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cereal farmingArticle Free Pass
Cereals, or grains, are members of the grass family cultivated primarily for their starchy seeds (technically, dry fruits). Wheat, rice, corn (maize), rye, oats, barley, sorghum, and some of the millets are common cereals.
The cultivation of cereals varies widely in different countries and depends partly upon the degree of economic development. The condition and purity of the seed has received increasing attention. Other factors include the nature of the soil, the amount of rainfall, and the techniques applied to promote growth. In illustrating production problems, this article uses wheat as the example. For information on the cultivation of other cereal crops such as rice, see articles on the individual crops. For information on the food value and processing of cereals, see the article cereal processing.
Cultivation of wheat
Wheat can be cultivated over a wide range of soils and can be successfully grown over large portions of the world, ranging in altitude from sea level to over 10,000 feet. Annual rainfall of 10 inches (254 millimetres) is generally considered the minimum, and the soil should be sufficiently fertile. (Barley can be grown in soil less fertile than that required for wheat.) Soil benefits from a good humus content (partially decayed organic matter), and chemical fertilizers are also helpful.
Purity of the seed is important. The seed wheat (or other cereal seeds) must be true to its particular variety and as free as possible from foreign seeds. Seeds are frequently cleaned to avoid contamination by other seed crops. Modern cleaning methods employ such devices as oscillating sieves or revolving cylinders. Seed obtained with a combine harvester is often unsuited for use as seed wheat without preliminary treatment. Spring and winter varieties exist for both wheat and barley. Winter varieties generally produce better crops. Winter wheat should form a good root system, and the plant should begin to form new shoots before the cold weather sets in; winter wheat is likely to have more tillers than spring wheat.
The rate of sowing varies from 20 pounds per acre (22.5 kilograms per hectare) upward. Depth of sowing, usually one to three inches (2.5 to 7.5 centimetres), can be less in certain areas.
Wheat and other cereals are self-fertilized. The pollen carried by the stamen of a given flower impregnates the pistil (stigma and ovary) of the same flower, enabling the variety to breed true. Wheat flowers are grouped in spikelets, each bearing from two to nine flowers, or florets. To produce new varieties by cross-fertilization, the cereal breeder artificially transfers the stamen from one variety to the flower of another before self-fertilization takes place. The production of a sufficient supply of the new type of seeds for sowing is time-consuming and expensive, but it allows new varieties to be evolved, retaining the desirable characteristics from each parent. For example, especially in the United Kingdom and Australia, varieties of the wheat that yield well often produce flour of poor baking quality; proper selection of parent plants permits new varieties to be produced that yield well and still possess good baking qualities.
Other reasons for developing new varieties include resistance to rust (fungus; see below Fungus diseases) and other diseases, resistance to drought, and development of stronger and shorter straw to make harvesting easier.
Various types of plowing machinery and other implements are employed to render the soil more suitable for seed wheat planting. The equipment used depends upon such factors as the climate, the nature of the ground, and the rainfall. Tillage is the process of preparing soil for cultivation purposes. The practices used and the implements employed vary considerably. Serious soil erosion may require special procedures to maintain clods and plant residues in the soil.
In North America it is normal practice to grow wheat on the same ground for as long as sufficiently clean crops are produced, but eventually the ground must rest fallow for a year. The moisture of the land at the time of sowing is an important factor. The ancient procedure of growing legumes occasionally to improve the soil is still common in Europe, though less so in North America. Fertilization of the ground is useful to increase the crop yield, but it does not generally increase the protein content of the crop. In the large collective state farms of the Soviet Union, huge harrows set with spikes or teeth are employed, as well as the disk cultivating plow set with disks that break up the soil; the scarifier, a machine that pulverizes the soil, is popular in Australia.
Winter crops are frequently disturbed by frost, and the ground must then be rolled in the spring to consolidate the soil around the roots. If soil has become crusted by heavy rains followed by surface drying, the crop is usually harrowed in the spring to aerate the soil and kill young weeds. Although all of the required mineral nutrients may be added to the soil at the time of sowing, sometimes only part of the nitrogenous fertilizers is added at that time, and the remainder is applied to the growing crop in the form of a top dressing. In the cultivation of spring wheat all of the fertilizer is usually added before or at sowing time, but sometimes a small portion is reserved for later.
