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The dataset generation failed
Error code: DatasetGenerationError
Exception: TypeError
Message: Couldn't cast array of type
list<item: struct<title: string, link: string, content: string, docid: string>>
to
{'content': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'docid': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'link': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'title': Value(dtype='string', id=None)}
Traceback: Traceback (most recent call last):
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/builder.py", line 1871, in _prepare_split_single
writer.write_table(table)
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/arrow_writer.py", line 643, in write_table
pa_table = table_cast(pa_table, self._schema)
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 2293, in table_cast
return cast_table_to_schema(table, schema)
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 2246, in cast_table_to_schema
arrays = [
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 2247, in <listcomp>
cast_array_to_feature(
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 1796, in wrapper
return pa.chunked_array([func(chunk, *args, **kwargs) for chunk in array.chunks])
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 1796, in <listcomp>
return pa.chunked_array([func(chunk, *args, **kwargs) for chunk in array.chunks])
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/table.py", line 2109, in cast_array_to_feature
raise TypeError(f"Couldn't cast array of type\n{_short_str(array.type)}\nto\n{_short_str(feature)}")
TypeError: Couldn't cast array of type
list<item: struct<title: string, link: string, content: string, docid: string>>
to
{'content': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'docid': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'link': Value(dtype='string', id=None), 'title': Value(dtype='string', id=None)}
The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "/src/services/worker/src/worker/job_runners/config/parquet_and_info.py", line 1428, in compute_config_parquet_and_info_response
parquet_operations, partial, estimated_dataset_info = stream_convert_to_parquet(
File "/src/services/worker/src/worker/job_runners/config/parquet_and_info.py", line 989, in stream_convert_to_parquet
builder._prepare_split(
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/builder.py", line 1742, in _prepare_split
for job_id, done, content in self._prepare_split_single(
File "/src/services/worker/.venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/datasets/builder.py", line 1898, in _prepare_split_single
raise DatasetGenerationError("An error occurred while generating the dataset") from e
datasets.exceptions.DatasetGenerationError: An error occurred while generating the datasetNeed help to make the dataset viewer work? Make sure to review how to configure the dataset viewer, and open a discussion for direct support.
documents
dict |
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{
"content": "\n\nIn some circumstances, pages may need to be protected from modification by certain groups of editors. Pages are protected when a specific damaging event has been identified that can not be prevented through other means such as a block . Otherwise, Wikipedia is built on the principle that anyone can edit it , and it therefore aims to have as many of its pages as possible open for public editing so that anyone can add material and correct errors. This policy states in detail the protection types and procedures for page protection and unprotection and when each protection should and should not be applied.\nProtection is a technical restriction applied only by administrators , although any user may request protection . Protection can be indefinite or expire after a specified time. The various levels of protection are detailed below, and they can be applied to the page edit, page move, page create, and file upload actions. Even when a page is protected from editing, the source code ( wikitext ) of the page can still be viewed and copied by anyone.\nA protected page is marked at its top right by a padlock icon, usually added by the {{ pp-protected }} template.\nApplying page protection as a preemptive measure is contrary to the open nature of Wikipedia and is generally not allowed if applied solely for these reasons. However, brief periods of an appropriate and reasonable protection level are allowed in situations where blatant vandalism, disruption, or abuse is occurring by multiple users and at a level of frequency that requires its use in order to stop it. The duration of the protection should be set as short as possible, and the protection level should be set to the lowest restriction needed in order to stop the disruption while still allowing productive editors to make changes.\nThe following technical options are available to administrators for protecting different actions to pages:\nThe following technical options are available to administrators for adding protection levels to the different actions to pages:\nAny type of protection (with the exception of cascading protection ) may be requested at Wikipedia:Requests for page protection . Changes to a fully protected page should be proposed on the corresponding talk page , then carried out by an administrator if they are uncontroversial or there is consensus for them.\nExcept in the case of office actions (see below ), Arbitration Committee remedies, or pages in the MediaWiki namespace (see below ), administrators may unprotect a page if the reason for its protection no longer applies, a reasonable period has elapsed, and there is no consensus that continued protection is necessary. Editors desiring the unprotection of a page should, in the first instance, ask the administrator who applied the protection unless the administrator is inactive or no longer an administrator; thereafter, requests may be made at Requests for unprotection . Note that such requests will normally be declined if the protecting administrator is active and was not consulted first. A log of protections and unprotections is available at Special:Log/protect .\n\nA fully protected page cannot be edited or moved by anyone except administrators . The protection may be for a specified time or may be indefinite.\nModifications to a fully protected page can be proposed on its talk page (or at another appropriate forum) for discussion. Administrators can make changes to the protected article reflecting consensus . Placing the {{ Edit fully-protected }} template on the talk page will draw the attention of administrators for implementing uncontroversial changes.\nWhile content disputes and edit warring may be addressed with user blocks issued by uninvolved administrators, allowing normal page editing by other editors at the same time, the protection policy provides an alternative approach as administrators have the discretion to temporarily fully protect an article to end an ongoing edit war. This approach may better suit multi-party disputes and contentious content, as it makes talk page consensus a requirement for implementation of requested edits .\n\nWhen protecting a page because of a content dispute, administrators have a duty to avoid protecting a version that contains policy-violating content, such as vandalism , copyright violations , defamation , or poor-quality coverage of living people . Administrators are deemed to remain uninvolved when exercising discretion on whether to apply protection to the current version of an article, or to an older, stable , or pre-edit-war version.\nFully protected pages may not be edited except to make changes that are uncontroversial or for which there is clear consensus. Editors convinced that the protected version of an article contains policy-violating content, or that protection has rewarded edit warring or disruption by establishing a contentious revision, may identify a stable version prior to the edit war and request reversion to that version. Before making such a request, editors should consider how independent editors might view the suggestion and recognize that continuing an edit war is grounds for being blocked.\nAdministrators who have made substantive content changes to an article are considered involved and must not use their advanced permissions to further their own positions. When involved in a dispute, it is almost always wisest to respect the editing policies that bind all editors and call for input from an uninvolved administrator, rather than to invite controversy by acting unilaterally.\nIf a deleted page is going through deletion review , only administrators are normally capable of viewing the former content of the page. If they feel it would benefit the discussion to allow other users to view the page content, administrators may restore the page, blank it or replace the contents with {{ Temporarily undeleted }} template or a similar notice, and fully protect the page to prevent further editing. The previous contents of the page are then accessible to everyone via the page history .\nGeneric file names such as File:Photo.jpg , File:Map.jpg , and File:Sound.wav are fully protected to prevent new versions being uploaded. Furthermore, File:Map.jpg and File:Sound.wav are salted .\nAdministrators cannot change or remove the protection for some areas on Wikipedia, which are permanently protected by the MediaWiki software:\nSuch protection is called Permanent, Interface, or Indefinite protection; and pages so protected can only be edited by those with Interface Administrator rights .\nIn addition to hard-coded protection, the following are usually fully protected for an indefinite period of time (though not necessarily with Interface protection):\nA template-protected page can be edited only by administrators or users in the Template editors group. This protection level should be used almost exclusively on high-risk templates and modules . In cases where pages in other namespaces become transcluded to a very high degree, this protection level is also valid.\nThis is a protection level [1] that replaces full protection on pages that are merely protected due to high transclusion rates, rather than content disputes. It should be used on templates whose risk factor would have otherwise warranted full protection. It should not be used on less risky templates on the grounds that the template editor user right exists—the existence of the right should not result in more templates becoming uneditable for the general editing community. In borderline cases, extended confirmed protection or lower may be applied to high risk templates that the general editing community still needs to edit regularly.\nEditors may request edits to a template-protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{ Edit template-protected }} template if necessary to gain attention.\nSemi-protected pages cannot be edited by unregistered users ( IP addresses ), as well as accounts that are not confirmed or autoconfirmed (accounts that are at least four days old and have made at least ten edits to Wikipedia). Semi-protection is useful when there is a significant amount of disruption or vandalism from new or unregistered users, or to prevent sockpuppets of blocked or banned users from editing, especially when it occurs on biographies of living persons who have had a recent high level of media interest. An alternative to semi-protection is pending changes , which is sometimes favored when an article is being vandalized regularly, but otherwise receives a low amount of editing.\nSuch users can request edits to a semi-protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{ Edit semi-protected }} template if necessary to gain attention. If the page in question and its talk page are both protected, please make your edit request at Wikipedia:Requests for page protection instead. New users may also request the confirmed user right at Wikipedia:Requests for permissions/Confirmed .\nAdministrators may apply indefinite semi-protection to pages that are subject to heavy and persistent vandalism or violations of content policy (such as biographies of living persons , neutral point of view ). Semi-protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against vandalism that has not yet occurred or to privilege registered users over unregistered users in (valid) content disputes.\nIn addition, administrators may apply temporary semi-protection on pages that are:\nToday's featured article may be semi-protected just like any other article. However since the article is subject to sudden spurts of vandalism during certain times of day, administrators should semi-protect it for brief periods of time in most instances. For the former guideline, see Wikipedia:Main Page featured article protection .\nAdministrators can prevent the creation of pages. This level of protection is useful for pages that have been deleted but repeatedly recreated. Such protection is case-sensitive. There are several levels of creation protection that can be applied to pages, identical to the levels for edit protection. A list of protected titles may be found at Special:ProtectedTitles (see also historical lists ).\nPre-emptive restrictions on new article titles are instituted through the title blacklist system, which allows for more flexible protection with support for substrings and regular expressions .\nPages that have been creation-protected are sometimes referred to as \" salted \". Editors wishing to re-create a salted title with appropriate content should either contact an administrator (preferably the protecting administrator), file a request at Wikipedia:Requests for page protection#Current requests for reduction in protection level , or use the deletion review process. To make a convincing case for re-creation, it is helpful to show a draft version of the intended article when filing a request.\nAdministrators should choose the appropriate level of create protection—autoconfirmed, extended-confirmed, [2] or full. Due to the implementation of ACPERM , non-confirmed editors cannot create pages in mainspace ; thus, semi-creation protection should be rare, used only for protection of pages outside of mainspace.\nWhile creation-protection is usually permanent, temporary creation protection may be applied if a page is repeatedly recreated by a single user (or sockpuppets of that user, if applicable).\nMove-protected pages, or more technically, fully move-protected pages, cannot be moved to a new title except by an administrator. Move protection is commonly applied to:\nFully edit-protected pages are also implicitly move-protected.