singing of vain songs or tunes" on the Sabbath. One of the last remaining blue laws in the United States that covers virtually all selling is found in Bergen County, New Jersey. The borough of Paramus, New Jersey, one of the largest shopping meccas in the United States, has four major shopping malls that account for a significant proportion of the over $5 billion in annual retail sales generated in the borough, more than any other ZIP Code in the United States. Paramus 07652, GlobeSt. Retail, October 3, 2005 The borough retains blue laws that are even more restrictive than those imposed in the rest of the county, forbidding all forms of "worldly employment" on Sunday. The borough's ordinance cites the belief that "the physical, intellectual and moral good of the community requires a periodic day of rest from labor" among its reasons for the imposition of the restrictions. Borough of Paramus, NJ — Chapter 391: SUNDAY ACTIVITIES § 391-1. Findings., Paramus, New Jersey. Accessed August 10, 2007. However, repeated attempts to lift the law have failed as voters either see keeping the law on the books as a protest against the growing trend toward increasing hours and days of commercial activity in American society or enjoy the sharply reduced traffic on major roads and highways on Sunday that is normally seen the other days of the week. In fact, a large part of the reason for maintaining the laws has been a desire for relative peace and quiet one day of the week by many Bergen County residents. IN NEW JERSEY; PARAMUS BLUE LAWS CRIMP OFFICE LEASING, The New York Times, November 4, 1984. "Officials tried to regulate the effects of the tremendous growth on the borough by insisting that at least one day a week, Paramus be allowed to enjoy some of its former peace and quiet. In 1957, an ordinance was passed banning all worldly employment on Sundays, forcing all the new stores and malls built in the celery fields to close for the day." This desire for relative peace is most apparent in Paramus, where some of the county's largest shopping malls are located, along the intersecting highways of Route 4 and Route 17, which are jam-packed on many Saturdays. Paramus has enacted blue laws of its own that are even more restrictive than those enforced by Bergen County, Paramus mayor faces challenge, The Record (Bergen County), October 31, 2006. "Both candidates said they would stand strong against any weakening of the blue laws, which keep most stores closed on Sunday, and would work to keep Paramus' laws the most restrictive in the state." banning all forms of "worldly employment" on Sundays, including white collar workers in office buildings. Local Blue laws in Paramus were first proposed in 1957, while the Bergen Mall and Garden State Plaza were under construction. The legislation was motivated by fears that the two new malls would aggravate the already severe highway congestion caused by local retail businesses along the borough's highways. "SUNDAY SELLING PLAGUING JERSEY; Local Businesses Pushing Fight Against Activities of Stores on Highways — Other Group Active Local Option Opposed", The New York Times, June 2, 1957. p. 165 New York Alcohol sales are not permitted between 4 AM and 8 AM on Sundays, although the window is being pushed up to 2 AM in certain areas. Law Permits Earlier Booze Buying North Carolina The sale of alcohol Monday through Saturday is prohibited from 2am to 7am. The sale of alcohol on Sundays is prohibited from 2am to 12pm. Liquor stores (referred to as ABC stores) are closed on Sunday. North Dakota All retail stores, excluding grocery stores and drug stores, must remain closed between the hours of midnight and noon Sundays. Car dealerships can't be open on Sundays. Until 1992, all retail stores were to remain closed all day Sunday. Oregon Oregon was the first place in the U.S. to outlaw alcohol, prior to statehood, in 1844. The law was repealed in 1849. It then implemented prohibition again in 1916, prior to national prohibition. Today, liquor sales are conducted by state-licensed liquor stores; alcohol may be sold for on- or off-premises consumption from 7am to 2:30 a.m. daily. Pennsylvania The sale of alcohol on Sundays was prohibited until 2003. Since then, alcohol may be purchased at bars and restaurants. Since 2005, hours of sales of malt and brewed beverages on Sundays depends on whether beer distributors have obtained a Sunday sales permit from the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board. For beer distributors without a Sunday sales permit, sales and delivery of malt or brewed beverages can occur from noon until 5:00 p.m. Some wine and spirits stores, which are operated by the state, are selectively open on Sundays. To this day, hunting is prohibited on Sundays. Car dealerships are also prohibited from being open on Sundays. South Carolina Blue laws in South Carolina were first enacted in colonial times, with Sunday being the prescribed day for Christians and Saturday the prescribed day for Jews. While blue laws are still in place throughout the state, counties and cities have the option of repealing most of them. As of today, South Carolina blue laws prohibit sporting events and non-essential businesses from operating on Sundays before 1:30 p.m. Many counties and towns in high-tourist areas have repealed this. Places such as gas stations and grocery stores are exempt as well. While there are no dry counties in South Carolina, most counties still prohibit Sunday off-premise beer and wine sales. Liquor stores must remain closed on Sundays. Cities and counties may hold a referendum to allow the sale of beer and wine off-premise on Sundays. Restaurants can obtain an exemption to serve on Sundays as well. From 1950 until 1983, the Southern 500 auto race in Darlington was held on Monday (Labor Day) because of blue laws; a 1983 NASCAR Budweiser Late Model Sportsman race at Darlington was 250 miles, not the traditional 200 miles, because it was run on the Sunday before the Southern 500. State blue laws mandate a race distance of 250 miles for Sunday races. Also, the inaugural Rebel 300 resulted in a fine for track president Bob Colvin for holding it on a Sunday after the Saturday before was rained out; ironically, the Rebel 500 run 50 years later in 2007 was pushed from Saturday to Sunday and run at 1 PM, with the 250-mile exemption in place. The 1978 Cooper River Bridge Run in Charleston was held on a Sunday, but drew complaints from churches; that led to the race being moved to Saturday in 1979, where it stands. The state's three marathons—in Greenville, Kiawah Island, and Myrtle Beach—are all held on Saturday. Greenville had been held on a Sunday in the first two years (2006-07) as it runs through the Furman University campus. However, complaints have led the third Spinx Run Fest marathon in 2008 being moved to Saturday. Myrtle Beach has a problem holding a marathon on Sunday, since ten churches are on the marathon courses (listed in order of appearance on course). Eight of the ten churches (exceptions are churches on Mile 12 and 19) are on Kings Highway. Mile 9 Kingsway Pentecostal Church Mile 11 First Baptist Church Agape Christian Fellowship First United Methodist Church Mile 12 Sandy Grove Baptist Church Mile 19 Faith Presbyterian Church Mile 21 Ocean View Baptist Church Mile 22 St. Philips' Lutheran Church Mile 23 Church of the Nazarene Mile 24 St. Andrew's Catholic Church Trinity Episcopal Church Texas Beverages of 20% alcohol content or higher are prohibited from sale on Sunday with the exception of establishments that sell food Liquor stores closed statewide on Sundays Liquor stores open 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Monday through Saturday Beer and wine may be purchased at any open store until 1 a.m. Sunday Beer and wine may be purchased at any open store until midnight all other days of the week. Last call at bars and clubs all days of the week is at 2 a.m. You can only buy beer and wine after noon Sunday. The rest of the week it may be purchased as early as 8 a.m. Utah Liquor stores are closed statewide on Sundays. Car lots are closed on Sundays. Virginia Blue laws were repealed in Virginia in 1988. However, some businesses (including the state owned and operated “ABC “ liquor stores & the Ukrops grocery store chain); still observe them to some extent. Both stores are closed on Sundays (although ABC stores are slowly starting to open on Sunday in larger cities, based on population). Washington Washington state's broad prohibition on Sunday business activity was repealed by the initiative process in 1966. The state's Liquor Control Board authorized Sunday liquor sales on a restricted basis in 1967, and in 1976 expanded the hours for those sales to the same as for other days of the week. West Virginia The sale of liquor is prohibited statewide on Sundays. Beer and wine may be purchased after 1 pm. The sale of all alcohol is prohibited on election days. Canada Ontario Until 2006, in much of southern Ontario, it was illegal to hunt using a firearm on Sundays as part of the Lord's Day Act. The issue of whether or not to allow Sunday gun hunting has now been left up to each municipality to decide, many of them now allowing Sunday gun hunting. Sunday Gun Hunting Israel Running most public transportation from Friday evenings to Saturday evenings is banned in Israel, at least as of the summer of 2008. http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/126959 Court cases The concept of a secular day of rest, not directly related to a religious day of rest, has been adduced as justification for retention of restrictions on commercial activity on Sunday. The Supreme Court of Canada, in the case of R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985] (1 S.C.R. 295) ruled that the 1906 Lord's Day Act that required most places to be closed on Sunday did not have a legitimate secular purpose, and was an unconstitutional attempt to establish a religious-based closing law in violation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. However, the court later concluded, in R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd., [1986] (2 S.C.R. 713) that Ontario's Retail Business Holiday Act, which required some Sunday closings, did not violate the Charter because it did not have a religious purpose. The Supreme Court of the United States held in its landmark case, McGowan v. Maryland (1961), that Maryland's blue laws violated neither the Free Exercise Clause nor the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. It approved the state's blue law restricting commercial activities on Sunday, noting that while such laws originated to encourage attendance at Christian churches, the contemporary Maryland laws were intended to serve "to provide a uniform day of rest for all citizens" on a secular basis and to promote the secular values of "health, safety, recreation, and general well-being" through a common day of rest. That this day coincides with the Christian Sabbath is not a bar to the state's secular goals; it neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days. McGOWAN v. MARYLAND, 366 U.S. 420 (1961), Supreme Court of the United States, Decided May 29, 1961. Accessed August 10, 2007. "The present purpose and effect of most of our Sunday Closing Laws is to provide a uniform day of rest for all citizens; and the fact that this day is Sunday, a day of particular significance for the dominant Christian sects, does not bar the State from achieving its secular goals." There were four landmark Sunday-law cases altogether in 1961. The other three were Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Mass., Inc., 366 U.S. 617 (1961); Braunfeld v. Brown, 366 U.S. 599 (1961); Two Guys from Harrison vs. McGinley, 366 U.S. 582 (1961). The LANDMARK Cases, National Sunday Law Crisis. Accessed May 21, 2008. According to KVIA-TV El Paso, in March 2006 Texas judges upheld the state Blue Law that requires car dealerships to close either Saturday or Sunday each weekend. "'Blue Law' for car sales upheld by Judge", KVIA, March 22, 2006. Accessed May 28, 2008. "A Texas judge has upheld an old law that requires car dealerships in the Lone Star state to close one day each weekend. They must now choose to open either Saturday or Sunday." See also Desuetude Dry county Neo-prohibitionism Raines law Sharia Sunday shopping Theocracy References

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Marcel_Achard

Marcel Achard (5 July 1899—4 September 1974) was a French playwright and screenwriter whose popular sentimental comedies Garzanti p. 3 maintained his position as a highly-recognizable name in his country's theatrical and literary circles for five decades. New York Times He was elected to the Académie Française in 1959. Themes and variations within a philosophical outlook A native of the Rhône département's Urban Community of Lyon, France's second largest metropolitan area, Marcel-Auguste Ferréol was born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, one of the city's suburbs, and adopted his nom de plume at the start of his writing career in the early 1920s. Able to absorb knowledge quickly, he became, in 1916, in the midst of World War I, a village schoolteacher at the age of 17. In 1919, a few months after the end of the war, the 20-year-old aspiring writer arrived in Paris and found jobs as a prompter at the Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier and as a journalist for various publications, including the major daily newspaper, Le Figaro. Marcel Achard wrote his first play in 1922 and had a major success the following year when renowned actor-director Charles Dullin staged his play Voulez-vous jouer avec moâ? [Would You Like to Play with Me?], a sensitively delicate comedy about circus and its clowns, casting the playwright in a small part, as one of the clowns. The production set a pattern for the remainder of his theatrical output, most of which can be considered as 20th century reworkings of stock characters and situations from the Italian traditional Commedia dell'arte. The personages of Pierrot and Columbine are transported into modern-day settings and inserted into an occasionally mawkish or nostalgic love plot with equal doses of laughter mingled with pain and regret. These themes were expanded upon in two of his most popular plays of the period—1929's Jean de la Lune [John of the Moon a/k/a The Dreamer] and 1932's Domino. Jean showed how the unwavering trust of Jef, the faithful Pierrot prototype, transforms his scandalously adulterous wife into his idealized image of her, while Domino presented another unfaithful wife who pays a gigolo to make a pretense of courting her so as to distract her husband from her real lover, but the gigolo manages to act his character with such pretend sincerity that she winds up falling in love with this fictional persona. The distinctive quality of Achard's plays was their dreamlike mood of sentimental melancholy, underscored by the very titles which were primarily taken from popular bittersweet songs of the day. 1924's Marlbrough s'en va-t-en guerre [Marlborough Gets Himself Off to War], 1935's Noix de coco [Coconuts], 1946's Auprès de ma blonde [Close to My Girlfriend] and Savez-vous planter les choux? [Do You Know How to Plant Cabbage?] and 1948's Nous irons à Valparaiso [We're Going to Valparaiso] are among some examples of this specific style. Career peak in the interwar period Achard's greatest successes and popularity were in the period between the two World Wars when contemporary critics favorably compared him to some of his renowned French predecessors such as Pierre de Marivaux and Alfred de Musset. Postwar pundits were not as kind, pointing out the rather narrow scope of human psyche that he represented and deprecatingly referring to him as a "spécialiste de l'amour" ["love specialist"] for the sickly-sweet characteristics of his poetic imagination. The critics focused, of course, on Achard's most popular plays, disregarding the fact that the reason Achard continued to write them is precisely because they met with such unvarying success. His less-well known works, however, show innovative techniques and original themes. 1929's La Belle Marinière [The Beautiful Lady of the Canals a/k/a The Beautiful Bargewoman] still has some of the excessively-poetic dialogue, but is overall a realistic play about a love triangle involving a bargeman, his wife and his best friend and companion. Similarly, 1933's La femme en blanc [The Woman in White] uses a then-new technique of recreating for the audience events as they are being described by the play's characters. In 1938's Le corsaire [The Privateer], a "play-in-a-play" device, pioneered by Luigi Pirandello, depicts film actors portraying the life of a long-ago pirate, finding themselves caught in an endless loop of similarities. The same year saw the production of his most controversial play, Adam, which strove to give insight into the conflicted emotions of an unhappy homosexual. Although the very subject matter caused it to be considered scandalous at the time, its brief revival three decades later, in the open and radicalized culture of the late 1960s, when the author was approaching his 70th birthday, found the once-ahead-of-its-time work judged as a tame and dated period piece below Achard's usual literary standard. Successful postwar plays After World War II, despite the criticism, Achard's literary output continued unabated. Among his most successful later plays were 1952's Les compagnons de la Marjolaine [The Companions of Marjoram] and 1955's Le mal d'amour [Love Sickness]. The greatest popularity, however, was achieved by a 1957 comedy about a testy, ill-tempered character nicknamed Patate [Spud] and a 1962 comic mystery L'idiote [The Idiot], best known in America as the basis for the play and film A Shot in the Dark. Four of Achard's plays also had Broadway runs. Domino, adapted by actress-writer Grace George, opened at the Playhouse Theatre on 16 August 1932 and closed after seven performances. The title role went to Rod La Rocque, a top star of the silent cinema, whose career was on the wane following the advent of the talkies, and the lead actress was Jessie Royce Landis. Seventeen years later, a much better run was enjoyed by Auprès de ma blonde, which was reworked by famed scenarist S. N. Behrman into I Know My Love. It opened at the Shubert Theatre on 2 November 1949 and ran for 247 performances, closing on 3 June 1950. It was directed by and starred Alfred Lunt and his leading lady was, as always, his wife, Lynn Fontanne. Nine years after that premiere, however, Patate, which played to sold-out theaters in Paris, could not translate its elusive charm to American audiences and repeated the seven-performance fiasco of the previous single-name character, Domino. The fellow whose nickname made up the title was played by Tom Ewell, and the female lead, Susan Oliver, won the Theatre World Award for her performance, while the Irwin Shaw adaptation opened at Henry Miller's Theatre on 28 October 1958 and closed on November 1. Ultimately, it would be A Shot in the Dark, three years later, which would boast the longest run. Adapted by Harry Kurnitz and directed by Harold Clurman, it racked up an impressive 389 performances, opening at the Booth Theatre on 18 October 1961 and closing on 22 September 1962. The stars were Julie Harris, Walter Matthau and William Shatner. Achard's numerous screenplays, frequently centering on relatively recent historical events and personalities, include 1936's Mayerling, 1938's Orage and 1942's Félicie Nanteuil. He presided over the Cannes Film Festival in 1958 and 1959 and had a similar role at the Venice Film Festival in 1960. It was also in 1959 that he was finally, at the age of 60, elected to the Académie Française. Marcel Achard died of diabetes in his Paris home two months after his 75th birthday. He was survived by his wife, Lily. Citations References (obituary) External links Marcel Achard quotations Additional quotations from Marcel Achard

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Intel_DX4

Intel i486 DX4 100MHz Voltage converter for 80486DX4 processors (5V to 3,3V) The Intel IntelDX4 is a clock-tripled i486 microprocessor with 16kb L1 cache. Intel named it deceptively during litigation with AMD over trademarks. The product was officially named the IntelDX4, but OEMs continued using the i486 naming convention. Intel produced IntelDX4s with two clock speed steppings: A 75 MHz version (3× 25 MHz multiplier), and a 100 MHz version (usually 3× 33.3 MHz, but sometimes also 2x50MHz). Both chips were released on March 1994. A version of the IntelDX4 featuring write-back cache was released in October 1994. The original write-through versions of the chip are marked with a laser embossed "&E", while the write-back enabled versions are marked "&EW". i486 OverDrive editions of the IntelDX4 had locked multipliers, and therefore can only run at 3x the external clock-speed. The 100 MHz model of the processor had an iCOMP rating of 435, whilst the 75 MHz processor had a rating of 319. The IntelDX4 was an OEM-only product, but the DX4 Overdrive could be purchased at a retail store. The IntelDX4 microprocessor is mostly pin-compatible with the 80486, but requires a lower 3.3V supply. Normal 80486 and DX2 processors use a 5V supply; plugging a DX4 into an unmodified socket will destroy it. Motherboards lacking support for the 3.3V CPUs can sometimes make use of them using a voltage regulator (VRM) that fits between the socket and the CPU. The 486DX4 is still in production for industrial applications requiring moderate embedded processing capability. IntelDX3 The IntelDX3 was intended to make use of a 2.5X multiplier (used by the Socket3 Pentium Overdrive), using the same die as the IntelDX4. For unknown reasons the IntelDX3 was never released. In the official white papers for the IntelDX4 there are instructions for enabling the 2.5X multiplier, however the feature was not implemented in the production version. References External links http://www.olympusmicro.com/micd/galleries/chips/intel486dx4a.html — photomicrograph of a DX4 microprocessor

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Springfield_(The_Simpsons)

Springfield is the fictional city in which the American animated television series The Simpsons is set. Springfield is a mid-sized city in an unknown state. The town of Springfield acts as a complete universe in which characters can explore the issues faced by modern society. Turner, p. 55 The geography of Springfield and its surroundings are flexible, changing to address whatever an episode’s plot calls for. Turner, p. 30 In The Simpsons' universe, Time magazine is said to have done a cover story on Springfield entitled "America's Worst City;" Newsweek is said to have characterized the city as "America's Crud Bucket". The city's location is unclear. Fans have tried to determine its location by taking the town's characteristics, surrounding geography, and nearby landmarks as clues, but the show has been deliberately evasive on the subject, even providing contradictory information. For example, in The Simpsons Movie, Ned Flanders points out from elevated ground on the outskirts of the city that Nevada, Ohio, Kentucky, and Maine are all visible from there; two of those states are over 2000 miles apart, with several other states in between. In the Behind the Laughter episode, the narrator stated Springfield was in North Kentucky. In one episode Lisa Simpson says that the location is a mystery and instructs the audience that if certain clues are followed, it can be figured out. The city Springfield was founded in 1796 by a band led by Jebediah Springfield (a.k.a. Hans Sprungfeld), that, after misinterpreting a passage in the Bible, left Maryland, trying to find "New Sodom." After Jebediah Springfield refused to found a town where men were free to marry their cousins, half of the band broke away to do just that. They named their town Shelbyville, after fellow pioneer Shelbyville Manhattan, and the rivalry between the two towns persists to this day. Springfield reached its pinnacle in the mid-20th century, when it became the home of the world's first Aquacar factory; one half of the U.S. was said to wear Springfield galoshes and Springfield's streets were literally paved with gold. Springfield's geography changes with the special needs of each episode. It has included forests, meadows, mountain ranges, a desert, a gorge, beaches, badlands, canyons, swamps, waterholes and waterways. Springfield is sometimes shown located on the coast of a large body of water, although other episodes show skyline shots of the city with no signs of a coastline. Major named geographical features include Springfield Gorge, Springfield National Forest, the volcano Mt. Springfield, the Springfield Badlands (also known as the Alkali Flats) , The Murderhorn (a play on Matterhorn), Springfield Glacier, Mt. Useful National Park, Springfield Mesa and Springfield National Park. Springfield is evidently located in an area that receives plenty of rain, as well as heavy snow. Most of the time however, the skies are blue and mostly sunny. Springfield has also been prone to severe heat waves. Springfield is close to a major body of water that is open to the ocean, and close to a major mountain range. It is also situated on a major river, which has cut a deep gorge. It has been subject to just about every sort of natural disaster over the years, including avalanches, earthquakes, acid rain, floods, hurricanes, lightning strikes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and a meteor impact. The city is divided into many neighborhoods, including: Rats Nest, Bum Town, Chinatown, Crackton, East Springfield, Greek Town, Junkyville, Little Bangkok, Little Italy, Little Newark, Little Stockholm, Little Seattle, Ethnictown, Lower Eastside, Pressboard Estates, Recluse Ranch Estates, Skid Row, Springfield Harbor, Springfield Heights, Springshire, Tibet Town, Waverly Hills, flammable district, a gay district, a fast-food district, and a Russian district. There is also a housing project in Springfield called Lincoln Park Village. There is also West Springfield, a sprawling desert that is described by Lisa as "three times the size of Texas!" In "Trash of the Titans", Homer Simpson was elected Sanitation Commissioner. After Homer spent the entire yearly budget in his first month of office, he was forced to take in the garbage of other cities in order to make enough money to pay the city's trash collectors. Eventually the mines that were storing the collected trash erupted and littered the entire city, prompting the entire city, population and structures, to literally move five miles (8 km) down the road to establish a new Springfield away from the massive dump that old Springfield had become. Springfield is home to the state's largest self-sustaining tire fire which has been burning continuously since either 1966 or 1989. In The Simpsons Movie, Lake Springfield was quite polluted by the trash and carelessness of the townspeople. Lisa Simpson managed to petition the town to clean up the lake, and the lake was cleaned up, surrounded by barriers, and a Hazardous Waste Center was built for the garbage of citizens. However, the lake was severely re-polluted after Homer Simpson dumped a large silo of pig manure into the lake. The lake was so polluted that a squirrel jumped into the water and emerged with multiple eyes, and the EPA came to action and sealed the town in a large glass dome, and ultimately decided to blow up Springfield by putting a bomb inside the dome. However, the dome was destroyed after Homer Simpson and Bart Simpson managed to throw the bomb on to the top of the dome, seconds before detonation. Once the dome was destroyed, it was presumed that the town cleaned the lake again. The lake was also seen in Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in "The Curse of the Flying Hellfish" where Bart had to dive down to the bottom to retrieve a chest of German paintings that belonged to his grandfather, Abe Simpson. The current mayor of Springfield is Joe Quimby (D), while their representative in congress is Krusty the Clown (R). Mary Bailey, a Democrat, is the Governor of Springfield's state and was first seen in "Two Cars In Every Garage, Three Eyes On Every Fish". Mayor Quimby is simultaneously incompetent and immoral as well as being a conspicuously corrupt and fraudulent politician. Quimby is a sleazy womanizer and has had multiple affairs on his wife. The citizens of Springfield are normally accepting of this conduct, except on certain issues, such as when the citizens blamed Quimby for traffic jam caused by Bart Simpson — the largest in the history of the town. Springfield boasts an opera house, an outdoor amphitheater, an arboretum, a vibrant jazz scene and was previously regarded as the entertainment capital of its state. There is also an unusually high number of museums, including Springfield Museum (which features the world's largest cubic zirconium), Springfield Knowledgeum, Springfield Museum of Natural History, The Museum of Swordfish, Springsonian Museum, and a stamp museum. Media includes KBBL Broadcasting Inc. which serves as the major media outlet, owning at least three radio stations and one television station. The Springfield Shopper is a city newspaper. The town is home to the Springfield Isotopes, an AA minor league baseball team. Home games are played at Duff Stadium. The Springfield Isotopes were the inspiration for the new name of the Los Angeles Dodgers' AAA affiliate, the Albuquerque Isotopes, when they relocated to Albuquerque, New Mexico from Calgary. Albuquerque Isotopes Official website The plot of the "Hungry, Hungry Homer" episode revolves around Homer Simpson's attempts to thwart a planned move by the team to Albuquerque. Springfield has a basketball and hockey arena, which is home to the Springfield Ice-O-Topes hockey team. There is a strong rivalry between Springfield and its closest neighboring town, Shelbyville, starting with the rivalry that existed between Jebediah Springfield and Shelbyville Manhattan, the founder of Shelbyville. Manhattan wanted to found a city where men were free to marry their cousins, but Springfield refused to allow it. This caused Manhattan to break away with his supporters and found the town of Shelbyville. The rivalry extends to the present day through American football and even a Lemon tree near the two towns' borders. Creation The name Springfield was chosen by Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, as the setting for the show because it is one of the most common place-names in the United States. Simpsons launch hits Springfield BBC News retrieved July 21, 2007 The town was partly inspired by Melonville, the town in Second City Television, which featured a large cast of recurring characters. Groening liked the idea of a town that was its own mini-universe and partially based The Simpsons on it. Real-life location The uncertain location of Springfield is a recurring joke in the series. Springfield is meant to represent "anytown, USA" and not be a specific real city, although the producers have admitted to basing the town on various locations. The name was chosen because it is a common town name in the United States; there are 35 states in the United States that have at least one community with that name. Despite this, many fans still believe that Springfield is located in a real state and try to follow the clues. The search for its location has been described as a "riddle wrapped in an enigma that is Springfield's location". Due to the many contradictory clues, it is impossible for Springfield to exist in any set location. Episodes frequently make fun of the fact that Springfield's state has never been revealed, by adding further conflicting descriptions, obscuring onscreen map representations, and interrupting conversational references. In the episode "Blame It on Lisa", when asked about Springfield's location, Lisa replies, "it's a bit of a mystery, yes. But if you look at the clues, you can figure it out." David Silverman, a director for the Simpsons, has claimed that Springfield is in the fictional state of "North Takoma". This is substantiated by the state abbreviations NT and TA used within the show. However, this has never been officially confirmed in any canonical episode of The Simpsons or by other Simpsons producers. Homer's driver license displays the state as NT and the ZIP code as 49007, which is Kalamazoo, Michigan. Kalamazoo Zip Code , although the area codes for Springfield have also been stated as 636 (East-Central Missouri) and 939 (Puerto Rico). In The Simpsons Movie, the idea that the state cannot exist in reality is further emphasized when Ned Flanders identifies the four bordering states as Ohio, Nevada, Maine, and Kentucky, most of which are vastly separated from each other. To promote the movie, various towns and cities across the United States called Springfield competed to hold the premiere of the movie in their town. Springfields from many different states entered the competition. The town of Springfield, Vermont, was elected to host the movie's premiere. Notes References External links Where Is The Simpsons' Springfield? from the fan-maintained "The Simpsons Archive"

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Cy_Young

Denton True "Cy" Young (March 29, 1867 – November 4, 1955) was an American baseball player who pitched for five different major league teams from 1890 to 1911. During his 22-year career, Young established numerous professional pitching records in the majors, some of which have stood for a century. Young retired with 511 career wins, 94 wins ahead of Walter Johnson, who is second on the list of most wins in Major League history. In honor of Young's contributions to Major League Baseball, the Cy Young Award, an annual award given to the pitcher voted the most effective in each of the two leagues, was created in 1956. Young was also elected to The Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. In addition to wins, Young currently holds the Major Leagues records for most career innings pitched (7,355), most career games started (815), and most complete games (749). He also retired with 316 losses, the most in MLB history. Over the span of his career, Young had 76 career shutouts, which is the fourth most in history. He also won at least 30 games in a season five times, with ten other seasons of 20+ wins. In addition, Young pitched three no-hitters, including the first perfect game of baseball's "modern era". In 1999, 88 years after his final Major League appearance and 44 years after his death, editors at The Sporting News ranked Cy Young 14th on their list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". That same year, baseball fans named Young to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Young's career started in 1890 with the Cleveland Spiders. After eight years with the Spiders, Young was moved to St. Louis in 1899. After two years there, Young jumped to the newly-created American League, joining the Boston franchise. He was traded back to the city of Cleveland in 1909, before spending the final two months of his career in Boston. After his retirement, Young went back to his farm in Ohio, where he stayed until his death at age 88 in 1955. Early life Cy Young was the oldest child born to McKinzie Young Jr. and Nancy Miller. The couple also had four more children: Carl, Lon, Ella, and Otto. When the couple married, McKinzie's father gave him the of farm land he owned. Young was born in Gilmore, a tiny farming community located in Washington Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years. Young was also known as "Farmer Young" and "Farmboy Young". Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade, so he could help out on the family's farm. In 1885, Young moved with his father to Nebraska, and in the summer of 1887, they returned to Gilmore. Cy Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth, including a "semi-pro" Carrollton team in 1888. Young pitched and played second base. The first box score known containing the name Young came from the season. In that game, Young played second base and had two hits in three at bats. After the season, Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team, which started Young's professional career. Professional career Career before Major League Baseball Young began his professional career in with the Canton, Ohio team of the Tri-State League, a professional minor league. Although a farm boy, that fact was not the source of his nickname, "Cyclone". During his tryout, Young impressed the scouts, recalling years later, "I almost tore the boards off the grandstand with my fast ball." The catcher who warmed up Young gave him the nickname "Cyclone", in reference to the speed of his fastball. Reporters later shortened the name to "Cy", which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life. During Young's one year with the Canton team, he won 15 games and lost 15 games. Franchises in the National League, the major professional sports league at the time, wanted the best players available to them. Therefore, in , Young signed with the Cleveland Spiders, a team which had moved up from the American Association to the National League the previous year. Cleveland Spiders On August 6, 1890, Young's major league debut, he pitched a three-hit shutout. While Young was on the Spiders, Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player. Bill James, a baseball statistician, estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history. The New Bill James Historical Abstract, Simon & Schuster, 2001, pgs. 410-411 Early on, Young established himself as one of the harder-throwing pitchers in the game. Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young's fastball. In the absence of radar guns, however, it is difficult to say just how hard Young actually threw. Young continued to perform at a high level during the 1890 season. On the last day of the season, Young won both games of a doubleheader. In the first weeks of Young's career, Cap Anson, the player-manager of the Chicago Colts spotted Young's ability. Anson told Spiders' manager Gus Schmelz, "He's too green to do your club much good, but I believe if I taught him what I know, I might make a pitcher out of him in a couple of years. He's not worth it now, but I'm willing to give you $1,000 for him." Schmelz replied, "Cap, you can keep your thousand and we'll keep the rube." Two years after Young's debut, the National League moved the pitcher's position back by five feet. Since , pitchers had pitched within a "box" whose front line was from home base, and since they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball. The back line was , six inches (152 mm) away from home. In 1893, five feet was added to the back line, yielding the modern pitching distance of , six inches (152 mm) . In the book The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers, sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young, Amos Rusie, and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move. The regular season was a success for Young, who led the National League in wins (36), ERA (1.93), and shutouts (9). Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today, the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season. The Boston Beaneaters won the first-half title, and the Spiders won the second-half title, with a best-of-nine series determining the league champion. Despite the Spiders' second half run, the Beaneaters swept the series, five games to none. Young pitched three complete games in the series, but lost two decisions. He also threw a complete game shutout, but the game ended in a 0–0 tie. The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup, a precursor to the World Series, in . Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup, four games to one. It was around this time that Young added what he called a "slow ball" to his pitching repertoire, to reduce stress on his arm. The pitch today is called a changeup. In , Young lost a no-hitter with two outs in the ninth inning when Ed Delahanty of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a single. On September 18, 1897, Young pitched the first no-hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds. Although Young did not walk a batter, the Spiders committed four errors while on defense. One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit, but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning, saying he had made an error, and the ruling was changed. Young later said, that, despite his teammate's gesture, he considered the game to be a one-hitter. Shift to St. Louis Prior to the season, Frank Robison, the Spiders owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs at the same time. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos," and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Young, Jesse Burkett and Bobby Wallace. The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and . Meanwhile, the depleted Spiders lost 134 games, the most in MLB history, before folding. Young spent two years with St. Louis, which is where he found his favorite catcher, Lou Criger. The two men were teammates for a decade. Move to the American League In , the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters. Young left St. Louis and joined the American League's Boston Americans for a $3,500 contract. Young would remain with the Boston team until . In his first year in the American League, Young was dominant. Pitching to Criger, who had also jumped to Boston, Young led the league in wins, strikeouts and ERA, thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for Pitchers. That season, he also pitched the first perfect game in American League history. Young won almost 42% of his team's games in 1901, a record which would stand for over seventy years until broken by Steve Carlton. In February , before the start of the baseball season, Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University. The sixth-grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers.The following year, Young coached at Mercer University during the spring. The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903, 1904 and 1905. Spright Dowell, A History of Mercer University, 1833-1953 (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University, [1958]). The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in . Young, who started Game One against the visiting Pirates, thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history. The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning and Young lost the game. Young performed better in subsequent games, winning his next two starts. He also drove in three runs in Game Five. Young finished the series with a 2–1 record and a 1.85 ERA in four appearances, and the Boston Americans defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates, five games to three games. After one-hitting Boston on May 2, 1904, Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston's ace. Three days later, Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics. It was the first perfect game in American League history. Waddell was the 27th and last batter, and when he flied out, Young shouted, "How do you like that, you hayseed?" Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge. Young's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak. Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit; the latter record still stands at 24.1 innings, or 73 hitless batters. Elias, p.76, ISBN 0-917050-08-8, Retrieved on 2008-08-03 Even after allowing a hit, Young's scoreless streak reached a then-record 45 shutout innings. Before Young, only two pitchers had thrown perfect games. This occurred in , when Lee Richmond and John Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other, although under somewhat different rules: the front edge of the pitcher's box was only from home base (the modern release point is about farther away); walks required eight balls; and pitchers were obliged to throw side-armed. Young's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893. One year later, on July 4, 1905, Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans, 4–2, in a 20-inning matchup. Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning. Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted: "For my part, I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in." In 1907, Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13-inning tie. In , Young pitched the third no-hitter of his career. Three months past his 41st birthday, Cy Young was the oldest pitcher to record a no-hitter, a record which would stand 82 years until 43-year-old Nolan Ryan surpassed the feat. Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game. After that runner was caught stealing, no other batter reached base. At this time, Young was the second-oldest player in either league. In another game one month before his no-hitter, he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters. On August 13, 1908, the league celebrated "Cy Young Day." No American League games were played on that day, and a group of All-Stars from the league's other teams gathered in Boston to play against Young and the Red Sox. Cleveland Naps and retirement A 1911 baseball card of Young produced by the American Tobacco Company Young was traded back to Cleveland, the place where he played over half his career, before the 1909 season, to the Cleveland Naps of the American League. He split , his final year, between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers. On September 22, 1911, Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 1–0, for his last career victory. In his final start two weeks later, the last eight batters of Young's career combined to hit a triple, four singles and three doubles. After baseball From 1912 until his death in 1955, Cy Young lived and worked on his farm. His wife, Robba, whom he had known since childhood, died in 1933. After she died, Young tried several jobs. He, however, eventually moved in with friends John and Ruth Benedum and did odd jobs for them. Young took part in many baseball events after his retirement. In 1937, 26 years after he retired from baseball, Cy Young was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. He was among the first to donate mementos to the Hall. On November 4, 1955, Cy Young died at the age of 88, in Newcomerstown, Ohio, on his farm. He was buried in Peoli, Ohio. Baseball legacy Young retired with 511 career wins. His win total set the record for most career wins by a pitcher. At the time, Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364. Walter Johnson, then in his fourth season, finished his career with 417 wins and, as of 2009, is second on the list. In 1921, Johnson broke Young's career record for strikeouts. SABR, p.210, ISBN 978-1416532453 Retrieved on 2008-08-03 Cy Young's career is seen as a bridge from baseball's earliest days to its modern era; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson, already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876, as well as against Eddie Collins, who played until 1930. When Young's career began, pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes. The pitcher's mound was not moved back to its present position of , six inches (152 mm) until Young's fourth season; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season. A photo of Young taken in 1908 was the source for a painting that was displayed in the Baseball Hall of Fame. Young led his league in wins five times (1892, 1895, and 1901–1903), finishing second twice. His career high was 36 in 1892. He had fifteen seasons with twenty or more wins, two more than the runners-up, Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn. Young won two ERA titles during his career, in 1892 (1.93) and in 1901 (1.62), and was three times the runner-up. Young's earned run average was below 2.00 six times, but this was not uncommon during the dead ball era. Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons, he did not lead his league until 1902. He had 40 or more complete games nine times. Young also led his league in strikeouts twice (with 140 in 1896, and 158 in 1901), and in shutouts seven times. Young led his league in fewest walks per nine innings thirteen times and finished second one season. Only twice in his 22-year career did Young finish lower than 5th in the category. Although the WHIP ratio was not calculated until well after Young's death, Young was the retroactive league leader in this category seven times and was second or third another seven times. Cy Young is tied with Roger Clemens for the most career wins by a Boston Red Sox pitcher. They each won 192 games while with the franchise. Particularly after his fastball slowed, Young relied upon his control. Young once quoted as saying, "Some may have thought it was essential to know how to curve a ball before anything else. Experience, to my mind, teaches to the contrary. Any young player who has good control will become a successful curve pitcher long before the pitcher who is endeavoring to master both curves and control at the same time. The curve is merely an accessory to control." In addition to his exceptional control, Young was also a workhorse who avoided injury. For nineteen consecutive years, from 1891 through 1909, Cy Young was in his leagues' top ten for innings pitched; in fourteen of the seasons, he was in the top five. Not until 1900, a decade into his career, did Young pitch two consecutive incomplete games. By habit, Young restricted his practice throws in spring training. "I figured the old arm had just so many throws in it," said Young, "and there wasn't any use wasting them." Young once described his approach before a game: "I never warmed up ten, fifteen minutes before a game like most pitchers do. I'd loosen up, three, four minutes. Five at the outside. And I never went to the bullpen. Oh, I'd relieve all right, plenty of times, but I went right from the bench to the box, and I'd take a few warm-up pitches and be ready. Then I had good control. I aimed to make the batter hit the ball, and I threw as few pitches as possible. That's why I was able to work every other day." By the time of his retirement, Young's control had slipped. Young had also gained weight. In three of his last four years, he was the oldest player in the league. Cy Young was also mentioned in the poem "Lineup for Yesterday" by Ogden Nash, which was published in Sport magazine in January 1949. The poem paid tribute to baseball players, as well as Nash's own fanaticism, and was formatted in an alphabetical list. In 1956, about one year after Young's death, The Cy Young Award was created. The first award was given to Brooklyn's Don Newcombe. Originally, it was a single award covering the whole of baseball. The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967, one for each league. On September 23, 1993, a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on site of the Boston Red Sox's orginal stadium, the Huntington Avenue Grounds. In that stadium he pitched the first games of the 1901 and 1904 World Series and also pitched the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball. A home plate shaped plaque next to the statue reads: "On October 1, 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims (later known as the Red Sox) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site. General admission tickets were fifty cents. The Pilgrims, led by twenty-eight game winner Cy Young, trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three." Statistics Career statistics: Hitting G AB H 2B 3B HR R RBI BB SO AVG OBP SLG OPS 918 2,960 623 87 35 18 325 290 81 142 .210 .234 .282 44 Pitching W L WP GP GS CG Sh SV IP BB SO ERA WHIP 511 316 .618 906 815 749 76 17 7354.7 1,217 2,803 2.63 1.130 Notes a. Although the phrase "perfect game" appeared in record books as early as 1922, and was a common expression years before that, Major League Baseball did not formalize the definition of a "perfect game" until 1991, long after Young's death. Nonetheless, Young's 1955 obituary also used the phrase. "An official perfect game occurs when a pitcher (or pitchers) retires each batter on the opposing team during the entire course of a game, which consists of at least nine innings. In a perfect game, no batter reaches any base during the course of the game." b.Although not an actual award, many baseball fans and experts call a pitcher who leads his league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA the Triple Crown winner. See also Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame List of MLB individual streaks 300 win club List of Major League Baseball leaders in career wins List of Major League Baseball ERA champions Triple Crown List of Major League Baseball saves champions List of Major League Baseball strikeout champions List of Major League Baseball wins champions MLB All-Time Hit Batsmen List Top 100 strikeout pitchers of all time MLB all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers Major League Baseball titles leaders Pitchers who have thrown a perfect game List of Major League Baseball no-hitters Boston Red Sox all-time roster </div> References External links cmgworldwide.com official homepage BaseballEvolution.com Profile Page at Baseball Evolution