Weeds present difficulties, as they compete with cereal crops for water, light, and mineral nutrients. The infestation of annual seeds planted in a field may cause many weeds in that field for successive years. Charlock or wild mustard, wild oats, crouch grass, and other common weeds are disseminated by wind, water, and birds.
What made you want to look up "cereal farming"? Please share what surprised you most... | <urn:uuid:1be2ce3c-67c7-428a-8ad2-4d578b352b28> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1343927/cereal-farming | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944879 | 1,189 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Indochina warsArticle Free Pass
Indochina wars, 20th-century conflicts in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, with the principal involvement of France (1946–54) and later the United States (beginning in the 1950s). The wars are often called the French Indochina War and the Vietnam War, or the First and Second Indochina wars. The latter conflict ended in April 1975.
In the latter half of the 19th century, Vietnam was gradually conquered by the French, who controlled it as a protectorate (1883–1939) and then as a possession (1939–45). Vietnamese rule did not return to the country until Sept. 2, 1945, when the Nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed its independence. From 1946 to 1954, the French opposed independence, and Ho Chi Minh led guerrilla warfare against them in the first Indochina War that ended in the Vietnamese victory at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954. An agreement was signed at Geneva on July 21, 1954, providing for a temporary division of the country, at the 17th parallel of latitude, between a communist-dominated north and a U.S.-supported south. Activities of procommunist rebels in South Vietnam led to heavy U.S. intervention in the mid-1960s and the Second Indochina War, or Vietnam War, which caused great destruction and loss of life. It came to a brief halt in 1973, when a cease-fire agreement was signed (January 27) and the remaining U.S. troops in South Vietnam began to be withdrawn. The war was soon resumed. In 1975 the South Vietnamese government collapsed and was replaced (April 30) by a regime dominated by the communists. On July 2, 1976, the two Vietnams were reunited as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Cambodia had been a French protectorate since 1863 and achieved independence in 1953 under the leadership of Prince Norodom Sihanouk. Sihanouk adopted a position of neutrality in the Vietnam conflict and tacitly permitted Vietnamese communists to use sanctuaries inside Cambodia. On March 18, 1970, however, he was deposed in a coup by right-wing elements in the armed forces. On May 1, 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia in an effort to destroy communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia-Vietnam border. Cambodia’s new leaders by then faced a growing threat from Cambodian communists called the Khmer Rouge (“Red Khmers”). The U.S. launched a series of intensive bombing raids of rural areas of Cambodia until 1973 in an effort to disrupt Khmer Rouge activities; but, after a five-year civil war, the Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh, fell to the Khmer Rouge on April 17, 1975. Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia in January 1979 and installed a puppet government soon afterward.
Laos had been a French protectorate since the turn of the century. It achieved independence in a series of steps between 1946 and 1954. Control of the government changed hands between rightists and neutralists several times until 1962, when a coalition government between them and the Laotian communists called the Pathet Lao (“Lao Country”) was formed under the leadership of Prince Souvanna Phouma. The coalition continued to govern while communists and noncommunists vied for control of the outlying provinces of the country. After the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, the Pathet Lao, supported by the North Vietnamese, established control over the whole of Laos.
What made you want to look up "Indochina wars"? Please share what surprised you most... | <urn:uuid:f000e02a-53a7-41d1-9d37-aa8b8ac2e722> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286443/Indochina-wars | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961821 | 760 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Sesostris IIIArticle Free Pass
Sesostris III, (flourished 19th century bce), king of ancient Egypt (reigned 1836–18 bce) of the 12th dynasty (1938–c. 1756 bce), who completely reshaped Egypt’s government and extended his dominion in Nubia, the land immediately south of Egypt.
During the reigns of his predecessors, the provincial nobles of Middle Egypt had enhanced their power through royal favours and intermarriage with the families of neighbouring potentates. Around the middle of Sesostris III’s reign, the rich provincial tombs, which were a mark of the nobles’ power, abruptly ceased to be built. Simultaneously, the memorials of middle-class persons increased at Abydos, the Upper Egyptian shrine of the popular god Osiris. Sesostris III strengthened the central government, minimizing the power and influence of the feudal nobility. Egypt was divided into four great districts, each of which possessed a hierarchy of officials and scribes directly responsible to the vizier. The vizier possessed a ministry, and countrywide departments of the treasury, agriculture, war, and labour resources were created. These assumed governmental functions and kept strict accounts of income and disbursement. So effective were the reforms that in the following dynasty, in spite of weak rulers, the central government under the viziers continued to function effectively for over a century.