\nAs with full edit protection, protection because of edit warring should not be considered an endorsement of the current name . When move protection is applied during a requested move discussion, the page should be protected at the location it was at when the move request was started.\nAll files are implicitly move-protected; only file movers and administrators can rename files.\nUpload-protected files, or more technically, fully upload-protected files, cannot be replaced with new versions except by an administrator. Upload protection does not protect file pages from editing. It may be applied by an administrator to:\nAs with full edit protection, administrators should avoid favoring one version over another, and protection should not be considered an endorsement of the current version. An exception to this rule is when they are protected due to upload vandalism.\nPending changes protection is a tool used to suppress vandalism and certain other persistent problems while allowing all users to continue to submit edits. Pending changes protection can be used as an alternative to semi-protection to allow unregistered and new users to edit pages, while keeping the edits hidden from most readers until those changes are accepted by a pending changes reviewer .\nWhen a page under pending changes protection is edited by an unregistered (IP addresses) editor or a new user , the edit is not directly visible to the majority of Wikipedia readers, until it is reviewed and accepted by an editor with the pending changes reviewer right . When a page under pending changes protection is edited by an autoconfirmed user , the edit will be immediately visible to Wikipedia readers, unless there are pending edits waiting to be reviewed.\nPending changes are visible in the page history, where they are marked as pending review. Readers that are not logged in (the vast majority of readers) are shown the latest accepted version of the page; logged-in users see the latest version of the page, with all changes (reviewed or not) applied. When editors who are not reviewers make changes to an article with unreviewed pending changes, their edits are also marked as pending and are not visible to most readers.\nA user who clicks \"edit this page\" is always, at that point, shown the latest version of the page for editing regardless of whether the user is logged in or not .\nReviewing of pending changes should be resolved within reasonable time limits.\nPending changes may be used to protect articles against:\nPending changes protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against violations that have not yet occurred. Like semi-protection, PC protection should never be used in genuine content disputes, where there is a risk of placing a particular group of editors (unregistered users) at a disadvantage. Pending changes protection should not be used on articles with a very high edit rate, even if they meet the aforementioned criteria. Instead, semi-protection should be considered.\nIn addition, administrators may apply temporary pending changes protection on pages that are subject to significant but temporary vandalism or disruption (for example, due to media attention) when blocking individual users is not a feasible option. As with other forms of protection, the time frame of the protection should be proportional to the problem. Indefinite PC protection should be used only in cases of severe long-term disruption.\nRemoval of pending changes protection can be requested of any administrator, or at requests for unprotection .\nThe reviewing process is described in detail at Wikipedia:Reviewing pending changes .\nExtended confirmed protection, also known as 30/500 protection, only allows edits by editors with the extended confirmed user access level, granted automatically to registered users with at least 30 days' tenure and more than 500 edits.\nWhere semi-protection has proven to be ineffective, administrators may use extended confirmed protection to combat disruption (such as vandalism , abusive sockpuppetry , edit wars , etc.) on any topic. Extended confirmed protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against disruption that has not yet occurred, nor should it be used to privilege extended confirmed users over unregistered/new users in valid content disputes on articles not covered by Arbitration Committee 30/500 rulings. Extended confirmed protection may be applied at the discretion of an administrator when creation-protecting a page. [2] High-risk templates may be extended-confirmed protected at administrator discretion when template protection would be too restrictive and semi-protection would be ineffective to stop widespread disruption. [3]\nUntil August 12, 2016, [4] 30/500 protection applied only in topic areas determined by the Arbitration Committee , which authorized its use on articles reasonably construed as belonging to the Arab–Israeli conflict ; [5] as an arbitration enforcement tool by motion or remedy; [6] or as a result of community consensus. [7] In February 2019, the community authorized uninvolved administrators to place pages reasonably construed as belonging to the India–Pakistan conflict under extended confirmed protection as part of a general sanctions regime. [8] In May 2020, the Arbitration Committee authorized extended confirmed protection to pages related to the history of Jews and antisemitism in Poland during World War II (1933–1945). [9]\nAs of September 23, 2016, a bot posts a notification in a subsection of AN when this protection level is used. [10] Any protection made as arbitration enforcement must be logged at Wikipedia:Arbitration enforcement log . A full list of the 3872 pages under 30/500 protection can be found here .\nUsers can request edits to an extended confirmed-protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{ Edit extended-protected }} template if necessary to gain attention.\nAs outlined in Meta-Wiki:Office actions#Use of advanced rights by Foundation staff , pages may be protected by Wikimedia Foundation staff in response to issues such as copyright infringement or libel. Such actions override community consensus . Administrators should not edit or unprotect such pages without permission from Wikimedia Foundation staff. [11]\nCascading protection fully protects a page, and extends that full protection automatically to any page that is transcluded onto the protected page, whether directly or indirectly. This includes templates, images and other media that are hosted on the English Wikipedia. Files stored on Commons are not protected by any other wiki's cascading protection and, if they are to be protected, must be either temporarily uploaded to the English Wikipedia or explicitly protected at Commons (whether manually or through cascading protection there). When operational, KrinkleBot cascade-protects Commons files transcluded at Wikipedia:Main Page/Tomorrow , Wikipedia:Main Page/Commons media protection and Main Page . As the bot's response time varies, media should not be transcluded on the main page (or its constituent templates) until after it has been protected. (This is particularly relevant to Template:In the news , for which upcoming images are not queued at Wikipedia:Main Page/Tomorrow .) Cascading protection:\nThe list of cascading-protected pages can be found at Wikipedia:Cascade-protected items . Requests to add or remove cascading protection on a page should be made at Wikipedia talk:Cascade-protected items as an edit request .\nSuperprotect was a level of protection, allowing editing only by Wikimedia Foundation employees who are in the Staff global group . It was implemented on August 10, 2014 and used the same day to override community consensus regarding the use of the Media Viewer on the German Wikipedia 's primary site JavaScript, common.js . It was never used on the English Wikipedia. On November 5, 2015, the WMF decided to remove superprotect from all Wikimedia wikis.\nThe Gadget and Gadget definition namespaces have namespace-wide protection, and the permissions to edit them are only available to WMF Staff. There is one page on the English Wikipedia in these namespaces. A request for local access to this namespace has been pending since 2019.\nCascading semi-protection was formerly possible, but it was disabled in 2007 after users noticed that non-administrators could fully protect any page by transcluding it onto the page to which cascading semi-protection had been applied by an administrator.\nOriginally, two levels of pending changes protection existed, where level 2 required edits by all users who are not pending changes reviewers to be reviewed. Following a community discussion, level 2 was retired from the English Wikipedia in January 2017. It was suggested then that \"Pending changes level 1\" be referred to in the future as simply \"Pending changes\". [12]\nModifications to a protected page can be proposed on its talk page (or at another appropriate forum) for discussion. Administrators can make changes to the protected article reflecting consensus . Placing the {{ Edit protected }} template on the talk page will draw the attention of administrators for implementing uncontroversial changes.\nTalk pages are not usually protected, and are semi-protected only for a limited duration in the most severe cases of vandalism.\nUser talk pages are rarely protected. However, protection may be applied if there is severe vandalism or abuse. Users whose talk pages are protected may wish to have an unprotected user talk subpage linked conspicuously from their main talk page to allow good-faith comments from users that the protection restricts editing from.\nA user's request to have their own talk page protected is not a sufficient rationale by itself to protect the page, although requests may be considered if a reason is provided.\nBlocked users' user talk pages should not ordinarily be protected, as this interferes with the user's ability to contest their block through the normal process. It also prevents others from being able to use the talk page to communicate with the blocked editor.\nIn extreme cases of abuse by the blocked user, such as abuse of the {{ unblock }} template, re-blocking the user with talk page access removed should be preferred over applying protection to the page. If the user has been blocked and with the ability to edit their user talk page disabled, they should be informed of this in a block notice, subsequent notice, or message, and it should include information and instructions for appealing their block off-wiki, such as through the UTRS tool interface or, as a last recourse, the Arbitration Committee .\nWhen required, protection should be implemented for only a brief period, not exceeding the duration of the block.\nConfirmed socks of registered users should be dealt with in accordance with Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry ; their pages are not normally protected.\nBase user pages (for example, the page User:Example, and not User:Example ubpage or User talk:Example) are automatically protected from creation or editing by unconfirmed accounts and anonymous IP users. An exception to this includes an unconfirmed registered account attempting to create or edit their own user page. IP editors and unconfirmed accounts are also unable to create or edit user pages that do not belong to a currently-registered account. This protection is enforced by an edit filter . [13] Users may opt-out of this protection by placing {{ unlocked userpage }} anywhere on their own user page.\nUser pages and subpages within their own user space may be protected upon a request from the user, as long as a need exists. Pages within the user space should not be automatically or pre-emptively protected without good reason or cause. [14] [15] Requests for protection specifically at uncommon levels (such as template protection) may be granted if the user has expressed a genuine and realistic need.\nWhen a filter is insufficient to stop user page vandalism, a user may choose to create a \".css\" subpage (ex. User:Example/Userpage.css), copy all the contents of their user page onto the subpage, transclude the subpage by putting {{User:Example/Userpage.css}} on their user page, and then ask an administrator to fully protect their user page. Because user space pages that end in \".css\", \".js\", and \".json\" are editable only by the user to which that user space belongs (and interface administrators), this will protect your user page from further vandalism.\nIn the event of the confirmed death of a user, the user's user page (but not the user talk page) should be fully protected.\nHighly visible templates – those used on a large number of pages or frequently substituted – are often edit protected based on the degree of visibility, type of use, content, and other considerations.\nProtected templates should normally have the {{ documentation }} template. It loads the unprotected /doc page, so that non-admins and IP-users can edit the documentation, categories and interwiki links. It also automatically adds {{ pp-template }} to protected templates, which displays a small padlock in the top right corner and categorizes the template as protected. Only manually add {{pp-template}} to protected templates that don't use {{documentation}} (mostly the flag templates).\nCascading protection should generally not be applied directly to templates, as it will not protect transclusions inside <includeonly> tags or transclusions that depend on template parameters, but will protect the template's documentation subpage . Instead, consider any of the following:\nNote: All editnotice templates (except those in userspace) are already protected via MediaWiki:Titleblacklist . They can be edited by admins, template editors and page movers only.\nSandboxes should not ordinarily be protected since their purpose is to let new users test and experiment with wiki syntax . Most sandboxes are automatically cleaned every 12 hours, although they are frequently overwritten by other testing users. The Wikipedia:Sandbox is cleaned every hour. Those who use sandboxes for malicious purposes, or to violate policies such as no personal attacks , civility , or copyrights , should instead be warned and/or blocked.\nThe following templates may be added at the very top of a page to indicate that it is protected:\nOn redirect pages, use the {{ Redirect category shell }} template, which automatically categorizes by protection level, below the redirect line. A protection template may also be added below the redirect line, but it will serve only to categorize the page, as it will not be visible on the page, and it will have to be manually removed when protection is removed.\n",