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external_link:1

Civilian_Conservation_Corps

The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a public work relief program for unemployed men, focused on natural resource conservation from 1933 to 1942. As part of the New Deal legislation proposed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), the CCC was designed firstly, to aid relief of high unemployment stemming from the Great Depression and secondly, carry out a broad natural resource conservation program on national, state and municipal lands. Legislation to create the program was introduced by FDR to the 73rd United States Congress on March 21, 1933, and the Emergency Conservation Work Act, as it was known, was signed into law on March 31, 1933. Wirth, Conrad L. "Parks, Politics and the People" University of Oklahoma Press (1980) pp. 69-75. The CCC became one of the most popular New Deal programs among the general public and operated in every U.S. state and the territories of Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. While FDR is given credit for the idea of this Program, in truth the suggestion came from Republican Senator James Couzens, of Michigan who was given the idea, in a letter from a constituent, Archibald Sun of Detroit, Michigan. General Douglas MacArthur had General George C. Marshall organize the Corps. Members lived in camps, wore uniforms, and lived under quasi-military discipline. At the time of entry, 70% of enrollees were malnourished and poorly clothed. Very few had more than a year of high school education; few had work experience beyond occasional odd jobs. The peace was maintained by the threat of "dishonorable discharge." There were no reported revolts or strikes. "This is a training station we're going to leave morally and physically fit to lick 'Old Man Depression,'" boasted the newsletter of a North Carolina camp. The total of 200,000 black enrollees were entirely segregated after 1935 but received equal pay and housing. Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes pressured Director Robert Fechner to appoint blacks to supervisory positions such as education directors in the 143 segregated camps. The separate Indian Division was a major relief force for Native Americans. Initially, the CCC was limited to young men age 18 to 25 whose fathers were on relief. Average enrollees were ages 18-19. Two exceptions to the age limits were veterans and Indians, who had a special CCC program and their own camps. In 1937, Congress changed the age limits to 17 to 28 years old and dropped the requirement that enrollees be on relief. Indian Division The CCC operated an entirely separate division for members of federally recognized Indian tribes, the Indian Emergency Conservation Work, IECW, or CCC-ID. It brought Native men from reservations to work on roads, bridges, clinics, shelters, and other public works near their reservations. The CCC often provided the only paid work in remote reservations. Enrollees had to be between the ages of 17 and 35 years. In 1933 about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota, for example, were employed by the CCC-ID. Thanks to grants from the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Indian Division built schools and operated an extensive road-building program in and around many reservations. IECW differed from other CCC activities in that it explicitly trained men to be carpenters, truck drivers, radio operators, mechanics, surveyors, and technicians. A total of 85,000 Natives were enrolled. This proved valuable human capital for the 24,000 Natives who served in the military and the 40,000 who left the reservations for war jobs in Disbandment Although the CCC was probably the most popular New Deal program, it never became a permanent agency. A Gallup poll of April 18, 1936, asked "Are you in favor of the CCC camps?"; 82% of respondents said yes, including 92% of Democrats and 67% of Republicans. Public Opinion, 1935-1946 ed. by Hadley Cantril and Mildred Strunk 1951. p.111 The last extension passed by Congress was in 1939. The CCC program continued to be reduced in operations as the Depression waned and employment opportunities improved. Also fewer eligible young men were available after the draft commenced in 1940. Beginning in May 1940, as war raged in Europe, the program began a shift toward national defense and forest protection. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 all federal programs were now focused on the war effort. Most CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction. The CCC disbanded one year earlier than planned, as the 77th United States Congress ceased funding, causing it to formally conclude operations at the end of the fiscal year on June 30, 1942. The end of the CCC program and closing of the camps involved arrangements to leave the incomplete work projects in the best possible shape, the separation of about 1,800 appointed employees, the transfer of CCC property to the War and Navy Departments and other agencies, and the preparation of final accountability records. Liquidation of the CCC was ordered by Congress by Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act (56 Stat. 569) on July 2, 1942; and virtually completed on June 30, 1943. Wirth, Conrad L., Civilian Conservation Corps Program of the US Dept. of the Interior, March 1933 to June 30, 1942, a Report to Harold L. Ickes, January 1944 Liquidation appropriations for the CCC continued through April 20, 1948. Some former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as Civilian Public Service camps where conscientious objectors performed "work of national importance" as an alternative to military service. Other camps were used to hold Japanese internees or German prisoners of war. After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for public lands administration went on to organize their own seasonal fire crews, roughly modeled after the CCC, which filled the firefighting role formerly filled by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience to young people. The Corps movement today The original CCC was closed in 1942, but it became a model for state agencies that opened in the 1970s. Present day corps are national, state and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16-25) in community service, training and educational activities. The nation’s approximate 113 corps programs operate in 41 states and the District of Columbia. In 2004, they enrolled over 23,000 young people. The Corps Network, originally known as the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC) works to expand and enhance the corps movement throughout America. The Corps Network took shape in 1985, when the nation's first 24 Corps directors banded together to secure an advocate at the Federal level and a central clearinghouse of information on how to start and run "best practice"-based corps. Early support from the Ford, Hewlett and Mott Foundations was critical to launching the association. Another similar program is the National Civilian Community Corps, part of the AmeriCorps program, a team-based national service program to which 18- to 24-year-olds dedicate 10 months of their time annually. Student Conservation Association The CCC program became an inspirational model for the creation of team-based national service youth conservation programs such as the Student Conservation Association (SCA). The SCA, founded in 1957, is a nonprofit organization that offers conservation internships and summer trail crew opportunities to more than 3,000 people each year. The SCA mission is to build the next generation of conservation leaders by inspiring lifelong stewardship of the environment and communities by engaging high school and college-age volunteers in hands-on service to the land. SCA program is active nation-wide in the USA, including national and state parks, forests, wildlife refuges, seashores and historic sites. SCA National Headquarters is located in Charlestown, New Hampshire with regional offices across the country. E-Corps Established in 1995 Environmental Corps (E-Corps) is an American YouthWorks program which allows youth, ages 17 to 28, to contribute to the restoration and preservation of parks and public lands in Texas. The only conservation corps in Texas, E-Corps is a 501(c)3 non profit based in Austin, Texas, which serves the entire state. Their work ranges from disaster relief to trail building to habitat restoration. E-Corps has done projects in national, state and city parks. California Conservation Corps In 1976, the Governor Jerry Brown of California established the California Conservation Corps. This new program differed drastically from the original CCC as its aim was primarily youth development rather than economic revival. Today it is the largest, oldest and longest-running youth conservation organization in the world. Montana Conservation Corps The Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) is a registered 501(c)3 non-profit organization with a mission to equip young people with the skills and values to be vigorous citizens who improve their communities and environment. Each year the MCC engages more than 120 corps members in service projects. Collectively, MCC crews contribute more than 90,000 volunteer hours each year. The MCC was established in 1991 by Montana's Human Resource Development Councils in Billings, Bozeman and Kalispell. Originally, it was a summer program serving disadvantaged youth, although it has grown into an AmeriCorps-sponsored non-profit organization with six regional offices that serve Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and North and South Dakota. All regions also offer MontanaYES (Youth Engaged in Service) summer programs for teenagers who are 14 to 16 years old. Washington Conservation Corps The Washington Conservation Corps (WCC) is a subagency of the Washington State Department of Ecology. It employs men and women 18 to 25 years old in an outreach program to protect and enhance Washington's natural resources. WCC is a part of the AmeriCorps program. Minnesota Conservation Corps The Minnesota Conservation Corps provides environmental stewardship and service-learning opportunities to youth and young adults while accomplishing conservation, natural resource management projects and emergency response work through its Young Adult Program and the Summer Youth Program. These programs focus on the development of job and life skills through conservation and community service work. Vermont Youth Conservation Corps The Vermont Youth Conservation Corps (VYCC) is a non-profit, youth service and education organization that hires Corps Members, aged 16-24, to work on high-priority conservation projects in Vermont. Through these work projects, Corps Members develop a strong work ethic, strengthen their leadership skills, and learn how to take personal responsibility for their actions. VYCC Crews work at VT State Parks, U.S. Forest Service Campgrounds, in local communities, and throughout the state's backcountry. Southwest Conservation Corps The Southwest Conservation Corps (SCC) is a non-profit employment, job training, and education organization with locations in Durango and Alamosa, Colorado, and Tucson, Arizona. SCC formed as a merger of the Southwest Youth Corps and the Youth Corps of Southern Arizona. SCC hires young adults ages 14 to 25 and organizes them into crews focused on completing conservation projects on public lands. Corpsmembers work, learn and commonly camp in teams of six under the supervision of two professional crew leaders. References in popular culture See also National Youth Administration Works Progress Administration Analogs in other countries Reichsarbeitsdienst Labor Army Labour battalion References Further reading American Youth Commission. Youth and the Future: The General Report of the American Youth Commission American Council on Education, 1942 Colen, Olen Jr. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps (1999) Gower, Calvin W. "The CCC Indian Division: Aid for Depressed Americans, 1933-1942," Minnesota History 43 (Spring 1972) 7-12 Douglas Helms, "The Civilian Conservation Corps: Demonstrating the Value of Soil Conservation" in Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 40 (March-April 1985): 184-188. Hendrickson Jr.; Kenneth E. "Replenishing the Soil and the Soul of Texas: The Civilian Conservation Corps in the Lone Star State as an Example of State-Federal Work Relief during the Great Depression" The Historian, Vol. 65, 2003 Kenneth Holland and Frank Ernest Hill. Youth in the CCC (1938) detailed description of all major activities Leighninger, Robert D., Jr. "Long-Range Public Investment : The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal" (2007), providing a context for American public works programs, and detailing major agencies of the New Deal: CCC, PWA, CWA, WPA, and TVA. Otis, Alison T., William D. Honey, Thomas C. Hogg, and Kimberly K. Lakin The Forest Service and The Civilian Conservation Corps: 1933-42 United States Forest Service FS-395, August 1986 Paige, John C. The Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Park Service, 1933-1942: An Administrative History National Park Service, 1985 Parman, Donald L. The Navajos and the New Deal (1969) Parman, Donald L. "The Indian and the CCC," Pacific Historical Review 40 (February 1971): pp 54+ Salmond John A. The Civilian Conservation Corps 1933-1942: a New Deal case study. (1967), the only scholarly history of the entire CCC Salmond, John A. "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Negro," The Journal of American History, Vol. 52, No. 1. (Jun., 1965), pp. 75-88. in JSTOR Sherraden, Michael W. "Military Participation in a Youth Employment Program: The Civilian Conservation Corps," Armed Forces & Society, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 227-245, April 1981 pp 227-245; ISSN 0095-327X available online from SAGE Publications Steely, James W. "Parks for Texas : Enduring Landscapes of the New Deal" (1999), detailing the interaction of local, state and federal agencies in organizing and guiding CCC work. Wilson, James; "Community, Civility, and Citizenship: Theatre and Indoctrination in the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s" Theatre History Studies, Vol. 23, 2003 pp 77-92 Hill, Edwin G. In the Shadow of the Mountain: The Spirit of the CCC. Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-87422-073-5 Kiran Klaus Patel. Soldiers of Labor. Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933-1945, Cambridge University Press, New York 2005, ISBN 0-521-83416-3. External links Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Legacy A merged non-profit foundation of the former National Association of CCC Alumni (NACCCA) and the Camp Roosevelt CCC Legacy Foundation National Archives & Records Administration: Records of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) James F Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Online CCC Biographies Stories Photographs and Documents Rosentreter, Roger L. "Roosevelt's Tree Army: Michigan's Civilian Conservation Corps", with photographs Life in the Civilian Conservation CorpsPrimary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by CCC in Texas The Corps Network (formerly known as NASCC) Living New Deal Project, California CCC Legacy in Massachusetts Top 10 New Deal Programs WE CAN TAKE IT- grassroot call for action citizens group urging our policy makers to reactivate the CCC Youtube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)" Film, The March of Time: Youth Jobs Program (CCC) During Great Depression Film: President Visits Foresters (CCC), Roosevelt 1933/08/14 NARA film: A Nation-Wide System of Parks 1939 NARA film: Alabama Highlands 1937 Alabama State Parks NARA film: Down Mobile Way 1935 Alabama State Parks NARA film: Cradle of the Father of Waters 1938 Minnesota State Parks, Lake Itasca State Park NARA: Great Smoky Mountains National Park 1936 NARA film: Outdoors in the Garden State 1937 New Jersey State Parks

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Mervyn_Peake

Mervyn Laurence Peake (July 9, 1911 – November 17, 1968) was an English modernist writer, artist, poet and illustrator. He is best known for what are usually referred to as the Gormenghast books. (The three works were part of what Peake conceived as a lengthy cycle, the completion of which was halted by his death.) They are sometimes compared to the work of his older contemporary J. R. R. Tolkien, but his surreal fiction was influenced by his early love for Charles Dickens and Robert Louis Stevenson rather than Tolkien's studies of mythology and philology. Peake also wrote poetry and literary nonsense in verse form, short stories for adults and children ("Letters from a Lost Uncle"), stage and radio plays, and Mr Pye, a relatively tightly-structured novel in which God implicitly mocks the evangelical pretensions and cosy world-view of the eponymous hero. Peake first made his reputation as a painter and illustrator during the 1930s and 1940s, when he lived in London, and he was commissioned to produce portraits of well-known people. A collection of these drawings is still in the possession of his family. Although he gained little popular success in his lifetime, his work was highly respected by his peers, and his friends included Dylan Thomas and Graham Greene. His works are now included in the collections of the National Portrait Gallery and the Imperial War Museum. Biography Mervyn Peake was born of British parents in Kuling (Lushan) in Jiangxi Province of central China in 1911 only three months before the revolution and the founding of the Republic of China. His father Ernest Cromwell Peake was a medical missionary doctor with the London Missionary Society of the Congregationalist tradition and his mother, Amanda Elizabeth Powell, had come to China as a missionary nurse. The Peakes returned to England just before World War I in 1914 but returned again in 1916 to China. Mervyn Peake attended Tientsin Grammar School, where he wrote in 1921 his first novel The White Chief of the Unzimbooboo Kaffirs, until the family returned to England in 1923 via the Trans-Siberian Railway. Mervyn Peake never returned to China but it has been noted that Chinese influences can be detected in Peake's works, not least in the castle of Gormenghast itself, which in some respects echoes the ancient walled city of Peking (Beijing) as well as the enclosed compound where he grew up in Tientsin (Tianjin). It is also likely that his early exposure to the contrasts between the lives of the Europeans, and of the Chinese, and between the poor and the wealthy in China also exerted an influence on the Gormenghast books. His education continued at Eltham College, Mottingham (1923-1929), where his talents were encouraged by his English teacher, Eric Drake. He completed his formal education at Croydon School of Art and at the Royal Academy Schools from 1929 to 1933, where he first painted in oils and wrote his first long poems. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy and with the so-called "Soho Group" in 1931. His early career in the 1930s was as a painter in London, although he lived on the Channel Island of Sark for a time. He first moved to Sark in 1932 where his former teacher Eric Drake was setting up an artists' colony. In 1934 he exhibited with the Sark artists both in the Sark Gallery built by Drake and at the Cooling Galleries in London. In 1935 he exhibited at the Royal Academy and at the Leger Galleries in London. In 1936 he returned to London and was commissioned to design the sets and costumes for Insect Play and his work was acclaimed in The Sunday Times. He also began teaching life drawing at Westminster School of Art where he met painter Maeve Gilmore, whom he married in 1937. They had three children, Sebastian (b. 1940), Fabian (b. 1942), and Clare (b. 1949). He had a very successful exhibition of paintings at the Calmann Gallery in London in 1938 and his first book, the self-illustrated children's pirate romance Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor (based on a story he had written around 1936) was first published in 1939 by Country Life. In December 1939 he was commissioned by Chatto & Windus to illustrate a children's book, Ride a Cock Horse and Other Nursery Rhymes, published for the Christmas market in 1940. At the outbreak of World War II he applied to become a war artist for he was keen to put his skills at the service of his country. He imagined An Exhibition by the Artist, Adolf Hitler, in which horrific images of war with ironic titles were offered as 'artworks' by the Nazi leader. Although the drawings were bought by the British Ministry of Information his application was turned down and he was conscripted in the Army, where he served first with the Royal Artillery, then with the Royal Engineers. The Army didn't know what to do with him. He began writing Titus Groan at this time. In April 1942, after his requests for commissions as a war artist - or even leave to depict war damage in London - had been consistently refused, he suffered a nervous breakdown and was sent to Southport Hospital. That autumn he was taken on as a graphic artist by the Ministry of Information for a period of six months. The next spring he was invalided out of the Army. In 1943 he was commissioned by the War Artists Advisory Committee to paint glassblowers at a Birmingham factory making cathode ray tubes for the early radar sets. The five years between 1943 and 1948 were some of the most productive of his career. He finished Titus Groan and Gormenghast and completed some of his most acclaimed illustrations for books by other authors, including Lewis Carroll's Hunting of the Snark (for which he was reportedly paid only £5) and Alice in Wonderland, Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the Brothers Grimm's Household Tales, All This and Bevin Too by Quentin Crisp and Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, as well as producing many original poems, drawings, and paintings. A book of nonsense poems, Rhymes Without Reason, was published in 1944 and was described by John Betjeman as "outstanding". Shortly after the war ended in 1945 he was commissioned by a magazine to visit France and Germany. With writer Tom Pocock he was among the first British civilians to witness the horrors of the Nazi concentration camp at Belsen, where the remaining prisoners, too sick to be moved, were dying before his very eyes. He made several drawings, but not surprisingly he found the experience profoundly harrowing, and expressed in deeply felt poems the ambiguity of turning their suffering into art. In 1946 the family moved to Sark, where Peake continued to write and illustrate, and Maeve painted. Gormenghast was published in 1950, and the family moved back to England, settling in Smarden, Kent. Peake taught part-time at the Central School of Art, began his comic novel Mr Pye, and renewed his interest in theatre. His father died that year and left his house in Hillside Gardens in Wallington, Surrey to Mervyn. Mr Pye was published in 1953, and he later adapted it as a radio play. The BBC broadcast other plays of his in 1954 and 1956. In 1956 Mervyn and Maeve visited Spain, financed by a friend who hoped that Peake's health, which was already declining, would be improved by the holiday. That year his novella Boy in Darkness was published beside stories by William Golding and John Wyndham in a volume called Sometime, Never. On 18 December the BBC broadcast his radio play The Eye of the Beholder (later revised as The Voice of One) in which an avante-garde artist is commissioned to paint a church mural. Peake placed much hope in his play The Wit To Woo which was finally staged in London's West End in 1957, but it was a critical and commercial failure. This affected him greatly -- his health degenerated rapidly and he was again admitted to hospital with a nervous breakdown. He was showing unmistakable early symptoms of Parkinson's Disease, for which he was given electroconvulsive therapy, to little avail. Over the next few years he gradually lost the ability to draw steadily and quickly, although he still managed to produce some drawings with the help of his wife. Among his last completed works were the illustrations for Balzac's Droll Stories (1961) and for his own poem The Rhyme Of The Flying Bomb (1962), which he had written some fifteen years earlier. Titus Alone was published in 1959 and was revised by Langdon Jones in 1970 to remove apparent inconsistencies introduced by the publisher's careless editing. A 1995 edition of all three completed Gormenghast novels includes a very short fragment of the beginning of what would have been the fourth Gormenghast novel, "Titus Awakes", as well as a listing of events and themes he wanted to address in that and later Gormenghast novels. Peake died in November 1968. His work, and the Gormenghast books in particular, became much better known and more widely appreciated after his death, and they have since been translated into more than two dozen languages. Peake's grandson is rising UK chart star Jack Peñate. Mervyn Peake Official Biography Six volumes of Peake's verse were published during his lifetime; Shapes & Sounds (1941), Rhymes without Reason 1944, The Glassblowers (1950), The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb (1962), Poems & Drawings (1965), and A Reverie of Bone (1967). After his death came Selected Poems (1972), followed by Peake's Progress in (1979 – though the Penguin edition of 1982, with many corrections, including a whole stanza inadvertently omitted from the hardback edition, is to be preferred). The Collected Poems of Mervyn Peake was published by Carcanet Press in June 2008. Other collections include The Drawings of Mervyn Peake (1974), Writings and Drawings (1974), and Mervyn Peake: the man and his art (2006). Dramatic adaptations of Peake's work In 1983, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast eight hour-long episodes for radio dramatising the complete Gormenghast Trilogy. This was the only adaptation to include the third book Titus Alone. In 1984, BBC Radio 4 broadcast two 90-minute plays based on Titus Groan and Gormenghast, adapted by Brian Sibley and starring Sting as Steerpike and Freddie Jones as the Artist (narrator). A slightly abridged compilation of the two, running to 160 minutes, and entitled Titus Groan of Gormenghast, was broadcast on Christmas Day, 1992. BBC 7 repeated the original versions on 21 and 28 September, 2003. In 1986, Mr Pye was adapted as a four-part Channel 4 miniseries starring Derek Jacobi. In 2000, the BBC and WGBH Boston co-produced a lavish miniseries, titled Gormenghast, based on the first two books of the series. It starred Jonathan Rhys-Meyers as Steerpike, Neve McIntosh as Fuchsia, June Brown as Nannie Slagg, Ian Richardson as Lord Groan, Christopher Lee as Flay, Richard Griffiths as Swelter, Warren Mitchell as Barquentine, Celia Imrie as Countess Gertrude, Lynsey Baxter and Zoë Wanamaker as the twins, Cora and Clarice, and John Sessions as Dr Prunesquallor. The supporting cast included Olga Sosnovska, Stephen Fry and Eric Sykes and the series is also notable as the last screen performance by comedy legend Spike Milligan (as the Headmaster). A minimalist stage version of Gormenghast performed by the David Glass Ensemble was adapted by John Constable and directed by David Glass. The production features atmospheric music and lighting and relies heavily on mime, all to convey the immense vastness of the Gormenghast castle on the small stage. It has toured theatres in the UK during 2006 and 2007. The 30-minute TV short film A Boy In Darkness (also made in 2000 and adapted from Peake's novella) was the first production from the BBC Drama Lab. It was set in a 'virtual' computer-generated world created by young computer game designers, and starred Jack Ryder (from EastEnders) as Titus, with Terry Jones (Monty Python's Flying Circus) narrating. Irmin Schmidt, founder of seminal German 'Krautrock' group Can wrote an opera called Gormenghast, based on the novels; it was first performed in Wuppertal, Germany, in November 1998. A number of early songs by New Zealand rock group Split Enz were inspired by Peake's work. The song "The Drowning Man," by British band The Cure, is inspired by events in Gormenghast, and the song "Lady Fuschia" by another British band, Strawbs, is also based on events in the novels. Bibliography The White Chief of the Unzimbooboo Kaffirs (1921) Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor (1939) Shapes and Sounds (1941) Rhymes without Reason (1944) Titus Groan (1946) The Craft of the Lead Pencil (1946) Letters from a Lost Uncle (from Polar Regions) (1948) Drawings by Mervyn Peake (1949) Gormenghast (1950) The Glassblowers (1950) Mr Pye (1953) Figures of Speech (1954) Titus Alone (1959) The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb (1962) Poems and Drawings (1965) A Reverie of Bone and other Poems (1967) Selected Poems (1972) A Book of Nonsense (1972) The Drawings of Mervyn Peake (1974) Mervyn Peake: Writings and Drawings (1974) Twelve Poems (1975) Boy in Darkness (first separate edition, 1976, but a corrupt text) Peake's Progress (1978) Ten Poems (1993) Eleven Poems (1995) The Cave (1996) Boy in Darkness and other stories (2007, the correct text and five other pieces) Collected Poems (2008) Illustrated books Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor (by himself) (Country Life, 1939) Ride a Cock Horse and Other Nursery Rhymes (Chatto & Windus, 1940) Hunting of the Snark (by Lewis Carroll) Alice in Wonderland (by Lewis Carroll) The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (by Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Household Tales (by the Brothers Grimm) All This and Bevin Too (by Quentin Crisp) Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (by Robert Louis Stevenson) Treasure Island (by Robert Louis Stevenson) Droll Stories (by Balzac) (Folio Society, 1961) The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb (by himself) (1962) Titus Groan, Gormenghast, and Titus Alone (by himself; several editions include an abundance of illustrations, on plates in the center and/or distributed through the text) Quotes about Peake "Mervyn Peake is a finer poet than Edgar Allan Poe, and he is therefore able to maintain his world of fantasy brilliantly through three novels. [The Gormenghast trilogy] is a very, very great work ... a classic of our age." — Robertson Davies "[Peake's books] are actual additions to life; they give, like certain rare dreams, sensations we never had before, and enlarge our conception of the range of possible experience." — C. S. Lewis "Fuchsia was my dream. This idea of the infinite, of the unreal, of the innocence dying..." — Robert Smith 2003 (about the Peake character that inspired the early Cure song The Drowning Man in 1980) External links Mervyn Peake, the official site Gormenghast, the official Gormenghast site Peake Studies, the periodical dedicated to Peake's life and work, with a complete Peake bibliography the Peake entry in the Literary Encyclopedia The Scriptorium: Mervyn Peake "An Excellence of Peake", by Michael Moorcock Gormenghast Castle Self-portrait from the National Portrait Gallery collection Interview with Sebastian Peake, Mervyn Peake's son, on wotmania.com Titus Groan review at FantasyLiterature.net References General Winnington, G. Peter (ed.) (2006) Mervyn Peake: the man and his art. (London: Peter Owen) Winnington, G. Peter (2000) Vast Alchemies: the life and work of Mervyn Peake. (London: Peter Owen) Winnington, G. Peter (2006) The Voice of the Heart: the working of Mervyn Peake's imagination. (Liverpool U P / Chicago U P) Peake, Mervyn (ca.1950) 'Notes towards a Projected Autobiography', printed in Maeve Gilmore (ed.), Peake's Progress: Selected Writings and Drawings of Mervyn Peake (London: Allen Lane, 1978) Specific

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Transport_in_Cambodia

War and continuing fighting severely damaged Cambodia's transportation system — a system that had been inadequately developed in peacetime. The country's weak infrastructure hindered emergency relief efforts and created tremendous problems of procurement of supplies in general and of distribution. Cambodia received Soviet technical assistance and equipment to support the maintenance of the transportation network. Railways total - 603 km narrow gauge - 603 km 1000 mm gauge Cambodia had two rail lines, both originating in Phnom Penh, totaling about 612 kilometers of single, one-meter-gauge track. The French built the first line, which runs from Phnom Penh to Poipet on the Thai border, between 1930 and 1940 (Phnom Penh Station opened in 1932) the final connection with Thailand has been done by Royal State Railways in 1942. However, the service from Bangkok to Battambang was suspended on December 17, 1946 -> the day French Indochinese Government resumed sovereignty over Battambang and the Sisophon area. (Thailand was seen as a supporter of Khmer Issarak, the anti-French, Khmer nationalist political movement.) Assistance from France, West Germany, and the People's Republic of China, between 1960 and 1969, supported the construction of the second line which runs from Phnom Penh to Sihanoukville at the southern coast to cut down the reliance on Saigon Port of Vietnam and Khlong Toei Port of Thailand. In 1960, Australia provided four 3rd class passenger carriages under the Colombo Plan Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin, March, 1960 pp39-40 . Rail service ceased during the war but resumed in the early 1980s. Guerrilla activities, however, continued to disrupt service. However, the service between Phnom Penh to Battambang has been reduced from daily to weekly service due to the lack of funds to maintain the tracks and rolling stock .... even the new diesel-electric locomotives from China cannot run on the tracks due to the dilapidated condition. Derailing of trains in operation are not infrequent. As reported by the Phnom Penh Post in October 2008, the national Railway earned merely $2 million per year; the annual freight amount stood at 350,000 , and the passenger count at 500,000. Ailing railway set for upgrade. The Phnom Penh Post, Wednesday, 29 October 2008. Railway links with adjacent countries Thailand - yes - suspended - same gauge 1000 mm Laos - no - same gauge 1000 mm - indirectly via Thailand Vietnam - no - same gauge 1000 mm Maps UN Map Timeline 2008 October-November: A 30-year agreement is prepared with Australia's Toll Holdings to upgrade the national railway system, restore the link from the present western railhead at Sisophon to the Thai railhead at Poipet, and to construct a new 225-km line linking Cambodian railways to the Vietnamese railhead of Loc Ninh. The renovation of the existing lines, to be carried out in 50 km segments, is expected to take 2-3 years. The link to Vietnam would involve construction of two major bridges: one across the Tonle Sap River, and another across the Mekong River in Kampong Cham Province. The Cambodian government is hoping to get assistance from China to finance the project. 2007 ADB and OPEC agree to lend $80m for Aranyaprathet to Sisophon link with completion in 2010. International Railway Journal December 2007 p4 $500m is needed for another 254 km link from Phnom Penh to Loc Ninh. 2006 Trans-Asian Railway network planned - VietNamNet Bridge Link proposed Aranyaprathet, Thailand to Sisophon, Cambodia Malaysia offer to donate rails and sleepers to Cambodia, to help them complete the missing links, which would be of value to all countries in the vicinity. 17 November 2006 - To complete a missing link in the Singapore-Kunming rail route, Malaysia has donated rails to Cambodia which will be used to connect Poipet to Sisophon (48 km). Intelligence Railway Gazette International April 2005 According to Transport Minister Datuk Seri Chan Kong Choy, the rail was lifted from the old Rawang-Ipoh section where a new electrified double line has been built. A link between Cambodia and Vietnam including a crossing of the Mekong River is still required. The completed Singapore-Kunming line is expected to promote increased trade with China. 16 December 2006 - The Asian Development Bank is advancing a loan together with the donation in kind of rails from Malaysia will see restoration of the link with Thailand. Cities served by rail Poipet - on border with Thailand, currently served by Thai rail only. Sisophon - district capital Battambang - provincial capital Moung Ruessei - district capital Pursat- provincial capital Phnom Pehn - national capital - port on Mekong River Takeo - provincial capital Sihanoukville - port and provincial capital Bamboo Railway The bamboo railway as it is known to overseas visitors, "nori" or " "lorries" as it is known to locals is a popular form of transport in the North west of the country near Battambang. The trains consist of a bamboo-covered platform and two detached axles with wheels. They run on regular tracks and are powered with Briggs & Stratton type air-cooled gasoline engines, adapted from portable electricity generators. Power is transmitted by belt and pulley. Trains can reach up to 40 km/h. When meeting traffic in the opposite direction, passengers are expected to lift the platform and axles off the tracks to let the other "train" pass. BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Cambodians ride 'bamboo railway' Highways total - 35,769 km paved - 17884 km unpaved - 17884 km (2006 est.) National Highway 4National Highway 1 Of the current total, only about 50 percent of the roads and highways were covered with asphalt and were in good condition; about 50 percent of the roads were made of crushed stone, gravel, or improved earth; and the remaining approximately 30 percent were unimproved earth or were little more than tracks. In 1981 Cambodia opened a newly repaired section of National Route 1 which runs southeast from Phnom Penh to the Vietnamese border. The road, which suffered damage during the war years, was restored most probably by Vietnamese army engineers. In the late 1980s, Cambodia's road network was both underutilized and unable to meet even the modest demands placed upon it by an unindustrialized and agriculture society (see fig. 8.). Commercial vehicles, such as trucks and buses, were insufficient in number and lacked the spare parts necessary to keep them running. Road construction and maintenance were ignored by a financially hard-pressed government, while insurgents regularly destroyed bridges and rendered some routes unsafe for travel. Cambodia is upgrading the main highways to international standards and most are vastly improved from 2006. Most main roads are now paved. And now road construction is on going from the Thailand border at Poipet to Siem Reap (Angkor Wat). Gas station on the road from the Thai border to Siem Reap National Highway Code Length Origin TerminalNational Highway 1 10001 167.10 km Phnom Penh Vietnam Border National Highway 2 10002 120.60 km Phnom Penh Vietnam Border National Highway 3 10003202.00 km Phnom Penh Veal Rinh National Highway 4 10004226.00 km Phnom Penh Sihanoukville National Highway 5 10005407.45 km Phnom Penh Thailand Border National Highway 6 10006416.00 km Phnom Penh Banteay Meanchey National Highway 7 10007 509.17 km Skon Veun Sai Laos border National Highway 11 10008 90.00 km Neak Leung Thnal Totoung Waterways An elderly Khmer man on the Tonle Sap The nation's extensive inland waterways were important historically in domestic trade. The Mekong and the Tonle Sap Rivers, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometers navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 meters and another 282 kilometers navigable to craft drawing 1.8 meters. In some areas, especially west of the Mekong River and north of the Tonle Sap River, the villages were completely dependent on waterways for communications. Launches, junks, or barges transport passengers, rice, and other food in the absence of roads and railways. According to the Ministry of Communications, Transport, and Posts, Cambodia's main ferry services crossing the Bassac River and the middle Mekong River at Neak Leung , Tonle Bet, Sre Ambel, Kampong Cham, and Stoeng Treng were restored in 1985. The major Mekong River navigation routes also were cleared for traffic. Seaports and harbors A ferry taking vehicles and passengers across the Mekong to Neak Leung town Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, also known as Kampong Som, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, located at the junction of the Bassac, the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap rivers, is the only river port capable of receiving 8,000-ton ships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season. It remains an important port for international commerce as well as for domestic communications. Sihanoukville port reopened in late 1979. It had been built in 1960 with French assistance. In 1980 some 180 Soviet dockworkers, having brought with them forklifts and trucks, were reportedly working at Kampong Som as longshoremen or as instructors of unskilled Cambodian port workers. By 1984 approximately 1,500 Cambodian port workers were handling 2,500 tons of cargo per day. According to official statistics, Sihanoukville had handled only 769,500 tons in the four prior years (1979 to 1983), a level that contrasted sharply with the port's peacetime capacity of about 1 million tons of cargo per year. Merchant marine total - 211 ships ( or over) totaling / ships by type - bulk carrier 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container ship 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger ship/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.) note - a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.) The Sihanoukville Port. Cambodia's Port. (PAS) Sihanoukville, Cambodia. Unofficial Home Page Airports 17 (2007) The country possesses twenty-six airfields, of which only thirteen were usable in the mid-1980s. Eight airfields had permanent-surface runways. Pochentong International Airport near Phnom Penh is the largest airport; it also serves as the main base for the renascent Cambodian Air Force (see Kampuchean, or Khmer, People's Revolutionary Armed Forces, ch. 5). Cambodia opened a new Soviet-built airfield at Ream, Sihanoukville International Airport in late 1983, which never saw commercial air traffic until now. There are additional secondary airports in Siem Reap and in Battambang. Air Kampuchea was established in 1982 and flew only one route-- from Phnom Penh to Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. In 1984 commercial air service was inaugurated between Phnom Penh and Hanoi with the arrival at Hanoi International Airport of the Kampuchean Civil Aviation Company's (AKASCHOR) first flight. Since then, there has been regular air service from Phnom Penh to Hanoi, Vientiane, and Moscow. Airports - with paved runways total: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2007) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 11 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 9 (2007) Heliports: 1 (CIA, 2007) See also Cambodia Ministry of Public Works and Transport, of Cambodia Phnom Penh International Airport Transport in present-day nations and states External links The SihanoukVille Port Cambodians ride 'bamboo railway' Video, photos and travel diary of Cambodia's trains by traveller Tom Grundy. The Sihanoukville Airport National highways Inland waterways in Cambodia References

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base:1 renascent:1 force:2 kampuchean:2 revolutionary:1 arm:1 ch:1 built:1 ream:1 never:1 saw:1 additional:1 secondary:1 kampuchea:1 establish:1 fly:1 ho:1 chi:1 minh:1 inaugurate:1 hanoi:3 arrival:1 civil:1 aviation:1 company:1 akaschor:1 flight:1 since:1 vientiane:1 moscow:1 heliport:1 cia:1 public:1 external:1 video:1 photo:1 diary:1 traveller:1 tom:1 grundy:1 reference:1 |@bigram severely_damage:1 narrow_gauge:1 phnom_penh:22 thailand_vietnam:1 tonle_sap:6 mekong_river:6 gasoline_engine:1 bbc_news:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 vastly_improve:1 siem_reap:3 angkor_wat:1 inland_waterway:2 kilometer_navigable:2 seaport_harbor:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 ho_chi:1 chi_minh:1 pave_runway:1 airports_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1