Sesostris III’s second great achievement was his overhaul and extension of Egypt’s Nubian possessions. Probably responding to the growing strength of the native Nubian polities of the region, the king conducted four campaigns in which he quelled the nomads and extended the frontier to the southern end of the Second Nile Cataract. He then added to a network of forts within signaling distance of one another, extending from the northern fort at Buhen at the Second Nile Cataract to the new frontier at Semna, where both river traffic and nomads in the desert were screened and observed. Nile inundation heights also were recorded at the forts, giving valuable advance notice to Egypt proper.
Before his first Nubian campaign in year 8 of his reign, Sesostris cut a canal through the First Nile Cataract at Elephantine, thus easing the passage of both military and commercial shipping. Probably after his Nubian campaigns, Sesostris conducted a minor foray into Palestine, defeating a place that may be Shechem. Inscriptions of the king’s officials reveal that miners were busy at Sinai and at several places in Nubia. The king built his pyramid at Dahshūr near that of Amenemhet II but incorporated the innovations of the tomb of Sesostris II.
It was partly the exploits of this king, partly those of his two like-named predecessors, and also the deeds of Ramses II of the 19th dynasty (1292–1190 bce) that came to figure in the legend of Sesostris that Herodotus recorded. Sesostris III’s memory long outlived him, for he became the patron deity of Egyptian Nubia. Ramses II accounted for the Asiatic conquests of the legend, and the rest was heroic elaboration.
What made you want to look up "Sesostris III"? Please share what surprised you most... | <urn:uuid:c237532e-97c5-468d-8ab5-4eb7bbf4b328> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/536083/Sesostris-III | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966112 | 707 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Scientists teach brainy bees a lesson
Bee Photo: iStockphoto
Despite having a brain the size of a pinhead, bees can be taught to make simultaneous decisions, according to new research which suggests that machines might one day be engineered to do the same.
The joint Australian and French research involved teaching honeybees to distinguish between concepts such as left and right or up and down to reap a reward. Depending on the signage at the end of the maze, bees were either penalised with bitter tasting quinine solution or rewarded with a sweet sucrose syrup.
Study author Adrian Dyer, from RMIT, said the findings of the three-year project established the bees' learning capability.
The insects - which have brains containing just a million neurons - were then able to apply the concepts when making an on-the-spot decision as to which of the solutions on offer would probably be the sweet stuff. ''It is certainly time to reconsider what a brain is and what a brain is capable of,'' Dr Dyer said. ''A bee brain can do very complex rule-learning type tasks.''
Research team lead author Aurore Avargues-Weber, from Universite de Toulouse, trained the honeybees individually over 30 trials.
Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the research establishes that simultaneous decision-making is not limited to the complex primate brain and that bees are able to learn multiple rules.
The bee brain - which is about 0.01 per cent the size of a human brain - contains fewer neurons than a human retina. But it is capable of complex processes such as rule learning, which is a more creative way of solving novel problems.
Dr Dyer said the findings had the potential to be applied to artificial intelligence, including machines such as drones.
''[Brains] are very plastic and they use previous experience to solve novel problems,'' he said. | <urn:uuid:9980e9f5-738d-4e59-9ce7-cab3a6e92de4> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.canberratimes.com.au/national/scientists-teach-brainy-bees-a-lesson-20120509-1ydfl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95988 | 390 | 3.859375 | 4 |
The Creation Wiki is now operating on a new and improved server.
The woodpecker tongue couldn't have evolved (Talk.Origins)
From CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science
The unique arrangement of the woodpecker's tongue could not have evolved. If the tongue started anchored to the back of the beak, it would require a large sudden change to get to its present configuration.
(Talk Origins quotes in blue)
1. The woodpecker's tongue (and hyoid apparatus, a rigid cartilage and bone skeleton of the tongue) are unusually long. However, they are simply an elongation of the same basic anatomy found in all birds. Like other birds, the main attachments are to the mandible, the cartilage of the throat, and the base of the skull. All that is required for the woodpecker's tongue to evolve is for it to grow longer, which could easily happen gradually.