"docid": "0",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi",
"title": "This page is semi-protected."
} |
{
"content": "Original file ‎ (580 × 1,159 pixels, file size: 488 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg )\nHis penis is covered by the leaf\n\nThe author died in 1832, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer .\nClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time.\nThe following other wikis use this file:\n",
"docid": "1",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/File:Charles_Meynier_-_Apollo_Belvedere_in_a_Landscape.jpg",
"title": "Apollo Belvedere in a Landscape by Charles Meynier"
} |
{
"content": "\nCulture ( / ˈ k ʌ l tʃ ər / ) is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior , institutions , and norms found in human societies , as well as the knowledge , beliefs , arts , laws , customs , capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. [1] Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization , which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change. [2] \nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict . In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. [3] Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.\nCulture is considered a central concept in anthropology , encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies . Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art , music , dance , ritual , religion , and technologies like tool usage , cooking , shelter , and clothing . The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions ), mythology , philosophy , literature (both written and oral ), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society. [5]\nIn the humanities , one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts , sciences, education , or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture , popular culture , or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital . In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification , clothing or jewelry . Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory , have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness . Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies . In the wider social sciences , the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.\nWhen used as a count noun , a \"culture\" is the set of customs, traditions , and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes \"culture\" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. \" bro culture \"), or a counterculture . Within cultural anthropology , the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.\nThe modern term \"culture\" is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes , where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or \"cultura animi,\" [6] using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, \" refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism , and through artifice, become fully human.\" [7]\nIn 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, \"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere , 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus , 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.\" [8]\nCulture described by Richard Velkley : [7]\n... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau 's criticism of \" modern liberalism and Enlightenment .\" Thus a contrast between \"culture\" and \" civilization \" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.\nIn the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor , it is \"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\" [9] Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, \"Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common. [10]\nThe Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is \"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.\" [11] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as \"person[s] of worth within the world of meaning\"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain. [12] [13]\nThe word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans . However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.\nIt has been estimated from archaeological data that the human capacity for cumulative culture emerged somewhere between 500,000–170,000 years ago. [14]\nRaimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution , renovation, reconception , reform, innovation , revivalism, revolution , mutation , progress , diffusion , osmosis , borrowing, eclecticism , syncretism , modernization, indigenization , and transformation. [15] In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud , building on the work of Umberto Eco , Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander , has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question. [16]\nCultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global \"accelerating culture change period,\" driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. [17]\nCultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures , which themselves are subject to change. [18]\nSocial conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models , and spurring or enabling generative action . These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age , plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture , which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics. [19]\nCultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion , the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. [20] \"Stimulus diffusion\" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. \"Direct borrowing,\" on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products. [21]\nAcculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization . Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation . The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.\nImmanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of \"enlightenment\" similar to the concept of bildung : \"Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.\" [22] He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: \" Sapere Aude \" (\"Dare to be wise!\"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung : \"For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.\" [23]\nIn 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era , scholars in Germany , especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a \"Germany\" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire —developed a more inclusive notion of culture as \" worldview \" ( Weltanschauung ). [24] According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between \"civilized\" and \"primitive\" or \"tribal\" cultures.\nIn 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for \"the psychic unity of mankind.\" [25] He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of \"elementary ideas\" ( Elementargedanken ); different cultures, or different \"folk ideas\" ( Völkergedanken ), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. [26] This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States. [27]\nIn the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word \"culture\" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of \"the best that has been thought and said in the world.\" [28] This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of bildung : \"...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.\" [28]\nIn practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art , classical music , and haute cuisine . [29] As these forms were associated with urban life, \"culture\" was identified with \"civilization\" (from Latin: civitas , lit.   'city'). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore , which led to identifying a \"culture\" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture , namely that of the ruling social group , and low culture . In other words, the idea of \"culture\" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies. [30]\nMatthew Arnold contrasted \"culture\" with anarchy ; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau , contrasted \"culture\" with \"the state of nature.\" According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between \"civilized\" and \"uncivilized.\" [31] According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer 's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan 's theory of cultural evolution . Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.\nOther 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by \"the folk,\" i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as \" noble savages \" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West .\nIn 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion . According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. [32] In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.\nAlthough anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, [33] in the 20th century \"culture\" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology , where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically , and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. [34] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology , linguistic anthropology , cultural anthropology , and in the United States and Canada, archaeology . [35] [36] [37] [38] The term Kulturbrille , or \"culture glasses,\" coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas , refers to the \"lenses\" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that Kulturbrille , which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, \"can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.\" [39]\nThe sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society . For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to \"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.\" [40] As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture . [5] Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.\nCultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory . Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. [41] Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis . As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science . [42]\nThe sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx , [43] Durkheim , and Weber ) with the growing discipline of anthropology , wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture , political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.\nIn the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies . Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food , sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production , which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production. [44] [45]\nIn the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture ; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. [46] It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall , [47] who succeeded Hoggart as Director. [48] Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism .\nFrom the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis , Dick Hebdige , Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie , created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy , communication , sociology , social theory , literary theory , media theory , film/video studies , cultural anthropology , philosophy , museum studies , and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology , nationality , ethnicity , social class , and/or gender . [49] Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to \"fit in\" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.\nIn the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language , but also films , photographs , fashion or hairstyles : the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. [50] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups ) [51] and popular culture , but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies , based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies. [52]\nScholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson , and Raymond Williams , and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham . This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as \"capitalist\" mass culture ; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the \" culture industry \" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy .\nIn the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, \"cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.\" [53] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture ; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom . [ citation needed ] The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded. [ citation needed ] Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School , but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning . This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts . In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures , such as culture. [54] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al. ), [55] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis . The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism . [56]\nPetrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups: [57]\nIn 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud , [16] who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.\nStarting in the 1990s, [58] : 31  psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. [59] : 158–168  [60] Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture , and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. [61] Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures . [62] [63] As different cultures dictate distinctive norms , culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture. [58] : 19  For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style. [64] Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure. [65] Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.\nThere are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage . UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation. [66] [67] \nBasically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other. [68]\nThe protection of culture and cultural goods is increasingly taking up a large area nationally and internationally. Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg , President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality. [69] [70] [71]\nAnother important issue today is the impact of tourism on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society. [72] [73] [74]\n",