Foreign_relations_of_India

The Republic of India is the world's most-populous electoral democracy and has one of the fastest economic growth rates in the world (8.9 percent GDP increase in 2007, the second-fastest major economy in the world after China). Indian economic growth rate - BBC With the world's fourth largest armed forces, World Almanac: Nation's with Largest Armed Forces and fourth largest economy by purchasing power parity, it is considered to be a regional power Indian Navy tsunami aid highlights country's role as 'super regional power India As a Regional Power and a potential superpower. India: Asia's Other Superpower Breaks Out The Coverage of Three International Newspapers on India's Super Power Capabilities in the Region: A Content Analysis of The Times of India, New York Times and London Times India: A Superpower in the making India set to become an economic superpower: Chidambaram It is India's growing international influence that increasingly gives it a more prominent voice in global affairs. US Today on NIC report The New Great Game: Why the Bush administration has embraced India E.U. India relations US-India relations After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution. http://old.thejakartapost.com/yesterdaydetail.asp?fileid=20080717.B08 The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc. However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it. The end of the Cold War significantly affected India's foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, Fact Sheet: United States and India: Strategic Partnership the People's Republic of China, India and China the European Union, The EU's relations with India - Overview Japan, India and Japan Israel, India-Israel Partnership Mexico, Mexico » International Relations and Brazil. India, Brazil ink nine agreements India has also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, India & Asean the African Union, World Report: "India 2nd largest importer of conventional weapons," Business Standard, February 14, 2008 , the Arab League Indo-Arab relations; an account of India's relations with the Arab World from ancient up to modern times and Iran. [http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749743 A special report on India: India elsewhere: An awkward neighbour in a troublesome neighbourhood] December 11th 2008 The Economist Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia, Prospects for India-Russia Security Relations - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Israel has emerged as India's second largest military partner while India has built a strong strategic partnership with the United States. http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=feb1507\edit1 The Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement, signed and implemented in 2008, highlighted the growing sophistication of the Indo-American relations. US-India Nuclear Deal Goes Through India has a long history of collaboration with several countries and is considered a leader of the developing world. G8 SUMMIT: Developing Countries Stand Firm by Kyoto Protocol India was one of the founding members of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Asian Development Bank and the G20 industrial nations. India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like East Asia Summit, http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-4519133/ANALYSTS-SAY-INDIA-S-POWER.html World Trade Organization, http://www.pjstar.com/business/x1906041915/Guebert-WTO-talks-show-declining-U-S-clout IMF, http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=4&aid=149&dir=2007/October/Friday26 G8+5 http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23978188-2703,00.html and IBSA Dialogue Forum. http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=9969 Regional organizations India is a part of include SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several UN peacekeeping missions and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop contributor to the United Nations. http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/peace_keeping/history_india_UN_peace_keeping.htm India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the UNSC, along with the G4 nations. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3678736.stm Policy Countries which have formal diplomatic relations with India. India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighborhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalties. Introduction to India's Foreign Policy, Embassy of India - Washington, DC The guiding principles of India's Foreign Policy have been founded on Panchsheel, pragmatism and pursuit of national interest. In a period of rapid and continuing change, foreign policy must be capable of responding optimally to new challenges and opportunities. It has to be an integral part of the larger effort of building the nation's capabilities through economic development, strengthening social fabric and well-being of the people and protecting India's sovereignty and territorial integrity. India's foreign policy is a forward-looking engagement with the rest of the world, based on a rigorous, realistic and contemporary assessment of the bilateral, regional and global geo-political and economic milieu. As many as 20 million people of Indian origin live and work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother country. An important role of India's foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare and well being within the framework of the laws of the country where they live. India and the world-http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/30ar01.pdf Role of the Prime Minister The Prime Minister of India, in collaboration with External Affairs Ministry, handles key foreign policy decisions. Shown here is the current Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh with the Prime Minister of Russia, Vladimir Putin. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru set the pattern for the formation of Indian foreign policy: a strong personal role for the prime minister but a weak institutional structure. Nehru served concurrently as prime minister and minister of external affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service. His successors continued to exercise considerable control over India's international dealings, although they generally appointed separate ministers of external affairs. India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-66), expanded the Office of Prime Minister (sometimes called the Prime Minister's Secretariat) and enlarged its powers. By the 1970s, the Office of the Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supraministry of the Indian government. The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime minister's control over foreign policy making at the expense of the Ministry of External Affairs. Advisers in the office provided channels of information and policy recommendations in addition to those offered by the Ministry of External Affairs. A subordinate part of the office—the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)--functioned in ways that significantly expanded the information available to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime Minister, and conducted covert operations abroad. The prime minister's control and reliance on personal advisers in the Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of Indira Gandhi (1966-77 and 1980-84) and her son, Rajiv (1984-89), who succeeded her, and weaker during the periods of coalition governments. Observers find it difficult to determine whether the locus of decision-making authority on any particular issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers, the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime minister himself. The Prime Minister is however free to appoint advisers and special committees to examine various foreign policy options and areas of interest. In a recent instance, Manmohan Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to head a special government task force to study 'Global Strategic Developments' over the next decade. http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/05/stories/2005110502491300.htm The Task Force submitted its conclusions to the Prime Minister in 2006. http://www.asianage.com/presentation/columnisthome/inder-malhotra/china-a-long-view.aspx http://news.indiainfo.com/2006/09/19/1909india-us-unique.html The report has not yet been released in the public domain. Other Government Organizations Besides the Office of the Prime Minister and the Ministry of External Affairs, there are other government agencies that have foreign policy-making roles. In theory, the ministers of defence, commerce, and finance provide input to foreign policy decisions discussed in cabinet meetings, but their influence in practical terms is overshadowed by the predominant position of the prime minister and his advisers. The armed forces are removed from policy making and have influence only through the minister of defence, to whom they are subordinate. Only a limited role in foreign policy making is provided for India's bicameral Parliament. Negotiated treaties and international agreements become legally binding on the state but are not part of domestic law unless passed by an act of Parliament, which also has no say in the appointment of diplomats and other government representatives dealing with foreign affairs. For the most part, because of the widespread domestic support for India's foreign policy, Parliament has endorsed government actions or sought information. The most important official link between Parliament and the executive in the mid-1990s is the Committee on External Affairs of the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the lower chamber of Parliament. The committee meets regularly and draws its membership from many parties. Usually it has served either as a forum for government briefings or as a deliberative body. Role of Political and Interest Groups Institutional connections between public opinion and foreign policy making are tenuous as they have been since independence. Although international issues receive considerable attention in the media and in academic circles, the views expressed by journalists and scholars in these publications have little impact on foreign policy making. Interest groups concerned with foreign relations exist inside and outside Parliament but are less organized or articulate than in most other democracies. These organizations include such business groups as the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce International; religious groups, especially among Muslims; and various friendship or cultural societies promoting closer ties with specific countries. Among the latter are informal groups known as the "Russian" and "American" lobbies. Overview India has often represented the interests of developing countries at various international platforms. Shown here are BRIC leaders in 2008: Manmohan Singh, Dmitry Medvedev, Hu Jintao and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva India's relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (1757–1947), when the British Empire monopolized external and defense relations. When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy. However, the country's oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicize its freedom struggle. From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As a member of the interim government in 1946, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world. India Foreign Relations During Nehru's tenure as the first Prime Minister of India (1947-64), he achieved a domestic consensus on the definition of Indian national interests and foreign policy goals — building a unified and integrated nation-state based on secular, democratic principles; defending Indian territory and protecting its security interests; guaranteeing India's independence internationally through nonalignment; and promoting national economic development unencumbered by over-reliance on any country or group of countries. These objectives were closely related to the determinants of India's foreign relations: the historical legacy of South Asia; India's geopolitical position and security requirements; and India's economic needs as a large developing nation. From 1947 until the late 1980s, India's foreign policy goals enabled it to achieve some successes in carving out an independent international role. Regionally, India was the predominant power because of its size, its population (the world's second-largest after China), and its growing military strength. However, relations with its neighbors, Pakistan in particular, were often tense and fraught with conflict. In addition, globally India's nonaligned stance was not a viable substitute for the political and economic role it wished to play. India Foreign Relations - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System India's international influence varied over the years after independence. Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West. Although the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia. In the 1960s and 1970s, India's international position among developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt to balance Pakistan's support from the United States and China by signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971. Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan. In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbors, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs. India - Foreign Relations In the 1990s, India's economic problems and the demise of the bipolar world political system forced India to reassess its foreign policy and adjust its foreign relations. Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious domestic and international problems facing India. The end of the Cold War gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy without significant direction. The hard, pragmatic considerations of the early 1990s were still viewed within the nonaligned framework of the past, but the disintegration of the Soviet Union removed much of India's international leverage, for which relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could not compensate. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, India improved its relations with the United States, Canada, France, Japan and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel. Mexico's former President Vicente Fox with Indian PM Manmohan Singh. India has developed close ties with other developing countries in recent years. In the mid-1990s, India attracted the world attention towards the alleged Pakistan-backed terrorism in Kashmir. The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic victory for India. The United States and European Union recognized the fact that Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated into Indian territory and pressurized Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil. Several anti-India militant groups based in Pakistan were labeled as terrorist groups by the United States and European Union. In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons for the second time (see Pokhran-II) which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defense minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to potential Chinese nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. Beyond Pokharan II After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the War on Terrorism, coupled with a surge in its economy, has helped India's diplomatic relations with several countries. Over the past three years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years. PPI: U.S. Exports to India Have Doubled Since 2003 India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including France, Russia, BBC News: South Asia - Putin backs India's UN seat bid the United Kingdom, UNSC without India unrealistic - The Economic Times Germany, Japan, Brazil The Hindu: India & World: “Working together for Security Council seat” Australia, UN seat 'central' to Australian foreign policy African Union nations http://www.flonnet.com/stories/20080509250906100.htm and recently China. China offers tepid backing for India bid for UN council seat - International Herald Tribune In 2004, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception, however this has not persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India. Growing assertiveness In the Summer of 2007, an article in Washington Quarterly, suggested the question of where or not China can be a responsible stakeholder could also be asked of India. It said that international stakeholders help to defend or create an international system. In this it said India is already setting norms as it breaks out of non alignment and steps up to the global stage. Prophetically, the article suggested that India's growing wealth would enable it to take up "additional burdens with capabilities it is already beginning to develop." Dormandy, Xenia. "Is India, or will it be, a responsible international stakeholder?" Washington Quarterly, 2007. Along these lines, in late 2008, the Indian navy sent two ships into the Gulf of Aden to protect international shipping, particularly Indian vessels, from increasing piracy off Somalia. On November 11, one of the vessels, the INS Tabar, was called into action to fight off a pirate attack on an Indian and a Saudi-registered vessel. In response to prompt action and successes there were calls in India to step up to the plate, much like the calls following the Indian embassy bombing in Kabul. All India Port and Dock Workers' Federation president, S R Kulkarni, suggested India take the lead ask the UN to deploy warships off the Somalia waters plagued by incessant cases of ship hijacks by pirates. He followed this call saying, "Indian warships, their officers and crew have demonstrated exemplary work by foiling hijack bid near Somalia." http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1206056 This was said to mark a significant step for India, which was determined to translate the said growing economic strength into global military and political clout. Ashok Mehta, a retired Indian army general, said "India now has the demonstrable capacity to project force beyond its border." He added that this was the first time commandos had been used so far from Indian shores. This follows a programme to expand the navy from having traditional coast guard duties to one of the world's largest sea forces. Indian naval chief, Adm. Sureesh Mehta, vowed that the navy would ensure "a secure and peaceful environment in the Indian Ocean region and further India's political, economic, diplomatic and military objectives." To this end, India was seeking to acquire the biggest visible symbols of naval power—aircraft carriers and nuclear submarines. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/12/india.naval.power.ap/ In a more high-profile follow-up that got global media attention In a more high-profile and controversial follow-up just over a week later, that had also got more global media attention, the INS Tabar, equipped with the guided missiles, attacked what it thought was a "mothership" of pirates, while also forcing the abandonement of another, after coming under fire. http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200811/s2424542.htm?tab=latest The attack continued for three-four hours. Indian naval spokesman, Commander Nirad Sinha, said that the "INS Tabar encountered a pirate vessel south west of Oman with two speedboats in tow. This vessel was similar in description to the 'mother vessel' mentioned in various piracy bulletins. INS Tabar closed in on the vessel and asked her to stop for investigation. Pirates were seen roaming on the upper deck of the vessel with guns and rocket propelled grenade launchers. The vessel continued threatening calls and subsequently fired upon INS Tabar." http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=14801616 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/world/africa/20pirate.html?partner=rss&emc=rss http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5186821.ece It later turned out the sunken ship was a Thai-owned fishing vessel with 16 sailors on board. One sailor was confirmed to have survived, while another died; fourteen of the sailors' fate was not known. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/Indian-Navy-sank-our-vessel--14-crew-lost--says-Thai-fishing-firm/390675 http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080074077 http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1209478 Since November 2 - 19, the Indian naval operations in the area had successfully escorted approximately 35 ships, including a number of non-Indian flagged vessels, safely during their transit through pirate-infested waters of the Gulf of Aden. The spokesperson signalled the need for greater multilateral coordinations when he said that "the navies of several countries...have sent their ships to protect their own shipping...We try to coordinate patrols with the other countries but it is done at an informal level." http://www.newkerala.com/topstory-fullnews-48395.html In response to the attack it was reported that India was considering a further force augmentation to for anti-piracy operations. Even at the time of the incident the Navy was in the process of deploying a maritime reconnaissance aircraft in order to respond to merchant vessels under pirate attack more quickly. The matter was reported to be high on the agenda of defence dialogues between India and France that began just days later. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/India-likely-to-step-up-anti-piracy-operations/388318/ Following international praise and U.N. sanction authorising India to go in "hot pursuit" of pirates vessels, India decided to bring the INS Mysore as it was a larger ship and better able to deal with a "growing menace." An Indian naval source said that "The UN approval which allows Indian warships to enter Somali waters has been conveyed to us recently, [and] We can now enter the Somali territorial waters under certain circumstances. It would be only to check piracy." This in turn follows Indian calls for greater cooperation in this fight against piracy. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7741287.stm India reached out to Pakistan as well when the country gave stern warning that it was ready to go by all means necessary to protect itself. The first step came in in an assessment that India may share the latest developments in its investigations into the February 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings as Pakistan was expected to reiterate that India share with them the progress in the investigation. http://www.hindu.com/2008/11/25/stories/2008112559321000.htm As Pakistani president Asif Ali Zardari promised a "no first use" policy on its nuclear weapons India was set to review progress on the composite dialogue process during the Pakistani foreign minister, Shah Mehmood Qureshi visit on Wednesday. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/India_Pak_to_review_dialogue_progress_tomorrow/articleshow/3753385.cms At the same time, as legislative assembly election were running in Jammu and Kashmir. The elections has triggered a war of words between India and Pakistan. The Indian ministry of external affairs has strongly objected to comments made by the Pakistan foreign ministry, questioning the credibility of the ongoing democratic process in Jammu and Kashmir and Indian External Affairs spokesperson commented on Pakistan's reaction to the election that it was "most unfortunate that Pakistan has commented on an internal matter of India. We strongly object to these remarks." The Ministry added that Pakistan ought to behave in a responsible manner as "It is in Pakistan’s own interest to play a responsible role in the region. Comments such as these hardly suggest that it is prepared to do so." http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/PoliticsNation/Itll_be_good_for_Pak_if_it_behaves/articleshow/3743257.cms This came at the time when Pakistan's Indus Water Commissioner Jamaat Ali Shah said India could make Pakistan a barren land by 2014 by blocking water through construction of dams in violation of the Indus Water Treaty. He said that India had, and continued to, construct dams at various rivers in violation of the Treaty. He said that the Treaty allowed India to generate electricity on the flow of the river but it also said that water to Pakistan cannot be stopped. He commented in regards to India having already stopped water earlier in the year. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200811241635.htm Allies India's growing economy, strategic location, friendly foreign policy and large and vibrant diaspora has won it more allies than enemies. India has friendly relations with several countries in the developing world. Though India is not a part of any major military alliance, it has close strategic and military relationship with most of the major powers. Countries considered India's closest allies include the Russian Federation, Russia Strategic cooperation Israel, India and Israel: Dawn of a New Era Iran, Afghanistan , Nepal, The Times of India: Indian Maoists haven't evolved Bhutan, Scoop: Bhutanese Refugees: Trapped, United States and Tantalized and Tajikistan. Asia Times Online: South Asia news - India makes a soft landing in Tajikistan After the collapse of the Soviet Union and economic liberalization in 1991, India has fostered a close relationship with the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Japan. India's military and economic collaboration with the United States, Japan, MOFA: Japan-India Partnership in a New Asian Era: Strategic Orientation of Japan-India Global Partnership Italy, http://www.centralchronicle.com/20080726/2607301.htm and Israel has grown significantly in the past few years, while it has built upon its traditional military relations with United Kingdom, Russia and France. India has also forged relationships with developing countries, especially South Africa, Brazil, International Herald Tribune: Brazil finds a belated ally in India Mexico, India looks for key to Nafta in Mexico and the People's Republic of China (PRC). India, along with Mexico, Brazil, and South Africa, often represents the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5, IBSA and WTO. India represented the G20 developing nations at the Doha Development Round. India nixes WTO deal to cut tariffs India's "Look East" Policy has helped it develop greater economic and strategic partnership with South East Asian countries, South Korea, the PRC, Japan, and Taiwan. India also enjoys friendly relations with the Persian Gulf countries and the African Union. Bilateral and regional relations Neighbours Afghanistan Bilateral relations between India and Afghanistan have been traditionally strong and friendly. While India was the only South Asian country to recognize the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s, its relations were diminished during the Afghan civil wars and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s. India aided the overthrow of the Taliban and became the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid. The new democratically-elected Afghan government strengthened its ties with India in wake of persisting tensions and problems with Pakistan, which was suspected of continuing to shelter and support the Taliban. India pursues a policy of close cooperation in order to bolster its standing as a regional power and contain its rival Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and other parts of India. India is the largest regional investor in Afghanistan, having committed more than US$2.2 billion for reconstruction purposes. http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080060107&ch=8/4/2008%2011:17:00%20PM . Bangladesh Both states are part of the Indian subcontinent and have had a long common cultural, economic and political history. India played a crucial part in Bangladesh's breakaway from Pakistan. The people of the two countries are indistinguishable to most outsiders. The cultures of the two countries are similar; in particular India's West Bengal and Tripura states and Bangladesh are all Bengali speaking regions. India gave large amounts of aid to Bangladesh. In recent years India provides co-operation and assistance during annual natural calamities. India is a supplier of staple foods such as rice and live animals which helps keep their prices affordable for the masses of Bangladesh. Most of differences are of sharing water resources between the two countries. Also Bangladesh has been accused of providing shelter to militants. Bhutan Historically, ties with India have been close. Both countries signed a Friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign relations. On February 8, 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations." ashton In the revised treaty it now reads as, "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation. Tata Power, is building a hydro-electric dam. This dam, will greatly develop the Bhutanese economy, by providing employment, and by selling electricity, to India, to fulfil India's burgeoning energy needs. Due to this dam, Bhutan, grew at 20+%, the second highest growth rate in the world. Burma India was one of the leading supporters of Burmese independence and established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma. Myanmar shows India the road to Southeast Asia India provided considerable support when Burma struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Burma ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its own isolation from the world. Years of Isolation Produced Intensely Poor Nation Only China maintained close links with Burma while India supported the pro-democracy movement. India-Burma ties Realism in India-Myanmar relations However, due to geo-political concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the new name of Myanmar in 1993 overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Burma. Burma is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 miles and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar. Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities. In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar. India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula. Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar. India is a major customer of Myanmarese oil and gas. In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totaled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, comprising mostly of oil and gas. http://www.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=kshow&kid=1374 India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$ 57 million has been offered to upgrade Myanmarese railways. A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081105/jsp/opinion/story_10057616.jsp India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Myanmarese junta. http://www.abc.net.au/ra/news/stories/200804/s2206676.htm However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Myanmar. http://www.innercitypress.com/un1att102108.html Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's ruling junta. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/14/AR2008051400506_pf.html Maldives India enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security co-operation especially after Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country. As founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC. The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre. The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN. But the Maldives claims the Indian-administered territory of Minicoy as part of its country, that is inhabitanted by Muslims. Nepal Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries' borders. In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments." These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens. Pakistan Despite historical and cultural links, relations between India and Pakistan have been plagued by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict. After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi making the state an integral part of the Union of India. The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, however this time the conflict was over East Pakistan rather than Kashmir. Due to the large-scale atrocities committed by the Pakistan army, millions of Bengali refugees poured over into India. India, along with Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved. However, few months later, Kashmiri insurgents and Pakistani paramilitary forces, backed by Pakistani Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil conflict after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators. Though the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached all-time low which worsened even further following Pakistan's alleged involvement in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines IC814 plane in December 1999. Attempts to normalize relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed. Following the attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which too was blamed on Pakistan, there was a standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of a nuclear conflict. However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the last few years. Since the initiation of peace process, several confidence-building-measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape. The Samjhauta Express and Delhi–Lahore Bus service are one of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people to people contact between the two countries. http://www.dawn.com/2004/08/04/top13.htm The initiation of Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness among the two sides to improve relations. Though bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/01/business/AS-FIN-India-Pakistan-Trade.php The recent terror attacks in Mumbai, however, have seriously undermined the relations between the two countries. India is alleging Pakistan of harboring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denies such claims. The Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani, President Asif Zardari, Foreign Minister Shah Mehmood Qureshi and the Pakistani consulate in India have been at the fore-front of these denials. Relations are currently hampered since India has sent a list of 40 alleged fugitive in various terror strikes to Pakistan, expecting the handover of the said 40 people to the Indian Government. Pakistan, on the other hand, has openly declared to be having no intentions whatsoever of doing the above said extradition. Sri Lanka Bilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have been generally friendly, but were controversially affected by the on-going Sri Lankan civil war and by the failure of Indian intervention during the Sri Lankan civil war. India is the only neighbor of Sri Lanka, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean. India's Sri Lankan scars India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past. Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi & Colombo by special Air India flights. There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, viz., the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council. http://mea.gov.in/foreignrelation/srilanka.htm Asia–Pacific Australia The strongest ties between these two states is the commonwealth connection. Cricketing and Bollywood ties also help foster relations as in the frequent travel for games, and, more importantly, the presence of Australian cricketers in India for commercial gain. This was further enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood has also improved ties as with John Howard's visit to Mumbai to increase tourism to Australia, Bollywood makes minister Soni's job easier Furthermore, there is a going strategic connection to forming an "Asian NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia. The Insider: US, Japan, India & Australia announce military alliance against China The bilateral agreements have worked out for all but the Indo-Australian angle, though this has been hurt by India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium until the latter do so. The Australian and Indian militaries have already worked well together. The Hindu: Australia for practical military cooperation with India Indo-Australian Military Cooperation - Australia, India Go For Practical Military Cooperation China A Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the Jawaharlal Nehru Port in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries is expected to surpass US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India. http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431 Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and China recognized Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004. Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also bought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute. http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668 They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008 http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920 to regional free trade agreement. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy. http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM and have competed for control over its large natural resources. http://allafrica.com/stories/200711160462.html Japan Two Japanese Naval warships took part in Malabar 2007 off India's western coast, one of the few such multilateral exercises Japan has ever taken part in symbolizing close military cooperation between India and Japan. India-Japan relations have always been strong. India has culturally influenced Japan through Buddhism. During the Indian Independence Movement, the Japanese Imperial Army helped Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army. Relations have remained warm since India's independence. Japanese companies, like Sony, Toyota, and Honda, have manufacturing facilities in India, and with the growth of the Indian economy, India is a big market for Japanese firms. The most prominent Japanese company to have a big investment in India is automobiles giant Suzuki which is in partnership with Indian automobiles company Maruti Suzuki, the largest car manufacturer in India. In December 2006, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the "Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership". Japan has funded some major infrastructure projects in India, most notably the Delhi Metro subway system. Indian applicants were welcomed in 2006 to the JET Program, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007. Also, in the year 2007, the Japanese Self Defence Forces took part in a naval exercise in the Indian Ocean, known as Malabar 2007, which also involved the naval forces of India, Australia, Singapore and the United States. In October 2008, Japan signed an agreement with India under which it would grant the latter a low-interest loan worth US$4.5 billion to construct a railway project between Delhi and Mumbai. This is the single largest overseas project being financed by Japan and reflects growing economic partnership between the two. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5giqHnL_f6-aawPmSTcHokJyngxbg India is also one of the only three countries in the world with whom Japan has security pact, the other being Australia and the United States. http://blogs.reuters.com/pakistan/2008/10/25/india-japan-in-security-pact-a-new-architecture-for-asia/ Laos In recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation. They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy, in Laos. Thailand India's Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India. Both countries are members of BIMSTEC. Indian Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand as have, Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Shinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont, visited India. In 2003, a Free trade agreement was signed between the two countries. India, is the 13th largest investor in Thailand. The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper grade pulps, steel wires, and rods. However, IT Services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres. Through Buddhism, India, has culturally influenced Thailand. The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculums in Thailand. The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall. Thailand, has become a big tourist destination, for Indians. Singapore Singapore Navy frigate RSS Formidable (68) steams alongside the Indian Navy frigate INS Brahmaputra (F 31) in the Bay of Bengal. Singapore is one of India's strongest allies in South East Asia. India and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the "Greater India" cultural and commercial region. More than 300,000 people of Indian origin live in Singapore. Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counter-balance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security. Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving India trade access to the Malay archipelago and the Far East. Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s; Singapore was one of the first to respond to India's "Look East" Policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power. Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University. Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest amongst ASEAN member nations. It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005-06. Its cumulative investment in India totals USD 3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US 5 billion by 2010 and US 10 billion by 2015. India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from USD 2.2 billion in 2001 to US 9-10 billion in 2006 - a 400% growth in span of five years - and to USD 50 billion by 2010. Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade. India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" - items that had been imported from India. South Korea Tata Daewoo, a subsidiary of India's Tata Motors, is the second largest commercial vehicle manufacturer in South Korea. India and South Korea have made large direct foreign investments in each other. The cordial relationship between the two countries extends back to 48AD, when Queen Suro, or Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea. NDTV article According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly king who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen, for permission to set out and seek the man, which the king and queen urged with the belief that god orchestrated the whole fate. Iryeon, pp. 161-164. (tr. by Ha Tae-Hung & Grafton K. Mintz) (1972). Samguk Yusa. Seoul: Yonsei University Press. ISBN 8971410175. Upon approval, she set out on a boat, carrying gold, silver, a tea plant, and a stone which calmed the waters. Archeologists discovered a stone with two fish kissing each other, a symbol of the Gaya kingdom that is unique to the Mishra royal family in Ayodhya, India. This royal link provides further evidence that there was an active commercial engagements between India and Korea since the queen's arrival to Korea. Current descendants live in the city of Kimhae as well as abroad in America's state of New Jersey and Kentucky. Many of them became prominent and well-knowned around the world like President Kim Dae Jung , Prime Minister Jong Pil Kim. The relations between the countries have been relatively limited, although much progress arose during the three decades. Since the formal establishment of the diplomatic ties between two countries in 1973, several trade agreements have been reached. Trade between the two nations has increased exponentially, exemplified by the $530 million during the fiscal year of 1992–1993, and the $10 billion during 2006–2007. IDSA publication During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korean businesses sought to increase access to the global markets, and began trade investments with India. The last two presidential visits from South Korea to India were in 1996 and 2006, Blue House commentary and the embassy works between the two countries are seen as needing improvements. Joong-ang Daily News article Recently, there have been acknowledgments in the Korean public and political spheres that expanding relations with India should be a major economical and political priority for South Korea. Much of the economic investments of South Korea have been drained into China; Chosun news article however, South Korea is currently the fifth largest source of investment in India. FICCI info To the Times of India, President Roh voiced his opinion that cooperation between India's software and Korea's IT industries would bring very efficient and successful outcomes. The two countries agreed to shift their focus to the revision of the visa policies between the two countries, expansion of trade, and establishment of free trade agreement to encourage further investment between the two countries. Korean companies such as LG and Samsung have established manufacturing and service facilities in India, and several Korean construction companies won grants for a portion of the many infrastructural building plans in India, such as the "National Highway Development Project". Tata Motor's purchase of Daewoo Commercial Vehicles at the cost of $102 million highlights the India's investments in Korea, which consist mostly of subcontracting. Vietnam India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and supported unification of Vietnam. India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival. India granted the "Most Favoured Nation" status to Vietnam in 1975 and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on March 8, 1997. In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung. Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India. India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports have grown steadily from USD 11.5 million in 1985-86 to USD 395.68 million by 2003. Vietnam's exports to India rose to USD 180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods. Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 20-30% per annum to reach USD 1 billion by 2006. Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to USD 2 billion by 2008, 2 years ahead of the official target. India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes. Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism. India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council and join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia; to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo-ASEAN free trade agreement. India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing atomic energy, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking. Americas After the end of the Cold War, India strengthened its relations with several nations in the Americas, particularly United States, Brazil, Canada and Mexico. India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America, especially Brazil and Mexico have continued to grow. India and Brazil continue to work together on the reform of Security Council through the G4 nations while have also increased strategic and economic cooperation through the IBSA Dialogue Forum. The process of finalizing Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/India-Mercosur_PTA_to_be_ratified/articleshow/2216138.cms Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva was the guest of honour at the 2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi. Brazil The President of India, Pratibha Patil with Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in April 2008. India and Brazil enjoy strong bilateral relations which is clearly reflected in various international forums such as IBSA. http://www.hindu.com/2008/10/16/stories/2008101659291200.htm Brazil and India are large continental sized countries with social diversity, democratic governments, a multiethnic society, and a large population base. Both possess advanced technologies. The two countries share similar perceptions on issues of interest to developing countries and have cooperated in the multilateral level on issues such as international trade and development, environment, reform of the UN and the UNSC expansion. There is enormous interest in Brazil on India's culture, religion, performing arts and philosophy. Mohandas Gandhi is highly regarded in the country and the government has sought to teach his philosophy of non-violence to the police to improve its track record. A statue of Mahatma Gandhi is located in a prominent square in Rio de Janeiro. A group called the Filhos de Gandhi (Sons of Gandhi) participates regularly in the carnival in Salvador. Private Brazilian organizations occasionally invite Indian cultural troupes. In recent years, relations between Brazil and India have grown considerably and co-operation between the two countries has been extended to such diverse areas as science and technology, pharmaceuticals and space. The two-way trade in 2007 nearly tripled to US$ 3.12 billion from US$ 1.2 billion in 2004. India attaches tremendous importance to its relationship with this Latin American giant and hopes to see the areas of co-operation expand in the coming years. Both countries want the participation of developing countries in the UNSC permanent membership since the underlying philosophy for both of them are: UNSC should be more democratic, legitimate and representative - the G4 is a novel grouping for this realization. Brazil and India are deeply committed to IBSA (South-South cooperation) initiatives and attach utmost importance to this trilateral cooperation between the three large, multi-ethnic, multi-racial and multi-religious developing countries, which are bound by the common principle of pluralism and democracy Flag Commander of Western Fleet of Indian Navy while briefing a press conference on a joint Indo-Canadian naval exercise. Canada Indo-Canadian relations, are the longstanding bilateral relations between India and Canada, which are built upon a "mutual commitment to democracy", "pluralism", and "people-to-people links," according to the government of Canada. In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion. However, the botched handling of the Air India investigation and the case in general suffered a setback to Indo-Canadian relations. India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan. Although Jean Chrétien and Roméo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests. Paraguay India and Paraguay established diplomatic relations on September 13, 1961. India is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and an honorary consulate in Asuncion. Since 2005, Paraguay has had an embassy in New Delhi. United States of America Historically, relations between India and the United States were somewhat cold following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the Non-Aligned Movement, and attempted to pursue even-handed economic and military relations with the Soviet Union. For most of the Cold War, the US tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. An Indo-Soviet twenty year friendship treaty, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the US. Cold War era India played a key role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Though India pursued close relations with both US and USSR, it decided not to join any major power bloc and refrained from joining military alliances. India, however began establishing close military relationship with the Soviet Union. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its foreign policy. It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR. This had an adverse effect on the Indo-US relationship. The United States saw Pakistan as a counter-weight to pro-Soviet India and started giving the former military assistance. This created an atmosphere of suspicion between India and US. The US-India relationship suffered a considerable setback during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan when India openly supported the Soviet Union. Former President of United States Of America Richard Nixon and Former Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi in 1971. They had a deep personal antipathy that colored bilateral relations. Relations between India and the United States came to an all-time low during the early 1970s. Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and being told, most notably in the Blood telegram, of "genocidal" activities being perpetrated by Pakistani forces, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and U.S. President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then Pakistani President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army. Kissinger was particularly concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship that had recently been signed between India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value of a tacit alliance with the United States. Gandhi, Sajit (ed.), The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, along with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence. Richard Nixon, then US President, feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing them through Jordan and Iran, Shalom, Stephen R., The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971 while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon sent the USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. The Enterprise arrived on station on December 11, 1971. On 6 December and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean. Cold war games Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the incident involving USS Enterprise is viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent nuclear program. http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=may91sharma American policy towards the end of the war was dictated primarily by a need to restrict the escalation of war on the western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of West Pakistan. U.S. State Department, Years after the war, many American writers criticized the White House policies during the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving the interests of the United States. The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissenger and American Foreign Policy by Jussi M. Hanhimeaki Page 156, Published by Oxford University Press US India carried out nuclear tests a few years later resulting in sanctions being imposed by United States, further drifting the two countries apart. In recent years, Kissinger came under fire for comments made during the Indo-Pakistan War in which he described Indians as "bastards." Foreign Relations, 1969–1976, Volume E-7, Documents on South Asia, 1969–1972 150. Conversation Among President Nixon, the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), and the President's Chief of Staff (Haldeman), Washington November 5, 1971, 8:15-9:00 a.m. Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments. Post Cold War Era Since the end of the Cold War , India-US relations have improved dramatically. This has largely been fostered by the fact that the US and India are both democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship. During the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an extremely difficult phase. The Government of India liberalized the Indian economy. After the break up of the Soviet Union, India started looking for new allies and tried improving diplomatic relations with the members of the NATO particularly the United States, Canada, France and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel. In the mid-1990s, India tried to attract world attention towards the Pakistan backed terrorism in Kashmir. The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic victory for India. The United States and European Union recognized the fact that Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated into Indian territory and pressurized Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil. Several anti-India terrorist groups based in Pakistan were labelled as terrorist groups by the United States and European Union. Pokhran tests In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend if attacked. In fact Pakistan is the first country that India informs if any nuclear tests are on the agenda. The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The non-proliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries. Post-September 11 attacks Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee and US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice after signing the Section 123 Agreement on October 10, 2008. Due to shared principles, interests and concerns, relations between India and the United States have warmed in recent years. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the War on Terrorism has helped India's diplomatic relations with several countries. Over the past few years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years. However, India has yet to sign the CTBT, or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, claiming the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the five declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons by all countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not acceptable to the US and other countries. Presently, India has declared its policy of "no-first use of nuclear weapons" and the maintenance of a "credible nuclear deterrence". The US, under President George W. Bush has also lifted most of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation. Relations with US have considerably improved in the recent years, with the two countries taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States. Indian Troops training with U.S. Army in Hawaii,signonsandiego.com Air Force personnel fly with Indian Air Force, pacaf.af.mil Indian Soldiers with U.S. Marines, Sailors, navy.mil India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Brazil, African Union nations and recently People's Republic of China. In 2005, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the NPT. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception and persuaded other NSG members to sign similar deals with India. On March 2, 2006 India and the US signed the Indo-U.S. Nuclear Pact on co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed during the four days state visit of US president George Bush in India. On its part, India would separate its civilian and military nuclear programs, and the civilian programs would be brought under the safeguards of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The United States would sell India the reactor technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up and upgrading its civilian nuclear program. The U.S. Congress needs to ratify this pact since U.S. federal law prohibits the trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside the framework of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). Indo-US Strategic Partnership Indo-US relations got strategic content way back in early sixties. The rise of China worried the policymakers in Washington. Chinese annexation of Tibet, its role in Korean war and other such acts convinced Washington about the expansionist designs of the Chinese. As the relations between India and China deteriorated during late fifties, the Americans found a golden opportunity to take advantage of this situation to promote India as a counterweight to China Indo-US Strategic Partnership by Rejaul Karim Laskar But any unidimensional alliance is bound to be short-lived and this alliance was no exception to this general rule. As China ceased to be a headache for the American policymakers by the late sixities, this unidimensional alliance disappeared into thin air. The end of the Cold War necessitated as well as facilitated the infusion of strategic content to Indo-US relations–this time multidimensional.In the post Cold War era, the strategic objectives of India and the US converges on a number of issues and not just one–as well as the case earlier. These issues include, inter alia, containment of terrorism, promotion of democracy, counter proliferation, freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean, Asian balance of power, etc. http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=feb1507\edit1 One of the very interesting feature of Indo-US relations of recent times is the changes on the terms of engagement between the two countries on the issue of nuclear proliferation.While earlier, in the US strategic thinking on nuclear proliferation, India figured mainly because of American concern about latter’s nuclear and missile programmes, in the twentifirst century,however, American strategic thinking on the issue of nuclear proliferation has undergone radical reorientation.Now, the Americans are increasingly realising the futility of insisting on a rollback of India’s nuclear programme. They, rather, want to leverage India’s growing power and influence in favour of their broader nonproliferation and counter proliferation objectives. http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=mar2607\edit4 As promotion of democracy around the world is one of the most important foreign policy objective of the USA, India- as the largest democracy of the world-can hardly be ignored by the US.This is the reason, cooperation in promotion of democracy in the world has become one of the most important facets of Indo-US relations in recent times.India is a founding member of the ‘Community of Democracies’ – a prominent endeavour of the US on promotion of democracy.However,India rejected the suggestion of the US about setting up a Centre for Asian Democracy. http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=apr2307\edit3 Agriculture is another important area of cooperation between India and the USA in present times.Considering the fact that both the nations at present have a vast pool of human resources adept at knowledge economy, it is only natural that the most optimal course such partnership can aim at is harnessing these human resources by concentrating on development and dissemination of agricultural knowledge through research, education and training etc.An initiative to forge such a partnership is the 'India-US Knowledge Initiative on Agriculture' (KIA) http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=jun2807\edit3 . Europe European Union India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the Union, signing bilateral agreements in 1973, when the United Kingdom joined. The most recent cooperation agreement was signed in 1994 and an action plan was signed in 2005. As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade agreement with India. EU sees talks with ASEAN, India, SKorea on free-trade pacts in months eubusiness.com The Union is India's largest trading partner, accounting for 20% of Indian trade. However, India accounts for only 1.8% of the EU's trade and attracts only 0.3% of European Foreign Direct Investment, although still provides India's largest source. During 2005 EU-India trade grew by 20.3%. Bilateral trade relations with India ec.europa.eu There was controversy in 2006 when the Indian Mittal Steel Company sought to take-over the Luxembourg based steel company, Arcelor. The approach met with opposition from France and Luxembourg but was passed by the Commission who stated that were judging it on competition grounds only. Mandelson and India warn the French over Mittal news.independent.co.uk The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29,2008 at the EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership. French President Nicolas Sarkozy, the EU's rotating president, said at a joint press conference at the summit that "EU welcomes India, as a large country, to engage in developing nuclear energy, adding that this clean energy will be helpful for the world to deal with the global climate change." Sarkozy also said the EU and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan pledged to accelerate talks on a free trade deal and expected to finish the deal by 2009. The Indian prime minister was also cautiously optimistic about cooperation on nuclear energy. "Tomorrow we have a bilateral summit with France. This matter will come up and I hope some good results will emerge out of that meeting," Singh said when asked about the issue. Singh said that he was "very satisfied" with the results of the summit. He added that EU and India have "common values" and the two economies are complementary to each other. European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso, also speaking at Monday's press conference, expounded the joint action plan on adjustments of EU's strategic partnership with India, saying the two sides will strengthen cooperation on world peace and safety, sustainable development, cooperation in science and technology and cultural exchanges. Reviewing the two sides' efforts in developing the bilateral strategic partnership, the joint action plan reckoned that in politics, dialogue and cooperation have enhanced through regular summits and exchanges of visits and that in economy, mutual investments have increased dramatically in recent years, dialogue in macro economic policies and financial services has established and cooperation in energy, science and technology and environment has been launched. Under the joint action plan, EU and Indian would enhance consultation and dialogue on human rights within the UN framework, strengthen cooperation in world peacekeeping mission, fight against terror and non-proliferation of arms, promote cooperation and exchange in developing civil nuclear energy and strike a free trade deal as soon as possible. France, which relies heavily on nuclear power and is a major exporter of nuclear technology, is expected to sign a deal that would allow it to provide nuclear fuel to India. Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen. "We have agreed to achieve an annual bilateral trade turnover of 100 billion euros within the next five years," Singh told reporters. A joint statement issued at the end of the summit said the EU and India would work to reach an agreement on climate change by the end of 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/30/content_10135165.htm United Kingdom Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK Indian music and food are fixtures in daily life. BBC.co.uk BBC Asian Network It's also notable that there are many words of Indian origin now common to the language. Furthermore, it is often believed that the British favourite food is Indian Cuisine, although no official study reports this. Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US. ,itwire.com BBC News Britain is also one of the largest investors in India. ,"Ministry Of Commerce (Central, FDI 2005–2006 statistics)" Recently, many British jobs have been moving to the call centres in India. The Queen's visits to India have been enormously successful along with those by other members of the Royal Family. Britain has also supported India's rise to prominence on the international stage, including advocating a permanent seat on the Security Council. ,"www.hindustantimes.com" The UK recently gave India a £825 million aid package to help India develop its health and education systems. France The Indian Air Force has the second largest fleet of France's Mirage 2000H after Armée de l'Air. France and India established diplomatic relationships soon after India achieved independence in 1947. India's strong diplomatic ties with France resulted in the peaceful cession of Pondicherry to India on November 1, 1954 without any military opposition from France. France and Russia were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998. Reaction of France to India's nuclear test In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner. India's permanent member aspirations in the UN Security Council have found very strong support from former French President Chirac and more recently by the current French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The recent decision by the Indian government to purchase French Scorpène class submarines worth 3 billion USD and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth 2.5 billion USD has further cemented the strategic, military and economic co-operation between India and France. Nicolas Sarkozy visited India in January 2008 and was the Chief Guest of the Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France, was the first country, to sign a nuclear energy co-operation agreement, with India, during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. Italy Despite racial and religious disconnections, India and Italy have enjoyed overall pleasurable and strong relations throughout history. Italy and India are also close economic partners and the former is home to a large population of Indian immigrants. The chief of India's leading political party, The Indian National Congress, Sonia Gandhi, arguably the most powerful Indian woman, is of Italian descent. Germany Arrival of the first Indian student to Dresden, East Germany, in 1951 India was on the opposite side of the Cold War to West Germany, and on the side of East Germany. However since the Fall of the Berlin wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have greatly improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor, Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other . Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Also of note, during World War 2 an Indian division known as the Tiger Legion was attached to the German Wermacht. Malta Malta opened a High Commission in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honourary consulate in Bombay. India is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Middle East Iran Relations between India and Iran date back to the common prehistoric Indo-Iranian heritage (which connects all of Greater Persia and Greater India) and the Indo-Parthian and Indo-Scythian kingdoms of antiquity to the strongly Persianized Islamic empires in India in the 13th to 19th centuries. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically entailed improved relationship with the Republic of India. Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas. There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran. Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organizations such as the OIC. India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organization. Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent. In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime. They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States. Arab states of the Persian Gulf India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/Economy/India_Gulf_share_special_relationship/articleshow/2700623.cms and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula. http://www.meforum.org/article/1019 The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007. http://www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2007/01/austere_version.php India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/Economy/Foreign_Trade/India-Dubai_trade_records_74_rise/articleshow/3093800.cms The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Kuwait/Oil.html In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector. http://www.hindu.com/2008/11/12/stories/2008111261371200.htm India has maritime security arrangement in place with Oman and Qatar. http://www.hindu.com/2008/11/12/stories/2008111258230100.htm In 2008, a landmark defense pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats". http://www.ptinews.com/pti%5Cptisite.nsf/0/AC643928791FF4F2652574FE00466484?OpenDocument Bahrain India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, 'India against Security Council membership without veto', Web India, 29 December 2004 and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs. For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis. The Times Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja`far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p45 and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent. Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet Indian President Pratibha Patil, opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews. Gulf Daily News Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other western alternative. In December 2007, the Bahrain India Society was launched in Manama to promote ties between the two countries. Headed by the former Minister of Labour Abdulnabi Al Shoala, the Society seeks to take advantage of the development in civil society to actively work to strengthen ties between the two countries, not only business links, but according to the body's opening statement in politics, social affairs, science and culture. India's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs E Ahmed and his Bahraini counterpart Dr Nazar Al Baharna attended the launch. Gulf Daily News Iraq Iraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947. US-Iraq War: India's Middle East policy Both nations signed the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954. India was amongst the first to recognize the Baath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh. The eight-year long Iran–Iraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations. During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refueling for U.S. airplanes. It opposed U.N. sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties. From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship. Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on May 11 and May 13, 1998. In 2000, the then-Vice President of Iraq Taha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on August 6, 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's "unwavering support" to India over the Kashmir dispute with Pakistan. India, Iraq Agree on Cooperation India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation. Iraq Economic and Commercial Relations Iraq prizes ties with India: Saddam Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalized. Saudi Arabia Bilateral relations between the India and the Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade. Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, who is one of the top 7 trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia. India and Saudi Arabia are actively cooperating in the field of science and technology. CSIR and the Saudi Arabian Standards Organisation (SASO) have an ongoing programme of technical cooperation (POC) since June 1993. Under this programme, Indian experts in different scientific areas, particularly in the field of measurement and calibration, are deputed to Saudi Arabia on regular basis. Similarly, several Saudi experts and have undergone advanced training in India. National Physical Laboratory has provided expertise and technology for two important SASO projects related to calibration and teleclock system. CSIR and the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) signed a MoU for bilateral cooperation in 1997 and have an ongoing programme of cooperation, particularly in the field of space science, remote sensing and installation of Internet. Recently a three-member delegation from CSIR, NPL and CFTRI visited SASO during January 2004 and both sides agreed to renew the POC. http://mea.gov.in/foreignrelation/saudi.pdf Israel The creation of Israel was tacitly supported by India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and openly supported by Hindu revivalists such as Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. Hindu Pro-Zionism,nhsf.org However, Israel and India shared a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies RAW and MOSSAD, the Secret Link,rediff.com and the purchase of military hardware by India from Israel. Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan, a nation hostile to India and one that supplied weapons and training to the Arabs against Israel. After the end of the Cold War, formal relations with Israel started improving significantly. U.S. and India Consider 'Asian NATO' Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has had a highly productive relation with the Jewish State. India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second largest arms supplier. Both countries perceive a common problem with Islamic Terrorism and Islamic Fundamentalism, and have engaged in joint military ventures in an effort to combat this problem. India has entertained Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003, Ariel Sharon's India visit,rediff.com and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits. India and Israel collaborate extensively in scientific and technological endeavours. Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) towards utilizing satellites for better management of land and other resources. Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an unmanned mission to the moon. Israel plans thrust on science and technology collaboration, The Times of India, December 24, 2003 On January 21, 2008 India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from Sriharikota space station in southern India. India launches Israeli satellite, BBC News Online, January 21, 2008 Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defense and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992. Israel is India's second-biggest arms supplier, after Russia. India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare. Israel says Mumbai attackers targeted its citizens, Los Angeles Times, November 29, 2008 In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programs between judges and jurists of the two countries. India, Israel set up bilateral legal colloquium Turkey Due to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan and India's strong relations with Greece and Armenia, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others. India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East. India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they've known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to this west Asian nation following its war of independence. The Indian real estate firm GMR, has invested in and is working towards the modernization of Istanbul's Sabiha Gökçen International Airport. Russia and Central Asia Manmohan Singh with the Russian President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts. The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Bangladesh. Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay) he came on board INS Vikrant. During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He answered himself: "Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean." Russian Federation India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding. There is national consensus in both the countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries. A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between former Russian President and current Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000. Joint Indo-Russian BrahMos nuclear cruise missile, has a top speed of Mach 2.8, making it the world's fastest supersonic cruise missile. Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defence purchases. Russia, is working for the development of the Kudankulam nuclear plant, that will be capable of producing 1000 MW of electricity. Gazprom, is working for the development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology. Other areas of collaboration include software, ayurveda, etc. India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion. Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India. In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was guest of honour at Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007. The year 2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia. The Indian public-sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy in 2008. In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy co-operation agreement. Tajikistan Diplomatic relations were established India and Tajikistan following Tajikistan's independence from the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had been friendly with India. Tajikistan occupies a strategically important position in Central Asia, bordering Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and separated by a small strip of Afghan territory from Pakistan. India's role in fighting the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and its strategic rivalry with both China and Pakistan have made its ties with Tajikistan important to its strategic and security policies. Despite their common efforts, bilateral trade has been comparatively low, valued at USD 12.09 million in 2005; India's exports to Tajikistan were valued at USD 6.2 million and its imports at USD 5.89 million. India's military presence and activities have been significant, beginning with India's extensive support to the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance (ANA). India began renovating the Farkhor Air Base and stationed aircraft of the Indian Air Force there. The Farkhor Air Base became fully operational in 2006, and 12 MiG-29 bombers and trainer aircraft are planned to be stationed there. India is only the fourth nation after the U.S., Russia and Germany to have a military base in Central Asia. Kazakhstan India, is working towards developing strong relations with this resource rich Central Asian country. The Indian oil company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, has got oil exploration and petroleum development grants in Kazakhstan. The two countries are collaborating in petrochemicals, information technology, and space technology. Kazakhstan has offered India five blocks for oil and gas exploration. India and Kazakhstan, are to set up joint projects in construction, minerals and metallurgy. India also signed four other pacts, including an extradition treaty, in the presence of President Prathibha Patil and her Kazakh counterpart Nursultan Nazarbayev. Kazakhastan will provide uranium and related products under the MoU between Nuclear Power Corp. of India and KazatomProm. These MoU also opens possibilities of joint exploration of uranium in Kazakhstan, which has the worlds' second largest reserves, and India building atomic power plants in the Central Asian country. African Union Indian PM Manmohan Singh with Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and South African President Thabo Mbeki. India has had good relationships with most sub-Saharan African nations for most of its history. In the Prime Minister's visit to Mauritius in 1997, the two countries secured a deal to a new Credit Agreement of INR 10.50 crore (3 million USD) to finance import by Mauritius of capital goods, consultancy services and consumer durable from India. The government of India secured a rice and medicine agreement with the people of Seychelles. India continued to build upon its historically close relations with Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Visits from political ministers from Ethiopia provided opportunities for strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the fields of education and technical training, water resources management and development of small industries. This has allowed India to gain benefits from nations that are generally forgotten by other Western Nations. The South African President, Thabo Mbeki has called for a strategic relationship between India and South Africa to avoid impositon by Western Nations. India continued to build upon its close and friendly relations with Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Minister of Foreign Affairs arranged for the sending of Special Envoys to each of these countries during 1996-97 as a reaffirmation of India's assurance to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of South-South partnership. These relations have created a position of strength with African nations that other nations may not possess. Nigeria India has close relations with this oil rich West African country. Twenty percent of India's crude oil needs are met, by Nigeria. 40000 barrels per day of oil, is the amount of oil, that India receives from Nigeria. Trade, between these two countries stands at $875 million in 2005-2006. Indian companies have also invested in manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, iron ore, steel, information technology, and communications, amongst other things. Both India and Nigeria, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, and the Non Aligned Movement. The Nigerian President, Olusegun Obasanjo was the guest of honour, at the Republic Day parade, in 1999, and the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, visited Nigeria in 2007, and addressed the Nigerian Parliament. South Africa India and South Africa, have always had strong relations. There is a large group of South Africans, of Indian descent. Mahatma Gandhi, spent many years in South Africa, during which time, he fought for the rights of the ethnic Indians. Nelson Mandela was inspired by Gandhi. After India's independence, India was strongly against apartheid, and refused diplomatic relations while apartheid was conducted. The two countries, now have close economic, political, and sports relations. Trade between the two countries grew from $3 million in 1992-1993 to $4 billion in 2005-2006, and aim to reach trade of $12 billion by 2010. One third of India's imports from South Africa is gold bullion. Diamonds, that are mined from South Africa, are polished in India. Nelson Mandela was awarded the Mahatma Gandhi Peace Award. The two countries are also members of the IBSA Dialogue Forum, with Brazil. India hopes to get large amounts of uranium, from resource rich South Africa, for India's growing civilian nuclear energy sector. Sudan Indo-Sudanese relations have always been characterized as longstanding, close, and friendly, even since the early development stages of their countries. The two nations established diplomatic relations shortly after India became known as one of the first Asian countries to recognize the newly independent African country. India and Sudan also share geographic and historical similarities, as well as economic interests. Both countries are former British colonies, and remotely border Saudi Arabia by means of a body of water. India and Sudan continue to have cordial relations, despite issues such as India's close relationship with Israel and Sudan's intimate bonds with Pakistan and Bangladesh. India is also a contributor of a hefty UN peacekeeping force in Darfur. International Organizations India participates in the following international organisations: CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html India's trade minister, Kamal Nath, at World Economic Forum meet in Geneva in 2007. India has often played the crucial role of representing the interests of developing nations on economic and trade issues such as the Doha Development Round. ADB-Asian Development Bank, AfDB-African Development Bank (nonregional members), ASEAN Regional Forum, ASEAN (dialogue partner), BIMSTEC-Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation , BIS-Bank for International Settlements, Commonwealth of Nations, CERN-European Organization for Nuclear Research (observer), CP-Colombo Plan, EAS, FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA-International Atomic Energy Agency, IBRD-International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), ICAO-International Civil Aviation Organization, ICC-International Chamber of Commerce, ICRM-International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, IDA-International Development Association, IFAD-International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFC-International Finance Corporation, IFRCS-International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, IHO-International Hydrographic Organization, ILO-International Labor Organization, IMF-International Monetary Fund, IMO-International Maritime Organization, IMSO-International Mobile Satellite Organization, Interpol-International Criminal Police Organization, IOC-International Olympic Committee, IOM-International Organization for Migration (observer), IPU-Inter-parliamentary Union, ISO-International Organization for Standardization, ITSO-International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, ITU-International Telecommunication Union, ITUC-International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labor)), LAS-League of Arab States (observer), MIGA-Multilateral Investment Geographic Agency, MONUC-United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, NAM-Nonaligned Movement, OAS-Organization of American States (observer), OPCW-Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, PCA-Permanent Court of Arbitration, PIF-Pacific Islands Forum (partner), SAARC-South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SACEP-South Asia Co-opeative Environment Programme, SCO-Shanghai Cooperation Organization (observer), UN-United Nations, UNCTAD-United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNDOF-United Nations Disengagement Observer Force, UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, UNHCR-United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNIDO-United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIFIL-United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, UNMEE-United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, UNMIS, UNOCI-United Nations Operation in Cote d'Ivoire, UNWTO-World Tourism Organization, UPU-Universal Postal Union, WCL-World Confederation of Labor, WCO-World Customs Organization, WFTU-World Federation of Trade Unions, WHO-World Health Organization, WIPO-World Intellectual Property Organization, WMO-World Meteorological Organization, WTO-World Trade Organization Non-Aligned Movement India played an important role in the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Shown here are leaders of the founding states of NAM (from left): Nehru, representing India; Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana); Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt); Sukarno (Indonesia); and Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia). Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence struggle led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism. The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes. Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite. The term "Non-Alignment" itself was coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. United Nations As a founder member of the United Nations, India has been a firm supporter of the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations, and has made significant contributions to the furtherance and implementation of these noble aims, and to the evolution and functioning of its various specialized programmes. It stood at the forefront during the UN's tumultuous years of struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its struggle towards global disarmament and the ending of the arms race, and towards the creation of a more equitable international economic order. At the very first session of the UN, India had raised its voice against colonialism and apartheid, two issues which have been among the most significant of the UN's successes in the last half century. India exulted in the UN's triumph, and saw in the UN's victory, a vindication of the policy relentlessly pursued by it from its initial days at the world forum. India has been a participant in all its peace-keeping operations including those in Korea, Egypt and Congo in earlier years and in Somalia, Angola and Rwanda in recent years. India has also played an active role in the deliberations of the United Nations on the creation of a more equitable international economic order. It has been an active member of the Group of 77, and later the core group of the G-15 nations. Other issues, such as environmentally sustainable development and the promotion and protection of human rights, have also been an important focus of India's foreign policy in international forums. See more http://www.un.int/india/india_un.html World Trade Organization Described by WTO chief Pascal Lamy as one of the organization's "big brothers", http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/Economy/Foreign_Trade/India_is_among_big_brothers_of_WTO_Pascal_Lamy/articleshow/3373292.cms India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha round of talks in 2008. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/Page/document/v5/content/subscribe?user_URL=http://www.theglobeandmail.com%2Fservlet%2Fstory%2FLAC.20080730.IBWTO30%2FTPStory%2FBusiness&ord=129452172&brand=theglobeandmail&force_login=true It has played an important role of representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/07/28/business/EU-WTO-Trade-Talks.php SAARC Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism. SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive political issues, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled. The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 3 - 4 April 2007 in New Delhi. International disputes India's territorial disputes with neighboring Pakistan and People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy. India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighboring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives. India currently maintains two manned stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, this is yet to be clarifyed. India is involved in the following international disputes: Bangladesh 6.5 km of the border between India and Bangladesh remains to be demarcated. Dispute with Bangladesh over South Talpatti Island / New Moore in the Bay of Bengal. Ongoing discussions with Bangladesh to exchange 162 minuscule enclaves between the two. The unresolved issue and the status of Tripura with India, claimed by the nationalists as the Chittagongian plains of Bangladesh. Nepal Kalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India. The dispute between India and Nepal involves about 75 km² of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet. Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war. Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti [Kuthi, 30°19'N, 80°46'E], Gunji, and Knabe. India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India). The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on hydro-electric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes the source of the river. Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position. The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue. The Kathmandu Post, 16 July 1997, 2 July 1997, 31 May 1996; The Hindustan Times (Delhi), 9 June 1997, p. 13; Xinhua 11 April 1997 Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India. Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value. International Boundary Consultants British Indian Ocean Territory Dispute over the British Indian Ocean Territories with the colonial power. India regards this as part of its oceanic vicinity of its sovereignity and a threat to its integrity and does not recognise the crown's rule over these "Indian" islands. Maldives Dispute over Minicoy Island with Maldives. Pakistan The unresolved Kashmir dispute, involving the Siachen Glacier. Issues of the Ferozpur and Pathankot districts between the two nations. Dispute over the Kori Creek that determines the maritime boundary between the two. People's Republic of China India claims Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. China claims Arunachal Pradesh, a state in north-east India. Two regions are claimed by both India and China. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Kashmir, at the junction of Pakistan, Tibet and India. India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China. Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China. Though it is under Indian administration, China calls the 90,000-square-kilometre area South Tibet. CBC News: China Look East Policy In the post cold war era, a significant aspect of India's foreign policy is the Look East Policy. See also Indian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in India Research and Analysis Wing Role of India in nonaligned movement References Other Sources Foreign Relations: Ministry of external affairs, Government of India India-China Relations Harvard University homepage India's Foreign Policy, Xenia Dormandy Russia-India relations