The creationist claim stems from a mistaken understanding of the tongue anatomy. Creationists think the tongue is anchored in the nostril and grows backwards out of it. Although the back of the tongue in some species is long enough to extend to the nasal cavity, it is not anchored there.
Talk.Origins does not cite a source, and I cannot find anyplace where it is claimed that the woodpecker's tongue is anchored to the back of its nostril. | <urn:uuid:9daf19da-2ed3-4144-97d3-458fb0a03a05> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.creationwiki.org/(Talk.Origins)_The_woodpecker_tongue_couldn't_have_evolved | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950916 | 287 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Part of Unit: Beginning and Advanced Projects
Lesson Plan Overview / Details
This is a very simple project that can be made in a week but is unique looking and relatively inexpensive. It can be made with a mixture of hardwoods including exotic woods that really make it stand out. A clock mechanism and hands are required.
One week project
- 5 Class periods
- 1 Week
California Career and Technical Education Standards
- BTC.A.A1.2 Understand calculation procedures for materials and production requirements for ...
- BTC.A.A4.1 Understand the proper and safe use of stationary power tools used in the milling...
- BTC.A.A6.1 Know the safety rules in the cabinetmaking work environment.
- BTC.FS.5.1 Apply appropriate problem-solving strategies and critical thinking skills to wor...
California Academic Content Standards (Reinforced)
Objectives and Goals
- Students will demonstrate safe practices in using hand tools, portable tools and machine tools in the processing of material to produce this project.
- The goal of this project is to introduce students to everyday objects that can be turned into a work of art.
Activities in this Lesson
- What time is it? - Hooks / Set
Show students the difference between standard office supply clocks that are used in schools, hospitals, office buildings, etc. The simple round black and white clocks that have zero personality but do what they were design to do...tell time. Then show them examples of what is possible. Clocks that still give the correct time but are interesting to look at and beautiful.
Have students think about the personality of this clock. Ask them "if this clock was a car, what kind of car would it be?" or "if this clock was a person, what kind of person would it be?" or "if this clock was a sport, what kind of sport would it be?"
The stick clock does not require much wood so students will have more options in their materials. Show them examples of exotic woods they can use.
If you don't have exotic wood, use hardwoods or softwoods if that is all you have available.
You can purchase exotics through a company I use in Utah called Craft Supplies. They have a catalog called the Woodturner's Catalog. This company is totally dedicated to everything having to do with wood turning. They sell wood blanks that measure 1" x 1" x 12". They range in price starting around $1.50. Call them for a catalog. You can cut 4 pieces/strips/sticks if you cut them on the tablesaw. You can also cut on the bandsaw but will have more sanding to remove the cut marks.
ALSO...VERY IMPORTANT- the clock mechanism must have a 1" long shaft to extend through the 3/4" thick stack of the 6 pieces. Order hands also. Klockit is a great resource.
- Demo the Stick Clock - Demo / Modeling
Show a picture or a sample of the finished project. Explain that one type of wood may be used or a variety of different pieces can also be used to make the project.
Before going to the machines pass out a project plan for the project. (See below)
Discuss all steps and then proceed with the demo.
Process all pieces on the machines. Make one clock using only one type of wood and another using various types of wood according to the plans.
Demo how to sand the plugs on a disc sander to remove quickly, if necessary. Also demo the palm sander and hand sanding with a sanding block.
To save time during the demo, have a set of pieces sanded and ready for gluing. Demonstrate the gluing steps. (Use the handout provided to correctly align pieces for gluing.)
Demonstrate how to attach to clock mechanism to the clock.
- Stick Clock - Plans [ Download ] Picture of Stick Clock with step by step instructions
- Making the Stick Clock - Guided Practice
Make sure the students have the necessary tools available to them to make the process go smoothly.
Pre-cut 1/8" push sticks made from hardboard or melamine, These are necessary for ripping the sticks. If you are not comfortable with your students making this narrow cut you can make the cut for them.
Also have a 3/8" drill bit and a 3/8" plug cutter available near the drill press.
Have them follow the steps on the project handout.
After all pieces are cut and sanded, they can be glued together.
Follow the direction from the handout - Pattern for Gluing Stick Clock
Spray the clock with an oil finish - lacquer or polyurathane finish.
Attach the clock as demostrated by the teacher.