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"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Culture",
"title": "Culture"
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"content": "\nLatin ( lingua Latīna , [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈtiːna] or Latīnum , [laˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium ) around present-day Rome , [2] but through the power of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian region and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . Even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages ) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a dead language in the modern linguistic definition.\nLatin is a highly inflected language , with three distinct genders , six or seven noun cases , five declensions, four verb conjugations , six tenses , three persons , three moods , two voices , two or three aspects , and two numbers . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets .\nBy the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin used by educated elites. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken at that time among lower-class commoners and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence [3] and author Petronius . Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century; its various Vulgar Latin dialects developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the modern Romance languages . Medieval Latin was used during the Middle Ages as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then used Renaissance Latin . Later, New Latin evolved during the early modern era to eventually become various forms of rarely spoken Contemporary Latin , one of which, Ecclesiastical Latin , remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at Vatican City .\nLatin has also greatly influenced the English language and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon after the Christianization of Anglo-Saxons and the Norman conquest . In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek ) roots are still used in English descriptions of theology, science disciplines (especially anatomy and taxonomy ), medicine , and law .\nA number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology , and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names.\nIn addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars.\nAfter the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. [4]\nThe earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon [5] [6] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. [7]\nDuring the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. [8] [9]\nPhilological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , \"the speech of the masses\", by Cicero ), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti. [10] \nAs it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . [11]\nThe Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin and were originally the popular and informal dialects spoken by various layers of the Latin-speaking population. These dialects were distinct from the classical form of the language spoken by the Roman upper classes, the form in which Romans generally wrote.\nThe decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses. [ citation needed ]\nCurrently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages  by number of native speakers are Spanish, Portuguese , French, Italian and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. [12] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire.\nOne key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for \"horse\" (Italian cavallo , French cheval , Spanish caballo , Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal ) came from Latin caballus . However, Classical Latin used equus . Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken form. [13]\nVulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. [14] [15]\nMedieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.\nWithout the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. [16] Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. [16]\nThe Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists . Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been. [18] [14]\nDuring the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe. Therefore, until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. [ citation needed ] Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. [ citation needed ]\nDespite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world.\nThe largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. [19] In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language.\nIn the Anglican Church , after the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading \"public schools\" (English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin. [20] There have been several Latin translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer. [21]\nIn the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . [22]\nCanada's motto A mari usque ad mare (\"from sea to sea\") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription \"For Valour\". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore .\nSpain's motto Plus ultra , meaning \"even further\", or figuratively \"Further!\", is also Latin in origin. [23] It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra (\"No land further beyond\", \"No further!\"). According to legend , this inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence.\nSeveral states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as:\nMany military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as:\nSome colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto is Veritas (\"truth\"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue.\nSwitzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confœderatio Helvetica , the country's full Latin name.\nSome films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ , have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (\" Jughead \"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin.\nThe continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium .\nOccasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019), [24] and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. [25] [26] [27]\nA variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. [28] Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include the University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. [29] [30]\nThere are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has more than 130,000 articles.\nItalian, French, Portuguese , Spanish, Romanian , Catalan , Romansh and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , [31] as well as a few in German, Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church .\nSome inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known.\nThe works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press .\nLatin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How the Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, \" fabulae mirabiles \", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook .\nThe Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In the Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed \" inkhorn terms \", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. [32] [33] [34] Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included.\nThe influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis , an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder . Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen , established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal terms .\nA few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. [ dubious   – discuss ] Latino sine Flexione , popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes.\nThe Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language is the closest contemporary language to Latin. [35]\nThroughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. This also was true in the United States where many of the nation's Founders obtained a classically-based education in grammar schools or from tutors. [36] Admission to Harvard in the Colonial era required that the applicant \"Can readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making verse . . .\" [37] Latin Study and the classics were emphasized in American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era. [38]\nInstruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors . This book, first published in 1956, [39] was written by Frederic M. Wheelock , who received a PhD from Harvard University. Wheelock's Latin has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses.\nThe Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available in Vatican City and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University . The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus .\nIn the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The University of Cambridge , [40] the Open University , [41] a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton , Harrow , Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School , Merchant Taylors' School , and Rugby , and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis, [42] a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League , which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam . Classicist Mary Beard wrote in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it. [43]\nLatin was or is the official language of European states:\nThe ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages. [49]\nThe consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows: [50]\n/z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek [dz] or [zd] . In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨ z ⟩ between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes. [51] [52] The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend together. So, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, and ⟨th⟩ are all sounds that would be pronounced as [kh], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the vowel ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kw] sound. [53]\nIn Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase , and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article.\nThe spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used.\nSome notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below:\nIn Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus \"year\" (and in Italian anno ) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed . (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes , as in that example.)\nIn Classical Latin, ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form ⟨V⟩ was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. ⟨Y⟩ was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from Greek , but it was pronounced like ⟨u⟩ and ⟨i⟩ by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as sylva and ὕλη .\nClassical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels . Then, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were frequently marked using the apex , which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa \" long I \": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row. [53] The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length.\nLong vowels in Classical Latin are, technically, pronounced as entirely different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below:\nThis difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book Vox Latina . However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed that short vowels differed in quality from long vowels during the classical period, based in part upon the observation that in Sardinian and some Lucanian dialects, each long and short vowel pair was merged. This is distinguished from the typical Italo-Western romance vowel system in which short /i/ and /u/ merge with long /eː/ and /oː/. Thus, Latin 'siccus' becomes 'secco' in Italian and 'siccu' in Sardinian.\nA vowel letter followed by ⟨m⟩ at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩, represented a short nasal vowel , as in monstrum [mõːstrũ] .\nClassical Latin had several diphthongs . The two most common were ⟨ae au⟩. ⟨oe⟩ was fairly rare, and ⟨ui eu ei⟩ were very rare, at least in native Latin words. [56] There has also been debate over whether ⟨ui⟩ is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. hui ce to huic , quoi to cui , etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if ⟨ui⟩ were to be considered a diphthong. [57]\nThe sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] \"of bronze\" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] \"began\", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/ , in cavē [ˈka.weː] \"beware!\", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] \"whose\", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] \"I warned\", solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] \"I released\", dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] \"I destroyed\", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] \"his\", and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] \"new\".\nOld Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ became Classical ⟨ae⟩. Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ changed to Classical ⟨ū⟩, except in a few words whose ⟨oi⟩ became Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical poena \"punishment\" and pūnīre \"to punish\". [56] Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ usually changed to Classical ⟨ī⟩. [58]\nIn Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, ⟨ae oe⟩ merged with ⟨e ē⟩. During the Classical Latin period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers. [56]\nSyllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels . The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds. [53]\nFurther, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel. [53]\nSyllables in Latin are considered either long or short . Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position. [53] A syllable is long by nature if it has a diphthong or a long vowel. On the other hand, a syllable is long by position if the vowel is followed by more than one consonant. [53]\nThere are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in the Latin language. [53]\nLatin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Etruscan alphabet , which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet . [59] This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic and many Slavic languages ( Polish , Slovak , Slovene , Croatian , Bosnian and Czech ); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese , the Austronesian languages , many Turkic languages , and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa , the Americas and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system.\nThe number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters. [60] Later, G was added to represent /ɡ/ , which had previously been spelled C , and Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative . [61] The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords. [61]\nW was created in the 11th century from VV . It represented /w/ in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses V for the purpose. J was distinguished from the original I only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter U from V . [61] Although some Latin dictionaries use J , it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it.\nClassical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation , letter case, [62] or interword spacing , but apices were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate words. The first line of Catullus 3, originally written as\nor with interpunct as\nwould be rendered in a modern edition as\nor with macrons\nor with apices\nThe Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain . Most notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.\nOccasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts:\nLatin is a synthetic , fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology. In more traditional terminology, it is an inflected language, but typologists are apt to say \"inflecting\". Words include an objective semantic element and markers specifying the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements: amō , \"I love,\" is produced from a semantic element, ama- , \"love,\" to which -ō , a first person singular marker, is suffixed.\nThe grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is \"inflected\" to express different grammatical functions, but the semantic element usually does not change. (Inflection uses affixing and infixing. Affixing is prefixing and suffixing. Latin inflections are never prefixed.)\nFor example, amābit , \"he (or she or it) will love\", is formed from the same stem, amā- , to which a future tense marker, -bi- , is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t , is suffixed. There is an inherent ambiguity: -t may denote more than one grammatical category: masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context. All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another.\nThe inflections express gender , number , and case in adjectives , nouns , and pronouns , a process called declension . Markers are also attached to fixed stems of verbs, to denote person , number , tense , voice , mood , and aspect , a process called conjugation . Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections.\nA regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun.\nThere are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows:\nLatin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so puer currit can mean either \"the boy is running\" or \"a boy is running\".\nThere are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second-declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms. There are also a number of Latin participles .\nLatin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See Numbers below.\nFirst- and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus (lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as auxilium (help)).\nThird-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is -ia ( omnia (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is -a or -ia ( capita (heads), animalia (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular.\nLatin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles.\nLatin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: \"apud puerum\" (with the boy), with \"puerum\" being the accusative form of \"puer\", boy, and \"sine puero\" (without the boy), \"puero\" being the ablative form of \"puer\". A few adpositions , however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as \"gratia\" and \"tenus\").\nA regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations . A conjugation is \"a class of verbs with similar inflected forms.\" [63] The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the - re (- rī in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in -ā-re or -ā-ri (active and passive respectively): amāre , \"to love,\" hortārī , \"to exhort\"; of the second conjugation by -ē-re or -ē-rī : monēre , \"to warn\", verērī , \"to fear;\" of the third conjugation by -ere , -ī : dūcere , \"to lead,\" ūtī , \"to use\"; of the fourth by -ī-re , -ī-rī : audīre , \"to hear,\" experīrī , \"to attempt\". [64] The stem categories descend from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages.\nIrregular verbs are verbs that do not follow the regular conjugations in the formation of the inflected form. Irregular verbs in Latin are esse , \"to be\"; velle , \"to want\"; ferre , \"to carry\"; edere , \"to eat\"; dare , \"to give\"; ire , \"to go\"; posse , \"to be able\"; fieri , \"to happen\"; and their compounds. [64]\nThere are six general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive , participle , gerund , gerundive and supine ), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects ( perfective and imperfective ). Verbs are described by four principal parts:\nThe six tenses of Latin are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first ( I, we ) and second ( you ) persons except for emphasis.\nThe table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations:\nSome Latin verbs are deponent , causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum (to urge).\nAs Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language . However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including persona \"mask\" and histrio \"actor\". [65] Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan , another Italic language.\nAfter the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath). [65] This Hellenisation led to the addition of \"Y\" and \"Z\" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds. [66] Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art , medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as ars (craft) and τέχνη (art). [67]\nBecause of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic origin, and bracae (breeches), of Celtic origin. [67] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages.\nDuring and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms. [68] Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and other Germanic languages .\nOver the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or compounding meaningful segments . [69] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens , \"all-powerful,\" was produced from the adjectives omnis , \"all\", and potens , \"powerful\", by dropping the final s of omnis and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives. [70]\nThe phrases are mentioned with accents to show where stress is placed. [71] In Latin, words are normally stressed either on the second-to-last (penultimate) syllable , called in Latin paenultima or syllaba paenultima , [72] or on the third-to-last syllable, called in Latin antepaenultima or syllaba antepaenultima . [72] In the following notation, accented short vowels have an acute diacritic, accented long vowels have a circumflex diacritic (representing long falling pitch), and unaccented long vowels are marked simply with a macron. This reflects the tone of the voice with which, ideally, the stress is phonetically realized; but this may not always be clearly articulated on every word in a sentence. [73] Regardless of length, a vowel at the end of a word may be significantly shortened or even altogether deleted if the next word begins with a vowel also (a process called elision), unless a very short pause is inserted. As an exception, the following words: est (English \"is\"), es (\"[you (sg.)] are\") lose their own vowel e instead.\nsalvē to one person / salvēte to more than one person – hello\nhavē to one person / havēte to more than one person – greetings\nvalē to one person / valēte to more than one person – goodbye\ncūrā ut valeās – take care\nexoptātus to male / exoptāta to female , optātus to male / optāta to female , grātus to male / grāta to female , acceptus to male / accepta to female – welcome\nquōmodo valēs? , ut válēs? – how are you?\nbene – good\nbene valeō – I'm fine\nmale – bad\nmale valeō – I'm not good\nquaesō (roughly: ['kwaeso:]/['kwe:so:]) – please\namābō tē – please\nita , ita est , ita vērō , sī , sīc est , etiam – yes\nnōn , minimē – no\ngrātiās tibi , grātiās tibi agō – thank you, I give thanks to you\nmagnās grātiās , magnās grātiās agō – many thanks\nmaximās grātiās , maximās grātiās agō , ingentēs grātiās agō – thank you very much\naccipe sīs to one person / accipite sītis to more than one person , libenter – you're welcome\nquā aetāte es? – how old are you?\n25 (vīgintī quīnque) annōs nātus sum by male / 25 annōs nāta sum by female – I am 25 years old\nubi lātrīna est? – where is the toilet?\nscīs (tū) ... – do you speak (literally: \"do you know\") ...\namō tē / tē amō – I love you\nIn ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals . The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences.\nThe numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that \"1, 2, 3\" is counted as ūnus, duo, trēs .\nCommentarii de Bello Gallico , also called De Bello Gallico ( The Gallic War ), written by Gaius Julius Caesar , begins with the following passage:\nGallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.\nThe same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with apices over vowel letters, including customarily before \"nf\" and \"ns\" where a long vowel is automatically produced:\nGallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó, continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés.\nuntil 75 BC Old Latin\n75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin\n200–700 Late Latin\n700–1500 Medieval Latin\n1300–1500 Renaissance Latin\n1500– present New Latin\n1900– present Contemporary Latin\n",
"docid": "3",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Latin",
"title": "Latin"
} |
{
"content": "Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object , such as a person , situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object.\nUnderstanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior. [1]\nUnderstanding is often, though not always, related to learning concepts, and sometimes also the theory or theories associated with those concepts. However, a person may have a good ability to predict the behavior of an object, animal or system—and therefore may, in some sense, understand it—without necessarily being familiar with the concepts or theories associated with that object, animal, or system in their culture. They may have developed their own distinct concepts and theories, which may be equivalent, better or worse than the recognized standard concepts and theories of their culture. Thus, understanding is correlated with the ability to make inferences .\nUnderstanding and knowledge are both words without unified definitions [2] [3] so Ludwig Wittgenstein looked past a definition of knowledge or understanding and looked at how the words were used in natural language, identifying relevant features in context. [4] It has been suggested that knowledge alone has little value whereas knowing something in context is understanding, [5] which has much higher relative value but it has also been suggested that a state short of knowledge can be termed understanding. [6] [7]\nSomeone's understanding can come from perceived causes [8] or non causal sources, [9] suggesting knowledge being a pillar of where understanding comes from. [10] We can have understanding while lacking corresponding knowledge and have knowledge while lacking the corresponding understanding. [11] Even with knowledge, relevant distinctions or correct conclusion about similar cases may not be made [12] [13] suggesting more information about the context would be required, which eludes to different degrees of understanding depending on the context. [10] To understand something implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior. [14]\nUnderstanding could therefore be less demanding than knowledge, because it seems that someone can have understanding of a subject even though they might have been mistaken about that subject. But it is more demanding in that it requires that the internal connections among ones’ beliefs actually be “seen” or “grasped” by the person doing the understanding when found at a deeper level. [10]\nExplanatory realism and the propositional model suggests understanding comes from causal propositions [15] but, it has been argued that knowing how the cause might bring an effect is understanding. [16] As understanding is not directed towards a discrete proposition, but involves grasping relations of parts to other parts and perhaps the relations of part to wholes. [17] The relationships grasped helps understanding, but the relationships aren't always causal. [18] So understanding could therefore be expressed by knowledge of dependencies. [16]\nSomeone who has a more sophisticated understanding, more predictively accurate understanding, and/or an understanding that allows them to make explanations that others commonly judge to be better, of something, is said to understand that thing \"deeply\". Conversely, someone who has a more limited understanding of a thing is said to have a \"shallow\" understanding. However, the depth of understanding required to usefully participate in an occupation or activity may vary greatly.