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Integrated_development_environment

Anjuta, a C and C++ IDE for the GNOME environment An integrated development environment (IDE) also known as integrated design environment or integrated debugging environment is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of a: Source code editor Compiler and/or interpreter Build automation tools Debugger Sometimes a version control system and various tools are integrated to simplify the construction of a GUI. Many modern IDEs also have a class browser, an object inspector, and a class hierarchy diagram, for use with object-oriented software development. Overview IDEs are designed to maximize programmer productivity by providing tightly-knit components with similar user interfaces. This should mean that the programmer has much less mode switching to do than when using discrete development programs. However, because an IDE is by its very nature a complicated piece of software, this high productivity only occurs after a lengthy learning curve. Typically an IDE is dedicated to a specific programming language, so as to provide a feature set which most closely matches the programming paradigms of the language. However, some multiple-language IDEs are in use, such as Eclipse, ActiveState Komodo, recent versions of NetBeans, Microsoft Visual Studio and WinDev. IDEs typically present a single program in which all development is done. This program typically provides many features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software. The aim is to abstract the configuration necessary to piece together command line utilities in a cohesive unit, which theoretically reduces the time to learn a language, and increases developer productivity. It is also thought that the tight integration of development tasks can further increase productivity. For example, code can be compiled while being written, providing instant feedback on syntax errors. While most modern IDEs are graphical, IDEs in use before the advent of windowing systems (such as Microsoft Windows or X11) were text-based, using function keys or hotkeys to perform various tasks (Turbo Pascal is a common example). This contrasts with software development using unrelated tools, such as , GCC or make. History GNU Emacs, an extensible editor which is commonly used as an IDE on Unix-like systems IDEs initially became necessary when developing via a console or terminal. Early languages did not have one, since they were prepared using flowcharts, coding before being submitted to a compiler. Dartmouth BASIC was the first language to be created with an IDE (and was also the first to be designed for use while sitting in front of a console or terminal). Its IDE (part of the Dartmouth Time Sharing System) was command-based, and therefore did not look much like the menu-driven, graphical IDEs prevalent today. However it integrated editing, file management, compilation, debugging and execution in a manner consistent with a modern IDE. thumb | left | Keyboard Maestro Image credit: Arlington Museum of Information Technology Maestro I is a product from Softlab Munich and was the world's first integrated development environment "Interaktives Programmieren als Systems-Schlage" from Computerwoche (German) 1975 for software. Maestro I was installed for 22,000 programmers worldwide. Until 1989, 6,000 installations existed in the Federal Republic of Germany. Maestro I was arguably the world leader in this field during the 1970s and 1980s. Today one of the last Maestro I can be found in the Arlington Museum of Information Technology. One of the first IDEs with a plug-in concept was Softbench. In 1995 Computerwoche commented that the use of an IDE was not well received by developers since it would fence in their creativity. Topics Visual programming thumb | right | KTechlab (software), a microcontroller IDE written in c++ and qt that supports flowcode programming (a form of visual programming) There is growing interest in visual programming (not to be confused with Visual Basic or Visual C++). Visual IDEs allow users to create new applications by moving programming building blocks or code nodes to create flowcharts or structure diagrams which are then compiled or interpreted. These flowcharts often are based on the Unified Modeling Language. This interface has been popularized with the Lego Mindstorms system, and is being actively pursued by a number of companies wishing to capitalize on the power of custom browsers like those found at Mozilla. KTechlab (right) supports flowcode and is a popular opensource IDE and Simulator for developing software for microcontrollers. Visual programming is also responsible for the power of distributed programming (cf. LabVIEW software). An early visual programming system, Max, was modelled after analog synthesizer design and has been used to develop real-time music performance software since the 1980s. Another early example was Prograph, a dataflow-based system originally developed for the Macintosh. The graphical programming environment "Grape" is used to program qfix robot kits. This approach is also used in specialist software such as Openlab, where the end users want the flexibility of a full programming language, without the traditional learning curve associated with one. An open source visual programming system is Mindscript, which has extended functionality for cryptology, database interfacing, etc. Language support Some IDEs support multiple-languages, such as Eclipse or NetBeans, both based on Java, or MonoDevelop, based on C#. Support for alternative languages is often provided by plugins, allowing them to be installed on the same IDE at the same time. For example, Eclipse and Netbeans have plugins for C/C++, Python, Ruby, or PHP, among other languages. Attitudes across different computing platforms Many Unix programmers argue that traditional command-line POSIX tools constitute an IDE, though one with a different style of interface and under the Unix environment. Many programmers still use makefiles and their derivatives. Also, many Unix programmers use Emacs or Vim, which integrate support for many of the standard Unix build tools. Data Display Debugger is intended to be an advanced graphical front-end for many text-based debugger standard tools. On the various Microsoft Windows platforms, command-line tools for development are seldom used. Accordingly, there are many commercial and non-commercial solutions, however each has a different design commonly creating incompatibilities. Most major compiler vendors for Windows still provide free copies of their command-line tools, including Microsoft (Visual C++, Platform SDK, Microsoft .NET Framework SDK, nmake utility), CodeGear (bcc32 compiler, make utility). Additionally, the open-sourced GNU tools (gcc, gdb, GNU make) are available on many platforms, including Windows. IDEs have always been popular on the Apple Macintosh's Mac OS, dating back to Macintosh Programmer's Workshop, Turbo Pascal, THINK Pascal and THINK C environments in the mid-1980s. Currently Mac OS X programmers can choose between limited IDEs, including native IDEs like Xcode, older IDEs like CodeWarrior, and open-source tools, such as Eclipse and Netbeans. ActiveState Komodo is a proprietary IDE supported on the Mac OS. Some open-source IDEs such as Code::blocks, Eclipse, Lazarus and Netbeans, which themselves are developed using a cross-platform language (e.g., Free Pascal or Java), run on multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. See also Comparison of integrated development environments Computer-aided software engineering Multiple document interface#IDE-style interface List of software engineering topics Rapid application development Read-eval-print loop PHP IDE Software development kit Software engineering Utility program References

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FidoNet

__ / \ /|oo \ (_| /_) _`@/_ \ _ | | \ \\ | (*) | \ )) ______ |__U__| / \// / FIDO \ _//|| _\ / (________) (_/(_|(____/ Old FidoNet logo New FidoNet logo FidoNet is a worldwide computer network that is used for communication between bulletin board systems. It was most popular in the early 1990s, prior to the introduction of easy and affordable access to the Internet. The network continues to operate but has shrunk in size considerably, primarily due to the closing of many BBSes. Origin FidoNet was originally founded as a non-commercial network in 1984 by Tom Jennings of San Francisco, California as a means to network together BBSes that used his own "Fido" BBS software. Over time, other BBS software was independently adapted to support the relevant FidoNet protocols and the network became a popular means for computer users to communicate. Fidonet until 1994 with the arrival of commercial internet was the only non Compuserve, Minerva or Prodigy methodology for most of the worlds population to send email to and from the Milnet, Arpanet, Minitel, networks. FidoNet organizational structure FidoNet is governed in a hierarchical structure according to FidoNet policy, with designated coordinators at each level to manage the administration of FidoNet nodes and resolve disputes between members. Network coordinators are responsible for managing the individual nodes within their area, usually a city or similar sized area. Regional coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of the network coordinators within their region, typically the size of a state, or small country. Zone coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of all of the regions within their zone. The world is divided into six zones, the coordinators of which elect one of themselves to be the "International Coordinator" of FidoNet. Technical structure FidoNet was historically designed to use modem-based dial-up (POTS) access between bulletin board systems, and much of its policy and structure reflected this. The FidoNet system officially referred only to transfer of Netmail—the individual private messages between people using bulletin boards—including the protocols and standards with which to support it. A netmail message would contain the name of the person sending, the name of the intended recipient, and the respective FidoNet addresses of each. The FidoNet system was responsible for routing the message from one system to the other (details below), with the bulletin board software on each end being responsible for ensuring that only the intended recipient could read it. Due to the hobbyist nature of the network, any privacy between sender and recipient was only the result of politeness from the owners of the FidoNet systems involved in the mail's transfer. It was common, however, for system operators to reserve the right to review the content of mail that passed through their system. Netmail allowed for the "attachment" of a single file to every message. This led to a series of "piggyback" protocols that built additional features onto FidoNet by passing information back and forth as file attachments. These included the automated distribution of files, and transmission of data for inter-BBS games. By far the most commonly-used of these piggyback protocols was Echomail, public discussions similar to Usenet newsgroups in nature. Echomail was supported by a variety of software that collected up new messages from the local BBSes' public forums (the scanner), compressed it using ARC or ZIP, attached the resulting archive to a Netmail message, and sent that message to a selected system. On receiving such a message, identified because it was addressed to a particular "user", the reverse process was used to extract the messages, and a tosser put them back into the new system's forums. Echomail was so popular that for many users, Echomail was the FidoNet. Private person-to-person Netmail was relatively rare. Geographic structure FidoNet is politically organized into a tree structure, with different parts of the tree electing their respective coordinators. The FidoNet hierarchy consists of Zones, Regions, Networks, Nodes and Points broken down more-or-less geographically. The highest level is the Zone, which is largely continent-based: Zone 1 is North America Zone 2 is Europe, ex-USSR (including Russia) and Israel Zone 3 is Australasia Zone 4 is Latin America (except Puerto Rico) Zone 5 is Africa Zone 6 is Asia (excluding Israel and the Asian parts of Russia, which are listed in Zone 2) Each zone is broken down into regions, which are broken down into nets, which consist of individual nodes. Zones 7-4095 are used for "othernets"; groupings of nodes which use Fido-compatible software to carry their own independent message areas without being in any way controlled by FidoNet's political structure. Using un-used zone numbers would ensure that each network would have a unique set of addresses, avoiding potential routing conflicts and ambiguities for systems that belonged to more than one network. FidoNet addresses FidoNet addresses explicitly consist of a Zone number, a Network number (or region number), and a Node number. They are written in the form Zone:Network/Node. The FidoNet structure also allows for semantic designation of region, host, and hub status for particular nodes, but this status is not directly indicated by the main address. For example, consider a node located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA with an assigned node number is 918, located in Zone 1 (North America), Region 19, and Network 170. The full FidoNet address for this system would be 1:170/918. The region was used for administrative purposes, and was only part of the address if the node was listed directly underneath the Regional Coordinator, rather than one of the networks that were used to divide the region further. FidoNet policy requires that each FidoNet system maintain a nodelist of every other member system. Information on each node includes the name of the system or BBS, the name of the node operator, the geographic location, the telephone number, and software capabilities. The nodelist is updated weekly, to avoid unwanted calls to nodes that had shut down, with their phone numbers possibly having been reassigned for voice use by the respective telephone company. To accomplish regular updates, coordinators of each network maintain the list of systems in their local areas. The lists are forwarded back to the International Coordinator via automated systems on a regular basis. The International Coordinator would then compile a new nodelist, and generate the list of changes (nodediff) to be distributed for node operators to apply to their existing nodelist. Routing of FidoNet mail In a theoretical situation, a node would normally forward messages to a hub. The hub, acting as a distribution point for mail, might then send the message to the Net Coordinator. From there it may be sent through a Regional Coordinator, or to some other system specifically set up for the function. Mail to other zones might be sent through a Zone Gate. For example, a FidoNet message might follow the path: 1:170/918 (node) to 1:170/900 (hub) to 1:170/0 (net coordinator) to 1:19/0 (region coordinator) to 1:1/0 (zone coordinator). From there, it was distributed 'down stream' to the destination node(s). Originally there was no specific relationship between network numbers and the regions they reside in. In some areas of FidoNet, most notably in Zone 2, the relationship between region number and network number are entwined. For example, 2:201/329 is in Net 201 which is in Region 20 while 2:2410/330 is in Net 2410 which is in Region 24. Zone 2 also relates the node number to the hub number if the network is large enough to contain any hubs. This effect may be seen in the nodelist by looking at the structure of Net 2410 where node 2:2410/330 is listed under Hub 300. This is not the case in other zones. In Zone 1, things are much different. Zone 1 was the starting point and when Zones and Regions were formed, the existing nets were divided up regionally with no set formula. The only consideration taken was where they were located geographically in respect to the region's mapped outline. As net numbers got added, the following formula was used. Region number X 20 Then when some regions started running out of network numbers, the following was also used. Region number X 200 Region 19, for instance, contains nets 380-399 and 3800-3999 in addition to those that were in Region 19 when it was formed. Part of the objective behind the formation of local nets was to implement cost reduction plans by which all messages would be sent to one or more hubs or hosts in compressed form (ARC was nominally standard, but PKZIP is universally supported); one toll call could then be made during off-peak hours to exchange entire message-filled archives with an out-of-town uplink for further redistribution. In practice, the FidoNet structure allows for any node to connect directly to any other, and node operators would sometimes form their own toll-calling arrangements on an ad-hoc basis, allowing for a balance between collective cost saving and timely delivery. For instance, if one node operator in a network offered to make regular toll calls to a particular system elsewhere, other operators might arrange to forward all of their mail destined for the remote system, and those near it, to the local volunteer. Operators within individual networks would sometimes have cost-sharing arrangements, but it was also common for people to volunteer to pay for regular toll calls either out of generosity, or to build their status in the community. This ad-hoc system was particularly popular with networks that were built on top of FidoNet. Echomail, for instance, often involved relatively large file transfers due to its popularity. If official FidoNet distributors refused to transfer Echomail due to additional toll charges, other node operators would sometimes volunteer. In such cases, Echomail messages would be routed to the volunteers' systems instead. The FidoNet system was best adapted to an environment in which local telephone service was inexpensive and long-distance calls (or intercity data transfer via packet-switched networks) costly. Therefore, it fared somewhat poorly in Japan, where even local lines are expensive, or in France, where tolls on local calls and competition with Minitel or other data networks limited its growth. Points As the number of messages in Echomail grew over time, it became very difficult for users to keep up with the volume while logged into their local BBS. Points were introduced to address this, allowing technically savvy users to receive the already compressed and batched Echomail (and Netmail) and read it locally on their own machines. To do this, the FidoNet addressing scheme was extended with the addition of a final address segment, the point number. For instance, a user on the example system above might be given point number 10, and thus could be sent mail at the address 1:170/918.10. In real-world use, points are fairly difficult to set up. The FidoNet software typically consisted of a number of small utility programs run by manually-adjusted scripts. Reading and editing the mail required either a "sysop editor" or a BBS be run locally. In North America (Zone 1) points were used only briefly, and even then only to a limited degree. Dedicated offline mail reader programs such as Blue Wave, Squiggy and Silver Xpress (OPX) were introduced in the mid 1990s, and quickly rendered the point system obsolete. Many of these packages supported the QWK offline mail standard. In other parts of the world, especially Europe, this was different. Contrary to North America where local calls usually are free, in Europe local calls are mostly metered and so there was an incentive to keep the duration of the calls as short as possible. Point software employs standard compression (ZIP, ARJ etc) and so keeps the calls down to a few minutes a day at most. In Europe (Zone 2) pointing became very popular. Many regions distribute a pointlist in parallel with the nodelist. The pointlist segments are maintained by Net- and Region Pointlist Keepers and the Zone Point List Keeper assembles them into the Zone pointlist. At the peak of FidoNet there were over 120,000 points listed in the Z2 pointlist. Listing points is on a voluntary basis and not every point is listed, so how many points there really were is anybody's guess. As of June 2006, there are still some 50,000 listed points. Most of them are in Russia and Ukraine. Technical specifications FidoNet contained several technical specifications for compatibility between systems. The most basic of all was FTS-0001, with which all FidoNet systems were required to comply as a minimal requirement. FTS-0001 defined: Handshaking - the protocols used by mailer software to identify each other and exchange meta information about the session. Transfer protocol (XMODEM) - the protocols to be used for transferring files containing FidoNet mail between systems. Message format - the standard format for FidoNet messages during the time which they were exchanged between systems. Other specifications that were commonly used provided for echomail, different transfer protocols and handshake methods (e.g.: Yoohoo/Yoohoo2u2, EMSI), file compression, nodelist format, transfer over reliable connections such as the Internet (Binkp), and other aspects. Zone mail hour Since computer bulletin boards historically used the same telephone lines for transferring mail as were used for dial-in human users of the BBS, FidoNet policy dictates that at least one designated line of each FidoNet node must be available for accepting mail from other FidoNet nodes during a particular hour of each day. "Zone Mail Hour", as it was named, varies depending on the geographic location of the node, and was designated to occur during the early morning. The exact hour varies depending on the time zone, and any node with only one telephone line is required to reject human callers. In practice, particularly in later times, most FidoNet systems tend to accept mail at any time of day when the phone line is not busy, usually during night. FidoNet deployments Although monolithic software that encompassed all required functions in one package is available (e.g. D'Bridge), most FidoNet deployments were designed in a modular fashion. A typical deployment would involve several applications that would communicate through shared files and directories, and switch between each other through carefully designed scripts or batch files. Arguably the most important piece of software on a DOS-based Fido system was the FOSSIL driver, which was a small device driver which provided a standard way for the Fido software to talk to the modem. This driver needed to be loaded before any Fido software would work. An efficient FOSSIL driver meant faster, more reliable connections. Mailer software was responsible for transferring files and messages between systems, as well as passing control to other applications, such as the BBS software, at appropriate times. The mailer would initially answer the phone and, if necessary, deal with incoming mail via FidoNet transfer protocols. If the mailer answered the phone and a human caller was detected rather than other mailer software, the mailer would exit, and pass control to the BBS software, which would then initialise for interaction with the user. When outgoing mail was waiting on the local system, the mailer software would attempt to send it from time to time by dialing and connecting to other systems who would accept and route the mail further. Due to the costs of toll calls which often varied between peak and off-peak times, mailer software would usually allow its operator to configure the optimal times in which to attempt to send mail to other systems. BBS software was used to interact with human callers to the system. BBS software would allow dial-in users to use the system's message bases and write mail to others, locally or on other BBSes. Mail directed to other BBSes would later be routed and sent by the mailer, usually after the user had finished using the system. Many BBSes also allowed users to exchange files, play games, and interact with other users in a variety of ways (ie: node to node chat). A scanner/tosser application, such as FastEcho, FMail, TosScan and Squish, would normally be invoked when a BBS user had entered a new FidoNet message that needed to be sent, or when a mailer had received new mail to be imported into the local messages bases. This application would be responsible for handling the packaging of incoming and outgoing mail, moving it between the local system's message bases and the mailer's inbound and outbound directories. The scanner/tosser application would generally be responsible for basic routing information, determining which systems to forward mail to. In later times, message readers or editors that were independent of BBS software were also developed. Often the System Operator of a particular BBS would use a devoted message reader, rather than the BBS software itself, to read and write FidoNet and related messages. One of the most popular editors in 2008 was GoldED+. In some cases FidoNet nodes, or more often FidoNet points, had no public bulletin board attached, and existed only for the transfer of mail for the benefit of the node's operator. Most nodes in 2009 had no BBS access, but only points, if anything. The original Fido BBS software, and some other FidoNet-supporting software from the 1980s, is no longer functional on modern systems. This is for several reasons, including problems related to the Y2K bug. In some cases, the original authors have left the BBS or shareware community, and the software, much of which was closed source, has been rendered abandonware. Several DOS based legacy FidoNet Mailers such as FrontDoor, Intermail, and D'Bridge from the early 1990s can still be run today under Windows without a modem, by using the freeware NetFoss Telnet FOSSIL driver, and by using a Virtual Modem such as NetSerial. This allows the mailer to "Dial" an IP address or hostname via Telnet, rather than dialing a real POTS phone number. There are similar solutions for Linux such as MODEMU (modem emulator) which has limited success when combined with DOSEMU. (DOS emulator). Mail Tossers such as FastEcho and FMail are still used today under both Windows and Linux/DOSEMU. There are several modern Windows based FidoNet Mailers available today as open source, including Argus, Radius, and Taurus. A popular open source FidoNet Mailer for Linux is BinkD. On the hardware side, Fido systems were usually well-equipped machines, for their day, with quick CPUs, high-speed modems and 16550 UARTs, which were at the time an upgrade. As a Fidonet system was usually a BBS, it needed to quickly process any new mail events before returning to its 'waiting for call' state. In addition, the BBS itself usually necessitated lots of storage space. Finally, a FidoNet system usually had at least one dedicated phoneline. Consequently, operating a Fidonet system often required significant financial investment, a cost usually met by the owner of the system. FidoNet availability While the use of FidoNet has dropped dramatically compared with its use up to the mid-1990s, it is still particularly popular in Russia and former USSR. Some BBSes, including those that are now available for users with Internet connections via telnet, also retain their FidoNet netmail and echomail feeds. Some of FidoNet's echomail conferences are available via gateways with the Usenet news hierarchy. There are also mail gates for exchanging messages between Internet and FidoNet. Widespread net abuse and e-mail spam on the Internet side has caused some gateways (such as the former 1:1/31 IEEE fidonet.org gateway) to become unusable or cease operation entirely. See also FidoNews UUCP Fruity Dog External links International FidoNet Home Page Alternate FidoNet Home Page FidoNet Technical Standards Committee Home Page International Echolist Home Page IFDC FileGate Project Join to Fidonet network as a point and download prepared for you software package Fidonet Showcase Project

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Military_of_the_Czech_Republic

The Czech Armed Forces () comprise of the military, air forces and support units. After joining NATO in March 12, 1999, the Czech Republic is completing a major overhaul of the extensive Czechoslovak Armed Forces (about 200,000) which until 1989 formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance. Czech forces have been gradually downsized from 90,000 in 1993 to 63,601 in 1999 to 35,000 in 2005 and at the same time modernized and reoriented toward defensive posture. In 2004 the army transformed into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. Structure of the Czech Armed Forces Structure of the Czech Armed Forces consis of three parts: General Staff of Czech Armed Forces (Praha) Joint Forces (Olomouc) Support and Training Forces (Stará Boleslav) Structure of the Czech Armed Forces Equipment Czech modernized T-72. Armored Czech Tatra 813 truck as rocket launcher. ShKH Ondava: 152mm Self-propelled cannon howitzer Czech Air Force PZL W-3A Czech Air Force JAS 39 Gripen Equipment size at July 1 2008: |www.army.cz about equipment size Main battle tanks: 179x T-72 MBT (30x T72M4CZ, rest in reserve) IFV: 174x BVP-2 Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle 76x BPzV-1 Armoured Infantry Fighting and Reconnaissance Vehicle 107x Pandur 8X8 APC on order Artillery: 164x DANA 152mm Self-propelled Howitzer 60x RM-70 122mm Multiple Rocket Launcher 85x M1982 PRAM L 120mm towed mortar 8x SPM-85 PRAM S 120mm self-propelled mortar 3x ARTHUR Artillery Tracking Radar Non armoured vehicles: 114x Land Rover Defender 110 TDi - light off road vehicle 556x Tatra T 810 - (military trucks) 95x Tatra T815 (4x4, 6x6, 8x8 versions) military heavy trucks http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=11072 19x ATF Dingo armored military truck 19x Iveco LMV armored light off road vehicle Small arms & hand weapons: Sa vz. 58 standard service rifle Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun FGM-148 Javelin Air-defence missiles: 2K12 KubM2 (SA-6 GAINFUL) 9K35 Strela-10M (SA-13 GOPHER) 16x RBS 70 http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=11072 Combat aircraft and helicopters: 14x JAS 39 Gripens fighter 28x Aero L-159 Alcas light attack aircraft 29x Mil Mi-35 attack helicopters Support/transport aircraft and helicopters: 11x PZL W-3 Sokół utility helicopters 16x Mil Mi-17 transport helicopters 16x Mil Mi-171S transport helicopters 4x Antonov An-26 Curl transport aircraft (will be replaced by 4x EADS CASA C-295M) 10x Let L-410 Turbolet light transport and photographic mapping Training aircraft and helicopters: 12x Aero L-39 Albatros jet trainer 8x Zlin Z 142CAF basic trainer 5x Mil Mi-2 Hoplite trainer helicopters 4x Eurostar EV97 basic trainer VIP transport 2x Airbus 319CJW 2x Yakovlev Yak-40 Codling 1x Bombardier Challenger 600 Recent operations The Czech Republic is a member of the UN and the OSCE and has contributed to numerous peacekeeping operations, including IFOR/SFOR in Bosnia, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Afghanistan, Kosovo and Iraq. Current deployments (as of 2005): Kosovo: NATO Operation "Joint Enterprise" (KFOR) - 500 soldiers Iraq: Coalition Operation of Multinational Forces - 96 soldiers Bosnia and Herzegovina: European Union Operation (ALTHEA) - 65 soldiers (ended in June 2008 ) Afghanistan: NATO Operation (ISAF) - 480 soldiers in Faizabad and Logar provinces. Also 100 soldiers in the Operation Enduring Freedom Infantry weapons include: Sa vz. 58 assault rifle, Uk vz. 59, Škorpion vz. 61, Dragunov Sniper Rifle (SVD), CZ 700 sniper rifle, CZ 75 pistol, CZ 97B pistol, CZ 100 pistol, RPG-7V anti-tank grenade launcher, FGM-148 Javelin anti-tank guided missile,Carl Gustav recoilless rifle and Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun Uniforms Military band Olomouc in different types of uniforms: Commanding officers Highest Commander of the Armed Forces: President of the Republic Václav Klaus Chief of the General Staff: Lieutenant General Vlastimil Picek Chief of the General Staff Office: Colonel Milan Šeiner First Deputy Chief of the General Staff: Lieutenant General Jaroslav Kolkus Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the ACR-Chief of Staff: Lieutenant General František Hrabal Deputy Chief of the General Staff - Director of JOC (Operations Commander): Major General Josef Prokš Director of Division for Development of Forces Branches - Operations Division: Brigadier General Josef Bečvář Immediately Subordinated Offices: Military Regional Office, Boletice Military Regional Office, Brdy Military Regional Office, Březina Military Regional Office, Hradiště Military Regional Office, Libavá Support Policy Division: Director Major General Pavel Jevula Immediately Subordinated Institutions: Central Military Hospital, Prague Military Hospital, Brno Military Hospital, Olomouc Institute of Aviation Medicine, Prague Communication and Information Systems Division:Director - Chief of the Signal Corps of ACR: Colonel Jan Kaše Immediately Subordinated Institutions: 6th Communication Centre Research and Communication Centre 080 Information Technology Development Agency Force Planning Division: Acting Director Colonel František Mičánek Reconnaissance and Electronic Warfare Department: Director Colonel Miroslav Žižka Immediately Subordinated Office: Military Geography and Hydrometeorology Office Military Aviation Authority: Director Colonel Josef Otta References See also Czech Air Force Active Reserve (Czech Army) External links Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic Information Center about NATO

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Bash

Bash generally means either “a party” or “to hit something.” It can have other meanings; some usages cleverly combine different meanings. In sport: WWE The Great American Bash, a pay-per-view professional wrestling event held annually by World Wrestling Entertainment since 2004. The Bash, the new shortened name for WWE The Great American Bash starting from 2009. The Great American Bash, a former professional wrestling event held annually by defunct organisation World Championship Wrestling and the National Wrestling Alliance between 1985-2000. Bash at the Beach, a former pay-per-view professional wrestling event held annually by defunct organisation World Championship Wrestling every July between 1994-2000. KFC Twenty20 Big Bash, the domestic Twenty20 cricket competition in Australia Plot 'n' bash, a term used to describe a style of navigational information used on road rallies In music: Bash & Pop, the band that Tommy Stinson formed after the dissolution of The Replacements Bash!, the third full length and the first Christmas album from the a cappella group Rockapella Pokémon Christmas Bash, Christmas songs performed by characters of the Pokémon television series In television, theatre and film: Bash: Latter-Day Plays are three one act plays by Neil LaBute (1999) Killer Bash, a homoerotic horror movie released in 2005, directed by David DeCoteau Behind the Bash, a show hosted by Giada De Laurentiis currently on Food Network The Bash Street Kids and the Bash Street School, which appear in a UK comic, The Beano, and in an annual book, The Bash Street Kids Annual Joe Bash, an American television series that ran on the ABC network from March 28 to May 9, 1986 In computing: Bash, a Unix command shell written for the GNU project Visual Bash, an interactive script for Bash that uses a graphical user interface Bug bash, a software testing technique where developers, testers, program managers, usability researchers, designers, etc search together for software bugs Electronic games: Bust-A-Move Bash!, a video game released by Majesco for Nintendo's Wii console Crash Bash, a game for the PlayStation Franco Bash, a video game character in the Fatal Fury series of fighting games Monster Bash, a video game created by Apogee Software A person's name: Baby Bash, also known as Baby Beesh (born 1975 as Ronnie Ray Bryant), a Latin American hip-hop artist Dana Bash (born 1972), a CNN reporter and anchorwoman. Todd Bash (born 1965), an avant-garde playwright from Los Angeles, California Bash, nickname of E. J. H. Nash (1898-1982), an influential evangelical clergyman Place names: Ala-Bash, a village in the Issyk Kul Province of Kyrgyzstan Bash Bish Falls, a waterfall in southwestern Massachusetts in the Bash Bish Falls State Park Bash-Bulak, a village in the Osh Province of Kyrgyzstan Bash-Kaindy, a village in the Naryn Province of Kyrgyzstan Bash-Karakain, a village in the Naryn Province of Kyrgyzstan Bash-Khynysly, a village in the Shamakhi Rayon of Azerbaijan Battle of Bash Abaran, Caucasus, 1918 Chub Bash, a village in Balkh Province in northern Afghanistan A party or gala event: Block Party Bash, a hybrid stage show and parade that played at Disney's California Adventure park from 2005 to 2008 Bulldog Bash, a popular annual European motorcycle festival Hash Bash, an annual event in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in favor of marijuana Other: Bird strike is also called BASH (bird aircraft strike hazard) Bash Back, a network of radical, anarchist and anti-authoritarian queer projects within the United States Bash Chelik, ("Man of Steel"), a famous Serbian folk tale British Association for the Study of Headache (BASH), UK charity and member of the Headache UK alliance Qizilbash, a Muslim religious brotherhood Kitbashing, a scale modeler's term for modifying a commercial model kit into a unique or unavailable model See also Bashing Bashful elephant Bolesław V the Chaste (sometimes called Boleslaus the Bashful)

Bash |@lemmatized bash:47 generally:1 mean:1 either:1 party:3 hit:1 something:1 meaning:2 usage:1 cleverly:1 combine:1 different:1 sport:1 wwe:2 great:3 american:5 pay:2 per:2 view:2 professional:3 wrestling:7 event:5 hold:3 annually:3 world:3 entertainment:1 since:1 new:1 shorten:1 name:3 start:1 former:2 defunct:2 organisation:2 championship:2 national:1 alliance:2 beach:1 every:1 july:1 kfc:1 big:1 domestic:1 cricket:1 competition:1 australia:1 plot:1 n:1 term:2 use:3 describe:1 style:1 navigational:1 information:1 road:1 rally:1 music:1 pop:1 band:1 tommy:1 stinson:1 form:1 dissolution:1 replacement:1 third:1 full:1 length:1 first:1 christmas:3 album:1 cappella:1 group:1 rockapella:1 pokémon:2 song:1 perform:1 character:2 television:3 series:3 theatre:1 film:1 latter:1 day:1 play:3 three:1 one:1 act:1 neil:1 labute:1 killer:1 homoerotic:1 horror:1 movie:1 release:2 direct:1 david:1 decoteau:1 behind:1 show:2 host:1 giada:1 de:1 laurentiis:1 currently:1 food:1 network:3 street:3 kid:2 school:1 appear:1 uk:3 comic:1 beano:1 annual:4 book:1 joe:1 run:1 abc:1 march:1 may:1 compute:1 unix:1 command:1 shell:1 write:1 gnu:1 project:2 visual:1 interactive:1 script:1 graphical:1 user:1 interface:1 bug:2 software:3 test:1 technique:1 developer:1 tester:1 program:1 manager:1 usability:1 researcher:1 designer:1 etc:1 search:1 together:1 electronic:1 game:6 bust:1 move:1 video:3 majesco:1 nintendo:1 wii:1 console:1 crash:1 playstation:1 franco:1 fatal:1 fury:1 fight:1 monster:1 create:1 apogee:1 person:1 baby:2 also:3 know:1 beesh:1 born:3 ronnie:1 ray:1 bryant:1 latin:1 hip:1 hop:1 artist:1 dana:1 cnn:1 reporter:1 anchorwoman:1 todd:1 avant:1 garde:1 playwright:1 los:1 angeles:1 california:2 nickname:1 e:1 j:1 h:1 nash:1 influential:1 evangelical:1 clergyman:1 place:1 ala:1 village:6 issyk:1 kul:1 province:5 kyrgyzstan:4 bish:2 fall:2 waterfall:1 southwestern:1 massachusetts:1 state:2 park:2 bulak:1 osh:1 kaindy:1 naryn:2 karakain:1 khynysly:1 shamakhi:1 rayon:1 azerbaijan:1 battle:1 abaran:1 caucasus:1 chub:1 balkh:1 northern:1 afghanistan:1 gala:1 block:1 hybrid:1 stage:1 parade:1 disney:1 adventure:1 bulldog:1 popular:1 european:1 motorcycle:1 festival:1 hash:1 ann:1 arbor:1 michigan:1 favor:1 marijuana:1 bird:2 strike:2 call:2 aircraft:1 hazard:1 back:1 radical:1 anarchist:1 anti:1 authoritarian:1 queer:1 within:1 united:1 chelik:1 man:1 steel:1 famous:1 serbian:1 folk:1 tale:1 british:1 association:1 study:1 headache:2 charity:1 member:1 qizilbash:1 muslim:1 religious:1 brotherhood:1 kitbashing:1 scale:1 modeler:1 modify:1 commercial:1 model:2 kit:1 unique:1 unavailable:1 see:1 bashful:2 elephant:1 bolesław:1 v:1 chaste:1 sometimes:1 boleslaus:1 |@bigram wrestling_entertainment:1 de_laurentiis:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 nintendo_wii:1 baby_bash:1 hip_hop:1 avant_garde:1 los_angeles:1 issyk_kul:1 ann_arbor:1 arbor_michigan:1

Magnetism

In physics, magnetism is one of the forces in which materials and moving charged particles exert attractive, repulsive, or perpendicular to motion force on other materials or charged particles. Some well-known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (called magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys; however, all materials are influenced to greater or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetism also has other definitions and descriptions in physics, particularly as one of the two components of electromagnetic waves such as light. History Aristotle attributes the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes. In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called Book of the Devil Valley Master (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it." Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175 The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a needle." Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176 The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088 ), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer and geographer. In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth). In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with André-Marie Ampère, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Michael Faraday, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", June 30, 1905. , requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the twentieth century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model. Physics of magnetism Magnets and magnetic materials Every electron, on account of its spin, is a small magnet (see Electron magnetic dipole moment). In most materials, the countless electrons have randomly oriented spins, leaving no magnetic effect on average. However, in a bar magnet many of the electron spins are aligned in the same direction, so they act cooperatively, creating a net magnetic field. In addition to the electron's intrinsic magnetic field, there is sometimes an additional magnetic field that results from the electron's orbital motion around the nucleus. This effect is analogous to how a current-carrying loop of wire generates a magnetic field (see Magnetic dipole). Again, ordinarily, the motion of the electrons is such that there is no average field from the material, but in certain conditions, the motion can line up so as to produce a measurable total field. The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, and particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Molecular magnet Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism Metamagnetism Spin glass Superparamagnetism magnet Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are understood to be fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity , chapter 12 . In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism (analogous to how relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime). Magnetic fields and forces Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. Maxwell's equations (which simplify to the Biot-Savart law in the case of steady currents) describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion---for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin. The same situations which create magnetic fields (charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles) are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a force F given by the cross product: where is the electric charge of the particle, v is the velocity vector of the particle, and B is the magnetic field. Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is where is the angle between v and B. One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration (with the middle finger crossing under the index finger), the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right hand rule. Magnetic dipoles A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole"; terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains. For instance, two identical bar magnets placed side-to-side normally line up North to South, (because the magnetic field lines are aligned), resulting in a much smaller net magnetic field (external to the magnet), and resist any attempts to reorient them to point in the same direction. The energy required to reorient them in that configuration is then stored in the resulting magnetic field, which is double the strength of the field of each individual magnet. (This is, of course, why a magnet used as a compass interacts with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South). An alternative, equivalent formulation, which is often easier to apply but perhaps offers less insight, is that a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field experiences a torque and a force which can be expressed in terms of the field and the strength of the dipole (i.e., its magnetic dipole moment). For these equations, see magnetic dipole. Magnetic monopoles Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole — if such a thing exists — would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist. Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3). . Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological observations — the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations. . Units of electromagnetism SI units related to magnetism Symbol Name of QuantityDerived UnitsUnitBase Units I Electric current ampere (SI base unit) A A (= W/V = C/s) Q Electric charge coulomb C A·s U, ΔV, Δφ; E Potential difference; Electromotive force volt V J/C = kg·m2·s−3·A−1 R; Z; X Electric resistance; Impedance; Reactance ohm Ω V/A = kg·m2·s−3·A−2 ρ Resistivity ohm metre Ω·m kg·m3·s−3·A−2 P Electric power watt W V·A = kg·m2·s−3 C Capacitance farad F C/V = kg−1·m−2·A2·s4 E Electric field strength volt per metre V/m N/C = kg·m·A−1·s−3 D Electric displacement field Coulomb per square metre C/m2 A·s·m−2 ε Permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1·m−3·A2·s4 χe Electric susceptibility (dimensionless) - - G; Y; B Conductance; Admittance; Susceptance siemens S Ω−1 = kg−1·m−2·s3·A2 κ, γ, σ Conductivity siemens per metre S/m kg−1·m−3·s3·A2 B Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction tesla T Wb/m2 = kg·s−2·A−1 = N·A−1·m−1 Φ Magnetic flux weber Wb V·s = kg·m2·s−2·A−1 H Magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m A·m−1 L, M Inductance henry H Wb/A = V·s/A = kg·m2·s−2·A−2 μ Permeability henry per metre H/m kg·m·s−2·A−2 χ Magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless) - - Other units gauss — The gauss, abbreviated as G, is the CGS unit of magnetic field (B). oersted — The oersted is the CGS unit of magnetizing field (H). Maxwell — is the CGS unit for the magnetic flux. gamma — is a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the tesla became popular (1 gamma = 1 nT) μ0 — common symbol for the permeability of free space (4π×10−7 N/(ampere-turn)²). Living things Some organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception. Magnetobiology studies magnetic fields as a medical treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism. See also Electrostatics Electromagnet Magnetostatics Electromagnetism Lenz's law Plastic magnet Magnet Magnetar Magnetic bearing Magnetic cooling Magnetic circuit Magnetic moment Magnetic structure Magnetization Micromagnetism Neodymium magnet Coercivity Rare-earth magnet Spin wave Spontaneous magnetization Sensor Magnetic stirrer Magnetic field viewing film References Notes External links Magnetism Experiments Electromagnetism - a chapter from an online textbook On the Magnet, 1600 First scientific book on magnetism by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text search.