- Pattern for Gluing Stick Clock [ Download ] null
- Assessment Types:
- Rubrics, Projects, Observations,
Share rubric with students before they start. Discuss your expectations of their work. (see attached)
Observe students safety demonstrated thoughout their project.
Grade the overall appearance.
- Rubric_stick clock.doc [ Download ] null | <urn:uuid:05a9d173-76e7-47a3-85af-f49c8af2cc8c> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.cteonline.org/portal/default/Curriculum/Viewer/Curriculum?action=2&cmobjid=282521&view=viewer&refcmobjid=272422 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934186 | 1,077 | 3.625 | 4 |
Sutures are the stitches doctors, and especially surgeons, use to hold
skin, organs, blood vessels and all other tissues of the human body
together, after they have been severed in minor or major surgery.
Sutures are designed to help the healing of the body by closely
opposing the two sides of a wound to minimize scar formation or to
prevent leaking blood, like in vessels. They have to comply with
several requirements to be effective. They must be strong (so they do
not break), non-toxic and hypoallergenic (to avoid adverse reactions
in the body), and flexible (so they can be tied and knotted easily).
In addition, they must lack the so called "wick effect", which means
that sutures must not allow fluids to penetrate the body through them
from outside, what could easily cause infections.
Absorbable and non-absorbable sutures
Absorbable sutures are made of materials which are metabolized inside
the body after around three weeks, and then disappear. They are used
therefore in many of the inner tissues of the body. In most cases,
three weeks is sufficient for the wound to close firmly. The suture is
not needed any more, and the fact that it disappears is an advantage,
as there is no foreign material left inside the body.
Absorbable sutures were originally made of the intestines of sheep,
the so called catgut. The manufacturing process was similar to that of
natural musical strings for violins and guitars, and also of natural
strings for tennis raquets. Today, natural absorbable sutures are made
primarily of bovine intestine. However, the major part of the
absorbable sutures used are now made of synthetic fibers, like
Non-absorbable sutures are made of materials which are not metabolized
by the body, and are used therefore either on skin wound closure,
where the sutures can be removed after a few weeks, or in some inner
tissues in which absorbable sutures are not adequate. This is the
case, for example, in the heart and in blood vessels, whose rhythmic
movement requires a suture which stays longer than three weeks, to
give the wound enough time to close. Other organs, like the bladder,
contain fluids which make absorbable sutures disappear in only a few
days, too early for the wound to heal.
There are several materials used for non-absorbables sutures. The most
common is a natural fiber, the silk, which undergoes a special
manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery.
Other absorbable sutures are made of artificial fibers, like polyester
or nylon. Finally, there are also metal wires used in orthopedic
surgery because of their strength and in some other tissues because of
the metal's outstanding tolerance by the body.
Are you a doctor or a nurse?
Do you want to join the Doctors Lounge online medical community?
Participate in editorial activities (publish, peer review, edit) and
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Traumatic and atraumatic sutures
Traumatic sutures are those which are supplied to the hospital plain,
i.e., the suture thread with nothing else. The needle required to use
the suture is a separate item. The suture must be thread as it is done
when sewing at home.
Atraumatic sutures include a needle on each thread. The advantages of
having the needle mounted on the suture are several. The doctor or the
nurse do not have to spend time threading the suture on the needle.
More important, yet, is the fact that needle and thread form a single,
even body. In case of the traumatic suture, the thread comes out of
the needle's hole on both sides. When passing through the tissues,
this type of suture rips to a certain extent the tissue.
With the atraumatic sutures this does not happen. They produce no trauma to the
tissue, hence the name "atraumatic". Because of these advantages, the
atraumatic sutures are today very widely used.
There are several shapes of atraumatic needles, like straight, half
curved, one-third curved, and others. The body of the needle is
avaible also in different makes, like circular, with edge on the outer
side, with edge on the inner side, and others.