\nFor example, consider multiplication of integers . Starting from the most shallow level of understanding, we have (at least) the following possibilities:\nFor the purpose of operating a cash register at McDonald's , a person does not need a very deep understanding of the multiplication involved in calculating the total price of two Big Macs . However, for the purpose of contributing to number theory research, a person would need to have a relatively deep understanding of multiplication — along with other relevant arithmetical concepts such as division and prime numbers .\nIt is possible for a person, or a piece of \"intelligent\" software, that in reality only has a shallow understanding of a topic, to appear to have a deeper understanding than they actually do, when the right questions are asked of it. The most obvious way this can happen is by memorization of correct answers to known questions, but there are other, more subtle ways that a person or computer can (intentionally or otherwise) deceive somebody about their level of understanding, too. This is particularly a risk with artificial intelligence , in which the ability of a piece of artificial intelligence software to very quickly try out millions of possibilities (attempted solutions, theories, etc.) could create a misleading impression of the real depth of its understanding. Supposed AI software could in fact come up with impressive answers to questions that were difficult for unaided humans to answer, without really understanding the concepts at all , simply by dumbly applying rules very quickly. (However, see the Chinese room argument for a controversial philosophical extension of this argument.)\nExaminations are designed to assess students' understanding (and sometimes also other things such as knowledge and writing abilities) without falling prey to these risks. They do this partly by asking multiple different questions about a topic to reduce the risk of measurement error , and partly by forbidding access to reference works and the outside world to reduce the risk of someone else's understanding being passed off as one's own. Because of the faster and more accurate computation and memorization abilities of computers, such tests would arguably often have to be modified if they were to be used to accurately assess the understanding of an artificial intelligence.\nConversely, it is even easier for a person or artificial intelligence to fake a shallower level of understanding than they actually have; they simply need to respond with the same kind of answers that someone with a more limited understanding, or no understanding, would respond with — such as \"I don't know\", or obviously wrong answers. This is relevant for judges in Turing tests ; it is unlikely to be effective to simply ask the respondents to mentally calculate the answer to a very difficult arithmetical question, because the computer is likely to simply dumb itself down and pretend not to know the answer.\nGregory Chaitin , a noted computer scientist, propounds a view that comprehension is a kind of data compression . [19] In his essay \"The Limits of Reason\", he argues that understanding something means being able to figure out a simple set of rules that explains it. For example, we understand why day and night exist because we have a simple model —the rotation of the earth—that explains a tremendous amount of data—changes in brightness, temperature, and atmospheric composition of the earth. We have compressed a large amount of information by using a simple model that predicts it. Similarly, we understand the number 0.33333... by thinking of it as one-third. The first way of representing the number requires five concepts (\"0\", \"decimal point\", \"3\", \"infinity\", \"infinity of 3\"); but the second way can produce all the data of the first representation, but uses only three concepts (\"1\", \"division\", \"3\"). Chaitin argues that comprehension is this ability to compress data.\nCognition helps us gain knowledge which can affect our level of understanding or 'right view' as expressed in buddhism . Understanding also is seen in the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit helping an individual with their insight into God's providence.\n",
"docid": "4",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Understanding",
"title": "Understanding"
} |
{
"content": "In ethics and social sciences , value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live ( normative ethics in ethics ), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are prospective and prescriptive beliefs ; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with \"ethic value\" may be termed an \"ethic or philosophic good\" ( noun sense). [1]\nValues can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what \"ought\" to be. \"Equal rights for all\", \"Excellence deserves admiration\", and \"People should be treated with respect and dignity \" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include ethical / moral values, doctrinal / ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism , are intrinsic , and whether some, such as acquisitiveness , should be classified as vices or virtues .\nEthical issues that value may be regarded as a study under ethics , which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy . Similarly, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of philosophic value sometimes referred to as axiology . Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions.\nThe study of ethical value is also included in value theory . In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology , behavioral economics , business ethics , corporate governance , moral philosophy , political sciences , social psychology , sociology and theology .\nEthical value is sometimes used synonymously with goodness . However, goodness has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous.\nPersonal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate.\nPersonal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of the factors that generate behavior (besides needs, interests and habits) and influence the choices made by an individual.\nValues may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them. [ clarification needed ] Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views . [2]\nOver time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the implicit nature of value communication . [3] Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in management studies. They are self respect, warm relationships, sense of accomplishment, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment, excitement, sense of belonging, being well respected, and security. From a functional aspect these values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship area, personal factors, and non-personal factors. [4] From an ethnocentric perspective, it could be assumed that a same set of values will not reflect equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural identity of an individual. [5]\nIndividual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas.\nValues clarification differs from cognitive moral education :\nValues relate to the norms of a culture , but they are more global and intellectual than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil . While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism . Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest respect at a funeral. Different cultures represent values differently and to different levels of emphasis. \"Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others.\" [6] Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students.\nMembers take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.\nIf a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law.\nFurthermore, institutions in the global economy can genuinely respect values which are of three kinds based on a \"triangle of coherence\". [7] In the first instance, a value may come to expression within the World Trade Organization ( WTO ), as well as (in the second instance) within the United Nations – particularly in the Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) – providing a framework for global legitimacy through accountability. In the third instance, the expertise of member-driven international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of identity in a globalized world . [8] [ clarification needed ]\nNonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in the field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. EU policies based on the notion of \"cultural exception\" can become juxtaposed with the policy of \"cultural specificity\" on the liberal Anglo-Saxon side. Indeed, international law traditionally treats films as property and the content of television programs as a service. [ citation needed ] Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations. [9]\nValues are generally received through cultural means, especially diffusion and transmission or socialization from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values. [10] For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. [11] Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. [10] Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. [10] Swedish parents value security and happiness. [10] Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. [10] American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow \"book learning\" sense. [10] The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call ng'om . Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call \"nyadhi\". [10]\nFactors that influence the development of cultural values are summarized below.\nThe Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world is a two-dimensional cultural map showing the cultural values of the countries of the world along two dimensions: The traditional versus secular-rational values reflect the transition from a religious understanding of the world to a dominance of science and bureaucracy. The second dimension named survival values versus self-expression values represents the transition from industrial society to post-industrial society . [12]\nCultures can be distinguished as tight and loose in relation to how much they adhere to social norms and tolerates deviance. [13] [14] Tight cultures are more restrictive, with stricter disciplinary measures for norm violations while loose cultures have weaker social norms and a higher tolerance for deviant behavior. A history of threats, such as natural disasters, high population density, or vulnerability to infectious diseases, is associated with greater tightness. It has been suggested that tightness allows cultures to coordinate more effectively to survive threats. [15] [16]\nStudies in evolutionary psychology have led to similar findings. The so-called regality theory finds that war and other perceived collective dangers have a profound influence on both the psychology of individuals and on the social structure and cultural values. A dangerous environment leads to a hierarchical, authoritarian, and warlike culture, while a safe and peaceful environment fosters an egalitarian and tolerant culture. [17]\nRelative values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On the other hand, there are theories of the existence of absolute values , [18] which can also be termed noumenal values (and not to be confused with mathematical absolute value ). An absolute value can be described as philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. Ludwig Wittgenstein was pessimistic towards the idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; \"we can speak as much as we want about \"life\" and \" its meaning ,\" and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will\". [19]\nPhilosophic value may be split into instrumental value and intrinsic values . An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties .\nAn ethic good with instrumental value may be termed an ethic mean , and an ethic good with intrinsic value may be termed an end-in-itself . An object may be both a mean and end-in-itself.\nIntrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. [20] Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. \"Understanding science\" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the sum of instrumental (specifically the all instrumental value ) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in value systems , which is a set of consistent values and measures.\nThe intensity of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value. [20]\nIt should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of instrumental value conditionality . For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being the end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity.\nInstrumental value conditionality in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible.\nIn many life stances it is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. Maximizing life-stances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative.\nThere may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that is avoided or minimized. Value may have an upper limit. David Manheim and Anders Sandberg argue that modern physics implies an upper limit, even if that limit may be extremely large. [21] Negative value may be both intrinsic negative value and/or instrumental negative value .\nA protected value (also sacred value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many other individuals. Protected values tend to be \"intrinsically good\", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary. [22] If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing a person and defending your family they are called tragic trade-offs. [23]\nProtected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the Israeli-Palestinian conflict ) because they can hinder businesslike (''utilitarian'') negotiations. [24] [25] A series of experimental studies directed by Scott Atran and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the ISIS front line in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe [26] suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate the most \"devoted actors\" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary. [27] From the perspective of utilitarianism , protected values are biases when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals. [28]\nAccording to Jonathan Baron and Mark Spranca, [29] protected values arise from norms as described in theories of deontological ethics (the latter often being referred to in context with Immanuel Kant ). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just the consequences of it.\nA value system is a set of consistent values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity .\nAs a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.\nA value system in its own right is internally consistent when\nConversely, a value system by itself is internally inconsistent if:\nAbstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems:\nThe difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.\nImplicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: \"as long as no higher-priority value is violated\". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone's life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions.\nAlthough sharing a set of common values, like hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions are right or wrong , both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an ideological or physical conflict. Ethonomics , the discipline of rigorously examining and comparing value systems [ citation needed ] , enables us to understand politics and motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts.\nAn example conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a value system based on collectivism . A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below. Note that added exceptions can become recursive and often convoluted.\nPhilosophical value is distinguished from economic value , since it is independent from some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low.\nNevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In the subjective theory of value , the personal philosophic value a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the personal philosophic value of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have a \"personal economic value\" in contrast to its \"societal economic value.\"\n",