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film:1 note:1 online:1 textbook:1 father:1 electrical:1 engineering:1 full:2 english:1 text:2 |@bigram attractive_repulsive:1 magnetic_field:30 electromagnetic_wave:1 shen_kuo:1 de_magnete:2 al_ashraf:1 electricity_magnetism:7 compass_needle:1 andré_marie:1 marie_ampère:1 carl_friedrich:1 friedrich_gauss:1 michael_faraday:1 magnetism_electricity:2 clerk_maxwell:1 maxwell_equation:2 special_relativity:6 twentieth_century:1 quantum_electrodynamics:1 magnetic_dipole:12 dipole_moment:2 electrically_charge:1 quantum_mechanical:1 arctic_ocean:1 ferromagnetic_material:1 magnetic_monopoles:4 distribute_evenly:1 vice_versa:1 elementary_particle:2 big_bang:1 electromotive_force:1 capacitance_farad:1 susceptibility_dimensionless:2 magnetic_flux:4 magnetic_susceptibility:1 cgs_unit:3 neodymium_magnet:1 spontaneous_magnetization:1 external_link:1

Call_centre

A call centre or call center see spelling differences is a centralised office used for the purpose of receiving and transmitting a large volume of requests by telephone. A call centre is operated by a company to administer incoming product support or information inquiries from consumers. Outgoing calls for telemarketing, clientele, product services, and debt collection are also made. In addition to a call centre, collective handling of letters, faxes, live chat, and e-mails at one location is known as a contact centre. A call centre is often operated through an extensive open workspace for call centre agents, with work stations that include a computer for each agent, a telephone set/headset connected to a telecom switch, and one or more supervisor stations. It can be independently operated or networked with additional centres, often linked to a corporate computer network, including mainframes, microcomputers and LANs. Increasingly, the voice and data pathways into the centre are linked through a set of new technologies called computer telephony integration (CTI). Most major businesses use call centres to interact with their customers. Examples include utility companies, mail order catalogue retailers, and customer support for computer hardware and software. Some businesses even service internal functions through call centres. Examples of this include help desks, retail financial support, and sales support. A contact centre, also known as customer interaction center is a central point of any organization from which all customer contacts are managed. Through contact centers, valuable information about company are routed to appropriate people, contacts to be tracked and data to be gathered. It is generally a part of company’s customer relationship management (CRM). Today, customers contact companies by calling, emailing, chatting online, visiting websites, faxing and even instant massaging and vise versa. Technology Call centre technology is subject to improvements and innovations. Some of these technologies include speech recognition and speech synthesis software to allow computers to handle first level of customer support, text mining and natural language processing to allow better customer handling, agent training by automatic mining of best practices from past interactions, support automation and many other technologies to improve agent productivity and customer satisfaction. Automatic lead selection or lead steering is also intended to improve efficiencies, both for inbound and outbound campaigns, whereby inbound calls are intended to quickly land with the appropriate agent to handle the task, whilst minimising wait times and long lists of irrelevant options for people calling in, as well as for outbound calls, where lead selection allows management to designate what type of leads go to which agent based on factors including skill, socioeconomic factors and past performance and percentage likelihood of closing a sale per lead. The concept of the Universal Queue standardises the processing of communications across multiple technologies such as fax, phone, and email. Patents There are a large number of patents covering various aspects of call centre operation, automation, and technology. One of the early inventors in this field, Ronald A. Katz, personally holds over 50 patents covering inventions related to toll free numbers, automated attendant, automated call distribution, voice response unit, computer telephone integration and speech recognition. Bednarek et al., "Katz Patent Reexamination: A Change in Momentum Favoring RAKTL Targets", ShawPittman, June 9, 2004 . Dynamics Types of calls are often divided into outbound and inbound. Inbound calls are calls that are made by the consumer to obtain information, report a malfunction, or ask for help. These calls are substantially different from outbound calls, where agents place calls to potential customers mostly with intentions of selling or service to the individual. (See telemarketing). It is possible to combine inbound and outbound campaigns . Call centre staff are often organised into a multi-tier support system for a more efficient handling of calls. The first tier in such a model consists of operators, who direct inquiries to the appropriate department and provide general directory information. If a caller requires more assistance, the call is forwarded to the second tier, where most issues can be resolved. In some cases, there may be three or more tiers of support staff. If a caller requires more assistance, the caller is forwarded to the third tier of support; typically the third tier of support is formed by product engineers/developers or highly skilled technical support staff of the product. Call centres have their critics, some of which argue that the work atmosphere in such an environment is de-humanising. Others point to the low rates of pay and restrictive working practices of some employers. There has been much controversy over such things as restricting the amount of time that an employee can spend in the toilet. Furthermore, call centres have been the subject of complaints by callers who find the staff often do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems, while the dehumanised workers very often exhibit an attitude of apathy to even the most abusive customer. Owing to the highly technological nature of the operations in such offices, the close monitoring of staff activities is easy and widespread. This can be argued to be beneficial, to enable the company to better plan the workload and time of its employees. Some people have argued that such close monitoring breaches human rights to privacy. Varieties Some variations of call centre models are listed below: Contact centre – Supports interaction with customers over a variety of media, including but not necessarily limited to telephony, e-mail and internet chat. Inbound call centre - Exclusively or predominately handles inbound calls (calls initiated by the customer). Outbound call centre - One in which call centre agents make outbound calls to customers or sales leads. Blended call centre - Combining automatic call distribution for incoming calls with predictive dialling for outbound calls, it makes more efficient use of agent time as each type of agent (inbound or outbound) can handle the overflow of the other. Criticism and performance Criticisms of call centres generally follow a number of common themes, from both callers and call centre staff. From callers, common criticisms include Ali, S. 2006 "If you want to scream, press..." Wall Street Journal http://online.wsj.com/google_login.html?url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB116171027921802238.html%3Fmod%3Dgooglenews_wsj : Operators working from a script Non-expert operators (call screening) Incompetent or untrained operators incapable of processing customers' requests effectively Adsit, D. (2007) Do Call Centers Need to Carry Malpractice Insurance? In Queue, http://www.nationalcallcenters.org/pubs/In_Queue/vol2no24.html Overseas location, with language and accent problems Automated queuing systems—this sometimes results in excessively long hold times Complaints that departments of companies do not engage in communication with one another Deceit over location of call centre (such as allocating overseas workers false English names) Requiring the caller to repeat the same information multiple times Common criticisms from staff include P Taylor, P Bain "'An assembly line in the head': work and employee relations in the call centre" Industrial Relations Journal, 1999. : Close scrutiny by management (e.g. frequent random call monitoring) Low compensation (pay and bonuses) Restrictive working practices (some operators are required to follow a pre-written script) High stress: a common problem associated with front-end jobs where employees deal directly with customers Repetitive job task Poor working conditions (e.g. poor facilities, poor maintenance and cleaning, cramped working conditions, management interference, lack of privacy and noisy) Impaired vision and hearing problems Rude and abusive customers--especially callers who ask, "Is this the answering service?" (Most operators are not allowed to disclose this.) The net-net of these concerns is that call centres as a business process exhibit stratospheric levels of variability. The experience a customer gets and the results a company achieves on a given call are almost totally dependent on the quality of the agent answering that call. Fleming, J., Coffman, C., Harter, J. (2005) Manage Your Human Sigma, Harvard Business Review Call centres are beginning to address this by using agent-assisted voice solutions to standardise the process all agents use. Patel, S. (2008) How to win a no-sin situation. In Queue. http://www.nationalcallcenters.org/pubs/In_Queue/vol3no12.html#How_to_Win_a_No-Win_Situation Anton and Phelps have provided a detailed HOWTO to conduct the performance evaluation of the business, whereas others are using various scientific technologies to do the jobs. However more popular alternatives are using personality and skill based approaches. The various challenges encountered by call operators are discussed by several authors. Unionisation Unions in North America have made some effort to gain members from this sector, including the Communications Workers of America and the United Steelworkers. In Australia, the Call Centre Workers Union represents unionised workers; their activities form part of the Australian labour movement. In Europe, Uni Global Union of Switzerland is involved in assisting unionisation in this realm. Standardisation Currently, there are no universally bracketable international standards, other than ISO 9000 series, available for the industry to follow up. However, there are some guidelines and standing operating procedures available on the internet. Mathematical theory Queuing theory is a branch of mathematics in which models of queuing systems have been developed. A call centre can be seen as a queuing network. Call Center Mathematics | A scientific method for understanding and improving contact centers by Ger Koole [http://fic.wharton.upenn.edu/fic/papers/03/p0312.htmlStatistical Analysis of a Telephone Call Center: A Queueing-Science Perspective" Lawrence Brown, Noah Gans, Avishai Mandelbaum, Anat Sakov, Haipeng Shen, Sergey Zeltyn and Linda Zhao, November 2002 ] Queueing Models of Call Centers: An Introduction Ger Koole The models can be applied to answer queueing questions for call centres. Call centre operations have been supported by mathematical models beyond queueing, with operations research, which considers a wide range of optimisation problems. See also Business process outsourcing in India List of call centre companies Automatic call distributor Call Centre Industry in the Philippines Erlang distribution Skills based routing Queue management system Virtual queue References Further reading Kennedy I., Call centres, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, 2003. Masi D.M.B., Fischer M.J., Harris C.M., Numerical Analysis of Routing Rules for Call centres, Telecommunications Review, 1998. http://www.noblis.org/Publications/TR98_8.doc HSE Web site at www.hse.gov.uk/lau/lacs/94-2.htm for guidelines about call centre working * practices. Fluss, Donna, "The Real-Time Contact centre", 2005 AMACOM Wegge, J., van Dick, R., Fisher, G., Wecking, C., & Moltzen, K. (2006, January). Work motivation, organisational identification, and well-being in call centre work. Work & Stress, 20(1), 60-83.

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Book_of_Zechariah

The Book of Zechariah is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh attributed to the prophet Zechariah. Historical Context Zechariah’s ministry took place during the reign of Darius the Great (), and was contemporary with Haggai in a post-exilic world after the fall of Jerusalem in 586/7 BC. Carol L. Myers and Eric M. Myers, Haggai, Zechariah 1-8: The Anchor Bible. Garden City, Doubleday and Company Inc., 1987. ISBN 978-0385144827. Page 183. Ezekiel and Jeremiah wrote prior to the fall of Jerusalem, while continuing to prophecy in the earlier exile period. Scholars believe Ezekiel, with his blending of ceremony and vision, heavily influenced the visionary works of Zechariah 1-8. Myers, p. 30. Zechariah is specific about dating his writing (520-518 BC). During the Exile many Jews were taken to Babylon, where the prophets told them to make their homes (), suggesting they would spend a long period of time there. Eventually freedom did come to many Israelites, when Cyrus the Great overtook the Babylonians in 539 BC. In 538 BC, the famous Edict of Cyrus was released, and the first return took place under Shebazzar. After the death of Cyrus in 530 BC, Darius consolidated power and took office in 522 BC. His system divided the different colonies of the empire into easily manageable districts overseen by governors. Zerubbabel comes into the story, appointed by Darius as governor over the district of Yehud (Judah). Under the reign of Darius Zechariah also emerged, centering around the rebuilding of the temple. Unlike the Babylonians, the Persian Empire went to great lengths to keep “cordial relations” between vassal and lord. The rebuilding of the temple was encouraged by the leaders of the empire in hopes that it would strengthen the authorities in local contexts. This policy was good politics on the part of the Persians, and the Jews viewed it as a blessing from God. Myers, pp. 31-2. The Prophet His name means "God has remembered." Not much is known about Zechariah’s life other than what may be inferred from the book. It has been speculated that his ancestor Iddo was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerubbabel (), and that Zechariah may himself have been a priest as well as a prophet. This is supported by Zechariah's interest in the Temple and the priesthood, and from Iddo's preaching in the Books of Chronicles. Authorship Some scholars accept the book as the writings of one individual. For example, George Livingstone Robinson's dissertation on chapters 9-14 Published in The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Oct 1895 - Jan 1896), pp. 1-92. concluded that those chapters had their origin in the period between 518 and 516 B.C. and stand in close relation to chapters 1-8, having most probably been composed by Zechariah himself. Others have concluded that there was more than one contributor to the book. In this view, chapters 1–8 are treated as being the work of the "original" Zechariah. His prophecies and writings were collected by his disciples and his prophetic mantle handed down to other disciples, who bear responsibility for chapters 9–14; so, rather than a single author, there was an inspired tradition of Zechariah after the "original" prophet, and the character of this original is to be found within the lines of chapters 1–8. Composition The return from exile is the theological premise of prophet's visions in chapters 1-6. Chapters 7–8 address the quality of life God wants his renewed people to enjoy, containing many encouraging promises to them. Chapters 9-14 comprise two "oracles" of the future. Chapters 1 to 6 Zechariah's vision of the four horsemen (), engraving by Gustave Doré. The book begins with a preface (), which recalls the nation's past history, for the purpose of presenting a solemn warning to the present generation. Then follows a series of eight visions (), succeeding one another in one night, which may be regarded as a symbolical history of Israel, intended to furnish consolation to the returned exiles and stir up hope in their minds. The symbolic action, the crowning of Joshua (), describes how the kingdoms of the world become the kingdom of God's Messiah. Chapters 7 and 8 Chapters and , delivered two years later, are an answer to the question whether the days of mourning for the destruction of the city should be kept any longer, and an encouraging address to the people, assuring them of God's presence and blessing. Chapters 9 to 14 This section consists of two "oracles" or "burdens": The first oracle (ch. ) gives an outline of the course of God's providential dealings with his people down to the time of the coming of the Messiah. The second oracle (ch. ) points out the glories that await Israel in "the latter day", the final conflict and triumph of God's kingdom. Themes The purpose of this book is not strictly historical but theological and pastoral. The main emphasis is that God is at work and plans to live again with His people in Jerusalem. He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin. Zechariah's concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the influence of the governor in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment. The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah, but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to "Third Isaiah" (chapters 55–66 of the Book of Isaiah), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile. Most Christian commentators read the series of predictions in chapters 7 to 14 as Messianic prophecies, either directly or indirectly. These chapters helped the writers of the Gospels understand Jesus’ suffering, death and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus’ final days For example, see allusion to Zechariah 9:9 in Matthew 21:5; also Zechariah 12:10 in John 19:37. These and other references between Zechariah and the New Testament are described in . Much of the Book of Revelation, which narrates the denouement of history, is also colored by images in Zechariah. Footnotes Sources The Student Bible, NIV. Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992. D. Guthrie, (ed.) New Bible Commentary. New York: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1970. Stephen G. Dempster, Dominion And Dynasty: A Theology Of The Hebrew Bible. Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0830826155 Carroll Stuhlmueller, Haggai and Zechariah: Rebuilding With Hope. Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., 1988. ISBN 978-0905312750. External links Translations Zechariah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)

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North_America

North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2008, its population was estimated at nearly 529 million people. It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Etymology North and South America are generally accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word "America" on the continent of South America, in the middle of what is today Brazil. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, ab Americo inventore ... quasi Americi terram sive Americam (from Americus the discoverer ... as if it were the land of Americus, thus America). p. 9, The Cosmographiæ Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller in Facsimile, translated by Edward Burke and Mario E. Cosenza, introduction by Joseph Fischer and Franz von Wieser, edited by Charles George Herbermann, New York: The United States Catholic Historical Society, 1907. For Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form "America", following the examples of "Europa" and "Asia". Later, when other mapmakers added North America, they extended the original name to it as well: in 1538, Gerard Mercator used the name America to all of the Western Hemisphere on his world map. The Naming of America: Fragments We've Shored Against Ourselves. By Jonathan Cohen Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty and so a derivation from "Amerigo Vespucci" could be problematic. Ricardo Palma (1949) proposed a derivation from the "Amerrique" mountains of Central America -- Vespucci was the first to discover South America and the Amerrique mountains of Central America, which connected his discoveries to those of Christopher Columbus. Alfred E. Hudd proposed a theory in 1908 that the continents are named after a Welsh merchant named Richard Amerike from Bristol, who is believed to have financed John Cabot's voyage of discovery from England to Newfoundland in 1477. A minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of 'Amairick'. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language. History Paleohistory North America is the source of much of what humanity knows about the ancient world. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. Dodson, Peter (1997). "American Dinosaurs." Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Edited by Phillip J. Currie and Kevin Padian. Academic Press. p. 10-13. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western United States. Weishampel, David B; et al (2004). "Dinosaur distribution (Late Jurassic, North America)." In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 543–545. ISBN 0-520-24209-2. Prehistory Scientists have several theories as to the origins of the early human population of North America. The indigenous peoples of North America themselves have many creation myths, by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation. Before contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several "culture areas", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived there (e.g. the Bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g. Athapascan or Uto-Aztecan). It is important to note that peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Scientists believe that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people. During the thousands of years of native inhabitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. Archaeologists often name different cultural groups they discover after the site where they are first found. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the Clovis culture of modern New Mexico. A more recent example is the group of related cultures called the Mound builders (e.g. the Fort Walton Culture), found in the Mississippi river valley. They flourished from 300 BC to the 150s AD. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major staples, maize (corn). History As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE, a few hundred years after the Mesopotamians. The Mayan culture was still present when the Spanish arrived in Central America, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire further north. Upon the arrival of the Europeans in the "New World", Native American population declined substantially, primarily due to the introduction of European diseases to which the Native Americans lacked immunity. pp. 42–46, A Concise History of World Population: An Introduction to Population Processes, Massimo Livi Bacci, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2001, 3rd ed., ISBN 0-631-22335-5. Native peoples found their culture changed drastically. As such, their affiliation with political and cultural groups changed as well, several linguistic groups went extinct, and others changed quite quickly. The names and cultures that Europeans recorded for the natives were not necessarily the same as the ones they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today. Geography and extent North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which is sometimes considered a single continent The five rings of the Olympic flag represent the five inhabited, participating continents (Africa, America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania). Océano Uno, Diccionario Enciclopédico y Atlas Mundial, "Continente", page 392, 1730. ISBN 84-494-0188-7 Los Cinco Continentes (The Five Continents), Planeta-De Agostini Editions, 1997. ISBN 84-395-6054-0 and North America a subcontinent). Encarta, "Norteamérica". North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Panama. The continent is generally delimited on the southeast by the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, or at the Panama Canal; according to other sources, its southern limit is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America tapering and extending southeastward to South America. Before the Central American isthmus was raised, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North America and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela. Much of North America is on the North American Plate. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California. There are numerous islands off the continent’s coasts: principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands, the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, Newfoundland and Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but is an oceanic island which was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago. The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and it is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent. Physical geography The vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico form the partial edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle and into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. The United States Geographical Survey states that the geographic center of North America is "6 miles west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota" at approximately , approximately 15 miles (25 km) from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that “No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 States, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.” Nonetheless, there is a 15-foot (4.5 m) field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. Human geography The prevalent languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the United States, but also sometimes Belize and parts of the Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the United States) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese (but French speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch, English or French speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (FR) and The Falkland Islands (UK). The French language has historically played a significant role in North America and retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual; French is the official language of the province of Quebec and is co-official with English in the province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the province of Ontario (The official language is English, but there is an estimated 500 000 Franco-Ontarians), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak Creole and French. Similarly there remains small segments in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica that speak unique French and creole languages along side their English speaking majorities. Socially and culturally, North America presents a well-defined entity. Canada and the United States have a similar culture and similar traditions as a result of both countries being former British colonies. A common cultural and economic market has developed between the two nations because of the strong economic and historical ties. Spanish-speaking North America shares a common past as former Spanish colonies. In Mexico and the Central American countries where civilizations like the Maya developed, indigenous people preserve traditions across modern boundaries. Central American and Spanish-speaking Caribbean nations have historically had more in common due to geographical proximity and the fact that, after winning independence from Spain, Mexico never took part in an effort to build a Central American Union. Northern Mexico, particularly cities such as Monterrey and Chihuahua, are strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the United States. Emigration to Canada and the United States remains a significant attribute of many nations close to the southern border of the United States. As the British Empire and its influences declined, the Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed the economic influence of northern North America increase on the region. In the Anglophone Caribbean this influence is in part due to the fact that the majority of English speaking Caribbean countries have populations of less than 200,000 people and many of these countries now have expatriate diasporas living abroad that are larger than those remaining at home. Economically, Canada and the United States are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country; the countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of development. The most important trade blocs are the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the recently signed Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA)—the last of these being an example of the economic integration sought by the nations of this sub-region as a way to improve their financial status. Demographically, North America is a racially and ethnically diverse continent. Its three main racial groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks (chiefly African-Americans and Afro-Caribbeans). There is a significant minority of Amerindians and Asians among other less numerous groups. Countries and territories North America is often divided into subregions but no universally accepted divisions exist. Central America comprises the southern region of the continent, but its northern terminus varies between sources. Geophysically, the region starts at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico (namely the Mexican states of Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Quintana Roo, and Yucatán Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Central America" ). The United Nations geoscheme includes Mexico in Central America; conversely, the European Union excludes both Mexico and Belize from the area. Geopolitically, Mexico is frequently not considered a part of Central America. The American Heritage Dictionary, "Central America" Northern America is used to refer to the northern countries and territories of North America: Canada, the United States, Greenland, Bermuda, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. They are often considered distinct from the southern portion of the Americas, which largely comprise Latin America. The term Middle America is sometimes used to collectively refer to Mexico, the nations of Central America, and the Caribbean. Country or territory Area(km²) Land areas and population estimates are taken from The 2008 World Factbook which currently uses July 2008 data, unless otherwise noted. Population(July 2008 est.) Population density(per km²) Capital Anguilla (UK) 138.3 The Valley Antigua and Barbuda 190.8 St. John's Aruba (Netherlands) Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America. 526.1 Oranjestad Bahamas Water area makes up a considerable portion of this entity's total area. Therefore, for a more accurate figure on which to calculate population density, this figure includes land area only. 30.5 Nassau Barbados 654.2 Bridgetown Belize 13.1 Belmopan Bermuda (UK) 1255.4 Hamilton British Virgin Islands (UK) 157.1 Road Town Canada 3.7 Ottawa Cayman Islands (UK) 182.7 George Town Clipperton Island (France) 0.0 — Costa Rica 82.1 San José Cuba 103.0 Havana Dominica 96.2 Roseau Dominican Republic 195.1 Santo Domingo El Salvador 335.9 San Salvador Greenland (Denmark) 0.027 Nuuk Grenada 262.6 St. George's Guadeloupe (France) Estimates as of July 2006. Since Guadeloupe and Martinique have been upgraded from overseas departments to regions of France, they are no longer listed separately in The World Factbook. Therefore, these figures are from the last edition in which they appear -- 2006. 254.4 Basse-Terre Guatemala 119.4 Guatemala City Haiti 321.6 Port-au-Prince Honduras 68.2 Tegucigalpa Jamaica 255.1 Kingston Martinique (France) 396.5 Fort-de-France Mexico 57.2 Mexico City Montserrat (UK) 49.8 Plymouth; Brades Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning in July 1995, much of Plymouth's de jure capital was destroyed and government offices were relocated to Brades. Navassa Island (USA) 0.0 — Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands) 234.8 Willemstad Nicaragua 48.1 Managua Panama Panama is generally considered a North American country, though some authorities divide it at the Panama Canal; land area and population figures are for the entire country. 42.3 Panama City Puerto Rico (USA) 446.2 San Juan Saint Barthélemy (France) 356.8 Gustavia Saint Kitts and Nevis 152.6 Basseterre Saint Lucia 259.1 Castries Saint Martin (France) 544.0 Marigot Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) 29.1 Saint-Pierre Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 304.5 Kingstown Trinidad and Tobago 204.2 Port of Spain Turks and Caicos Islands (UK) 52.0 Cockburn Town United States Includes the U.S. state of Hawaii, which is distant from the North American landmass in the Pacific Ocean and is, thus, commonly included with the other territories of Oceania. 33.2 Washington, D.C. U.S. Virgin Islands (USA) 317.5 Charlotte Amalie Total 22.9 The term North America may mean different things to different people in the world according to the context. Usage other than that of the entire continent includes: In English, North America is usually used to refer to the United States and Canada exclusively. Burchfield, R. W., ed. 2004. "America." Fowler's Modern English Usage (ISBN 0-19-861021-1) New York: Oxford University Press, p. 48 -- quotation reads: "the term 'North America' is mostly used to mean the United States and Canada together. Countries to the south of the United States are described as being in Central America (Mexico, Nicaragua, etc.) or South America (Brazil, Argentina, etc.)"; see also: McArthur, Tom. 1992. "North American." The Oxford Companion to the English Language (ISBN 0-19-214183-X) New York: Oxford University Press, p. 707. Alternatively, usage often includes Mexico the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: refers to "Three nations, on the same continent" (as with North American Free Trade Agreement) and other entities. Martin W. Lewis and Kären E. Wigen. (1997). "The Myth of Continents." (ISBN 0520207432) University of California Press, p. 40 -- quotation reads: "In regard to North America one can detect a similar shift between official designation and popular conception. Strictly speaking, the North American continent includes Panama and all points north, but in common parlance Central America is usually excluded, while in some circumstances Mexico is deleted as well"; see also the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: refers to "Three nations, on the same continent" Countries of North America: includes Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and the United States http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562468/North_America.html : describes "North America includes Canada, the United States, Mexico, and their related territories, lying north of Central and South America" http://www.spp.gov/ In Latin America, Spain, Portugal, and some other parts of Europe, North America usually designates a subcontinent (subcontinente in Spanish) of the Americas containing Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and often Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Bermuda. In Ibero-America, North America is considered a subcontinent containing Canada, the United States, Mexico, Greenland, Bermuda and Saint-Pierre and Miquelon."Norteamérica (Mexican version)"/(Spaniard version). Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Historical toponymy North America, in whole or in part, has been historically referred to by other names: Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico. The Spanish called North America Florida . , which eventually became more focused on its present location. The English called their portion of North America Virginia The name Virginia was first applied by Queen Elizabeth I and Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. In 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh sent Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe to lead an exploration of what is now the North Carolina coast, and they returned with word of a regional "king" named "Wingina." This was modified later that year by Raleigh and the Queen to "Virginia", perhaps in part noting her status as the "Virgin Queen;" John Dee pushed to call it Atlantis (inspired by Plato). The northern part of North America was often referred to as Norumbega. The northeastern part of what would become the United States was named New England in 1616 in John Smith's book of that year. Western North America was named Nova Albion by Francis Drake as he repaired his boat (Golden Hind) a short distance north of present day San Francisco. Areas of past British control were called British North America. Regions under control of the Hudson's Bay Company was called Rupert's Land, which eventually made up a large portion of the Dominion of Canada, the modern country of Canada. Communications Many of the nations of North America cooperate together on a shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) which is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 16 Caribbean nations. See also Main list: Topic outline of North America Americas (terminology) Discoverer of the Americas Economy of North America European colonization of the Americas History of North America Mountain peaks of North America Nearctic North American Megafauna Transportation in North America Turtle Island (North America) Organizations and agreements: Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement Fortress North America North American Aerospace Defense Command North American Free Trade Agreement References External links commons:Category:North America commons:Category:Atlas of North America "North America"/"Central America". The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2001-6. New York, Columbia University Press. "North America"/"Central America". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. UN Statistics Division: Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings GeoHive: The population of continents, regions and countries "North America"/ "Central America". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. American Heritage Dictionaries, North America and Central America Houghton Mifflin Company, "North America" Council on Hemispheric Affairs Consortium for North American Higher Education Collaboration WordNet Princeton University: Central America Crystal Reference Encyclopedia, "North America" Internet World Map Study showing the geographic distribution of the Internet across North America. be-x-old:Паўночная Амэрыка

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Lizard

Lizards are a very large and widespread group of squamate reptiles, with nearly 5,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica as well as most oceanic island chains. The group, traditionally recognized as the suborder Lacertilia, is defined as all extant members of the Lepidosauria (reptiles with overlapping scales) which are neither sphenodonts (i.e., Tuatara) nor snakes. While the snakes are recognized as falling phylogenetically within the anguimorph lizards from which they evolved, the sphenodonts are the sister group to the squamates, the larger monophyletic group which includes both the lizards and the snakes. Lizards typically have limbs and external ears, while snakes lack both these characteristics. However, because they are defined negatively as excluding snakes, lizards have no unique distinguishing characteristic as a group. Lizards and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the sphenodonts which have a more primitive and solid diapsid skull. Many lizards can detach their tails in order to escape from predators, an act called autotomy, but this trait is not universal. Vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in most lizards, and most communicate with body language or bright colors on their bodies as well as with pheromones. The adult length of species within the suborder ranges from a few centimeters for some chameleons and geckos to nearly three meters (9 feet, 6 inches) in the case of the largest living varanid lizard, the Komodo Dragon. Some extinct varanids reached great size. The extinct aquatic mosasaurs reached 17.5 meters, and the giant monitor Megalania prisca is estimated to have reached perhaps seven meters. Physiology A feral Jackson's Chameleon from a population introduced to Hawaii in the 1970s. Sight is quite important for most lizards, both for locating prey and for communication, and as such, many lizards have highly acute color vision. Most lizards rely heavily on body language, using specific postures, gestures and movements to define territory, resolve disputes, and entice mates. Some species of lizard also utilize bright colors, such as the iridescent patches on the belly of Sceloporus. These colors would be highly visible to predators, so are often hidden on the underside or between scales and only revealed when necessary. A particular innovation in this respect is the dewlap, a brightly colored patch of skin on the throat, usually hidden between scales. When a display is needed, the lizards erect the hyoid bone of their throat, resulting in a large vertical flap of brightly colored skin beneath the head which can be then used for communication. Anoles are particularly famous for this display, with each species having specific colors, including patterns only visible under ultraviolet light, as lizards can often see UV. Evolution and relationships The fossil mosasaur Prognathodon, a varanid. The retention of the basic 'reptilian' amniote body form by lizards makes it tempting to assume any similar animal, alive or extinct, is also a lizard. However, this is not the case, and lizards as squamates are part of a well-defined group. The earliest "lizard" was superficially lizard-like, but had a solid, box-like skull, with openings only for eyes, nostrils, etc (termed Anapsid). Turtles retain this skull form. Early anapsids later gave rise to two new groups with additional holes in the skull to make room for and anchor larger jaw muscles. Those with a single hole, the Synapsids, gave rise to the superficially lizard-like Pelycosaurs which include Dimetrodon and the Therapsids, including the Cynodonts, from which would evolve the modern mammals. The Diapsids, possessing one temporal fenestra before the eye and one behind it, continued to diversify. One branch, the Archosaurs, retained the basic Diapsid skull, and gave rise to a bewildering array of animals, most famous being the crocodilians, the pterosaurs, the dinosaurs and their descendants, birds. The Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs radiated from the same basal Diapsid group. The smaller Lepidosaurs which would give rise to the lizards began to reduce the skull bones, making the skull lighter and more flexible. The modern Tuatara retains the basic Lepidosaur skull, distinguishing it from true lizards in spite of superficial similarities. Squamates, including snakes and all true lizards, further lightened the skull by eliminating the lower margin of the lower skull opening. Lizard diversfication Within the Lacertilia are found four generally recognized suborders, Iguania, Gekkota, Amphisbaenia and Autarchoglossa, with the "blind skinks" in the family Dibamidae having an uncertain position. While traditionally excluded from the lizards, the snakes are usually classified as a clade with a similar subordinal rank. ITIS http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=173861 . Iguania Anoles mating, Gainesville, FL The suborder Iguania, found in Africa, south Asia, Australia, the New World, and with iguanas colonizing the islands of the west Pacific, form the sister group to the remainder of the squamata. They are largely arboreal, and have primitively fleshy, non-prehensile tongues, but this condition is obviously highly modified in the chameleons. This clade includes the following families: Family Agamidae – Agamid Lizards, Old World Arboreal Lizards Family Chamaeleonidae – Chameleons Family Corytophanidae – Helmet Lizards Family Crotaphytidae – Collared Lizards, Leopard Lizards Family Hoplocercidae – Dwarf and Spiny Tail Iguanas Family Iguanidae – American Arboreal Lizards, Chuckwallas, Iguanas, Iguanids Family Opluridae – Malagasy Iguanas Family Phrynosomatidae – North American Spiny Lizards Family Polychrotidae – Anoles and kin Family Tropiduridae – Tropidurid Lizards Gekkota Active hunters, the Gekkota includes three families comprising the distinctive cosmopolitan geckos and the legless flap-footed lizards of Australia and New Zealand. Like snakes, the geckos and the flap-footed lizards lack eyelids. Unlike snakes, they use their tongues to clean their often highly developed eyes. While gecko feet have unique surfaces which allow them to cling to glass and run on ceilings, the flapfoot has lost its limbs. The three families of this suborder are: Family Eublepharidae – Eublepharid Geckos Family Gekkonidae – Geckos Family Pygopodidae – Flap-footed Lizards Relationship to humans Komodo dragons on Rinca Most lizard species are harmless to humans. Only the very largest lizard species pose threat of death; the Komodo dragon, for example, has been known to stalk, attack, and kill humans. The venom of the Gila monster and beaded lizard is not usually deadly but they can inflict extremely painful bites due to powerful jaws. The chief impact of lizards on humans is positive as they are significant predators of pest species; numerous species are prominent in the pet trade. Lizard symbolism plays important, though rarely predominant roles in some cultures (e.g. Tarrotarro in Australian Aboriginal mythology). The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped animals and often depicted lizards in their art. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. According to a popular legend in Maharashtra, a Common Indian Monitor, with ropes attached, was used to scale the walls of the Sinhagad fort in the Battle of Sinhagad. Green iguanas (Iguana iguana), are popular exotic pets Green Iguanas are eaten in Central America and Uromastyx in Africa and India. In North Africa, Uromastyx are considered dhaab or 'fish of the desert' and eaten by nomadic tribes. pg 48, Grzimek,Bernhard. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia (Second Edition) Vol 7 - Reptiles. (2003) Thomson - Gale. Farmington Hills, Minnesota. Vol Editor - Neil Schlager. ISBN 0-7876-5783-2 (for vol.7) In India too, these lizards are caught for their meat, about which Malcolm Smith says ..with certain castes of Hindoos it is a regular article of diet..the meat is said to be excellent and white like chicken...the head and feet are not eaten, but the tail is considered a great delicacy...the fat of the body is boiled down and the resulting oil is used as an embrocation and also as a cure for impotence. pp 244-247, Smith, Malcolm A. (1935) The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burmah, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol II - Sauria, Taylor and Francis, London. Classification Gekko gecko in Thailand Close-up of the head of the legless fossorial amphisbaenid Rhineura Underside of a Thorny devil, an agamid, Western Australia The Blotched blue-tongued lizard, a scincomorph The venomous Gila monster, Heloderma s. suspectum '''Suborder Lacertilia (Sauria) - (Lizards) Family †Bavarisauridae Family †Eichstaettisauridae Infraorder Iguania Family †Arretosauridae Family †Euposauridae Family Corytophanidae (casquehead lizards) Family Iguanidae (iguanas and spinytail iguanas) Family Phrynosomatidae (earless, spiny, tree, side-blotched and horned lizards) Family Polychrotidae (anoles) Family Leiosauridae (see Polychrotinae) Family Tropiduridae (neotropical ground lizards) Family Liolaemidae (see Tropidurinae) Family Leiocephalidae (see Tropidurinae) Family Crotaphytidae (collared and leopard lizards) Family Opluridae (Madagascar iguanids) Family Hoplocercidae (wood lizards, clubtails) Family †Priscagamidae Family †Isodontosauridae Family Agamidae (agamas) Family Chamaeleonidae (chameleons) Infraorder Gekkota Family Gekkonidae (geckos) Family Pygopodidae (legless lizards) Family Dibamidae (blind lizards) Infraorder Scincomorpha Family †Paramacellodidae Family †Slavoiidae Family Scincidae (skinks) Family Cordylidae (spinytail lizards) Family Gerrhosauridae (plated lizards) Family Xantusiidae (night lizards) Family Lacertidae (wall lizards or true lizards) Family †Mongolochamopidae Family †Adamisauridae Family Teiidae (tegus and whiptails) Family Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards) Infraorder Diploglossa Family Anguidae (glass lizards) Family Anniellidae (American legless lizards) Family Xenosauridae (knob-scaled lizards) Infraorder Platynota (Varanoidea) Family Varanidae (monitor lizards) Family Lanthanotidae (earless monitor lizards) Family Helodermatidae (gila monsters & beaded lizards) Family †Mosasauridae (marine lizards) References General references

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John_Irving

John Winslow Irving (born John Wallace Blunt, Jr.; March 2, 1942) is an American novelist and Academy Award-winning screenwriter. Irving achieved critical and popular acclaim after the international success of The World According to Garp in 1978. Some of Irving's novels, such as The Cider House Rules and A Prayer for Owen Meany, have been bestsellers and many have been made into movies. Several of Irving's books (Garp, Meany, A Widow for One Year) and short stories have been set in and around Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire where Irving grew up as the son of an Exeter faculty member, Colin F.N. Irving (1941), and nephew of another, H. Hamilton "Hammy" Bissell (1929). (Both Irving and Bissell, and other members of the Exeter community, appear somewhat disguised in many of his novels.) Irving was in the Exeter wrestling program under Coach Ted Seabrooke both as a wrestler and as an assistant coach, and wrestling features prominently in his books, stories and life. He also won the Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award for 1999 for his script of The Cider House Rules. Career Irving's career began at the age of 27 with the publication of his first novel, Setting Free the Bears. The novel was reasonably well reviewed, but failed to garner a large audience. In the late 1960s, he studied with Kurt Vonnegut at the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop. His second and third novels, The Water-Method Man and The 158-Pound Marriage, were similarly received. At around this time, in 1975, Irving accepted a position as Assistant Professor of English at Mount Holyoke College. Frustrated at the lack of promotion his novels were receiving from his first publisher, Random House, Irving offered his fourth novel, The World According to Garp (1978), to Dutton, which promised him stronger commitment to marketing. The novel became an international bestseller and cultural phenomenon, and was a finalist for the American Book Award (now the National Book Award) for hardcover fiction in 1979 (the award went to Tim O'Brien for Going After Cacciato). Garp won the National Book Foundation's award for paperback fiction the following year. Garp was later made into a film directed by George Roy Hill and starring Robin Williams in the title role and Glenn Close as his mother; it garnered several Academy Award nominations, including nominations for Close and John Lithgow. Irving makes a brief cameo in the film as an official in one of Garp's high school wrestling matches. Garp transformed Irving from an obscure, academic literary writer to a household name, and his subsequent books were bestsellers. The first was The Hotel New Hampshire (1981), which sold well despite mixed reviews from critics. Like Garp, the novel was quickly made into a film, this time directed by Tony Richardson and starring Jodie Foster, Rob Lowe, and Beau Bridges. In 1985, Irving published The Cider House Rules. An epic centered around a Maine orphanage, the novel's central topic is abortion. Many drew parallels between the novel and Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist. Irving's next novel was A Prayer for Owen Meany, another New England family epic centered around religion set in a New England boarding school. The novel was influenced by The Tin Drum by Günter Grass, The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, and the works of Dickens. In Owen Meany, Irving for the first time examined the consequences of the Vietnam War - particularly mandatory conscription, which Irving avoided because he was a married father and a teacher when of age for the draft. Owen Meany became Irving's bestselling book since Garp, and is now a frequent feature on high school English reading lists. Irving returned to Random House for his next book, A Son of the Circus (1995). Arguably his most complicated and difficult book, and a departure from many of the themes and location settings in his previous novels, it was dismissed by critics but became a national bestseller on the strength of Irving's reputation for fashioning literate, engrossing page-turners. Irving returned in 1998 with A Widow for One Year, which was named a New York Times Notable Book. In 1999, after nearly ten years in development, Irving's screenplay for The Cider House Rules was made into a film directed by Lasse Hallström, starring Michael Caine, Tobey Maguire, Charlize Theron, and Delroy Lindo. Irving also has a cameo appearance as the disapproving stationmaster. The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and earned Irving an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Soon after, Irving wrote My Movie Business, a memoir about his involvement in creating the film version of The Cider House Rules. After its publication, Irving appeared on the CBC Television program Hot Type to promote the book. During the interview, Irving criticized bestselling American author Tom Wolfe, saying Wolfe “can’t write,” and that his writing makes Irving gag. Wolfe appeared on Hot Type later that year, calling Irving, Norman Mailer and John Updike his “three stooges” who were panicked by his newest novel, A Man in Full. When The Fourth Hand was published in 2001 it became a bestseller. A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound, a children's story originally included in A Widow for One Year, was published as a book with illustrations by Tatjana Hauptmann in 2004. Irving's most recent novel, entitled Until I Find You, was released on July 12, 2005. On June 28, 2005, The New York Times published an article While Excavating Past, John Irving Finds His Family revealing that Until I Find You contains two specifically personal elements about his life that he has never before discussed publicly: his sexual abuse at age 11 by an older woman, and the recent entrance in his life of his biological father's family. Other projects Since the publication of Garp made him independently wealthy, Irving has been able to concentrate solely on fiction writing as a vocation, sporadically accepting short-term teaching positions (including one at his alma mater, the Iowa Writers' Workshop) and serving as an assistant coach on his sons' high school wrestling teams. In addition to his novels, he has also published Trying to Save Piggy Sneed, a collection of his writings including a brief memoir and unpublished short fiction, My Movie Business, an account of the protracted process of bringing The Cider House Rules to the big screen, and The Imaginary Girlfriend, a short memoir focusing on writing and wrestling. Recent In recent years, his three most highly regarded novels, The World According to Garp, The Cider House Rules, and A Prayer for Owen Meany, have been published in Modern Library editions. Owen Meany was adapted into the film Simon Birch (Irving disowned this adaptation, going so far as to request that all of the characters' names be changed for the film version). In 2004, a portion of A Widow for One Year was adapted into The Door in the Floor, starring Jeff Bridges and Kim Basinger. Recurring themes Recurring themes in Irving's work include New England, prostitutes, wrestling, Vienna, Iowa, bears, deadly accidents, a main character dealing with an absent or unknown parent, sexual relationships between young men and older women and other variations in sexual relations. Severing of body parts (tongue, finger, other) appears in several novels. Title New England Prostitutes Wrestling Vienna Bears Deadly accident Absent Parent Sexual variations Setting Free the Bears The Water-Method Man adultery The 158-Pound Marriage swinging, ménage à trois, adultery The World According to Garp asexualism, rape, pedophilia, transsexualism, swinging, adultery The Hotel New Hampshire rape, gang rape, older woman/younger man, incest, homosexuality, lesbianism, The Cider House Rules lesbianism, adultery, rape, incest, bestiality A Prayer for Owen Meany asexualism, incestuous desires A Son of the Circus transsexualism, homosexuality A Widow for One Year older woman/younger man, rape The Fourth Hand Until I Find You older woman/younger man, lesbianism, pedophilia Irving has often used the literary technique of a story within a story. In addition, his novels have a character who is a writer. Bibliography Setting Free the Bears (1968) The Water-Method Man (1972) The 158-Pound Marriage (1974) The World According to Garp (1978) The Hotel New Hampshire (1981) The Cider House Rules (1985) A Prayer for Owen Meany (1989) Trying to Save Piggy Sneed (collection, 1993) A Son of the Circus (1994) The Imaginary Girlfriend (non-fiction, 1996) A Widow for One Year (1998) My Movie Business (non-fiction, 1999) The Cider House Rules: A Screenplay (1999) The Fourth Hand (2001) A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound (2004) Until I Find You (2005) Last Night In Twisted River (2009) Quotes "The building of the architecture of a novel-- the craft of it--is something I never tire of." "In this way, in increments both measurable and not, our childhood is stolen from us -- not always in one momentous event but often in a series of small robberies, which add up to the same loss." "I spend about two to three months planning the path of the book in my head before I write the last sentence of the novel. From there I work back to the beginning. From the day I think of the last sentence to the book's publication date, not more than a semicolon has changed." "Ted Seabrooke, my wrestling coach, had a kind of Nietzschean effect on me in terms of not just his estimation of my limited abilities, but his decidedly philosophical stance about how to conduct your life, what you should do to compensate for your limitations. This was essential to me, both as a student -- and not a good one -- and as a wrestler who was not a natural athlete but who had found something he loved." "John Irving Interviewed by Suzanne Herel." Mother Jones magazine, May/June 1997. "When I finally write the first sentence, I want to know everything that happens, so that I am not inventing the story as I write it - rather, I am remembering a story that has already happened." "I feel more a part of the wrestling community than I feel I belong to the community of arts and letters. Why? Because wrestling requires even more dedication than writing because wrestling represents the most difficult and rewarding objective that I have ever dedicated myself to; because wrestling and wrestling coaches are among the most disciplined and self-sacrificing people I have ever known" "As a child, when something is denied you -- when there is a subject that is never spoken of -- you pretend it's for the best. But when I was denied information about someone as important as my actual father, I compensated for this loss by inventing him." "The characters in my novels, from the very first one, are always on some quixotic effort of attempting to control something that is uncontrollable -- some element of the world that is essentially random and out of control." Further reading 3. Book Magazine, July/August 2001 ("John Irving Wrestles Fate" by Dorman T. Shindler) 4. Pages Magazine, July/August 2005 ("The Creative Crucible" by Dorman T. Shindler) References External links Literary Encyclopedia InnerVIEWS with Ernie Manouse: John Irving (TV Interview) John Irving Is God (information, including large bibliography) Becoming John Irving Academy of Achievement biography (with links to interview and photo gallery)