Sizes of sutures
The sutures were originally manufactured ranging from #1 to #6. (To
give an idea about these numbers, a #4 suture would be more or less
the diameter of a tennis raquet string.) The manufacturing techniques,
derived at the beginning from the production of musical strings, did
not allow thinner diameters. As the procedures improved, #0 was added
to the suture diameters, and later, thinner and thinner threads were
manufactured, which were identified as #2/0 to #6/0. This last
diameter, thinner than a human hair, was used during the last decades
primarily for eye surgery. Now, there are even thinner sutures, down
to #10/0. Atraumatic needles are manufactured in most of the shapes
for all these sizes. | <urn:uuid:2e348064-cc5f-4212-8899-f8f15a2f0851> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.doctorslounge.com/surgery/procedures/sutures.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942418 | 1,172 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Growth & Development
MONTH 15 - What's Going On This Month?
Says one or more words.
Likes to imitate activities.
Picks up object from standing position.
Adds gesture to speech.
Begins to experiment through trial and error.
Climbs stairs with assistance.
Begins to use more objects conventionally (for example, may put comb in hair).
Walks well; stoops and recovers objects from the floor.
Your toddler is gaining more independence every day.
S/he may show jealously of others who get attention especially siblings.
S/he likes to do things by him/herself and may become a little bossy and resist your suggestions.
Caring For Your Baby
Take your toddler to your baby’s doctor or nurse for a 15-month well-child checkup and shots.
Ask your doctor or nurse about when and how to toilet train your child.
To make bedtime easier, keep to a regular routine.
Between 15-18 months, your baby should get the DTaP vaccine.
Keeping Your Baby Safe
To prevent drowning, never leave your child alone in the bathroom or near a bucket of water.
Remember to cut foods into small pieces, no larger than the tip of your little finger.
The shape of food is important. To prevent choking, don’t give your toddler small round pieces of food such as candy, nuts, seeds, popcorn, raisins or raw carrots.
Your toddler should be off the bottle by now, so serve whole milk in a cup.
It’s normal for toddlers to eat less and for their appetites to change from day to day, so serve a variety of foods in small amounts, but remember your toddler may refuse to eat new foods or even favorite foods.
Growth and Development Activities
Encourage your child to repeat one- or two-word phrases that you say such as bye-bye.
Help your child make music with items such as spoons and pots.
Have your child point out objects and say words.
Teach your child the names of body parts as you bathe and dress him/her.
Let your child try to undress by him/herself.
Show your child how to use a spoon.
Show your child how to feed, love and care for a doll.
Take your child to the zoo or park and talk about what you see.
Give your child pull toys to play with while walking.
Teach your child to throw and catch a soft or light weight ball or beanbag.
Because your toddler is so busy and is often frustrated, s/he will need a lot of comfort and reassurance. S/he will need your warm voice, a hug and comfort.
Information adapted from the following Resources:
- Iowa Early ACCESS Developmental Wheel- Developed with IDEA
- Ohio Department of Health website (www.ohiohelpmegrow.org)
- Normal Development articles written by Donna Warner Manczak, Ph.D.,M.P.H. and Robert Brayden, M.D. Published by McKesson Health Solutions LLC
- Extension website – Family/Parenting resources (www.extension.org/parenting) | <urn:uuid:1ad1da12-3f8b-4e62-9e07-51f5b4f93a0a> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.earlyaccessiowa.org/growth_and_dev_month15.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927112 | 681 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Although cultures vary across the thousands of miles comprising North and South America, countries within the western hemisphere are constantly connected by sea and air creatures alike as they trek their journeys across hundreds of miles of water and terrain. From the Arctic to Antarctica, migratory species are vital ecological and economic resources shared by the nations and inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere. They are sources of food, means of livelihood and recreation, and they have important biological, cultural, and economic values for society.
Despite their great value, many migratory species are endangered in the Western Hemisphere due to overexploitation, water pollution, the alteration and destruction of their breeding and wintering habitats, illegal trade, use of pesticides and, more recently, climate change. Since migratory species do not recognize borders, the conservation of these species and their habitats and migration routes can only be achieved through joint efforts of the Western Hemisphere’s nations.
No single local organization can take on the entire responsibility of ensuring the protection and conservation of these migratory species’ homes, homes-away-from-homes, and everything in between, wildlife agency directors and other senior officials created the Western Hemisphere Migratory Species Initiative (WHMSI) to facilitate international cooperation. WHMSI is a regular forum for the conservation of migratory wildlife in the hemisphere.