"docid": "5",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)",
"title": "Value (personal and cultural)"
} |
{
"content": "An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology . Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies . [1] [2] [3] Social anthropology , cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and values of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life, while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior. Biological (physical) , forensic and medical anthropology study the biological development of humans, the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time, respectively.\nAnthropologists usually cover a breadth of topics within anthropology in their undergraduate education and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level . In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of anthropology; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation.\nAnthropologists typically hold graduate degrees, either doctorates or master's degrees. Not holding an advanced degree is rare in the field. Some anthropologists hold undergraduate degrees in other fields than anthropology and graduate degrees in anthropology. [4]\nResearch topics of anthropologists include the discovery of human remains and artifacts as well as the exploration of social and cultural issues such as population growth, structural inequality and globalization by making use of a variety of technologies including statistical software and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) . [5] Anthropological field work requires a faithful representation of observations and a strict adherence to social and ethical responsibilities, such as the acquisition of consent, transparency in research and methodologies and the right to anonymity. [6] [7]\nHistorically, anthropologists primarily worked in academic settings; however, by 2014, U.S. anthropologists and archaeologists were largely employed in research positions (28%), management and consulting (23%) and government positions (27%). [8] [9] U.S. employment of anthropologists and archaeologists is projected to increase from 7,600 to 7,900 between 2016 and 2026, a growth rate just under half the national median. [10] [11]\nAnthropologists without doctorates tend to work more in other fields than academia , while the majority of those with doctorates are primarily employed in academia. [12] Many of those without doctorates in academia tend to work exclusively as researchers and do not teach. Those in research-only positions are often not considered faculty. The median salary for anthropologists in 2015 was $62,220. [13] Many anthropologists report an above average level of job satisfaction.\nAlthough closely related and often grouped with archaeology, anthropologists and archaeologists perform differing roles, though archeology is considered a sub-discipline of anthropology . [14] While both professions focus on the study of human culture from past to present, archaeologists focus specifically on analyzing material remains such as artifacts and architectural remains. [14] Anthropology encompasses a wider range of professions including the rising fields of forensic anthropology , digital anthropology and cyber anthropology . The role of an anthropologist differs as well from that of a historian . While anthropologists focus their studies on humans and human behavior, historians look at events from a broader perspective. [15] Historians also tend to focus less on culture than anthropologists in their studies. A far greater percentage of historians are employed in academic settings than anthropologists, who have more diverse places of employment. [16]\nAnthropologists are experiencing a shift in the twenty-first century United States with the rise of forensic anthropology. In the United States, as opposed to many other countries forensic anthropology falls under the domain of the anthropologist and not the Forensic pathologist . [17] In this role, forensic anthropologists help in the identification of skeletal remains by deducing biological characteristics such as sex , age , stature and ancestry from the skeleton . [18] However, forensic anthropologists tend to gravitate more toward working in academic and laboratory settings, while forensic pathologists perform more applied field work. [19] Forensic anthropologists typically hold academic doctorates , while forensic pathologists are medical doctors. [19] The field of forensic anthropology is rapidly evolving with increasingly capable technology and more extensive databases. [20] Forensic anthrology is one of the most specialized and competitive job areas within the field of anthropology and currently has more qualified graduates than positions. [21]\nThe profession of Anthropology has also received an additional sub-field with the rise of Digital anthropology . This new branch of the profession has an increased usage of computers as well as interdisciplinary work with medicine , computer visualization, industrial design , biology and journalism . [22] Anthropologists in this field primarily study the evolution of human reciprocal relations with the computer-generated world. [23] Cyber anthropologists also study digital and cyber ethics along with the global implications of increasing connectivity. [24] With cyber ethical issues such as net neutrality increasingly coming to light, this sub-field is rapidly gaining more recognition. One rapidly emerging branch of interest for cyber anthropologists is artificial intelligence . [25] Cyber anthropologists study the co-evolutionary relationship between humans and artificial intelligence. [26] This includes the examination of computer-generated (CG) environments and how people interact with them through media such as movies , television , and video .\n Culture anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology. A cultural anthropologist studies different cultures. They study primitive societies, villages, as well as modern communities and cities. They look at different behaviors and patterns within a culture. [27] In order to study these cultures, many anthropologists will live among the culture they are studying. [28]\nCultural anthropologists can work as professors, work for corporations, nonprofit organizations, as well government agencies. [29] The field is very large and people can do a lot as a cultural anthropologist.  \nSome notable anthropologists include: Ruth Benedict , Franz Boas , Ella Deloria , James George Frazer , Clifford Geertz , Edward C. Green , Zora Neale Hurston , Claude Lévi-Strauss , Bronisław Malinowski , Margaret Mead , Elsie Clews Parsons , Paul Rabinow , Alfred Radcliffe-Brown , Marshall Sahlins , Nancy Scheper-Hughes , and Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917).\n",
"docid": "6",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/Anthropologist",
"title": "Anthropologist"
} |
{
"content": "\nThe arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression , storytelling and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing and being, in an extremely broad range of media . Both highly dynamic and a characteristically constant feature of human life, they have developed into innovative, stylized and sometimes intricate forms. This is often achieved through sustained and deliberate study, training and/or theorizing within a particular tradition, across generations and even between civilizations . The arts are a vehicle through which human beings cultivate distinct social, cultural and individual identities, while transmitting values, impressions, judgments, ideas, visions, spiritual meanings, patterns of life and experiences across time and space.\nProminent examples of the arts include:\nThey can employ skill and imagination to produce objects , performances , convey insights and experiences , and construct new environments and spaces.\nThe arts can refer to common, popular or everyday practices as well as more sophisticated and systematic, or institutionalized ones. They can be discrete and self-contained, or combine and interweave with other art forms, such as the combination of artwork with the written word in comics . They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography . By definition, the arts themselves are open to being continually re-defined. The practice of modern art , for example, is a testament to the shifting boundaries, improvisation and experimentation, reflexive nature, and self-criticism or questioning that art and its conditions of production, reception, and possibility can undergo.\nAs both a means of developing capacities of attention and sensitivity, and as ends in themselves , the arts can simultaneously be a form of response to the world, and a way that our responses, and what we deem worthwhile goals or pursuits, are transformed. From prehistoric cave paintings , to ancient and contemporary forms of ritual , to modern-day films , art has served to register, embody and preserve our ever shifting relationships to each other and to the world.\nThere are several possible meanings for the definitions of the terms Art and Arts . [a] The first meaning of the word art is « way of doing ». [1] The most basic present meaning defines the arts as specific activities that produce sensitivity in humans. [2] The arts are also referred to as bringing together all creative and imaginative activities, without including science. [b] [3] [4] In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. Whether this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is \"good\" or has value depends on those who access and rate it. Such public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines \"the arts\" as \"painting, sculpture, music, theatre, literature, etc., considered as a group of activities done by people with skill and imagination.\" [5] Similarly, the United States Congress , in the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act, defined \"the arts\" as follows:\nThe term \"the arts\" includes, but is not limited to, music (instrumental and vocal), dance, drama, folk art, creative writing, architecture and allied fields, painting, sculpture, photography, graphic and craft arts, industrial design, costume and fashion design, motion pictures, television, radio, film, video, tape and sound recording, the arts related to the presentation, performance, execution, and exhibition of such major art forms, all those traditional arts practiced by the diverse peoples of this country. ( sic ) and the study and application of the arts to the human environment. [6]\nArt is a global activity in which a large number of disciplines are included, such as: fine arts, liberal arts, visual arts, decorative arts, applied arts, design, crafts, performing arts, and so on. [3] We are talking about \"the arts\" when several of them are mentioned: \"As in all arts the enjoyment increases with the knowledge of the art\". [7]\nThe arts can be divided into several areas, the fine arts which bring together, in the broad sense, all the arts whose aim is to produce true aesthetic pleasure, [8] decorative arts and applied arts which relate to an aesthetic side in everyday life. [9]\nIn Ancient Greece , all art and craft was referred to by the same word, techne . Thus, there was no distinction among the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration of the animal form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g. Zeus ' thunderbolt). In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages , the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical truths.\nEastern art has generally worked in a style akin to Western medieval art , namely a concentration on surface patterning and local colour (meaning the plain colour of an object, such as basic red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India , Tibet and Japan . Religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and instead expresses religious ideas through calligraphy and geometrical designs.\nIn the Middle Ages , the Artes Liberales (liberal arts) were taught in European universities as part of the Trivium , an introductory curriculum involving grammar , rhetoric , and logic , [10] and of the Quadrivium , a curriculum involving the \"mathematical arts\" of arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy . [11] The Artes Mechanicae (consisting of vestiaria – tailoring and weaving ; agricultura – agriculture ; architectura – architecture and masonry ; militia and venatoria – warfare , hunting , military education , and the martial arts ; mercatura – trade ; coquinaria – cooking ; and metallaria – blacksmithing and metallurgy ) [12] [ not specific enough to verify ] were practised and developed in guild environments. The modern distinction between \"artistic\" and \"non-artistic\" skills did not develop until the Renaissance . In modern academia , the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities . Some subjects in the humanities are history , linguistics , literature , theology , philosophy , and logic .