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Channel_Tunnel

The Channel Tunnel (), also known by the portmanteau Chunnel, The Channel Tunnel - raileurope.com is a undersea rail tunnel linking Folkestone, Kent in England with Coquelles, near Calais in northern France beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. At its lowest point it is deep. http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/4217338.html?series=23 The Channel Tunnel has the longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world although the Seikan Tunnel in Japan is both longer overall, at and deeper, at . The tunnel carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, Eurotunnel roll-on/roll-off vehicle transport - the largest in the world - and international rail freight trains. In 1996 the American Society of Civil Engineers identified the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link existed as early as 1802. However, the eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994. The project came in 80% over its predicted budget. Since its construction, the tunnel has faced several problems. Fires have disrupted operation of the tunnel. Illegal immigrants and asylum seekers have used the tunnel to enter Britain (on occasion, even successfully managing to enter the tunnel on foot), http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7171985.stm causing a minor diplomatic disagreement over the siting of the Sangatte refugee camp, which was eventually closed in 2002. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/23/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1 History Key dates 1802 Albert Mathieu put forward a cross-Channel tunnel proposal. 1875 The Channel Tunnel Company Ltd began preliminary trials. 1882 The Abbot's Cliff heading had reached and that at Shakespeare Cliff was in length. January 1975 A UK–France government backed scheme that started in 1974 was cancelled. February 1986 The Treaty of Canterbury was signed allowing the project to proceed. June 1988 First tunnelling commenced in France. December 1988 UK TBM commenced operation. December 1990 The service tunnel broke through under the Channel. May 1994 The tunnel was formally opened by HM The Queen and President Mitterrand. Mid 1994 Freight and passenger trains commenced operation. November 1996 A fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel. November 2007 High Speed 1, linking London to the tunnel, opened. September 2008 Another fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel Eleven tunnel boring machines, working from both sides of the Channel, cut through chalk marl in order to construct two rail tunnels and a service tunnel. The vehicle shuttle terminals are at Cheriton (part of Folkestone) and Coquelles, and are connected to the British and French motorways. Proposals for a fixed link across the English Channel date back to Albert Mathieu's 1802 plan involving horse-drawn carts and an artificial mid-Channel island http://library.thinkquest.org/5983/pages/chunnel.htm . For over 150 years, British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. In 1974, French and UK government-funded construction commenced on both sides of the Channel, but the project was cancelled by the British government, owing to financial concerns. In 1985, the British and French governments invited submissions for a fixed link. Eurotunnel, a group of ten construction companies and five banks, was awarded the project, a triple-bore railway tunnel based on the 1974 attempt. Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1/newsid_2516000/2516473.stm . In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was £4650 million (£10,153 million inflation-adjusted to 2007) , an 80% cost overrun. At the peak of construction 15,000 people were employed with daily expenditure over £3 million. Anderson, pp. xvi–xvii Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring. Eurotunnel's traffic predictions for the tunnel were overestimated and the group has been challenged financially. In 1996, 2006 and again in 2008, heavy goods vehicle shuttle wagon fires caused severe damage and restricted use of the tunnel, although nobody was seriously hurt in any of the incidents http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/sep/12/transport.france . Five years after the opening of the tunnel, there were few impacts on the wider economy, and it was difficult to identify major developments associated with the tunnel. Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W. (2003). Megaprojects and Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 68-69. ISBN 0 521 00946 4 It was 1999 before Eurostar posted its first net profits, having previously made a loss of £925m in 1995 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1/newsid_2516000/2516473.stm (in context) . In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with Popular Mechanics, selected the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. Proposals and attempts Thomé de Gamond's 1856 plan for a cross-Channel link, with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank mid-Channel. In 1802, French mining engineer Albert Mathieu put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with illumination from oil lamps, horse drawn coaches, and an artificial island mid-Channel for changing horses. Whiteside p. 17 Then, in the 1830s, Frenchman Aimé Thomé de Gamond performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between Calais and Dover. Thomé de Gamond explored several schemes and, in 1856, he presented a proposal to Napoleon III for a mined railway tunnel from Cap Gris-Nez to Eastwater Point with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank Whiteside pp. 18–23 at a cost of 170 million francs, or less than 7 million pounds sterling. In 1865, a deputation led by George Ward Hunt proposed the idea of a tunnel to the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the day, William Ewart Gladstone. . After 1867, William Low and Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw promoted ideas, but none were implemented. An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel. In 1881, British railway entrepreneur Sir William Watkin and French Suez Canal contractor Alexandre Lavalley were in the Anglo-French Submarine Railway Company that conducted exploratory work on both sides of the Channel. On the English side a diameter Beumont-English boring machine dug a pilot tunnel from Shakespeare Cliff. On the French side, a similar machine dug from Sangatte. The project was abandoned in May 1882, owing to British political and press campaigns advocating that a tunnel would compromise Britain's national defences. These early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project. In 1955, defence arguments were accepted to be irrelevant because of the dominance of air power; thus, both the British and French governments supported technical and geological surveys. Construction work commenced on both sides of the Channel in 1974, a government-funded project using twin tunnels on either side of a service tunnel, with capability for car shuttle wagons. In January 1975, to the dismay of the French partners, the British government cancelled the project. The government had changed to the Labour Party and there was uncertainty about EC membership, cost estimates had ballooned to 200% and the national economy was troubled. By this time the British Priestly TBM was ready and the Ministry of Transport was able to do a 300 m experimental drive. This short tunnel would however be reused as the starting and access point for tunnelling operations from the British side. In 1979 the "Mouse-hole Project" was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain. The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel, but without shuttle terminals. The British government took no interest in funding the project but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said she had no objection to a privately funded project. In 1981 British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and François Mitterrand agreed to set up a working group to look into a privately funded project, and in April 1985 promoters were formally invited to submit scheme proposals. Four submissions were shortlisted: a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M), Eurobridge – a 4.5 km span suspension bridge with a roadway in an enclosed tube Euroroute – a 21 km tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges, and Channel Expressway – large diameter road tunnels with mid-channel ventilation towers. The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name "Flexilink". In 1975 there was no campaign protesting against a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state owned. Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987. Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but ventilation issues, concerns about accident management, and fear of driver mesmerisation led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project. Wilson pp. 14–21 Organisation A block diagram describing the organisation structure used on the project. Eurotunnel is the central organisation for construction and operation (via a concession) of the tunnel. The British Channel Tunnel Group consisted of two banks and five construction companies, while their French counterparts, France–Manche, consisting of three banks and five construction companies. The role of the banks was to advise on financing and secure loan commitments. On 2 July 1985, the groups formed Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M). Their submission to the British and French governments was drawn from the 1975 project, including 11 volumes and a substantial environmental impact statement. The design and construction was done by the ten construction companies in the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and boring from Sangatte was undertaken by the five French construction companies in the joint venture group GIE Transmanche Construction. The English Terminal and boring from Shakespeare Cliff was undertaken by the five English construction companies in the Trankslink Joint Venture. The two partnerships were linked by TransManche Link (TML), a bi- national project organisation. The Maître d'Oeuvre was a supervisory engineering body employed by Eurotunnel under the terms of the concession that monitored project activity and reported back to the governments and banks. Kirkland pp. 10–11 In France, with its long tradition of infrastructure investment, the project garnered widespread approval and in April 1987 the French National Assembly gave unanimous support and, in June 1987, after a public inquiry, the Senate gave unanimous support. In Britain, select committees examined the proposal, making history by holding hearings outside of Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the third reading of the Channel Tunnel Bill took place in the House of Commons, and was carried by 94 votes to 22. The Channel Tunnel Act gained Royal assent and passed into English law in July of that year. The Channel Tunnel is a build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) project with a concession. Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 96–97 TML would design and build the tunnel, but financing was through a separate legal entity: Eurotunnel. Eurotunnel absorbed CTG/F-M and signed a construction contract with TML; however, the British and French governments controlled final engineering and safety decisions. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55- (later 65-) year operating concession to repay loans and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between Eurotunnel, British Rail and the Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français guaranteeing future revenue in exchange for the railways obtaining half of the tunnel's capacity. Private funding for such a complex infrastructure project was of unprecedented scale. An initial equity of £45 million was raised by CTG/F-M, increased by £206 million private institutional placement, £770 million was raised in a public share offer that included press and television advertisements, a syndicated bank loan and letter of credit arranged £5 billion. Privately financed, the total investment costs at 1985 prices were £2600 million. At the 1994 completion actual costs were, in 1985 prices, £4650 million: an 80% cost overrun. Flyvbjerg et al. p. 12 The cost overrun was partly due to enhanced safety, security, and environmental demands. Financing costs were 140% higher than forecast. Flyvbjerg et al. p. 3 Progress The Channel Tunnel was opened in Calais on 6 May 1994 by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand. A small two-inch (50-mm) diameter pilot hole allowed the service tunnel to break through without ceremony on 30 October 1990. On 1 December 1990 Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette broke through the service tunnel with the media watching. Eurotunnel completed the tunnel on time, and the tunnel was officially opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The Queen travelled through the tunnel to Calais on a Eurostar train, which stopped nose to nose with the train that carried President Mitterrand from Paris. Following the ceremony President Mitterrand and the Queen travelled on Le Shuttle to a similar ceremony in Folkestone. The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), now called High Speed 1, runs from St Pancras railway station in London to the Channel Tunnel portal at Folkestone in Kent. It cost £5.8 billion. On 16 September 2003 UK Prime Minister Tony Blair opened the first section of High Speed 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007 the Queen officially opened High Speed 1 and St Pancras International station , replacing the original slower link to Waterloo International railway station. On High Speed 1 trains travel at speeds up to , the journey from London to Paris taking 2 hours 15 minutes and London to Brussels taking 1 hour 51 minutes. Usage and operation A Channel Tunnel traffic graph showing the number of passengers and tonnes of freight. Freight vehicle shuttle numbers dropped in 1996/7 owing to closure of the service after the November 1996 fire. The British terminal at Cheriton in west Folkestone. The terminal services shuttle trains that carry vehicles, and is linked to the M20 motorway. Services offered by the tunnel are: Eurotunnel Shuttle (formerly Le Shuttle) roll-on roll-off shuttle service for road vehicles, Eurostar passenger trains, through freight trains. Both the freight and passenger traffic forecasts that led to the construction of the tunnel were largely and universally overestimated. Particularly, Eurotunnel's commissioned forecasts were over-predictions. Although the captured share of Channel crossings (competing with air and sea) was forecast correctly, high competition and reduced tariffs has led to low revenue. Overall cross-Channel traffic was overestimated. Passenger traffic volumes Total cross-tunnel passenger traffic volumes peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, then dropped to 14.9 million in 2003, from then rising again to 16.1 million in 2008. At the time of deciding to build the tunnel, 15.9 million passengers were predicted for Eurostar trains in the opening year. In 1995, the first full year, actual numbers were a little over 2.9 million, growing to 7.1 million in 2000, then dropping again to 6.3 million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by the lack of a high-speed connection on the British side. After the completion of High Speed 1 (formerly CTRL) to London in two stages in 2003 and 2007, traffic increased. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers in cross-Channel-Tunnel traffic, a 10% increase over the previous year, despite traffic limitations due to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire. {| class="wikitable"  Year  Passengers transported... by Eurostar (actual ticket sales) by Eurotunnel Passenger Shuttles (estimated, millions) Total(estimated, millions) 1994 ~100,000 0.2 0.3 1995 2,920,309 4.4 7.3 1996 4,995,010 7.9 12.9 1997 6,004,268 8.6 14.6 1998 6,307,849 12.1 18.4 1999 6,593,247 11.0 17.6 2000 7,130,417 9.9 17.0 2001 6,947,135 9.4 16.3 2002 6,602,817 8.6 15.2 2003 6,314,795 8.6 14.9 2004 7,276,675 7.8 15.1 2005 7,454,497 8.2 15.7 2006 7,858,337 7.8 15.7 2007 8,260,980 7.9 16.2 2008 9,113,371 7.0 16.1 only passengers taking Eurostar to cross the Channel Freight traffic volumes Cross-tunnel freight traffic volumes have been erratic, with a decrease during 1997 due to a closure caused by a fire in a freight shuttle. The total freight crossings increased over the period, indicating the substitutability of the tunnel by sea crossings. The tunnel has achieved a cross-Channel freight traffic market share close to or above Eurotunnel's 1980s predictions but Eurotunnel's 1990 and 1994 predictions were overestimates. For freight transported on through freight trains, the first year freight prediction was 7.2 million gross tonnes, however, the 1995 figure was 1.3 million gross tonnes. Flyvbjerg et al. p. 22 Through freight volumes peaked in 1998 at 3.1 million tonnes. However, with continuing problems, this figure fell back to 1.21 million tonnes in 2007, increasing again slightly to 1.24 million tonnes in 2008. However, together with that carried on freight shuttles, freight traffic growth has occurred since opening, with 6.4 million tonnes carried in 1995, 18.4 million tonnes recorded in 2003 and 19.6 million tonnes in 2007. {| class="wikitable" |- !ROWSPAN="2" |  Year !COLSPAN="3" | Freight transported... |- ! by through freight trains(actual tonnes)!! by Eurotunnel Truck Shuttles(estimated, million tonnes) !! Total(estimated, million tonnes) |- | 1994 | 0 | 0.8 | 0.8 |- | 1995 | 1,349,802 | 5.1 | 6.4 |- | 1996 | 2,783,774 | 6.7 | 9.5 |- | 1997 | 2,925,171 | 3.3 | 6.2 |- | 1998 | 3,141,438 | 9.2 | 12.3 |- | 1999 | 2,865,251 | 10.9 | 13.8 |- | 2000 | 2,947,385 | 14.7 | 17.6 |- | 2001 | 2,447,432 | 15.6 | 18.0 |- | 2002 | 1,463,580 | 15.6 | 17.1 |- | 2003 | 1,743,686 | 16.7 | 18.4 |- | 2004 | 1,889,175 | 16.6 | 18.5 |- | 2005 | 1,587,790 | 17.0 | 18.6 |- | 2006 | 1,569,429 | 16.9 | 18.5 |- | 2007 | 1,213,647 | 18.4 | 19.6 |- | 2008 | ~1,240,000 | 14.2 | 15.4 |- |COLSPAN=4 | From October 2007, Eurotunnel invoices through railfreight by trains rather than tonne. |} Eurotunnel's freight subsidiary is Europorte 2. In September 2006 EWS, the UK's largest rail freight operator, announced that owing to cessation of UK-French government subsidies of £52 million per annum to cover the Channel Tunnel "Minimum User Charge" (a subsidy of around £13,000 per train, at a traffic level of 4,000 trains per annum), freight trains would stop running after 30 November. Economic performance Shares in Eurotunnel were issued at £3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to £11.00. Delays and cost overruns led to the share price dropping; during demonstration runs in October 1994 the share price reached an all-time low value. Eurotunnel suspended payment on its debt in September 1995 to avoid bankruptcy. Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition In December 1997 the British and French governments extended Eurotunnel's operating concession by 34 years to 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel occurred in mid-1998, reducing debt and financial charges. Despite the restructuring The Economist reported in 1998 that to break even Eurotunnel would have to increase fares, traffic and market share for sustainability. Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 32–34 A cost benefit analysis of the Channel Tunnel indicated that the British economy would have been better off if the Tunnel had not been constructed. Under the terms of the Concession Eurotunnel was obliged to investigate a cross-Channel road tunnel. In December 1999 road and rail tunnel proposals were presented to the British and French governments, but it was stressed that there was not enough demand for a second tunnel. A three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of control zones wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel, with the French border controls on the UK side of the tunnel and vice versa. For certain city-to-city trains the train itself represents a control zone. A binational emergency plan coordinates UK and French emergency activities. Kirkland p. 331 Fires There have been three fires in the Channel Tunnel that were significant enough to close the tunnel, all on the heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttles. 1996 On 18 November 1996 a fire broke out on a heavy goods vehicle shuttle wagon in the tunnel but nobody was seriously hurt. The exact cause is unknown, although it was not a Eurotunnel equipment or rolling stock problem; it may have been due to arson of a heavy goods vehicle. It is estimated that the heart of the fire reached , with the tunnel severely damaged over , with some affected to some extent. Full operation recommenced six months after the fire. 2006 The tunnel was closed for several hours on 21 August 2006, when a truck on a shuttle train caught fire. 2008 On 11 September 2008 a fire occurred in the Channel Tunnel at 13:57 GMT. The incident started on a freight-carrying vehicle train travelling towards France. The event occurred from the French entrance to the tunnel. No one was killed but several people were taken to hospital suffering from smoke inhalation, and minor cuts and bruises. The tunnel was closed to all traffic, with the undamaged South Tunnel reopening for limited services two days later. Full service resumed on 9 February 2009 Eurotunnel fully open to traffic after repairs costing €60 million. Regional impact A 1996 report from the European Commission predicted that Kent and Nord-Pas de Calais had to face increased traffic volumes due to general growth of cross-Channel traffic and traffic attracted by the tunnel. In Kent, a high-speed rail line to London would transfer traffic from road to rail. European Commission pp. 220–222 Kent's regional development would benefit from the tunnel, but being so close to London restricts the benefits. Gains are in the traditional industries and are largely dependent on the development of Ashford International passenger station, without which Kent would be totally dependent on London's expansion. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys a strong internal symbolic effect of the Tunnel which results in significant gains in manufacturing. European Commission pp. 248–252 The removal of a bottleneck by means like the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily induce economic gains in all adjacent regions, the image of a region being connected to the European high-speed transport and active political response are more important for regional economic development. Tunnel-induced regional development is small compared to general economic growth. The South East of England is likely to benefit developmentally and socially from faster and cheaper transport to continental Europe, but the benefits are unlikely to be equally distributed throughout the region. The overall environmental impact is almost certainly negative. Five years after the opening of the tunnel there were few and small impacts on the wider economy, and it was difficult to identify major developments associated with the tunnel. Flyvbjerg et al. p. 68–69 Asylum and immigration Immigrants and would-be asylum seekers have been known to use the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had already attracted international press attention, and the French Red Cross opened a refugee centre at Sangatte in 1999, using a warehouse once used for tunnel construction; by 2002 it housed up to 1500 persons at a time, most of them trying to get to the UK. At one point, large numbers came from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, but African and Eastern European countries are also represented. Most migrants who got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train, but others used Eurostar. Though the facilities were fenced, airtight security was deemed impossible; refugees would even jump from bridges onto moving trains. In several incidents people were injured during the crossing; others tampered with railway equipment, causing delays and requiring repairs. Eurotunnel said it was losing £5m per month because of the problem. A dozen refugees have died in crossing attempts. In 2001 and 2002, several riots broke out at Sangatte and groups of refugees (up to 550 in a December 2001 incident) stormed the fences and attempted to enter en masse. Immigrants have also arrived as legitimate Eurostar passengers without proper entry papers. Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of Sangatte, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre. The United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed the UK for its lax asylum rules and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy. The cause célèbre nature of the problem even included journalists detained as they followed refugees onto railway property. In 2002, after the European Commission told France that it was in breach of European Union rules on the free transfer of goods, because of the delays and closures as a result of its poor security, a double fence was built at a cost of £5 million, reducing the numbers of refugees detected each week reaching Britain on goods trains from 250 to almost none. Other measures included CCTV cameras and increased police patrols. At the end of 2002, the Sangatte centre was closed after the UK agreed to take some of its refugees. Engineering The Channel Tunnel exhibit at the National Railway Museum in York, England, showing the circular cross section of the tunnel with the overhead line powering a Eurostar train. Also visible is the segmented tunnel lining. Surveying undertaken in the 20 years before tunnel construction confirmed earlier speculations that a tunnel route could be bored through a chalk marl stratum. The chalk marl was conducive to tunnelling, with impermeability, ease of excavation and strength. While on the English side the chalk marl ran along the entire length of the tunnel, on the French side a length of had variable and difficult geology. The Channel Tunnel consists of three bores: two diameter rail tunnels, apart, in length with a diameter service tunnel in between. There are also cross-passages and piston relief ducts. The service tunnel was used as a pilot tunnel, boring ahead of the main tunnels to determine the conditions. English access was provided at Shakespeare Cliff, while French access came from a shaft at Sangatte. The French side used five tunnel boring machines (TBMs), the English side used six. The service tunnel uses Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire safety was a critical design issue. Between the portals at Beussingue and Castle Hill the tunnel is long, with under land on the French side, under land on the UK side and under sea. Institute of Civil Engineers p. 95 This makes the Channel Tunnel the second longest rail tunnel in the world, behind the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but with the longest under-sea section. The average depth is below the seabed. Kirkland p. 13 On the UK side, of the expected of spoil approximately was used for fill at the terminal site, and the remainder was deposited at Lower Shakespeare Cliff behind a seawall, reclaiming of land. Institute of Civil Engineers p. 208 This land was then made into the Samphire Hoe Country Park. Environmental impact assessment did not identify any major risks for the project, and further studies into safety, noise, and air pollution were overall positive. However, environmental objections were raised over a high-speed link to London. Flyvbjerg et al. p. 51 Surveying Marine soundings and samplings by Thomé de Gamond were carried out during 1833–67, establishing the seabed depth at a maximum of and the continuity of geological strata (layers). Surveying continued over many years, with 166 marine and 70 land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4000 line kilometres of marine geophysical survey completed. Surveys were undertaken in 1958–59, 1964–65, 1972–74 and 1986–88. The surveying in 1958–59 catered for immersed tube and bridge designs as well as a bored tunnel, and thus a wide area was investigated. At this time marine geophysics surveying for engineering projects was in its infancy, with poor positioning and resolution from seismic profiling. The 1964-65 surveys concentrated on a northerly route that left the English coast at Dover harbour, using 70 boreholes an area of deeply weathered rock with high permeability was located just south of Dover harbour. Given the previous survey results and access constraints a more southerly route was investigated in the 1972–73 survey and the route was confirmed to be feasible. Information for the tunnelling project also came from work before the 1975 cancellation. On the French side at Sangatte a deep shaft with adits was made. On the English side at Shakespeare Cliff the government allowed of diameter tunnel to be driven. The actual tunnel alignment, method of excavation and support were essentially the same as the 1975 attempt. In the 1986–97 survey, previous findings were reinforced and the nature of the gault clay and tunnelling medium, chalk marl that made up 85% of the route, were investigated. Geophysical techniques from the oil industry were employed. Kirkland pp. 22–26 Geology Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed. For the majority of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer). Successful tunnelling under the channel required a sound understanding of the topography and geology and the selection of the best rock strata to tunnel through. The geology generally consists of northeasterly dipping Cretaceous strata, part of the northern limb of the Wealden-Boulonnais dome. Characteristics include: as observed by Verstegan in 1698, the chalk of the cliffs on either side of the Channel is continuous, and contains no major faulting the cliffs consist of four geological strata, marine sediments laid down 90–100 million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable Gault Clay. A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in between the chalk marl and gault clay a 25–30 metre (82–98 ft) layer of chalk marl (French: craie bleue) in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to present the best tunnelling medium. The chalk has a clay content of 30–40% providing impermeability to groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support. Ideally the tunnel would be bored in the bottom of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet. On the English side of the channel the strata dip less than 5°, however on the French side this increases to 20°. Jointing and faulting is present on both the English and French sides. On the English side only minor faults of displacement less than exist. On the French side displacements of up to are present owing to the Quenocs anticlinal fold. The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remoulded clay. The increased dip and faulting restricted the selection of route on the French side. To avoid confusion microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl. On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder and brittler and more fractured than on the English side. This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the French and English sides. No major geological hazards were identified, however the Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangaered, and Castle Hill landslip located at the English portal were concerning. Identified by the 1964–65 geophysical survey the Fosse Dangaered is an infilled valley system extending below the seabed, south of the tunnel route, located mid-channel. A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel and so the tunnel route was made as far north and deep as possible. The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris. Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing and inserting drainage adits. The service tunnels were pilot tunnels preceding the main tunnels so that the geology, areas of crushed rock and zones of high water inflow could be predicted. Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnels in the form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing. Kirkland pp. 21–50 Tunnelling Typical tunnel cross section, with a service tunnel in between twin rail tunnels. Shown linking the rail tunnels is a piston relief duct, necessary to manage pressure changes due to the movement of trains. Tunnelling between England and France was a major engineering challenge with the only precedent being the undersea Seikan Tunnel in Japan. A serious risk with underwater tunnels is major water inflow due to the water pressure from the sea above under weak ground conditions. The Channel Tunnel also had the challenge of time - being privately funded, early financial return was paramount. The objective was to construct: two diameter rail tunnels, apart, in length; a diameter service tunnel between the two main tunnels; pairs of diameter cross-passages linking the rail tunnels to the service tunnel at spacing; piston relief ducts diameter connecting the rail tunnels at spacing; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels. Kirkland pp. 63–128 The service tunnel always preceded the main tunnels by at least to ascertain the ground conditions, experience with tunnelling through chalk had occurred in the mining industry. The undersea crossover caverns were a complex engineering problem. The French cavern was based on the Mount Baker Ridge freeway tunnel in the USA. The UK cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main tunnels to avoid delay. Precast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were used, but different solutions were used on the English and French sides. On the French side neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast iron or high-strength reinforced concrete were used. On the English side the main requirement was for speed, and bolting of cast-iron lining segments was only carried out in areas of poor geology. In the UK rail tunnels eight lining segments plus a key segment were used, on the French side five segments plus a key segment. Wilson p. 38 On the French side a diameter deep grout-curtained shaft at Sangatte was used for access. On the English side a marshalling area was below the top of Shakespeare Cliff, and the New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM) was first applied in the chalk marl here. On the English side the land tunnels were driven from Shakespeare Cliff, the same place as the marine tunnels, not from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough for all of the drives, and despite environmental objections tunnel spoil was placed behind a reinforced concrete seawall, on condition of placing the chalk in an enclosed lagoon to avoid wide dispersal of chalk fines. Owing to limited space the precast lining factory was on the Isle of Grain in the Thames estuary. On the French side, owing to the greater permeability of water, earth pressure balance TBMs with open and closed modes were used. The TBMs were of a closed nature during the initial but then operated as open, boring through the chalk marl stratum. This minimised the impact to the ground and allowed high water pressures to be withstood, and it also alleviated the need to grout ahead of the tunnel. The French effort required five TBMs: two main marine machines, one main land machine (the short land drives of 3 km allowed one TBM to complete the first drive then reverse direction and complete the other), and two service tunnel machines. On the English side the simpler geology allowed faster open-faced TBMs. Kirkland p. 29 Six machines were used, all commencing digging from Shakespeare Cliff, three marine bound and three for the land tunnels. Towards the completion of the undersea drives the UK TBMs were driven steeply downwards and buried clear of the tunnel. The French TBMs then completed the tunnel and were dismantled. Wilson p. 44 A 900 mm gauge railway was used on the English side during construction. Kirkland pp. 117–128 In contrast to the English machines, which were simply given alphanumeric names, the French tunneling machines were all named after women: Brigitte, Europa, Catherine, Virginie, Pascaline, Séverine. Présentation des travaux de construction des tunnels Railway design and rolling stock Interior of Eurotunnel Shuttle, a vehicle shuttle train. The largest railway wagons in the world, the shuttle trains transport vehicles between terminals on either side of the tunnel. There are three communication systems in the tunnel: concession radio (CR) for mobile vehicles and personnel within Eurotunnel's Concession (terminals, tunnels, coastal shafts); track-to-train radio (TTR) for secure speech and data between trains and the railway control centre; Shuttle internal radio (SIR) for communication between shuttle crew and to passengers over car radios. Kirkland pp. 129–132 All tunnel services run on electricity, shared equally from English and French sources. Power is delivered to the locomotives via an overhead line (catenary). Kirkland pp. 134–148 A cab signalling system is used that gives information directly to train drivers on a display. There is automatic train protection (ATP) that stops the train if the speed differs from that indicated on the in-cab display. TVM430, as used on TGV Nord, is used in the tunnel. Kirkland pp. 149–155 The American Sonneville International Corporation track system was used in the tunnel, ballasted track was ruled out owing to maintenance constraints and a need for geometric stability. The Sonneville system has UIC60 rails on 900A grade resting on microcellular EVA pads, bolted into concrete. Kirkland pp. 157–174 Initially 38 Le Shuttle locomotives were commissioned, working in pairs with one at each end of a shuttle train. The shuttles have two separate halves: single and double deck. Each half has two loading/unloading wagons and 12 carrier wagons. Eurotunnel's original order was for 9 shuttles. 46 Class 92 locomotives for hauling freight and overnight passenger trains were commissioned, which can run on both overhead AC and third-rail DC power. Freight shuttles also have two halves, with each half containing one loading wagon, one unloading wagon and 14 carrier wagons. There is a club car behind the leading locomotive. Eurotunnel originally ordered 6 freight shuttles. 31 Eurostar trains, based on the French TGV with many modifications for safety within the tunnel, were commissioned, with split ownership between British Rail, French National Railway Company and National Railway Company of Belgium. British Rail ordered seven more for services north of London. Kirkland pp. 175–211 Services The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air ventilation, and for emergency evacuation. The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the tunnel. The service vehicles are rubber-tyred with a buried guidance wire system. 24 STTS vehicles were made, and are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and in emergencies. "Pods" with different purposes, up to a payload of 2.5–5 tonnes, are inserted into the side of the vehicles. The STTS vehicles cannot turn around within the tunnel, and are driven from either end. The maximum speed is when the steering is locked. A smaller fleet of 15 Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS) were introduced to supplement the STTSs. The LADOGS have a short wheelbase with a 3.4 m turning circle allowing two-point turns within the service tunnel. Steering cannot be locked like the STTS vehicles, and maximum speed is . Pods up to 1 tonne can be loaded onto the rear of the vehicles. Drivers in the tunnel sit on the right, and the vehicles drive on the left. Owing to the risk of French personnel driving on their native right side of the road, sensors in the road vehicles alert the driver if the vehicle strays to the right side of the tunnel. Kirkland pp. 247–254 The three tunnels contain 6000 tonnes of air that needs to be conditioned for comfort and safety. Air is supplied from ventilation buildings at Shakespeare Cliff and Sangatte, with each building capable of full duty providing 100% standby capacity. Supplementary ventilation also exists on either side of the tunnel. In the event of a fire, ventilation is used to keep smoke out of the service tunnel and move smoke in one direction in the main tunnel to give passengers clean air. The Channel Tunnel was the first mainline railway tunnel to have special cooling equipment. Heat is generated from traction equipment and drag. The design limit was set at , using a mechanical cooling system with refrigeration plants on both the English and French sides that run chilled water circulating in pipes within the tunnel. Trains travelling at high speed create piston-effect pressure changes that can affect passenger comfort, ventilation systems, tunnel doors, fans and the structure of the trains, and drag on the trains. Kirkland pp. 212–230 Piston relief ducts of diameter were chosen to solve the problem, with 4 ducts per kilometre to give close to optimum results. Unfortunately this design led to unacceptable lateral forces on the trains so a reduction in train speed was required and restrictors were installed in the ducts. The Channel Tunnel Experience Lessons for the Future pp. 19–23 The safety issue of a fire on a passenger-vehicle shuttle garnered much attention, with Eurotunnel itself noting that fire was the risk gathering the most attention in a 1994 Safety Case for three reasons: ferry companies opposed to passengers being allowed to remain with their cars; Home Office statistics indicating that car fires had doubled in ten years; and the long length of the tunnel. Eurotunnel commissioned the UK Fire Research Station to give reports of vehicle fires, as well as liaising with Kent Fire Brigade to gather vehicle fire statistics over one year. Fire tests took place at the French Mines Research Establishment with a mock wagon used to investigate how cars burned. Kirkland pp. 231–240 The wagon door systems are designed to withstand fire inside the wagon for 30 minutes, longer than the transit time of 27 minutes. Wagon air conditioning units help to purge dangerous fumes from inside the wagon before travel. Each wagon has a fire detection and extinguishing system, with sensing of ions or ultraviolet radiation, smoke and gases that can trigger halon gas to quench a fire. Since the Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) wagons are not covered, fire sensors are located on the loading wagon and in the tunnel itself. A 10-inch (254-mm) "Focus turns to cause of tunnel blaze", BBC News 2008-09-12 21:16 water main in the service tunnel provides water to the main tunnels at intervals. The ventilation system can control smoke movement. Special arrival sidings exist to accept a train that is on fire, as the train is not allowed to stop whilst on fire in the tunnel. Eurotunnel has banned a wide range of hazardous goods from travelling in the tunnel. Two STTS vehicles with firefighting pods are on duty at all times, with a maximum delay of 10 minutes before they reach a burning train. Terminals A vehicle entering a shuttle wagon at the French terminal at Coquelles near Calais in northern France. The terminals sites are at Cheriton (Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (Calais in France). The terminals are unique facilities designed to transfer vehicles from the motorway onto trains at a rate of 700 cars and 113 heavy vehicles per hour. The UK site uses the M20 motorway. The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the shuttle. The area of the UK site was severely constrained and the design was challenging. The French layout was achieved more easily. To achieve design output, the shuttles accept cars on double-decks; for flexibility, ramps were placed inside the shuttles to provide access to the top decks. Kirkland pp. 255–270 At Folkestone there is of mainline track and 45 turnouts with eight platforms. At Calais there is of track with 44 turnouts. At the terminals the shuttle trains traverse a figure eight to reduce uneven wear on the wheels. In popular culture The tunnel was featured in the explosive climax of the 1996 blockbuster film Mission: Impossible, where a helicopter entered the tunnel. The tunnel mouth, the inside of the tunnel, the TGV train and the helicopter in the film were all computer generated imagery, with the entrance to the tunnel shot against scenes of a railway line in Scotland. Scotland: the Movie Location Guide, Mission Impossible - Dumfries, retrieved 2008-07-16. This was necessary because of significant deviations from reality: the tunnel in the film had two tracks in a single tube (to allow space for the helicopter and to have passing trains), and there was no overhead line (to allow descent from the helicopter). The type of train seen computer animated in the film, TGV Réseau, (which, unlike the Eurostars, can only be powered from overhead wire) does not run through the tunnel. Other inaccuracies included the train changing from one side of the track to another in various shots. An episode of the popular sitcom Seinfeld featured a fictional action movie named Chunnel, the premise of which included the daughter of the President of the United States being trapped in the Channel Tunnel. In Oceans 13 the TBMs used to construct the tunnel were used in an attempt to create an earthquake in Las Vegas in order to get revenge on the casino owner. Notes References External links Official site

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Julia_Child

Julia Child (born Julia Carolyn McWilliams August 15, 1912 – August 13, 2004) was an American chef, author and television personality, who introduced French cuisine and cooking techniques to the American mainstream, through her many cookbooks and television programs. Her most famous works are the 1961 cookbook Mastering the Art of French Cooking and, showcasing her sui generis television persona, the series The French Chef, which premiered in 1963. Youth and World War II Born Julia Carolyn McWilliams to John and Julia Carolyn ("Caro") McWilliams in Pasadena, California. She grew up eating traditional New England food prepared by the family maid. She attended Polytechnic School from fourth grade to ninth grade and then The Branson School in Ross, California. After graduating in 1934 from Smith College—where at six feet, two inches (1.88 m) tall she played basketball—with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history, she moved to New York City and worked as a copywriter for the advertising department of upscale home-furnishing firm W. & J. Sloane. After returning to California in 1937, shortly before her mother died, she spent four years at home, writing for local publications and briefly working in advertising again. She volunteered with the American Red Cross and, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, joined the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) after being turned down by the United States Navy because she was too tall. She began her OSS career at its headquarters in Washington, working directly for General William J. Donovan, the leader of OSS. Working as a research assistant in the Secret Intelligence division, she typed ten thousand names on white note cards used to keep track of officers. For a year, she worked at the OSS Emergency Sea Rescue Equipment Section in Washington, D.C., where she was a file clerk and also helped in the development of a shark repellent to ensure that sharks would not explode ordnance targeting German U-boats. In 1944 she was posted to Kandy, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), where her responsibilities included "registering, cataloguing and channeling a great volume of highly classified communications" for the OSS's clandestine stations in Asia, and where she met her future husband, a high-ranking OSS cartographer. She was later posted to China, where she received the Emblem of Meritorious Civilian Service as head of the Registry of the OSS Secretariat. Following the war, she lived in Washington, D.C., where she was married on September 1, 1946 to Paul Cushing Child. Child, a Boston native who had lived in Paris as an artist and poet, was known for his sophisticated palate He joined the United States Foreign Service and introduced his wife to fine cuisine. In 1948, they moved to Paris after the US State Department assigned Paul there as an exhibits officer with the United States Information Agency. The couple had no children. Post-war France Child repeatedly recalled her first meal in Rouen of oysters, sole meunière and fine wine as a culinary revelation. She described the experience once in The New York Times as "an opening up of the soul and spirit for me". In Paris, she attended the famous Le Cordon Bleu cooking school and later studied privately with Max Bugnard and other master chefs. She joined the women's cooking club Cercle des Gourmettes where she met Simone Beck who, with her friend Louisette Bertholle, was writing a French cookbook for Americans and proposed that Mrs. Child work with them to make it appeal to Americans. In 1951, they began to teach cooking to American women in the Childs' kitchen, calling their informal school L'Ecole des Trois Gourmandes (The School of the Three Happy Eaters). For the next decade, as the Childs moved around Europe and finally to Cambridge, Massachusetts, the three researched and repeatedly tested recipes. Child translated the French into English, making the recipes detailed, interesting, and practical. Books and television Julia Child gives a cooking demonstration, 1961 The three would-be authors initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, which later rejected the manuscript for being too much like an encyclopedia. Finally, when it was first published in 1961 by Alfred A. Knopf, the 734-page Mastering the Art of French Cooking was a best-seller and received critical acclaim that derived in part from the American interest in French culture in the early 1960s. Lauded for its helpful illustrations, precise attention to detail and for making fine cuisine accessible, the book is still in print and is considered a seminal culinary work. Following this success, Child wrote magazine articles and a regular column for The Boston Globe newspaper. A 1962 appearance on a book review show on the National Educational Television (NET) station of Boston, WGBH led to the inception of her television cooking show after viewers enjoyed her demonstration of how to cook an omelette. The French Chef debuted February 11, 1963 on WGBH and was immediately successful. The show ran nationally for ten years and won Peabody and Emmy Awards, including the first Emmy award for an Educational program. Though she was not the first television cook, Child was the most widely seen. She attracted the broadest audience with her cheery enthusiasm, distinctively charming warbly voice, and unpatronising and unaffected manner. Child's second book, The French Chef Cookbook, was a collection of the recipes she had demonstrated on the show. It was soon followed in 1971 by Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two, again in collaboration with Simone Beck, but not with Louisette Bertholle, with whom they had ended their partnership. Child's fourth book, From Julia Child's Kitchen, was illustrated with her husband's photographs and documented the color series of The French Chef, as well as providing an extensive library of kitchen notes compiled by Child during the course of the show. The French Chef had the distinction of being first television program to be captioned (opened) for the deaf in 1973. It was to demonstrate the feasibility of captioned technology. Julia Child at the Miami Book Fair International of 1989 In the 1970s and 1980s, she was the star of numerous television programs, including Julia Child & Company and Dinner at Julia's; at the same time she also produced what she considered her magnum opus, a book and instructional video series collectively entitled The Way To Cook, which was published in 1989. She starred in four more series in the 1990s that featured guest chefs: Cooking with Master Chefs, In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs, Baking With Julia, and Julia Child & Jacques Pépin Cooking at Home. She collaborated with Jacques Pépin many times for television programs and cookbooks. All of Child's books during this time stemmed from the television series of the same names. Beginning with In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs, the Childs' home kitchen in Cambridge was fully transformed into a functional set, with TV-quality lighting, three cameras positioned to catch all angles in the room, a massive center island with a gas stovetop on one side and an electric stovetop on the other, but leaving the rest of the Childs' appliances alone, including "my wall oven with its squeaking door." This kitchen backdrop hosted nearly all of Mrs. Child's 1990s television series. Child was a favorite of audiences from the moment of her television debut on public television in 1963 and her personage—a striking hybrid of gravitas and camp—was a familiar part of American culture and the subject of numerous references. In 1966, she was featured on the cover of Time with the heading, "Our Lady of the Ladle". In a 1978 Saturday Night Live sketch, she was affectionately parodied by Dan Aykroyd, continuing with a cooking show despite profuse bleeding from a cut to the thumb. Jean Stapleton portrayed her in a 1989 musical, Bon Appétit!, based on one of her televised cooking lessons. The title derived from her famous TV sign-off: "This is Julia Child. Bon appétit!". She was also the inspiration for the character "Julia Grownup" on the Children's Television Workshop program, The Electric Company (1971–1977), and was portrayed or parodied in many other television and radio programs and skits, including The Cosby Show (1984–1992) by character Heathcliff Huxtable (Bill Cosby) and Garrison Keillor's radio series A Prairie Home Companion by voice actor Tim Russell. Much of Child's shopping took place at Savenor's Market, located on Kirkland Street just inside the Cambridge line. Jack Savenor (1922-2000) expanded his business to include imported pates, exotic game, fresh seafood and specialty foods, and Savenor's Market was the source for meats during the run of Child's PBS series. With continual on-air mentions, the location gained an international fame, and Jack Savenor made more than a few guest appearances on her television shows. In 1981, she founded the educational American Institute of Wine and Food in Napa, California with vintners Robert Mondavi and Richard Graff to "advance the understanding, appreciation and quality of wine and food", a pursuit she had already begun with her books and television appearances. Retirement Julia Child's kitchen as seen on display at the National Museum of American History. Her husband, Paul, who was ten years older, died in 1994 after living in a nursing home for five years following a series of strokes in 1989. In 2001, she moved to a retirement community in Santa Barbara, California, donating her house and office to Smith College. She donated her kitchen, which her husband designed with high counters to accommodate her diminished but still formidable height, and which served as the set for three of her television series, to the National Museum of American History, where it is now on display. Julia Child's Kitchen at the Smithsonian She received the French Legion of Honor in 2000 and the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2003. Child also received honorary doctorates from Harvard University, Johnson & Wales University in 1995, her alma mater Smith College, and several other universities. She was also credited as an inspiration to Alice Waters and Emeril Lagasse On August 13, 2004, Child died of kidney failure at her assisted-living home in Montecito, two days shy of her 92nd birthday. Her final meal was French onion soup. Films In August 2002, Julie Powell started documenting online her daily experiences cooking each of the 524 recipes in Child's Mastering the Art of French Cooking, and she later began reworking that blog, The Julie/Julia Project, into a book. In March 2008, director-screenwriter Nora Ephron began filming Julie & Julia, adapted from Powell's memoir, Julie & Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen (Little, Brown, 2005). The paperback was retitled Julie and Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously (Back Bay Books, 2006). Ephron's film, the first major motion picture based on a blog, is scheduled for August 7, 2009 release. Meryl Streep stars as Julia Child and Amy Adams portrays Julie Powell. On August 18, 2004, a documentary filmed during her lifetime premiered. Produced by WGBH, the one-hour feature, Julia Child! America's Favorite Chef, was aired as the first episode of the 18th season of the PBS series American Masters. The film combined archive footage of Child with current footage from those who influenced and were influenced by her life and work. Public works Television series The French Chef (1963–1973) Julia Child & Company (1978–1979) Julia Child & More Company (1980–1982) Dinner at Julia's (1983– ?) The Way to Cook (1989) six one-hour videocassettes A Birthday Party for Julia Child: Compliments to the Chef (1992) Cooking with Master Chefs: Hosted by Julia Child (1993–1994) 16 episodes Cooking In Concert: Julia Child & Jacques Pepin (1993) In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs (1994–1996), 39 episodes Baking with Julia (1996–1998) 39 episodes Julia & Jacques Cooking at Home (1999–2000) 22 episodes Julia Child's Kitchen Wisdom, (2000) two-hour special DVD Releases Julia Childs Kitchen Wisdom (2000) Juila and Jacques: Cooking at Home (2003) Julia Child: America's Favorite Chef (2004) The French Chef: Volume One (2005) The French Chef: Volume Two (2005) Julia Child! The French Chef: (2006) Books Mastering the Art of French Cooking (1961), with Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle — ISBN 0-375-41340-5 Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two (1970), with Simone Beck — ISBN 0-394-40152-2 The French Chef Cookbook (1968) — ISBN 0-394-40135-2 From Julia Child's Kitchen (1975) — ISBN 0-517-20712-5 Julia Child & Company (1978) — ISBN 0-345-31449-2 Julia Child & More Company (1979) — ISBN 0-345-31450-6 The Way To Cook (1989) — ISBN 0-394-53264-3 Julia Child's Menu Cookbook (1991), one-volume edition of Julia Child & Company and Julia Child & More Company — ISBN 0-517-06485-5 Cooking With Master Chefs (1993) — ISBN 0-679-74829-6 In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs (1995) — ISBN 0-679-43896-3 Baking with Julia (1996) — ISBN 0-688-14657-0 Julia's Delicious Little Dinners (1998) — ISBN 0-375-40336-1 Julia's Menus For Special Occasions (1998) — ISBN 0-375-40338-8 Julia's Breakfasts, Lunches & Suppers (1999) — ISBN 0-375-40339-6 Julia's Casual Dinners (1999) — ISBN 0-375-40337-X Julia and Jacques Cooking at Home (1999), with Jacques Pépin — ISBN 0-375-40431-7 Julia's Kitchen Wisdom (2000) — ISBN 0-375-41151-8 My Life in France (2006, posthumous), with Alex Prud'homme — ISBN 1-4000-4346-8 (collected in) American Food Writing: An Anthology with Classic Recipes, ed. Molly O'Neill (Library of America, 2007) ISBN 1598530054 References External links Julia Child: Lessons with Master Chefs from PBS Julia Child's Kitchen at the Smithsonian American television interview with Julia Child on June 25, 1999, at Google Video Coverage of Julia Child in The New York Times Interview in Frontline Diplomacy: The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. Example obituary, in the San Francisco Chronicle The IMDb page for the film "Julie & Julia" starring Meryl Streep Julia Child Papers.Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.