Species that play a vital role in ocean life, such as the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna and the Whale Shark face lower and lower populations due to overfishing. Changing and depleted habitats threaten Costa Rica’s hummingbird, the piping plover, the cerulean warbler, and the Mexican long-tongued bat to name a few species. With their eggs in high demand to both humans and predators, the Roseate tern, loggerhead turtle and green turtle have reached endangered species status. The benefits that these animals provide for their environments abound: pest control, pollination, seed distribution, and balancing the food chains are but a few of their duties.
"I see WHMSI as a forum," said Herbert Raffaele, Chair of the Steering Committee. "It’s an opportunity for countries to collaborate internationally, and to do it in an innovative way where it maximizes impacts on the ground and minimizes the political baggage associated with international cooperation."
Raffaele said that WHMSI works because it's an agreement "in spirit," rather than being a politically-driven signed treaty.
"By using spirit to drive us rather than technical language, we are able to accomplish more and have less politics involved in our discussions," he said.
Richard Huber, Vice Chair of the WHMSI Steering Committee and the Division Chief of Biodiversity and Land Management at the Organization of American States, said that the strength of WHMSI is that it ties together 34 member states of the Organization of American States under the common objective of protecting migratory species and their habitats.
“It’s all about collaboration and coordination when you want to get things done,” Huber said.
WHMSI aims to expand awareness and political support throughout the hemisphere through helping countries conserve and manage migratory wildlife, improving communication on common conservation issues and informed decision making, and providing a forum for identifying and discussing emerging issues.
WHMSI’s unique interim steering committee, made up of representatives from governments, non-governmental organizations and interested international treaties and conventions includes representatives from:
- American Bird Conservancy
- Birdlife InternationalColombia
- Convention on Migratory Species
- Costa Rica
- Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea TurtlesOrganization of American States
- Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife of the Wider Caribbean
- Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
- Saint Lucia
- the United States (Chair)
- Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network
- The World Wildlife Fund
In 2003, wildlife agency directors and other senior officials of the western hemisphere met in Chile to develop a cooperative measure geared towards the conservation of shared migratory species, creating an interim committee to guide such efforts and defining the following priorities:
- Aiding in the building of countries’ capacities to conserve and manage migratory wildlife;
- Improving communication within the hemisphere with regards to common conservation issues;
- Strengthening the exchange of information needed for informed decision-making; and
- Providing a forum in which emerging issues can be identified and addressed.
WHMSI thereby defined its broader function as a non-prescriptive facilitator of cooperation among both governmental and non-governmental interests focused on migratory species conservation matters of broad common interest.
In 2006, WHMSI held its second meeting in Costa Rica in order to identify partnerships to better aid countries in their training and conservation efforts. Representatives from 30 countries, and 60 non-governmental organizations and international conventions identified and prioritized their training needs, which were then integrated into a comprehensive plan aiming to train wildlife decision-makers, government officials, and managers under the WHMSI framework.
In 2008, the Paraguayan Ministries of Environment and Tourism hosted the third Western Hemisphere Migratory Species Conference in Asuncion, Paraguay. Government wildlife officials and non-governmental organizations’ and conventions’ representatives gathered to engage in international dialogue and cooperation on migratory species. The Conference established an updated list of activities since the first conference, took further steps towards establishing a permanent forum for the conservation of migratory wildlife, and conducted thematic sessions of interest to the region, including issues such as adaptation to climate change, marine turtle conservation, and migratory birds conservation.
In 2010, Miami hosted the fourth WHMSI meeting, with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Organization of American States acting as co-sponsors. Representatives from 30 countries, 20 nongovernmental organizations, four Conventions and the OAS attended. The Conference sought to:
1) Take further steps towards establishing a permanent forum for the hemispheric conservation of migratory wildlife, both terrestrial and marine;
2) Explore regional and sub-regional collaboration regarding migratory species conservation initiatives;
3) Update activities since the 2008 conference in Paraguay; and
4) Set a direction for the future and the sustainability of WHMSI.
A number of important goals were accomplished at the Conference including the adoption in principle of the document, "Western Hemisphere Migaratory Species Initiative Purpose and Organization." This document provides a framework and guidance for WHMSI, including its vision, mission, guiding principles, objectives, and implementation.