\nThe arts have also been classified as seven: painting , architecture , sculpture , literature , music , performing and cinema .\nSome view literature, painting, sculpture, and music as the main four arts, of which the others are derivative; drama is literature with acting , dance is music expressed through motion , and song is music with literature and voice . [13] Film is sometimes called the \"eighth\" and comics the \"ninth art\". [14]\nArchitecture is the art and science of designing buildings and structures . The word architecture comes from the Greek arkhitekton , \"master builder, director of works,\" from αρχι- (arkhi) \"chief\" + τεκτων (tekton) \"builder, carpenter\". [15] A wider definition would include the design of the built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning , urban design , and landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating furniture . Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and cost for the builder , as well as function and aesthetics for the user .\nIn modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, a complex object or system . The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as music or mathematics , the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells , or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as software , computers , enterprises , and databases , in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components. Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics . This distinguishes it from applied science or engineering , which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures.\nIn the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a hospital or a stadium , to the apparently simpler, such as planning residential houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political symbols , or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built environments in which people live.\nCeramic art is art made from ceramic materials (including clay ), which may take forms such as pottery , tile , figurines , sculpture , and tableware . While some ceramic products are considered fine art , some are considered to be decorative , industrial , or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology . Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery. Products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as \"art pottery.\" In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery . In modern ceramic engineering usage, \"ceramics\" is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae .\nConceptual art is art wherein the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns.\nThe inception of the term in the 1960s referred to a strict and focused practice of idea-based art that often defied traditional visual criteria associated with the visual arts in its presentation as text. [16] Through its association with the Young British Artists and the Turner Prize during the 1990s, [17] its popular usage, particularly in the United Kingdom , developed as a synonym for all contemporary art that does not practise the traditional skills of painting and sculpture .\nDrawing is a means of making an image , using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils , pen and ink, inked brushes , wax colour pencils , crayons , charcoals , pastels , and markers . Digital tools which can simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching , crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling , and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a drafter , draftswoman , or draughtsman . [18] Drawing can be used to create art used in cultural industries such as illustrations , comics and animation . Comics are often called the \"ninth art\" (le neuvième art) in Francophone scholarship, adding to the traditional \"Seven Arts\". [19]\nPainting is a mode of creative expression, and can be done in numerous forms. Drawing , gesture (as in gestural painting ), composition , narration (as in narrative art ), or abstraction (as in abstract art ), among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. [20] Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting ), photographic , abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art ), emotive (as in Expressionism ), or political in nature (as in Artivism ).\nModern painters have extended the practice considerably to include, for example, collage . Collage is not painting in the strict sense since it includes other materials. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand , cement , straw , wood or strands of hair for their artwork texture . Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet or Anselm Kiefer .\nPhotography as an art form refers to photographs that are created in accordance with the creative vision of the photographer. Art photography stands in contrast to photojournalism , which provides a visual account for news events, and commercial photography, the primary focus of which is to advertise products or services.\nSculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts . Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone , metal , ceramics , wood and other materials; but since modernism , shifts in sculptural process led to an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded , or cast .\nLiterature is literally \"acquaintance with letters\" as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary . The noun \"literature\" comes from the Latin word littera meaning \"an individual written character ( letter ).\" The term has generally come to identify a collection of writings , which in Western culture are mainly prose (both fiction and non-fiction ), drama and poetry . In much, if not all of the world, the artistic linguistic expression can be oral as well, and include such genres as epic , legend , myth , ballad , other forms of oral poetry , and as folktale . Comics , the combination of drawings or other visual arts with narrating literature, are often called the \"ninth art\" (le neuvième art) in Francophone scholarship. [19]\nPerforming arts comprise dance , music , theatre , opera , mime , and other art forms in which a human performance is the principal product. Performing arts are distinguished by this performance element in contrast with disciplines such as visual and literary arts where the product is an object that does not require a performance to be observed and experienced. Each discipline in the performing arts is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed over a period of time. Products are broadly categorized as being either repeatable (for example, by script or score) or improvised for each performance. [21] Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers , including actors , magicians , comedians , dancers , musicians , and singers . Performing arts are also supported by the services of other artists or essential workers, such as songwriting and stagecraft . Performers often adapt their appearance with tools such as costume and stage makeup .\nDance generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social , spiritual or performance setting. [22] [23] [c] Choreography is the art of making dances, [28] and the person who does this is called a choreographer. [29] Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social , cultural , aesthetic , artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance ) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet . In sports , gymnastics , figure skating and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines while Martial arts \" kata \" are often compared to dances.\nMusic is often defined as an art form whose medium is the combination of sounds . [30] Though scholars agree that music generally consists of a few core elements , their exact definitions are debated. [31] Commonly identified aspects include pitch (which governs melody and harmony), duration (including rhythm and tempo ), intensity (including dynamics) and timbre . [32] Though considered a cultural universal , definitions of music vary wildly throughout the world as they are based on diverse views of nature , the supernatural, and humanity. [33] Music is often differentiated into composition and performance , while musical improvisation may be regarded as an intermediary tradition. [34] Music can be divided into genres and subgenres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. [35]\nTheatre or theater (from Greek theatron ( θέατρον) ; from theasthai , \"behold\" [36] ) is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle – indeed, any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as opera , ballet , mime , kabuki , classical Indian dance , Chinese opera and mummers' plays .\nAreas exist in which artistic works incorporate multiple artistic fields, such as film , opera and performance art . While opera is often categorized in the performing arts of music, the word itself is Italian for \"works\", because opera combines several artistic disciplines in a singular artistic experience. In a typical traditional opera , the entire work utilizes the following: the sets (visual arts), costumes (fashion), acting (dramatic performing arts), the libretto, or the words tory (literature), and singers and an orchestra (music).\nThe composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (\"The Ring of the Nibelung\"). He did not use the term opera for his works, but instead Gesamtkunstwerk (\"synthesis of the arts\"), sometimes referred to as \"Music Drama\" in English, emphasizing the literary and theatrical components which were as important as the music. Classical ballet is another form which emerged in the 17th century in which orchestral music is combined with dance.\nOther works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art . Performance art is a performance over time which combines any number of instruments, objects, and art within a predefined or less well-defined structure, some of which can be improvised. Performance art may be scripted, unscripted, random or carefully organized; even audience participation may occur. John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the latter term. He did not compose for traditional ensembles. Cage's composition Living Room Music composed in 1940 is a \"quartet\" for unspecified instruments, really non-melodic objects, which can be found in a living room of a typical house, hence the title.\nThere is no clear line between art and culture . Cultural fields like gastronomy are sometimes considered as arts. [37]\nThe applied arts are the application of design and decoration to everyday, functional, objects to make them aesthetically pleasing. [38] The applied arts includes fields such as industrial design, illustration, and commercial art. [39] The term \"applied art\" is used in distinction to the fine arts, where the latter is defined as arts that aims to produce objects which are beautiful or provide intellectual stimulation but have no primary everyday function. In practice, the two often overlap.\nA debate exists in the fine arts and video game cultures over whether video games can be counted as an art form. [40] Game designer Hideo Kojima professes that video games are a type of service, not an art form, because they are meant to entertain and attempt to entertain as many people as possible, rather than being a single artistic voice (despite Kojima himself being considered a gaming auteur, and the mixed opinions his games typically receive). However, he acknowledged that since video games are made up of artistic elements (for example, the visuals), game designers could be considered museum curators – not creating artistic pieces, but arranging them in a way that displays their artistry and sells tickets.\nWithin social sciences, cultural economists show how video games playing is conducive to the involvement in more traditional art forms and cultural practices, which suggests the complementarity between video games and the arts. [41]\nIn May 2011, the National Endowment of the Arts included video games in its redefinition of what is considered a \"work of art\" when applying for a grant. [42] In 2012, the Smithsonian American Art Museum presented an exhibit, The Art of the Video Game . [43] Reviews of the exhibit were mixed, including questioning whether video games belong in an art museum.\nBooks\nArticles\nOnline\n",
"docid": "7",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org//wiki/The_arts",
"title": "The arts"
} |
{"content":"\n\nArt is a diverse range of human activity , and resulting product, that involves cr(...TRUNCATED) |
{"content":"\nThe visual arts are art forms such as painting , drawing , printmaking , sculp(...TRUNCATED) |
End of preview.
YAML Metadata
Warning:
empty or missing yaml metadata in repo card
(https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/datasets-cards)
Wiki Category Dataset
A collection of English Wikipedia articles organized into 14 thematic categories. Each category contains multiple JSON shards, each with 2 000 documents.
Overview
- Categories (14):
Culture,Fitness,Geography,Health,History,Human Activities,Mathematics,Mythology,Nature,People,Philosophy,Religion,Society,Technology - Total documents:
1,200,000 - Data format: JSON files under
dataset/<CategoryName>/N.json
{
"documents": [
{
"title": "Article title",
"link": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/...",
"content": "Plain-text content with paragraphs separated by newlines.",
"docid": "0"
},
…
]
}
Usage
Load the dataset using the Hugging Face datasets library:
from datasets import load_dataset
# Load all categories into a DatasetDict
dataset = load_dataset(
"abbymengyuan/wiki-category-dataset"
)
# Or load a single category’s shards
culture = load_dataset(
"abbymengyuan/wiki-category-dataset",
split="Culture",
data_files="dataset/Culture/*.json",
field="documents"
)
License
This dataset is released under the CC BY 4.0 license.
Citation
@misc{yourusername_wikicategory_2025,
title = {Wiki Category Dataset},
author = {Meng Yuan},
year = {2025},
howpublished = {\url{https://huggingface.co/datasets/abbymengyuan/wiki-category-dataset}},
note = {CC BY 4.0}
}
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