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Lettre_de_cachet

In French history, lettres de cachet were letters signed by the king of France, countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal, or cachet. They contained orders directly from the king, often to enforce arbitrary actions and judgements that could not be appealed. In the case of organized bodies lettres de cachet were issued for the purpose of preventing assembly or to accomplish some other definite act. The provincial estates were convoked in this manner, and it was by a lettre de cachet (in this case, a lettre de jussipri), or by showing in person in a lit de justice, that the king ordered a parlement to register a law in the teeth of its own refusal to pass it. The best-known lettres de cachet, however, were penal, by which a subject was sentenced without trial and without an opportunity of defense to imprisonment in a state prison or an ordinary jail, confinement in a convent or a hospital, transportation to the colonies, or expulsion to another part of the realm. The wealthy sometimes bought such lettres to dispose of unwanted individuals. In this respect, the lettres de cachet were a prominent symbol of the abuses of the ancien régime monarchy, and as such were suppressed during the French Revolution. Historical background This power was a royal privilege recognized by the French monarchic civil law that developed during the 13th century, as the Capetian monarchy overcame its initial distrust of Roman law. The principle can be traced to a maxim which furnished a text of the Pandects of Justinian: in their Latin version, "Rex solutus est a legibus", or "The king is released from the laws." "The French legal scholars interpreted the imperial office of the Justinian code in a generic way and arrived at the conclusion that every 'king is an emperor in his own kingdom,' that is, he possesses the prerogatives of legal absolutism that the Corpus Juris Civilis attributes to the Roman emperor." (Cantor 1993) This meant that when the king intervened directly, he could decide without heeding the laws, and even contrary to the laws. This was an early conception, and in early times the order in question was simply verbal; some letters patent of Henry III of France in 1576 state that François de Montmorency was "prisoner in our castle of the Bastille in Paris by verbal command" of the late king Charles IX. In the 14th century the principle was introduced that the order should be written, and hence arose the lettre de cachet. The lettre de cachet belonged to the class of lettres closes, as opposed to lettres patentes, which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will of the king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed by the chancellor. The lettres de cachet, on the contrary, were signed simply by a secretary of state for the king; they bore merely the imprint of the king's privy seal, from which circumstance they were often called, in the 14th and 15th centuries, lettres de petit signet or lettres de petit cachet, and were entirely exempt from the control of the chancellor. Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages 1993. A practical tool of royal government While serving the government as a silent weapon against political adversaries or dangerous writers and as a means of punishing culprits of high birth without the scandal of a lawsuit, the lettres de cachet had many other uses. They were employed by the police in dealing with prostitutes, and on their authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals and sometimes in prisons. They were also often used by heads of families as a means of correction, for example, for protecting the family honour from the disorderly or criminal conduct of sons. The case of the Marquis de Sade (imprisoned 1777 - 1790 under a lettre de cachet obtained by his wealthy and influential mother-in-law) is a prominent example. Wives, too, took advantage of them to curb the profligacy of husbands and vice versa. In reality, the secretary of state issued them in a completely arbitrary fashion, and in most cases the king was unaware of their issue. In the 18th century it is certain that the letters were often issued blank, i.e. without containing the name of the person against whom they were directed; the recipient, or mandatary, filled in the name in order to make the letter effective. Protests against arbitrary power Protests against the lettres de cachet were made continually by the parlement of Paris and by the provincial parlements, and often also by the Estates-General. In 1648 the sovereign courts of Paris procured their momentary suppression in a kind of charter of liberties which they imposed upon the crown, but which was ephemeral. It was not until the reign of Louis XVI that a reaction against this abuse became clearly perceptible. At the beginning of that reign Malesherbes during his short ministry endeavoured to infuse some measure of justice into the system, and in March 1784 the baron de Breteuil, a minister of the king's household, addressed a circular to the intendants and the lieutenant of police with a view to preventing the most serious abuses connected with the issue of lettres de cachet. The Comte de Mirabeau wrote a scathing indictment of lettres de cachet while imprisoned in the dungeon of Vincennes (by lettre de cachet obtained by his father). The treatise was published after his liberation in 1782 under the title Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d'etat and was widely read throughout Europe. In Paris, in 1779, the Cour des Aides demanded their suppression, and in March 1788 the parlement of Paris made some exceedingly energetic remonstrances, which are important for the light they throw upon old French public law. The crown, however, did not decide to lay aside this weapon, and in a declaration to the States-General in the royal session of 23 June 1789 (art. 15) it did not renounce it absolutely. Abolished in the Revolution, illegally brought back by Napoleon Lettres de cachet were abolished after the French Revolution by the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon reestablished their penal equivalent by a political measure in the decree of 8 March 1801 on the state prisons. This is all the more striking, given that Napoleon had pushed for measures ensuring the rule of law in the codes of laws adopted under his rule. This action was one of the acts brought up against him by the senatus-consulte of 3 April 1814, which pronounced his fall "considering that he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees on the state prisons." Literary references Honoré Mirabeau, Des Lettres de Cachet et des prisons d'état (Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which his father had thrown him by a lettre de cachet, one of the ablest and most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and was translated into English in 1788. Dr. Manette, in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, was thrown into the Bastille prison by means of a lettre de cachet. In addition, Charles Darnay suspected that his uncle, a marquis, would have used a lettre de cachet to throw Darnay in prison if it weren't for the fact that the Marquis had fallen out of favour with the Court. In Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers, d'Artagnan escapes prosecution for the death of Milady by means of an ambiguously worded lettre de cachet given to Milady for her own use by the Cardinal de Richelieu. Thomas, D. "The Marquis de Sade". (1992) de Sade's mother-in-law, Madame de Montreuil obtained multiple lettres de cachet to ensure de Sade's continuous imprisonment in the Bastille and Charenton. In works set in later time periods, the term Lettres de Cachet is occasionally used metaphorically, primarily applied to unjustified imprisonment of political prisoners, or government abuse of power more generally. For example, in Robert A. Heinlein's science fiction novel Stranger in a Strange Land, Jubal Harshaw uses the term to describe the warrants against himself, Valentine Michael Smith, and Gillian Boardman; the accusation is considered severe enough that the authorities immediately back off to avoid appearing tyrannical. See also Divine Right of Kings National Security Letter

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The_Golden_Turkey_Awards

The Golden Turkey Awards is a 1980 book by film critic Michael Medved and his brother Harry Medved. This book is credited with giving the movie Plan 9 from Outer Space by Edward D. Wood, Jr. the reputation of being the "worst movie ever made". The book awards the fictional "Golden Turkey Awards" to films that the Medveds feel are poor in quality, along with directors and actors judged to have created a chronically inept body of work. Readers will not necessarily agree with all their choices; however, the book almost exclusively showcases low-budget obscurities and exploitation films. A notable exception is the selection of Richard Burton as the worst actor ever, notwithstanding his star status and seven Academy Award nominations for acting; the authors justified their choice by assessing the cumulative merit of his good performances as being far outweighed by the sheer number of bad performances. The Medveds had previously celebrated bad cinema in The Fifty Worst Films of All Time, many of which were also featured in the various Golden Turkey Awards categories. Subsequently, they turned their attention to the big-budget catastrophes. The Golden Turkey Awards formed the basis of a 1983 television series The Worst of Hollywood hosted by Michael Medved. Hoax film One of the films nominated in the book was in fact an invention of the authors, and readers were challenged to figure out which film was actually fake. The fake film was Dog of Norway, which was illustrated using a photo of a co-author's dog. The giveaway was that the same dog was in the photo of the authors at the front of the book. The Gay Jesus Movie -- Hoax or Fact?, "NT Gateway Weblog", by Mark Goodacre. See also Golden Raspberry Awards Notes References Medved, Harry, and Randy Dreyfuss. The Fifty Worst Films of All Time (And How They Got That Way). 1978, Warner Books. ISBN 0-445-04139-0. Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. The Golden Turkey Awards. 1980, Putnam. ISBN 0-399-50463-X. Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. The Hollywood Hall of Shame: The Most Expensive Flops in Movie History, 1984, ISBN 0-399-51060-5, ISBN 0-399-50714-0 (paperback)

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FIDE

FIDE logoThe Fédération Internationale des Échecs or World Chess Federation is an international organization that connects the various national chess federations around the world and acts as the governing body of international chess competition. It is usually referred to as FIDE ( "fee day"), its French acronym. FIDE was founded in Paris, France on July 20, 1924 http://www.fide.com/fide/fide-history . Its motto is Gens una sumus, meaning "We are one people". Its current president (as of January 2008) is Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, who is also president of Kalmykia, an autonomous Republic in Russia. Role FIDE's most visible activity is organising the World Chess Championship (overall and for women and juniors), regional championships and the Chess Olympiad. It is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the supreme body responsible for the organization of chess and its championships at global and continental levels. FIDE oversees few other tournaments, although other top-level events, almost without exception, respect FIDE rules and regulations. It defines the rules of chess, both for playing individual games (i.e. the board and moves) and for the conduct of international competitions. The international competition rules are the basis for local competitions, although local bodies are allowed to modify these rules to a certain extent. FIDE awards a number of organisational titles including International Arbiter, which signifies that the recipient is competent and trusted to oversee top-class competitions. (contents page) FIDE calculates the Elo ratings of players and uses these as the basis on which it awards titles for achievement in competitive play: FIDE Master, International Master, International Grandmaster, and women's versions of those titles. (portal to other FIDE ratings-related pages) It also awards Master and Grandmaster titles for achievement in problem and study composing and solving, and periodically publishes FIDE Albums of the best problems. Correspondence chess (chess played by mail) is regulated by the International Correspondence Chess Federation, an independent body that co-operates with FIDE where appropriate. History Foundation and early years (up to 1939) In April 1914 an initiative was taken in St. Petersburg to form an international chess federation. Another attempt was made in July, 1914 during the Mannheim International Chess Tournament. In 1920 another attempt to organize an international federation was made at the Gothenburg Tournament. Players also made the first attempt to produce rules for world championship matches - in 1922 world champion Jose Raul Capablanca proposed the "London rules": the first player to win 6 games would win the match; playing sessions would be limited to 5 hours; the time limit would be 40 moves in 2.5 hours; the champion must defend his title within one year of receiving a challenge from a recognized master; the champion would decide the date of the match; the champion was not obliged to accept a challenge for a purse of less than $10,000; 20% of the purse was to paid to the title holder, and the remainder being divided, 60% going to the winner of the match, and 40% to the loser; the highest purse bid must be accepted. Alekhine, Boguljubow, Maroczy, Reti, Rubinstein, Tartakower and Vidmar promptly signed them. The only match played under those rules was Capablanca vs Alekhine in 1927. In 1922 the Russian chess master Eugene Znosko-Borovsky, while participating in an international tournament in London announced that a tournament would be held during the 8th Sports Olympic Games in Paris in 1924 and would be hosted by the French Chess Federation. On 20 July 1924 the participants at the Paris tournament founded FIDE as a kind of players' union. In its early years, FIDE had little power, and was poorly financed. FIDE's congresses in 1925 and 1926 expressed a desire to become involved in managing the world championship. FIDE was largely happy with the "London Rules", but claimed that the requirement for a purse of $10,000 was impracticable and called upon Capablanca to come to an agreement with the leading masters to revise the Rules. FIDE's third congress, in Budapest in 1926, also decided to organize a Chess Olympiad. But invitations were late in being sent out, so that only 4 countries participated. As a result, the competition was called the Little Olympiad. The winner was Hungary, followed by Yugoslavia, Romania, and Germany. In 1927 FIDE began organizing the First Chess Olympiad during its 4th Congress in London. The official title of the tournament was the "Tournament of Nations", or "World Team Championship", but "Chess Olympiad" became a more popular title. The event was won by Hungary, with 16 teams competing. In 1928 FIDE recognized Bogoljubow as "Champion of FIDE" after he won a match against Euwe. Alekhine, the reigning world champion, attended part of the 1928 Congress and agreed to place future matches for the world title under the auspices of FIDE, although any match with Capablanca should be under the same conditions as in Buenos Aires, 1927, i.e. including the requirement for a purse of at least $10,000. FIDE accepted this and decided to form a commission to modify the London Rules fopr future matches. But the commission never met; and by the time of the 1929 Congress a world championship match between Alekhine and Bogoljubow was under way (neither under the auspices of FIDE nor in accordance with the London Rules). While negotiating his 1937 World Championship re-match with Alexander Alekhine, Max Euwe proposed that if he retained the title FIDE should manage the nomination of future challengers and the conduct of championship matches. FIDE had been trying since 1935 to introduce rules on how to select challengers, and its various proposals favored selection by some sort of committee. While they were debating procedures in 1937 and Alekhine and Euwe were preparing for their re-match later that year, the Dutch Chess Federation proposed that a super-tournament (AVRO) of ex-champions and rising stars should be held to select the next challenger. FIDE rejected this proposal and at their second attempt nominated Salo Flohr as the official challenger. Euwe then declared that: if he retained his title against Alekhine he was prepared to meet Flohr in 1940 but he reserved the right to arrange a title match either in 1938 or 1939 with Jose Raul Capablanca, who had lost the title to Alekhine in 1927; if Euwe lost his title to Capablanca then FIDE's decision should be followed and Capablanca would have to play Flohr in 1940. Most chess writers and players strongly supported the Dutch super-tournament proposal and opposed the committee processes favored by FIDE. While this confusion went unresolved: Euwe lost his title to Alekhine; the AVRO tournament in 1938 was won by Paul Keres under a tie-breaking rule, with Reuben Fine placed second and Capablanca and Flohr in the bottom places; and the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the controversy. Although competitive chess continued in many countries, including some that were under Nazi occupation, there was no international competition and FIDE was inactive during the war. 1946 to 1993 Birth of the World Championship challenge cycle Before 1946 a new World Champion had won the title by defeating the former champion in a match. Alexander Alekhine's death created an interregnum (gap between reigns) that made the normal procedure impossible. The situation was very confused, with many respected players and commentators offering different solutions. FIDE found it very difficult to organize the early discussions on how to resolve the interregnum because problems with money and travel so soon after the end of World War II prevented many countries from sending representatives - most notably the Soviet Union. The shortage of clear information resulted in otherwise responsible magazines publishing rumors and speculation, which only made the situation more confused. See Interregnum of World Chess Champions for more details. It did not help that the Soviet Union had long refused to join FIDE, and by this time it was clear that about half the credible contenders were Soviet citizens. But the Soviet Union realized it could not afford to be left out of the discussions about the vacant world championship, and in 1947 sent a telegram apologizing for the absence of Soviet representatives and requesting that the USSR be represented in future FIDE Committees. The eventual solution was very similar to FIDE's initial proposal and to a proposal put forward by the Soviet Union (authored by Mikhail Botvinnik). The 1938 AVRO tournament was used as the basis for the 1948 Championship Tournament. The AVRO tournament had brought together the eight players who were, by general acclamation, the best players in the world at the time. Two of the participants at AVRO - Alekhine and former world champion José Raúl Capablanca - had died; but FIDE decided that the other six participants at AVRO would play a quadruple round robin tournament. These players were: Max Euwe (from Holland); Mikhail Botvinnik, Paul Keres and Salo Flohr (from the Soviet Union); and Reuben Fine and Samuel Reshevsky (from the United States). But FIDE soon accepted a Soviet request to substitute Vasily Smyslov for Flohr, and Fine dropped out in order to continue his degree studies in psychiatry, so only five players competed, in a quintuple round robin. Botvinnik won convincingly and thus became world champion, ending the interregnum. The proposals which led to the 1948 Championship Tournament also specified the procedure by which challengers for the World Championship would be selected in a 3-year cycle: countries affiliated to FIDE would send players to Zonal Tournaments (the number varied depending on how many good enough players each country had); the players who gained the top places in these would compete in an Interzonal Tournament (later split into 2 and then 3 tournaments as the number of countries and eligible players increased ); the highest-placed players from the Interzonal would compete in the Candidates Tournament, along with whoever lost the previous title match and the 2nd-placed competitor in the previous Candidates Tournament 3 years earlier; and the winner of the Candidates played a title match against the champion. Until 1962 inclusive the Candidates Tournament was a multi-round round-robin (all-play-all) - how and why it was changed are described below. FIDE starts awarding titles to players In 1950 FIDE awarded its first titles - 27 Grandmasters (GMs), 94 International Masters and 17 International Women Masters. FIDE's first GMs were Ossip Bernstein, Isaac Boleslavsky, Igor Bondarevsky, Mikhail Botvinnik, David Bronstein, Oldrich Duras, Max Euwe, Reuben Fine, Salo Flohr, Ernst Gruenfeld, Paul Keres, Borislav Kostić, Alexander Kotov, Grigory Levenfish, Andor Lilienthal, Geza Maroczy, Jacques Mieses, Miguel Najdorf, Viacheslav Ragozin, Samuel Reshevsky, Friedrich Sämisch, Vasily Smyslov, Gideon Stahlberg, László Szabó, Savielly Tartakower, and Milan Vidmar. In 1957 FIDE introduced norms (qualifying standards) for FIDE titles. Note that the title "Grandmaster" had been in use since 1914, when Czar Nicholas II conferred the title "Grandmaster of Chess" on Emanuel Lasker, Jose Raul Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, Siegbert Tarrasch, and Frank James Marshall, after they took the top five places in the 1914 St. Petersburg tournament. The Bobby Fischer controversies FIDE found itself embroiled in some controversies relating to the American player Bobby Fischer. The first was when Fischer alleged that at the 1962 Candidates Tournament in Curaçao the Soviet players Tigran Petrosian, Paul Keres and Efim Geller had pre-arranged to draw all their games; and that Victor Korchnoi, another Soviet player, had been instructed to lose to them (Fischer had placed 4th, well behind Petrosian, Keres and Geller). Grandmaster Yuri Averbakh, a member of the Soviet delegation at the tournament, said in 2002 that Petrosian, Keres and Geller privately agreed to draw their games, and a statistical analysis in 2006 supported this conclusion. FIDE responded by changing the format of Candidates Tournaments from multi-round round-robin to a knock-out series of elimination matches. In 1969 Fischer refused to play in the U.S. Championship because of disagreements about the tournament's format and prize fund. Since that event was being treated as a Zonal Tournament, Fischer forfeited his right to compete for the right to challenge world champion Boris Spassky in 1972. But U.S. grandmaster Pal Benko agreed to give up his place at the Interzonal in Fischer's favor, and other U.S. players did the same. FIDE president Max Euwe interpreted the rules very flexibly to allow Fischer to play in the 1970 Interzonal at Palma de Mallorca, which he won convincingly. Fischer then crushed Mark Taimanov, Bent Larsen and Tigran Petrosian in the 1971 Candidates Tournament and won the title match with Spassky to become world champion. After winning the world championship, Fischer criticized the existing championship match format (24 games; the champion retained the title if the match was tied) on the grounds that it encouraged whoever got an early lead to play for draws. While this dispute was going on, Anatoly Karpov won the right to challenge in 1975. Fischer refused to accept any match format other than the one he proposed, and eventually FIDE awarded the title to Karpov by default. Some commentators have questioned whether FIDE president Max Euwe did as much as he could have to prevent Fischer from forfeiting his world title. Other 1970s controversies FIDE had a number of conflicts with the Soviet Chess Federation. These conflicts included: The defection of grandmaster Gennadi Sosonko in 1972. The Soviets demanded that that Sosonko should be treated as an "unperson", excluded from competitive chess, television or any other event that might publicize his defection. FIDE refused, and no Soviet players took part in the 1974 Wijk aan Zee tournament in The Netherlands because Sosonko was playing in it. In 1976 world championship contender Viktor Korchnoi sought political asylum in The Netherlands. In a discussion a few days earlier Euwe told Korchnoi, "...of course you will retain all your rights ..." and later opposed Soviet efforts to prevent Korchnoi from challenging for Anatoly Karpov's title in 1978. FIDE decided to hold the 1976 Chess Olympiad in Israel, which the Soviet Union did not recognize as a country. The Central Committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union then started plotting to depose Euwe as president of FIDE. Rapid expansion of membership During his period as president of FIDE (1970-1978) Max Euwe strove to increase the number of member countries, and Florencio Campomanes (president 1982-1995) continued this policy. Former world champion Anatoly Karpov later said this was a mixed blessing, as the inclusion of so many small, poor countries led to a "leadership vacuum at the head of the world of chess – in other words, to our current situation." Yuri Averbakh said the presence of so many weak countries made it easy to manipulate decisions. World Championship 1983-1985 The events leading to Garry Kasparov's winning the world championship involved FIDE in two controversies. While arranging the Candidates Tournament semi-final matches to be played in 1983, FIDE accepted bids to host Kasparov versus Victor Korchnoi in Pasadena, California. The Soviet Union refused to accept this, either because it feared Kasparov would defect or because it thought Kasparov was the greater threat to reigning champion Anatoly Karpov; and their refusal would have meant that Kasparov forfeited his chance of challenging for the title. FIDE president Florencio Campomanes negotiated with the Soviet Union and the match was played in London. In the 1984 world championship match between Karpov and Kasparov the winner was to be the first to win 6 games. In the first 27 games Karpov gained a 5-0 lead but by the end of the 48th Kasparov had reduced this to 5-3. At this point the match had lasted for 159 days (from September 1984 to February 1985), Karpov looked exhausted and many thought Kasparov was the favorite to win. After six days of talks, on February 15 FIDE president Campomanes announced that "the match is ended without decision", that a new one would begin in September 1985 with the score 0-0, and that it would consist of at most 24 games. Karpov entered the press conference rather late and said he wished to continue the existing match, and nobody has revealed what had happened behind the scenes. Kasparov won the second match and became world champion. Also available on FIDE's Web site 1993 to present World Championship divided 1993-2006 In 1992 Nigel Short surprised the world by winning the Candidates Tournament and thus becoming the official challenger for Garry Kasparov's world title. FIDE very quickly accepted a bid from Manchester (England) to host the title match in 1993. But at that time Short was travelling to Greece and could not be consulted as FIDE's rules required. On learning of the situation Short contacted Kasparov, who had distrusted FIDE and its president, Florencio Campomanes ever since Campomanes had stopped his title match against Anatoly Karpov in 1984. Kasparov and Short concluded that FIDE had failed to get them the best financial deal available and announced that they would "play under the auspices of a new body, the "Professional Chess Association" (PCA). FIDE stripped Kasparov of his FIDE title and dropped Kasparov and Short from the official rating list. It also announced a title match between Karpov and Jan Timman, whom Short had defeated in the semi-final and final stages of the Candidates Tournament. Kasparov and Karpov won their matches and there were now two players claiming to be world champion. In 1994 Kasparov concluded that breaking away from FIDE had been a mistake, because both commercial sponsors and the majority of grandmasters disliked the split in the world championship. Kasparov started trying to improve relations with FIDE and supported Campomanes' bid for re-election as president of FIDE. But many FIDE delegates regarded Campomanes as corrupt and in 1995 he agreed to resign provided his successor was Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, president of the Republic of Kalmykia. In the next few years several attempts to re-unify the world championship failed for various reasons - notably inability to finance a match or Kasparov's opposition to any plan that required him to play in a qualifying series rather than go straight into a re-unification match. In 2000 Vladimir Kramnik defeated Kasparov in a match for what was now the Braingames World Chess Championship (the PCA had collapsed by this time). But Kramnik was also unwilling to play in a qualifying series, and objected strongly to FIDE's attempt to have the world championship decided by annual knock-out tournaments and to reduce the time limits for games, changes which FIDE hoped would make the game more interesting to outsiders. Finally in 2006 a re-unification match was played between Kramnik and Veselin Topalov, which Kramnik won after an unpleasant controversy which led to one game being awarded to Topalov. But the split in the world-title had after-effects, as shown by FIDE's complicated regulations for the 2007-2009 world championship cycle. Because Topalov was unable to compete in the 2007 World Chess Championship Tournament, FIDE decided he should have a "fast track" entry into the 2007-2009 cycle. And FIDE also decided that, if Kramnik did not win the 2007 championship tournament, he should play a championship match in 2008 against the winner - and this provision became applicable because Vishwanathan Anand won the tournament and thus became world champion. IOC Recognition In 1999, FIDE was recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Two years later, it introduced the IOC's anti-drugs rules to chess, as part of its campaign for chess to become part of the Olympic Games. Member federations There are at present 158 member nations of FIDE. There were 159 until recently, when one was dropped. The list fluctuates, as new nations join and sometimes national federations collapse or are unable to pay their dues. Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burundi, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, England, Estonia, Ethiopia, Faroe Islands, Fiji, Finland, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, France, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guernsey, Haiti, Honduras, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jersey, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macau, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Palau, Palestine, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, San Marino, Scotland, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somalia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Surinam, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United States of America, Uruguay, US Virgin Islands, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam, Wales, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe Ghana and Ivory Coast have been temporarily suspended from membership in FIDE because of their failure to meet their financial obligations. FIDE Presidents 1924–1949 (25 years) Alexander Rueb 1949–1970 (21 years) Folke Rogard 1970–1978 (8 years) Max Euwe 1978–1982 (4 years) Friðrik Ólafsson 1982–1995 (13 years) Florencio Campomanes 1995–present (13 years) Kirsan Ilyumzhinov (as of 2008) See also FIDE Federations Rankings International Correspondence Chess Federation Arab Chess Federation Australian Chess Federation Chinese Chess Association English Chess Federation Italian Chess Federation New Zealand Chess Federation United States Chess Federation Chess around the world References External links http://www.fide.com The official FIDE website

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external_link:1

Mary,_Queen_of_Hungary

For the Habsburg consort of Louis II of Hungary, later Regent of the Netherlands, see Mary of Austria (1505-1558) Mary of Hungary (c. 1371 – 17 May 1395, Buda, Hungary) (in Hungarian and Slovakian: Mária, in Croatian and Bosnian Marija Anžuvinska) was queen regnant of Hungary from 1382 until her death in 1395. Childhood She was the third of four, but the eldest surviving daughter of Louis I the Great of Hungary and his second wife Elizabeth of Bosnia. She was intended to inherit both of her father's kingdoms, Hungary and Poland, or at least the hereditary kingdom of Poland. Her father king Louis had arranged marriages for her and her younger sister Jadwiga. Ultimately Sigismund of Luxemburg (1368–1437), an heir of the Polish Kujavian dynasty and a member of Bohemian royal family, married Mary in 1385 in Zvolen Castle. William of Habsburg then was to marry her younger sister, who however, after Sigismund was expelled by Poles, where he had been living in Kraków since 1381, unexpectedly became Queen Jadwiga of Poland, William married Mary's relative Joan II of Naples instead, and Jadwiga became married to Jogaila of Lithuania. Reign Mary became Queen regnant of Hungary as a ten-year-old child after her father's death in 1382 (her elder sister Catherine having died four years earlier, and the eldest, Elizabeth, years earlier). The country was ruled by her mother, the Dowager Queen Elisabeth, Elizabeta Kotromanic of Bosnia, and by Palatine Miklós Garai, Nikola I Gorjanski Stariji. Sigismund, his powerful brother Emperor Wenceslaus and many noblemen of Hungary were opposed to them; some noblemen helped Mary's relative Charles of Durazzo, King of Naples to become briefly the King of Hungary in 1385. Queen Elizabeth and Garai had Charles II assassinated in 1386. Charles's heir was his underage son Ladislas of Naples (d. 1414) who attempted all his life to conquer Hungary, but despite some support in the country, did not succeed. Magnates of Lesser Poland had been deeply unsatisfied with personal union (1370–82) with Hungary, and despite of decreed succession order, chose the nine-year-old Jadwiga as the Queen of Poland in 1384. After a couple of years, Jadwiga was compelled to leave Hungary for Poland. Mary and her guardians never managed in governing nor obtaining Poland. Halych, the Ruthenian province recently (1340–66) annexed by Poland, however was taken by Hungary, and only after several years, Poland recovered it. Capture and rescue Elisabeth and Mary were captured in 1386 by the powerful Horvat brothers, Paul Bishop of Machva and Ladislaus, but probably on the orders of Mary's smart but wicked seventeen-year-old husband and King-consort Sigismund. On the first anniversary of the death of Charles II, January 1387, Elizabeth was strangled before Mary's eyes. Mary bitterly accused her husband, King-consort Sigismund for arranging the kidnapping and murder of her mother Elisabeth. Mary did not want to live with Sigismund, due to the matricide of his Mother-in-Law, therefore keeping a separate household. She accused Sigismund of squandering her patrimony on cheap women, and short-sighted politics. She reconciled with the Horvats and granted them estates in Slavonia and Northern Bosnia. In July 1387 Mary was rescued from captivity by troops of Trvtko I of Bosnia (cousin and adoptive brother of queen Elisabeth) and the Croatian noble family later known as the Frangipani (who were relatives of the Garay (Gorjanskih) clan), main support of the Bosnian faction. It has been claimed that Sigismund took revenge on the murderers of Elizabeth. Succession Mary might have designated her uncle Stephen Tvrtko I, also a descendant of the Árpád dynasty through Catherine (a daughter of Stephen V of Hungary), as her heir in Hungary as early as 1386. However, Trvtko died, being probably murdered in 1391. From 1387, Mary and Sigismund were officially joint rulers of Hungary but in fact the estranged husband Sigismund ruled alone. Mary died on 17 May, 1395, the same day as the Battle of Rovine, under suspicious circumstances, while heavily pregnant, but leaving no surviving children. In 1405, probably on Christmas Day, somewhat secretly, Sigismund remarried, or was compelled to marry, Barbara of Celje, Mary's kinswoman. In 1410, Sigismund was elected Holy Roman Emperor. Legacy Mary was the last scion of the Angevin dynasty on the throne of Hungary. Mary's closest heir was her youngest sister, Jadwiga of Poland who, however, also died in 1399 of childbirth complications leaving no surviving children. Mary's widower Sigismund kept her kingdom, and was eventually succeeded by his daughter from his second marriage with Mary's cousin Barbara of Celje, whose grandmother Katarina Kotromanic was Mary's maternal aunt. After the death of Jadwiga, the heir of Mary's line was their distant cousin Ladislas of Naples, the rival claimant. His line went extinct in 1435, after which the succession of these lines went, in principle, to king Charles VII of France, heir-general to the eldest daughter of Charles II of Naples and Maria of Hungary. Titles King of Hungary, King of Croatia, King of Dalmatia References Glenda Goss Thompson. Benedictus Appenzeller: Maître de la Chappelle to Mary of Hungary and Chansonnier. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of North Carolina, 1975. 2 vols. Glenda Goss Thompson. “Mary of Hungary and Music Patronage.” Sixteenth Century Journal 15 (1984): 401–418. Glenda Goss Thompson. “Music in the Court Records of Mary of Hungary.” Tijdschrift van de Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 34 (1984): 132–173. Other sources Coat of arms of the House of Anjou-Sicily on the French Wikipedia House of Anjou-Sicily on the French Wikipedia

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Economy_of_the_Cayman_Islands

The economy of the Cayman Islands, a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, is mainly fueled by the tourism sector and by the financial services sector, together representing 70-80 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). The Cayman Island Investment Bureau, a government agency, has been established with the mandate of promoting investment and economic development in the territory. Cayman Islands Investment Bureau. The emergence of what are now considered the Cayman Islands' "twin pillars of economic development" (tourism and international finance) started in the 1950s with the introduction of modern transportation and telecommunications. Background Note: Cayman Islands. Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, February 2008. US Department of State. Retrieved 11 September 2008. History From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base. The harvesting of sea turtles to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s. Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of available land. Fishing, shipbuilding, and cotton production boosted the economy during the early days of settlement. In addition, settlers scavenged shipwreck remains from the surrounding coral reefs. The boom in the Cayman Islands' international finance industry can also be at least partly attributed to the British overseas territory having no direct taxation. A popular legend attributes the tax-free status to the heroic acts of the inhabitants during a maritime tragedy in 1794, often referred to as "Wreck of the Ten Sails". Points of Interest: The Wreck of the Ten Sails. Cayman Islands Chamber of Commerce, 2003. Retrieved 11 September 2008. The wreck involved nine British merchant vessels and their naval escort, the frigate HMS Convert, that ran aground on the reefs off Grand Cayman. Due to the rescue efforts by the Caymanians using canoes, the loss of life was limited to eight. The East End Lighthouse Park. National Trust of the Cayman Islands, 8 June 2006. Retrieved 11 September 2008. However, records from the colonial era indicate that Grand Cayman, then a dependency of Jamaica, was not tax-exempt during the period that followed. In 1803, the inhabitants signed a petition addressed to the Jamaican governor asking him to grant them a tax exemption from the "Transient Tax on Wreck Goods". Smith, Roger C. (2000). The Maritime Heritage of the Cayman Islands. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813017734, p. 172. International finance and tourism The Cayman Islands' tax-free status has attracted numerous banks and other companies to its shores. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 2000, including almost 600 banks and trust companies, with banking assets exceeding $500 billion. Large corporations based in the Cayman Islands include Seagate Technology, Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC), Garmin Ltd. and Transocean Inc. The Cayman Islands Stock Exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Unspoiled beaches, duty-free shopping, scuba diving, and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year. Due to the well-developed tourist industry, many citizens work in service jobs in that sector. Standard of living Because the islands cannot produce enough goods to support the population, about 90% of their food and consumer goods must be imported. In addition, the islands have few natural fresh water resources. Desalination of sea water is used to solve this. Despite those challenges, the Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.The Cayman Islands produces gourmet sea salt. Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children. Most schools follow the British educational system. Ten primary, one special education, a high school and a middle school ('junior high school') are operated by the government, along with three private high schools. In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.939 billion (2004 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 1.7% (2005 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $43,800 (2004 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1.4% industry: 3.2% services: 95.4% (1994 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.4% (2004) Labor force: 23,450 (2004) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995) Unemployment rate: 4.4% (2004) Budget: revenues: $423.8 million expenditures: $392.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) Industries: tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 441.9 million kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 411 million kWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruit; livestock, turtle ,sea salt farming Exports: $2.52 million (2004) Exports - commodities: turtle products, sea salt ,manufactured consumer goods Exports - partners: mostly US (2004) Imports: $866.9 million (2004) Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods Imports - partners: US, Netherlands Antilles, Japan (2004) Debt - external: $70 million (1996) Economic aid - recipient: $NA Currency: 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents Exchange rates: Caymanian dollars per US dollar - 0.82 ( 29 October 2001), 0.83 ( 3 November 1995), 0.85 ( 22 November 1993) Fiscal year: 1 April–31 March See also Cayman Islands References http://lowtax.net/lowtax/html/jcahom.html

Economy_of_the_Cayman_Islands |@lemmatized economy:2 cayman:18 islands:11 british:4 overseas:2 territory:3 locate:1 western:1 caribbean:1 sea:7 mainly:2 fuel:2 tourism:5 sector:4 financial:1 service:4 together:1 represent:1 percent:1 country:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:3 gdp:6 island:9 investment:3 bureau:3 government:2 agency:1 establish:1 mandate:1 promote:1 economic:5 development:2 emergence:1 consider:1 twin:1 pillar:1 international:4 finance:4 start:1 introduction:1 modern:1 transportation:1 telecommunication:1 background:1 note:1 european:1 eurasian:1 affair:1 february:1 u:4 department:1 state:1 retrieve:3 september:3 history:1 early:3 settlement:2 activity:2 hinder:1 isolation:1 limited:1 natural:2 resource:2 base:2 harvesting:1 turtle:3 resupply:1 pass:1 sail:3 ship:1 first:1 major:1 local:1 stock:2 deplete:1 agriculture:4 sufficient:1 support:2 small:1 settler:2 population:3 always:1 limit:2 scarcity:1 available:1 land:1 fishing:2 shipbuilding:1 cotton:1 production:4 boost:1 day:1 addition:3 scavenge:1 shipwreck:1 remain:1 surround:1 coral:1 reef:2 boom:1 industry:6 also:3 least:1 partly:1 attribute:2 direct:1 taxation:1 popular:1 legend:1 tax:5 free:4 status:2 heroic:1 act:1 inhabitant:2 maritime:2 tragedy:1 often:1 refer:1 wreck:4 ten:3 point:1 interest:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 involve:1 nine:1 merchant:1 vessel:1 naval:1 escort:1 frigate:1 hm:1 convert:1 run:1 aground:1 grand:2 due:2 rescue:1 effort:1 caymanians:2 use:2 canoe:1 loss:1 life:1 eight:1 east:1 end:1 lighthouse:1 park:1 national:1 trust:2 june:1 however:1 record:1 colonial:1 era:1 indicate:1 dependency:1 jamaica:1 exempt:1 period:1 follow:2 sign:1 petition:1 address:1 jamaican:1 governor:1 ask:1 grant:1 exemption:1 transient:1 good:5 smith:1 roger:1 c:1 heritage:1 university:2 press:1 florida:1 isbn:1 p:1 attract:1 numerous:1 bank:2 company:3 shore:1 register:1 include:3 almost:2 banking:2 asset:1 exceed:1 billion:2 large:1 corporation:2 seagate:1 technology:1 semiconductor:1 manufacturing:1 smic:1 garmin:1 ltd:1 transocean:1 inc:1 exchange:2 open:1 mainstay:1 accounting:1 foreign:1 currency:2 earnings:1 tourist:2 aim:1 luxury:1 market:1 caters:1 visitor:2 north:1 america:1 unspoiled:1 beach:1 duty:1 shopping:1 scuba:1 diving:1 deep:1 draw:1 million:8 year:2 well:1 develop:1 many:1 citizen:1 work:1 job:1 standard:2 living:2 cannot:1 produce:2 enough:1 food:1 consumer:3 must:1 import:5 fresh:1 water:2 desalination:1 solve:1 despite:1 challenge:1 enjoy:1 one:3 high:6 output:1 per:3 caput:2 world:1 gourmet:1 salt:3 education:2 compulsory:1 age:1 caymanian:3 child:1 school:7 educational:1 system:1 primary:1 special:1 middle:1 junior:1 operate:1 along:1 three:1 private:1 law:1 college:1 medical:1 statistic:1 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 est:4 real:1 growth:2 rate:5 composition:1 poverty:1 line:1 na:6 household:1 income:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 inflation:1 price:1 labor:2 force:2 occupation:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 capital:1 insurance:1 construction:2 material:1 furniture:1 industrial:1 electricity:5 kwh:4 source:1 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 export:4 vegetable:1 fruit:1 livestock:1 farm:1 commodity:2 manufacture:2 partner:2 mostly:1 foodstuff:1 netherlands:1 antilles:1 japan:1 debt:1 external:1 aid:1 recipient:1 dollar:3 ci:1 cent:1 october:1 november:2 fiscal:1 april:1 march:1 see:1 reference:1 http:1 lowtax:2 net:1 html:2 jcahom:1 |@bigram cayman_islands:11 gross_domestic:1 coral_reef:1 chamber_commerce:1 frigate_hm:1 run_aground:1 grand_cayman:2 dependency_jamaica:1 tax_exemption:1 seagate_technology:1 stock_exchange:1 scuba_diving:1 per_caput:2 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 banking_insurance:1 kwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 vegetable_fruit:1 export_commodity:1 commodity_foodstuff:1 netherlands_antilles:1

Michael_Stonebraker

Michael Stonebraker is a computer scientist specializing in database research and development. His career covers, and helped create, the majority of the existing relational database market today. He is also the founder of Ingres, Illustra, Cohera, StreamBase Systems and Vertica and was previously the CTO of Informix. He is also an editor for the book Readings in Database Systems. Stonebraker earned his bachelor's degree from Princeton University in 1965 and his master's degree and his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan in 1967 and 1971, respectively. He has received several awards, including the IEEE John von Neumann Medal and the first SIGMOD Edgar F. Codd Innovations Award. In 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Michael Stonebraker was a Professor of Computer Science at University of California, Berkeley for twenty five years, where he developed the INGRES and POSTGRES relational database systems. He is currently an adjunct professor at MIT. Ingres In 1973 Stonebraker and his colleague Eugene Wong decided to start researching relational database systems after reading a series of seminal papers published by IBM. By the mid-1970s they had produced, using a rotating team of student programmers, a usable system known as Ingres. At the time Ingres was considered "low end" compared to IBM's similar effort, System R, as it ran on Unix-based DEC machines as opposed to the "big iron" IBM mainframes. However by the early 1980s the performance and capabilities of these low-end machines was seriously threatening IBM's mainframe market, and with the threat came the ability of Ingres to become a "real" product for a large number of applications. Ingres was offered using a variation of the BSD license for a nominal fee, and soon a number of companies took advantage of this to create commercial versions of Ingres. These included Stonebraker, who helped found Relational Technology, Inc., later called Ingres Corporation. Later sold to Computer Associates, Ingres was re-established as an independent company in 2005. Postgres Upon his return he started a "post-ingres" effort to address the limitations of the relational model, naming the new project Postgres. Postgres offered a number of features that effectively made the database "understand" the data inside it, dramatically improving programmability. Postgres was also offered using a BSD-like license, and the code forms the basis of today's free software, PostgreSQL. Stonebraker helped commercialize the code, creating Illustra. Cohera In the late 1990s, Mike Stonebraker founded Cohera Software, headquartered in Hayward, California. Cohera's initial mission was to build a federated database, an updated approach to integrating data in multiple databases, that began with the first attempts at distributed relational databases in the 1980s. The federated database market had not seen significant customer demand by the 1999-2000 time frame, so Cohera was re-focused on delivering industry-specific capabilities on top of the core integration engine. Cohera was ultimately sold in August 2001 to PeopleSoft. StreamBase Mike Stonebraker moved to MIT in the late 1990's and set up a project called Aurora (http://www.cs.brown.edu/research/aurora/). Aurora is about data management for streaming data, using a SQL variant called StreamSQL. StreamBase Systems (http://www.streambase.com) is the company he founded to commercialize the technology. Vertica and C-Store Another project Stonebraker has been involved in is C-Store, a column-oriented DBMS. The technology is being commercialized by Vertica Systems, which he co-founded and is serving as Chief Technical Officer. Additional work On his second return to academia, he initiated the Mariposa project which became the basis of Cohera which was subsequently sold to PeopleSoft. External links Stonebraker's home page at MIT A series of recent interviews and comments about and by Stonebraker

Michael_Stonebraker |@lemmatized michael:2 stonebraker:11 computer:3 scientist:1 specialize:1 database:10 research:3 development:1 career:1 cover:1 help:3 create:3 majority:1 exist:1 relational:6 market:3 today:2 also:3 founder:1 ingres:11 illustra:2 cohera:7 streambase:4 system:8 vertica:3 previously:1 cto:1 informix:1 editor:1 book:1 reading:1 earn:1 bachelor:1 degree:2 princeton:1 university:3 master:1 ph:1 michigan:1 respectively:1 receive:1 several:1 award:2 include:2 ieee:1 john:1 von:1 neumann:1 medal:1 first:2 sigmod:1 edgar:1 f:1 codd:1 innovation:1 induct:1 fellow:1 association:1 compute:1 machinery:1 professor:2 science:1 california:2 berkeley:1 twenty:1 five:1 year:1 develop:1 postgres:5 currently:1 adjunct:1 mit:3 colleague:1 eugene:1 wong:1 decide:1 start:2 read:1 series:2 seminal:1 paper:1 publish:1 ibm:4 mid:1 produce:1 use:4 rotate:1 team:1 student:1 programmer:1 usable:1 know:1 time:2 consider:1 low:2 end:2 compare:1 similar:1 effort:2 r:1 run:1 unix:1 base:1 dec:1 machine:2 oppose:1 big:1 iron:1 mainframe:2 however:1 early:1 performance:1 capability:2 seriously:1 threaten:1 threat:1 come:1 ability:1 become:2 real:1 product:1 large:1 number:3 application:1 offer:3 variation:1 bsd:2 license:2 nominal:1 fee:1 soon:1 company:3 take:1 advantage:1 commercial:1 version:1 find:1 technology:3 inc:1 later:2 call:3 corporation:1 sell:3 associate:1 establish:1 independent:1 upon:1 return:2 post:1 address:1 limitation:1 model:1 name:1 new:1 project:4 feature:1 effectively:1 make:1 understand:1 data:4 inside:1 dramatically:1 improve:1 programmability:1 like:1 code:2 form:1 basis:2 free:1 software:2 postgresql:1 commercialize:3 late:2 mike:2 found:3 headquarter:1 hayward:1 initial:1 mission:1 build:1 federated:2 updated:1 approach:1 integrate:1 multiple:1 begin:1 attempt:1 distributed:1 see:1 significant:1 customer:1 demand:1 frame:1 focus:1 deliver:1 industry:1 specific:1 top:1 core:1 integration:1 engine:1 ultimately:1 august:1 peoplesoft:2 move:1 set:1 aurora:3 http:2 www:2 c:3 brown:1 edu:1 management:1 stream:1 sql:1 variant:1 streamsql:1 com:1 store:2 another:1 involve:1 column:1 orient:1 dbms:1 co:1 serve:1 chief:1 technical:1 officer:1 additional:1 work:1 second:1 academia:1 initiate:1 mariposa:1 subsequently:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 recent:1 interview:1 comment:1 |@bigram relational_database:4 earn_bachelor:1 bachelor_degree:1 von_neumann:1 compute_machinery:1 adjunct_professor:1 ibm_mainframe:2 bsd_license:1 http_www:2 external_link:1

Christianity_and_antisemitism

Christian antisemitism is considered to have started around the 12th century Abulafia (1998, part II, 77), citing Langmuir (1971, 383–389) , but scholars have traced its roots to anti-Jewish attitudes and polemic beginning with Early Christianity. Although the first Christians were Jewish (as was the Gospel according to the Hebrews) Christian anti-Judaic attitudes started to develop even before the end of the first century and even though there is evidence of continued Jewish-Christian interaction, including Christian participation in Sabbath worship. Anti-Judaic attitudes developed from early years of Christianity and persisted over the centuries, driven by numerous factors including theological differences, competition between Church and Synagogue, the Christian drive for converts, misunderstanding of Jewish beliefs and practices, and alleged Jewish hostility toward Christians. These attitudes persisted in Christian preaching, art and popular teaching of contempt for Jews over the centuries. In many Christian countries it led to civil and political discrimination against Jews, legal disabilities, and in some instances to physical attacks on Jews which in some cases ended in emigration, expulsion, and even death. From time to time, anti-Jewish sentiments within European society were exploited for internal political purposes and sometimes to extract a financial advantage from Jewish subjects. Such sentiments made the expansion of anti-Jewish measures politically acceptable. Christian antisemitism ultimately played a dramatic role in the Nazi Third Reich, World War II and the Holocaust. The dissident Catholic priest Hans Küng has written that "Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals. But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism..." Hans Küng, On Being a Christian (Doubleday, Garden City NY, 1976), p. 169. However, many Popes, bishops and some Christian princes stepped up to protect Jews, although it was only in the mid-twentieth century that the Catholic Church and many Protestant denominations issued major statements repudiating this anti-Judaic theology and began a process of constructive Christian-Jewish interaction. Anti-Judaism Many Christians do not consider anti-Judaism to be antisemitism, regarding anti-Judaism as a disagreement of religiously sincere and unemotional people with the tenets of Judaism, while regarding antisemitism as an emotional bias or hatred not specifically targeting the religion of Judaism. Under this approach, anti-Judaism is not regarded as antisemitism as it only rejects the religious ideas of Judaism and does not involve actual hostility to the Jewish people. Others see anti-Judaism as the rejection of or opposition to beliefs and practices essentially because of their source in Judaism or because a belief or practice is associated with the Jewish people. (But see supersessionism) Although some Christians in the past did consider anti-Judaism to be contrary to Christian teaching, this view was not widely expressed by leaders and lay people. In many cases, the practical tolerance towards the Jewish religion and Jews prevailed. Some Christian groups, particularly in early years, condemned verbal anti-Judaism. Antecedents of Christian antisemitism In Rome and throughout the Roman Empire, religion was an integral part of the civil government. The Emperor was from time to time declared to be a god and demanded to be worshiped accordingly. Lazare, Bernard. op cit. p. 63 This created religious difficulties for Jews, who were prohibited from worshiping any other god then that of the Hebrew Bible. This created problems in the relations between Rome and its Jewish subjects, as well as for worshipers of Mithras, worshipers of Sabazius, and Christianity. Lazare, Bernard. op cit. p. 64 In the case of Jews, this led to several revolts against Rome and severe persecutions by Rome as punishment. Though Romans inherited pagan antipathetic to Jews and Judaism from the Greeks, their attitudes were not theological and could not be described as anti-Judaic. The Roman objection was essentially to the refusal of Jews to "bend the knee" to their Roman overlord. Many of the early gentile converts to Christianity probably came from and shared this cultural bias. As gentile converts they also were not well acquainted with the internal life of the Jewish community. Hence they read many of the New Testament texts as condemnations of Judaism as such, rather than as internal differences which were commonplace within the Jewish community. Early differences There have been philosophical differences between Christianity and Rabbinical Judaism since the founding of Christianity. Christians acknowledge the roots of Christianity in Judaism. Some claim the entirety of Jewish religious heritage as its own, while interpreting it very differently. Debates between the Early Christians, who at first saw themselves as a movement within Judaism and not as a separate religion, and other Jews initially revolved around the question whether Jesus was the Messiah, which also encompassed the issue of his divinity. Once gentiles were converted to Christianity, the question arose whether and how far these gentile Christians were obliged to follow Jewish law in order to follow Jesus (see Paul's Letter to the Galatians). At the Council of Jerusalem, (), it was decided that new gentile converts did not need to be circumcised (the Apostolic Decree of ), while requiring acceptance of Judaism's Noahide Law, (see also Old Testament#Christian view of the Law for the modern debate), but Paul also questioned the validity of Jewish Christian's adherence to the Jewish law in relation to faith in Christ (see also Antinomianism, Law and Gospel, Pauline Christianity). The increase of the numbers of gentile Christians in comparison to Jewish Christians eventually resulted in a rift between Christianity and Judaism, which was further increased by the Jewish-Roman wars (66–73 and 132–135) that drove many more Jews into the diaspora and reduced the influence of the Bishop of Jerusalem, leader of the first Christian church. Early Christians also found in the Old Testament prophecies which seemed to indicate that God's original covenant with the Jews would be expanded to include also the Gentiles. Thus the Church Fathers tend to emphasise that the Church is the new "spiritual" Israel, completing or replacing the earthly Israel which was but its prototype. In modern times, this view would come to be called "Supersessionism". Also, the two religions differed in their legal status in the Roman Empire: Judaism, restricted to the Jewish people and Jewish Proselytes, was generally exempt from obligation to the Roman imperial cult and since the reign of Julius Caesar enjoyed the status of a "licit religion", though there were also occasional persecutions, for example in 19 Tiberius expelled the Jews from Rome, Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Tiberius 36 as Claudius did again in 49. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Claudius XXV.4, referenced in Christianity however was not restricted to one people, and as Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue (see Council of Jamnia), they also lost the protection of the status of Judaism, though said protection did have its limits (see for example Titus Flavius Clemens (consul), Akiba ben Joseph, and Ten Martyrs). From the reign of Nero onwards Christianity was considered to be illegal and Christians were frequently subjected to persecution, differing regionally. Comparably, Judaism suffered the setbacks of the Jewish-Roman wars. Robin Lane Fox traces the origin of much later hostility to the period of persecution, where the commonest test by the authorities of a suspected Christian was to require homage to be paid to the deified emperor. Jews were exempt from this requirement, and Christians (many or mostly of Jewish origins) would say they were Jewish. This had to be confirmed by the local Jewish authorities, who were likely to refuse to accept the Christians were Jewish, often leading to their execution. In Pagans and Christians In the third century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until Constantine's conversion to Christianity. In 390 Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion. While pagan cults and Manichaeism were suppressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a licit religion, though anti-Jewish violence still occurred. In the fifth century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire. New Testament rejection of Judaism A number of passages in the New Testament may be considered as a rejection of Judaism given a certain interpretive approach. Among them are: the explication of the Jewish role in the Passion of Jesus. This is exemplified by I Thessalonians 2:14-15: For you, brethren, became imitators of the churches of God in Christ Jesus which are in Judea; for you suffered the same things from your own countrymen as they did from the Jews, who killed both the Lord Jesus and the prophets, and drove us out, and displease God and oppose all men. the assertion that the Jewish covenant with God has been superseded by a New Covenant. criticisms of the Pharisees. (Matthew 23) criticisms of Jewish parochialism or particularism. criticisms of Jews being children of the devil and the like (John 8:44-47) These elements of the New Testament have their origins in first-century history. Christianity began as a revision of Judaism. Many of Jesus's followers during his life were Jews, and it was even a matter of confusion, many years after his death, as to whether non-Jews could even be considered Christians at all, according to the way some interpret the Council of Jerusalem. Although the Gospels offer accounts of confrontations and debates between Jesus and other Jews, such conflicts were common among Jews at the time. Scholars disagree on the historicity of the Gospels, and have offered different interpretations of the complex relationship between Jewish authorities and Christians before and following Jesus's death. These debates hinge on the meaning of the word "messiah," and the claims of Early Christians. Rejection of Jesus as the Messiah Christianity says that Jesus was the Messiah which Judaism does not accept. The Gospels claim that Jesus was a preacher, healer, and messiah. There is no reason to think Jesus would have come into conflict with Jewish authorities in first century Judea on account of his preaching and healing. However, claims that he was the Messiah were more controversial. The Hebrew word mashiyakh (משיח) typically signified a man, chosen by God or descended from a man chosen by God, to serve as a civil and military authority. If Jesus made this claim during his life, it is not surprising that many Jews, weary of Roman occupation, would have supported him as a liberator. It is also likely that Jewish authorities would have been cautious, out of fear of Roman reprisal. Jesus was considered by Christians to be the Messiah, while for most Jews the death of Jesus would have been sufficient proof that he was not the Jewish Messiah. If early Christians preached that Jesus was about to return, it is virtually certain that Jewish authorities would have opposed them out of fear of Roman reprisal. Such fears would have been well grounded: Jews revolted against the Romans in 66 CE, which culminated with the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. They revolted again under the leadership of the professed messiah Simon Bar Kokhba in 132 CE, which culminated in the expulsion of the Jews from the Land of Israel, which Hadrian renamed into Palestine to wipe out memory of Jews there. At the time, Christianity was still considered a sect of Judaism, but the messianic claims alienated many Christians (including Jewish converts) and sharply deepened the schism. Observance of Mosaic law Another source of tension between early Christians and Jews was the question of observance of Mosaic Law. Early Christians were divided over the issue: Some Jewish Christians, argued that Christians were bound to observe Mosaic law, while Paul argued that not all of Mosaic Law applied to Christians. The issue was argued especially in the context of whether Gentile converts were obligated to undergo circumcision, which was a requirement for male Jews. The issue was hotly debated in the first century and settled at the Council of Jerusalem, in which Paul and Barnabas participated as representatives of the church at Antioch. The Council decided that Gentile converts were not subject to most Mosaic Law, including circumcision, but required them to stay away from eating meat with blood still on it, eating the meat of strangled animals, eating food offered to idols, and sexual immorality. See also Noahide Law and Proselyte. Some scholars, influenced by Martin Luther, have interpreted Paul's writings as rejecting the validity of Jewish law. (See Antinomianism.) A small number of historians suggest that Paul accepted the authority of the law, but understood that it excluded non-Jews. This is not a generally accepted view. See Proselyte and New Perspective on Paul. An example of another view is represented by the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Judaizers: Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles but also he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (). Thus he shortly after [the Council of Jerusalem] circumcised Timothy (), and he was in the very act of observing the Mosaic ritual when he was arrested at Jerusalem ( sqq.). Conversion of Gentiles to Judaism A common misunderstanding of Judaism and the Bible is the claim that although Gentiles could convert to Judaism and thus be included, they could enter this covenant with God only by being Jewish. This is simply incorrect: see Proselyte, Noahide Law, Council of Jerusalem and Christianity and Judaism. Some say that by replacing the written law (the Torah) with Christ as the sign of the covenant, Paul sought to transform Judaism into a universal religion. It is evident that Paul saw himself as a Jew, but other Jews rejected this universalism; after Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements (Acts 15). Some Christians continued to adhere to Jewish law, but they were few in number and often considered heretics by the Church. One example is the Ebionites, which, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, were "infected with Judaistic errors" (language which Jews find offensive); for instance, they denied the virgin birth of Jesus, the physical Resurrection of Jesus, and most of the books that were later canonized as the New Testament, see also "Judaizers" (a term which Jews find offensive). For example, the Ethiopian Orthodox are often accused of being Judaizers because they still observe Old Testament teachings such as the Sabbath, and conversely they accuse their opponents of residual Marcionism. As late as the 4th century Church Father John Chrysostom complained (see John Chrysostom#Sermons on Jews and Judaizing Christians) that some Christians were still attending Jewish synagogues. Criticism of the Pharisees Many New Testament passages criticise the Pharisees and it has been argued that these passages have shaped the way that Christians viewed Jews. Like most Bible passages, however, they can and have been interpreted in a variety of ways. During Jesus's life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the Sadducees, Zealots, and Essenes; indeed, some have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee. Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against the Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time. (Lutheran Pastor John Stendahl has pointed out that "Christianity begins as a kind of Judaism, and we must recognize that words spoken in a family conflict are inappropriately appropriated by those outside the family.") After the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE the Pharisees emerged as the principal form of Judaism (also called "Rabbinic Judaism"). All major modern Jewish movements consider themselves descendants of Pharasaic Judaism; as such, Jews are especially sensitive to criticisms of "Pharisees" as a group. At the same time that the Pharisees came to represent Judaism as a whole, Christianity came to seek, and attract, more non-Jewish converts than Jewish converts. Within a hundred years or so the majority of Christians were non-Jews without any significant knowledge of Judaism, although until about 1000 there was an active Jewish component of Christianity. Many of these Christians often read these passages not as internal debates among Jews but as the basis for a Christian rejection of Judaism. Moreover, it was only during the Rabbinic era that Christianity would compete exclusively with Pharisees for converts and over how to interpret the Hebrew Bible (during Jesus's lifetime, the Sadducees were the dominant Jewish faction). Some have also suggested that the Greek word Ioudaioi could also be translated "Judaeans", meaning in some cases specifically the Jews from Judaea, as opposed to people from Galilee or Samaria for instance. Robert J. Miller, ed. Complete Gospels, 1992, page 193, The Judeans Recent trends In recent years teachers in most Christian denominations have begun to teach that readers should understand the New Testament's seeming attacks on Jews as specific charges aimed at certain Jewish leaders of that time, and upon general human attitude. However, Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of Antisemitism in the New Testament (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the treatment of Jews in the New Testament, and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history. Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including, Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University). Most rabbis feel that these verses are antisemitic, and many liberal Christian scholars (including clergy), in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion. Another example is John Dominic Crossan's 1995 Who Killed Jesus? Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus. All of the above should be balanced by Matthew 7:6 in which Jesus compares non-Jews to pigs and dogs when asked why he doesn't preach to them, "Do not give what is holy to the dogs; nor cast your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn and tear you in pieces." The Church Fathers A number of writings by the Church Fathers have been used to justify persecution of Jews. Many of these were recognized as saints by the Church. Apart from John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria, none of them advocated physical violence or murder, sometimes arguing, like Augustine, that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ. The Emperor Constantine the Great Constantine the Great, who is considered a saint by the Greek Orthodox Church, instituted several legislative measures concerning the Jews and all other religions excepting Christianity: Non-Christians were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Conversion of Christians to Judaism or other religions was outlawed. Congregations for Jewish religious services were restricted but had elevated status over pagan religions. Constantine also supported the separation of the date of Easter from the Jewish Passover (see also Quartodecimanism), stating in his letter after the First Council of Nicaea: "... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way." Eusebius, Life of Constantine Vol. III Ch. XVIII Life of Constantine (Book III) (Catholic Encyclopedia) Theodoret's Ecclesiastical History records The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present: "It was, in the first place, declared improper to follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this holy festival, because, their hands having been stained with crime, the minds of these wretched men are necessarily blinded. ... Let us, then, have nothing in common with the Jews, who are our adversaries. ... Let us ... studiously avoiding all contact with that evil way. ... For how can they entertain right views on any point who, after having compassed the death of the Lord, being out of their minds, are guided not by sound reason, but by an unrestrained passion, wherever their innate madness carries them. ... lest your pure minds should appear to share in the customs of a people so utterly depraved. ... Therefore, this irregularity must be corrected, in order that we may no more have any thing in common with those parricides and the murderers of our Lord. ... no single point in common with the perjury of the Jews." Ecclesiastical History by Theodoret. Book 1 Chapter 9 The Middle Ages The Emperor Leo I The Byzantine Emperor Leo I compiled a code of law, called the New Constitutions of Leo. Constitution LV: "Jews shall live in accordance with the rites of Christianity. Those who formerly were invested with Imperial authority promulgated various laws with reference to the Hebrew people, who, once nourished by Divine protection, became renowned, but are now remarkable for the calamities inflicted upon them because of their contumacy towards Christ and God; and these laws, while regulating their mode of life, compelled them to read the Holy Scriptures, and ordered them not to depart from the ceremonies of their worship. They also provided that their children should adhere to their religion, being obliged to do so as well by the ties of blood, as on account of the institution of circumcision. These are the laws which I have already stated were formerly enforced throughout the Empire. But the Most Holy Sovereign from whom We are descended, more concerned than his predecessors for the salvation of the Jews, instead of allowing them (as they did) to obey only their ancient laws, attempted, by the interpretation of prophesies and the conclusions which he drew from them, to convert them to the Christian religion, by means of the vivifying water of baptism. He fully succeeded in his attempts to transform them into new men, according to the doctrine of Christ, and induced them to denounce their ancient doctrines and abandon their religious ceremonies, such as circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, and all their other rites. But although he, to a certain extent, overcame the obstinacy of the Jews, he was unable to force them to abolish the laws which permitted them to live in accordance with their ancient customs. Therefore We, desiring to accomplish what Our Father failed to effect, do hereby annul all the old laws enacted with reference to the Hebrews, and We order that they shall not dare to live in any other manner than in accordance with the rules established by the pure and salutary Christian Faith. And if anyone of them should be proved to have neglected to observe the ceremonies of the Christian religion, and to have returned to his former practices, he shall pay the penalty prescribed by the law for apostates." The Civil Law. The Constitutions of Leo Translated from the original Latin and edited by S. P. Scott, A. M. Pope Gregory I Not all early Christians were antisemitic though. Some, such as Pope Gregory I, spoke out on the antisemitism of their day. Sicut Judaeis Sicut Judaeis (the "Constitution for the Jews") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later. The first bull was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II, intended to protect Jews who suffered during the First Crusade, and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century. The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from coercing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication. Later Christian writers Some later Christian writers have antisemitic statements in their writings. However, other Christians spoke out against antisemitism. What follows is a sampling of writings, words, etc. of those who advocated and those who condemned antisemitism: Pope John XVIII 1007: "The Jews of France, victims of persecution, are taken under papal protection."(The Apostolic See and the Jews, Documents: 492-1404; Simonsohn, Shlomo, p.34) Pope Alexander II: 1063 "Praise for Winfred, archbishop of Narbonne, for defending the Jews." 1063 "Praise for Berengar, viscount of Narbonne, for protecting the Jews." 1065 "Admonition to Landulf, lord of Benevento, that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force." [Source for all quotes on this pope: (The Apostolic See and the Jews, Documents: 492-1404; Simonsohn, Shlomo, p.35,36,37)] Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (letter to Henry I, Archbishop of Mainz, 1146) "Is it not a far better triumph for the Church to convince and convert the Jews than to put them all to the sword? Has that prayer which the Church offers for the Jews...been instituted in vain?" (Carroll, Warren; The Glory of Christendom, 62). Thomas of Monmouth, a monk in the Norwich Benedictine monastery, wrote in 1173 a detailed anti-Semitic tractate, called The Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich, holding that Jews tortured to death a Christian child during Passover. Excerpt from the Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich by Thomas of Monmouth Pope Innocent III 1198-1216 1199 Constitution for the Jews 1199 Letter on the Jews Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), not imposing, he said, his own judgment but rather urging the judgment of the experts, declared that, "as the laws say, the Jews by reason of their fault are sentenced to perpetual servitude and thus the lords of the lands in which they dwell may take things from them as though they were their own — with, nonetheless, this restraint observed that the necessary subsidies of life in no way be taken from them...[and that] the services coerced from them do not demand things that they had not been accustomed to do in times gone by." Thomas Aquinas's letter to Margaret of Flanders However, he also argued that the Jews should not be baptized against their will, quoting the council of Toledo: "In regard to the Jews the holy synod commands that henceforward none of them be forced to believe." ST.III.Q68.A10 Pope Gregory IX He wrote several decrees to prevent discriminations against Jews (see Pope Gregory IX and Judaism). Pope Gregory X: Letter on Jews, (1271-76) - Against the Blood Libel "And most falsely do these Christians claim that the Jews have secretly and furtively carried away these children and killed them, and that the Jews offer sacrifice from the heart and blood of these children, since their law in this matter precisely and expressly forbids Jews to sacrifice, eat, or drink the blood, or to eat the flesh of animals having claws. This has been demonstrated many times at our court by Jews converted to the Christian faith: nevertheless very many Jews are often seized and detained unjustly because of this. We decree, therefore, that Christians need not be obeyed against Jews in a case or situation of this type, and we order that Jews seized under such a silly pretext be freed from imprisonment, and that they shall not be arrested henceforth on such a miserable pretext, unless-which we do not believe-they be caught in the commission of the crime. We decree that no Christian shall stir up anything new against them, but that they should be maintained in that status and position in which they were in the time of our predecessors, from antiquity till now." Geoffrey Chaucer (1343?-1400) wrote in "The Prioress's Tale" of his Canterbury Tales of a devout little Christian child who was murdered by Jews affronted at his singing a hymn as he passed through the Jewry, or Jewish quarter, of a city in Asia: Our primal foe, the serpent Sathanas, Who has in Jewish heart his hornets' nest, Swelled arrogantly: "O Jewish folk, alas! Is it to you a good thing, and the best, That such a boy walks here, without protest, In your despite and doing such offense Against the teachings that you reverence?" From that time forth the Jewish folk conspired Out of the world this innocent to chase; A murderer they found, and thereto hired,Who in an alley had a hiding-place; And as the child went by at sober pace, This cursed Jew did seize and hold him fast, And cut his throat, and in a pit him cast. I say, that in a cesspool him they threw, Wherein these Jews did empty their entrails. O cursed folk of Herod, born anew, How can you think your ill intent avails? Murder will out, 'tis sure, nor ever fails, And chiefly when God's honour vengeance needs. The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer A considerable body of critical and scholarly opinion holds that this speech, in the mouth of the Prioress, represents an ironic inversion of Chaucer's own sentiments: that is, the Prioress is seen as a hypocrite whose cruelty and bigotry belies her conventionally pious pose — a situation typical of the indeterminacy of Chaucer's intentions. Pope Martin V He declared in 1419: "Whereas the Jews are made in the image of God and a remnant of them will one day be saved, and whereas they have besought our protection: following in the footsteps of our predecessors we command that they be not molested in their synagogues; that their laws, rights, and customs be not assailed; that they be not baptized by force, constrained to observe Christian festivals, nor to wear new badges, and they be not hindered in their business relations with Christians" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08386a.htm After the Austrian and German Jews appealed to him, he spoke in their favor in 1420 and "in 1422, confirmed the ancient privileges of their race" (Ibid.) Martin Luther, founder of Lutheranism, a Christian denomination, at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the "evils" of Catholicism had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was unsuccessful, he became hostile to them and wrote in his book On the Jews and their Lies that they were "venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate. Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them force to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies." It is to be noted that the many Lutheran churches and councils across the world have disassociated themselves from these statements. (See Luther and antisemitism) Pope Clement VIII (1536-1605). "All the world suffers from the usury of the Jews, their monopolies and deceit. They have brought many unfortunate people into a state of poverty, especially the farmers, working class people and the very poor. Then, as now, Jews have to be reminded intermittently that they were enjoying rights in any country since they left Palestine and the Arabian desert, and subsequently their ethical and moral doctrines as well as their deeds rightly deserve to be exposed to criticism in whatever country they happen to live." http://omw.macomb.edu/faculty/crawfordt/Three%20Ingredients%20of%20Middle%20East%20Instabilty%20-%20Arab-Israeli%20Conflict%20I.ppt. http://74.125.93.104/search?q=cache:vsTqW-CZEkMJ:omw.macomb.edu/faculty/crawfordt/Three%2520Ingredients%2520of%2520Middle%2520East%2520Instabilty%2520-%2520Arab-Israeli%2520Conflict%2520I.ppt+%22All+the+world+suffers+from+the+ (html version of the powerpoint document (see Pope Clement VIII and Judaism) Expulsions The Jews' expulsion from England King Edward I expelled all the Jews from England in 1290 (only after ransoming some 3,000 among the most wealthy of them), on the accusation of usury and undermining loyalty to the dynasty. The Jews' expulsion from Spain In 1481 Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the rulers of Spain who financed Christopher Columbus' voyage to the New World just a few years later in 1492, declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Catholicism or leave the country. While some converted, many others left for Portugal, France, Italy (including the Papal States), the Netherlands, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and North Africa. Many of those who had fled to Portugal (where, by then they constituted an estimated 1/3 of the population), were forcibly converted in 1496 rather than face martyrdom (exile was not offered as a third option as it had been in Spain 4 years earlier). Inquisitions Goa Inquisition The Goan Inquisition was established in India in the year 1552. The inquisition persecuted many Indian communities of Hindus and Muslims, as well as the large population of Jews in the Konkan region. The early Christians of Kerala ( Nazranies or Syrian Christians of Malabar) were also persecuted. They were accused of "crimes" of different kinds, such as blasphemies, impiety, sodomy, necromancy and witchcraft. Participation in “superstitious assemblies” (Jewish Shabbats) were enough to cause a victim to be burnt at the stake. If he confessed at the last moment, and was "truly sorry", he would be condemned to the garrote for capital punishment, and then burnt. Otherwise he would be burnt alive. The Goa Inquisition resulted in a massive depopulation of Indian Jewry in that region of the country by Christians. Reasons that conflict continued The isolation of Jews as a special case may be a partial cause of both beneficial and detrimental special treatment of the Jews. This special case treatment can be seen from very early times, into the present in both politics and religion. A classical Christian principle is that all people must know God as revealed through Jesus, as that is the only way that anyone can avoid damnation and gain eternal life in Heaven. To the service of this religious motive, Christian rulers applied the same tools of the Roman empire. Many Christian rulers argued that those who take away the possibility of eternal life should be prevented by force, especially apostates from the Christian faith or those who drew converts away from the Church, since this would be worse than murder or any purely temporal evil. Therefore, at times, no public displays of any non-Christian religion were allowed, and proselytizing to convert people away from Christianity was also forbidden: sometimes purely for reason of Empire, sometimes more directly arising from the power and authority of the Church. A special case had always been reserved for the Jewish religion. Christians have believed that the Jewish practices were prefigures of the Christian ones, and that they may not be forcibly stopped (although Christians never ceased from attempting to convert Jews). This singling out of Jews had the negative side-effect of isolating Jews into a special class, as a group excluded from the general rule. For example, Christian law forbade Christians to lend money and reclaim it with interest; Jewish law likewise had the same restrictions, but it applied only to other Jews. Therefore, Jews could become lenders and claim interest from European Christians. Jews naturally played an important role in the economies of the Middle Ages. On many occasions, when their high-powered debtors decided they did not want to pay back their debts, they relied on the "Christ's murderers" tradition to expel the Jews and default on their obligations. To many, this would appear to be a case of misuse of Scripture and tradition to justify actions that would otherwise be condemned. An almost automatic respect is often accorded to a Jewish convert to Christianity, which goes hand in hand with a special contempt for Jewish apostasy from Christianity. Especially strong fascination with Jews and Judaism, both positive and negative, has typified Christianity from the beginning. No family lineage has the significance to Christianity that belongs to every Jew, simply by being born Jewish. Special interest in their history and religion has occasionally produced among Christians a special interest in winning their conversion; the dark side of which, is that an especially virulent disdain has been reserved for ethnically Jewish converts to Christianity who practice Judaism after conversion to Christianity, or revert to Judaism. The logical assumption that Jews should understand Jesus better than anyone makes Jewish rejection of Christian claims felt with unique disappointment, sometimes erupting into hatred and violence toward them, for reasons that would not even remotely apply to any other ethnic group. This has been the important cause of Christian antisemitism for centuries, and especially during the Inquisition. As any other religion, Christianity is transmitted through the voices of humans. The shape of antisemitism in the Christian world has changed so much according to place and time that, on nearly anyone's account, it is unfair to say Christians per se have taught antisemitism or even lived by it. It should also be noted that Christian doctrine has contained elements of tolerance as well as antisemitism, even long before the Second Vatican Council denounced it. Already in the 16th century the Catechism of the Council of Trent, promulgated by Pope Pius V, rejected the notion that present-day Jews bore personal guilt for the crucifixion of Jesus. It stressed that the Christian elect bore even more guilt as to the crucifixion at Calvary, because their sins were committed despite knowing Jesus Christ and his commandments, while the Jews who allegedly crucified Jesus by the hands of the Roman soldiers would not have done so if they had known him. Likewise, many Popes, while criticizing doctrines of post-Temple Judaism (Talmud, Kabbalah) fiercely, commanded that Jews should not be harmed, but were to be allowed to live peacefully among Christians so they would eventually come to see the light of the Messiah, whom they still rejected. 19th- and 20th-century According to American historian Lucy Dawidowicz, antisemitism has a long history within Christianity. The line of "anti-Semitic descent" from Luther, the author of On the Jews and Their Lies, to Hitler is "easy to draw." In her The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945, she writes that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern antisemitism are no coincidence, because they derived from a common history of Judenhass, which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus. Although modern German antisemitism also has its roots in German nationalism , Christian antisemitism is a foundation she says was laid by the Roman Catholic Church and "upon which Luther built." The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945. First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p.23. ISBN 055334532X WWI to the eve of the WWII There were many other actions taken on behalf of the pontiffs to oppose antisemitism. In 1916, in the midst of the First World War, American Jews petitioned Pope Benedict XV on behalf of the Polish Jews. To this the pontiff responded in a statement denouncing antisemitism: "The Supreme Pontiff.... as Head of the Catholic Church, which, faithful to its divine doctrines and its most glorious traditions, considers all men as brothers and teaches them to love one another, he never ceases to indicate among individuals, as well as among peoples, the observance of the principles of the natural law, and to condemn everything that violates them. This law must be observed and respected in the case of the children of Israel, as well as of all others, because it would not be conformable to justice or to religion itself to derogate from it solely on account of divergence of religious confessions". The Popes Against the Jews Pope Pius XI, who was pontiff prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, was particularly opposed to antisemitism. Catholic Leaders in Europe Prior to Vatican Council II in the 1960's, anti-semitism was fairly rampant within the Catholic Church throughout Europe. This was especially true during the holocaust in the 1940's. In Slovakia, for example, Archbishop Karol Kmetko responded to a Jewish plea of assistance in March of 1942 with the words, "You shall not merely be deported. You shall be killed..And this will be your punishment for your killing of our saviour." See D. Kranzler, Thy Brother's Blood, Mes. Publications, 1987, p. 279. Christians in Nazi Germany Collaborating Christians See: Gleichschaltung German Christians Protestant Reich Church Hanns Kerrl, Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs Positive Christianity (the approved Nazi version of Christianity) Opposition to the Holocaust The Confessing Church was, in 1934, the first Christian opposition group. The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the Encyclical "Mit Brennender Sorge", signed by Pope Pius XI, and Michael Cardinal von Faulhaber led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism. However, there was not enough organized resistance by Christian groups to prevent the Nazis' anti-Semitic policies. Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their life, including: Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer the Catholic parson of Berlin Cathedral, Bernhard Lichtenberg. Catholic priest, Saint Maximilian Kolbe. the mostly Catholic members of the Munich resistance group White Rose around Hans and Sophie Scholl. By the 1940s fewer Christians were willing to oppose Nazi policy publicly, but many secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, dedicated to honoring these "Righteous Among the Nations". Pope Pius XII The role of Pope Pius XII in relation to Nazi Germany is very highly disputed. See the articles Pope Pius XII. The "White Power" movement In Proper Hands. Protestant Christian dominated KKK hinting at violence toward Jews and Catholics. Illustration by Rev. Branford Clarke from Heroes of the Fiery Cross 1928 by Bishop Alma White published by the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJ. The Christian Identity movement, the Ku Klux Klan and other White supremacy groups have expressed antisemitic views. They claim that their antisemitism is based on purported Jewish control of the media, Updated: Who Rules America? by Kevin Alfred Strom and National Vanguard staff (National Vanguard) November 20, 2004 international banks, radical left wing politics, and the promotion of multiculturalism, anti-Christian groups, liberalism and perverse organizations. They rebuke charges of racism and claim Jews who share their ideology maintain membership in their organizations. A racial belief common among these groups, but not universal, is an alternative history doctrine, sometimes called British Israelism. In some forms this doctrine absolutely denies that modern Jews have any racial connection to Israel of the Bible. Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine the true racial Israel and true humans are the Adamic (white) race. These groups are often rejected and not considered to be Christian groups by mainstream Christian denominations as well as the vast majority of Christians around the world. Post World War II antisemitism Antisemitism in Europe remains a substantial problem. Antisemitism exists to a lesser or greater degree in many other nations as well, including Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the occasional tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews across Europe. As attacks rise in France, Jews flock to Israel Jews for Le Pen by Daniel Ben-Simon. Haaretz. 25/03/07 At least five nations have banned the production of kosher and Halal meat (see Legal aspects of ritual slaughter). The US State Department reports that antisemitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since 2000. State Department Report on Anti-Semitism: Europe and Eurasia: anti-Semitism in Europe increased in recent years (2005 report) While in a decline since the 1940s, there is still a measurable amount of antisemitism in the United States of America as well, although acts of violence are rare. The 2001 survey by the Anti-Defamation League reported 1432 acts of antisemitism in the United States that year. The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats and physical assaults. ADL Audit: Anti-Semitic Incidents in U.S. Declined in 2001 Americans Reject Conspiracy Theories Blaming Jews for 9/11 (2002 report) Antisemitic pronouncements still occur, however. John Hagee, a leading proponent of "Christian Zionism," reiterated a view -- the popularity of which is very hard to gauge but must nonetheless be considered not simply isolated -- that the Jews brought the Holocaust upon themselves by angering God. [www.huffingtonpost.com/max-blumenthal/my-interview-with-pastor_b_103177.html] Jewish converts The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position that critics have called antisemitic, but that Baptists see as consistent with their view that salvation is found solely through faith in Christ. In 1996 the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews "as well as for the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.'" Most Evangelicals agree with the SBC position, and some have been supporting efforts specifically seeking Jews' conversion. At the same time these groups are among the most pro-Israeli groups. (For more, see Christian Zionism.) Among the controversial groups that has found support from some Evangelical churches is Jews for Jesus, which claims that Jews can "complete" their Jewish faith by accepting Jesus as the Messiah. The Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Canada have ended their efforts to convert Jews. Anglicans do not, as a rule, seek converts from other religions, but maintain rather 'an openness to all people "who find their spiritual home on our churches", while at the same time upholding that any form of proselytism would be unacceptable.' Anglican Communion News Service: European Anglicans set common goals at Madrid consultation The Roman Catholic Church formerly had religious congregations specifically aimed to conversion of Jews. Some of these were founded by Jewish converts themselves, like the Community of Our Lady of Zion, which was composed of nuns and ordained priests. Many Catholic saints were noted specifically because of their missionary zeal in converting Jews, such as Vincent Ferrer. After the Second Vatican Council many missionary orders aimed at converting Jews to Christianity no longer actively sought to missionize (or proselytize) among Jews. Traditionalist Roman Catholic groups, congregations and clergymen, however, continue to support missionizing Jews according to traditional patterns, sometimes with success (e.g., the Society of St. Pius X which has notable Jewish converts among its faithful, many of whom have become traditionalist priests). Some Jewish organizations have described evangelism and missionary activity directed specifically at Jews as anti-Semitic. Keeping Faith. Scottsdale Progress by Kim Sue Lia Perkes (Religion Editor, The Arizona Republic) December, 1982 1998 Audit of Antisemitic Incidents: Missionaries and Messianic Churches (Bnai Brith Canada) Portland Jews Brace for Assault by 'Jews for Jesus' by Paul Haist (Jewish Review) May 15, 2002 Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups In recent years there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews. Most of this reconciliation has occurred between the Jewish community and the Catholic Church, and evangelical Christian organizations. See also Christianity and Judaism Criticisms of Christianity Jewish deicide Good Friday Prayer for the Jews Jews in the New Testament Judas Iscariot Luther and antisemitism Passion of the Christ Persecution of Christians Pogrom Pre-Adamite Religious pluralism Shoah References External links Relations between Christians and Jews Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaism Catholic Encyclopedia: History of the Jews Jews and Christians in Search of a Common Religious Basis for Contributing Towards a Better World Southern Baptist views on Judaism and other faiths "Christianity and Judaism" by Dr. Warren Carroll Attempts to convert Jews to Christianity, and responses Antisemitism and Eastern Orthodoxy "Historian's Accusations Against Wartime Holy See Are Refuted" 21 November 2002 Yad Vashem's "Righteous Among the Nations" Catholic Timeline on Antisemitism Mainline churches launch a policy to punish Israel by Eugene Kontorovich, in the Wall Street Journal, July 22, 2005. The beginnings of Christian Anti-Semitism Judeophobia (Jew Hate) in Early Christian thought. Judeophobia - History and analysis of Antisemitism, Jew-Hate and anti-"Zionism". By Gustavo Perednik (zionism-Israel.com) How ALL ISRAEL will be saved, about Paul's apostleship to the diaspora (including the Gentiles) Further reading "Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate" by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995. "John Chrysostom and the Jews" Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983 "Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament" Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985 "National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church" Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939 "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic", Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989 "The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity" John G. Gager, Oxford Univ. Press, 1983 "The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages," Edward A. Synan, Macmillan, New York, 1965 "Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament", Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85 "The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism" Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993 "Three Popes and the Jews" Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967 "What Did They Think of the Jews?" Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991 "Anti-Semitism in the Church?" by Julio Dam

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