Another important result of the Conference included the selection of a WHMSI Steering Committee. Following guidance from the newly approved Purpose and Organization document, the Steering Committee is composed of a cross-section of partner representation including six governments of the Hemisphere, ten representatives of civil society, and two representatives from Conventions and hemispheric or sub-regional governmental bodies, all focused on migratory species and their habitats. | <urn:uuid:988a0c49-ffa1-4a82-9e03-0a305e6a15c0> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.fws.gov/international/wildlife-without-borders/western-hemisphere-migratory-species-initiative.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928088 | 1,436 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Imidacloprid is an insecticide derived from toxins found in tobacco plants. It is applied to plants as a soil granule, sprayed onto foliage or allowed to be absorbed by plant roots. It is a systemic chemical, meaning its active ingredients are absorbed and flow to all parts of the plant via the vascular system. Thus, plants with saps and tissues full of imidacloprid later develop new leaves, stems or flower tissues and seeds that also contain the chemical.
Imidacloprid (im-ah-dah-CLOE-prid) is rarely sold by its name simple because it is difficult to pronounce and market. Often manufacturers will use this chemical as the active ingredient in a white powder, concentrated liquid or tan crystal granule form and assign it a marketable, easily recognized product or trademark name. Examples include Merit, Marathon, Imicide, Grub-ex, Admire, Condifor, Gaucho, Premier, Premise and Provado, as well as Bayer Advanced. Examining the product label will reveal the active ingredient and show what percentage or dosage is in the product by volume or weight.
Effect of Imidacloprid on Insects
Imidacloprid works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in an insect's nervous system. Once a bug ingests, inhales or merely comes in contact with residue of the chemical, it experiences a paralysis of the mouth parts, which leads to starvation.
Implications on Other Garden Wildlife
Since imidacloprid is absorbed by the plant and is distributed to all plant parts, the chemical remains in tissues for several weeks or months, depending on how fast the plant grows. Imidacloprid is highly toxic to all types of bees, which can severely and negatively affect pollination of crops if fruits or seeds are desired. While this chemical is generally not toxic to fish or any other warm-blooded animal, ingestion of plant leaves or stems with the chemical can result in stomach upset. The effect depends on the size of the animal and the concentration of chemical in the amount of plant materials consumed.
Regardless of the physical form in which imidacloprid insecticide is purchased and subsequently applied in the garden, its effects and absorption on plants is widespread. Any foliage or roots exposed to the chemical will absorb it, making targeting application to plants ideal. In the garden, plant roots extend far from the plant's base, and a complex interwoven matrix of roots from flowers, shrubs and distant trees may all be located in the area treated with imidacloprid. Strive to use the chemical on the plant needing the chemical to minimize any effects on other healthy plants. Ideally, you don't want any human-edible plants absorbing imidacloprid. For example, don't use imidacloprid on a flowering plant that is immediately next to your tomatoes, apple tree, lettuce or sweet corn.
Once applied to a plant, the chemical takes time to be absorbed and then move throughout the tissues of the insect-ridden plant. Thus, no effect on bugs may be seen for days or weeks. Once the chemical reaches flower buds, leaves and new stem tips, numbers of insect pests will markedly decrease and then cease. Depending on the size of a plant, imidacloprid persists for many weeks or months, providing some form of insecticide level in the plant. Read product label for specifics on duration in different soils and plant types, such as woody trees and palms, in comparison to smaller plants like turf grasses or annual flowers and small shrubs. | <urn:uuid:f94eaeae-1564-4336-a1c9-16ebc9c182b7> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.gardenguides.com/122970-imidacloprid-garden-insecticide.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931655 | 734 | 3.5 | 4 |
Nitrates/Nitrites and Your Health
Nitrates and nitrites are nitrogen-oxygen molecules which can combine with various organic and inorganic compounds. Nitrate is the form commonly found in water, often in areas where nitrogen-based fertilizers are used. Vegetables, food, and meat are the major sources of nitrate exposure. The greatest use of nitrates is as a fertilizer. Nitrate and nitrite originate in drinking water from nitrate-containing fertilizers, sewage and septic tanks, and decaying natural material such as animal waste. Nitrate is very soluble in water, can easily migrate, and does not bind to soils. Nitrates/nitrites are likely to remain in water until consumed by plants or other organisms.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set levels of 10 mg/L for total nitrate and nitrite, 10 mg/L nitrate, and 1 mg/L nitrite as drinking water standards. Infants under the age of 6 months who drink water containing more than 1 mg/L nitrite, or 10 mg/L nitrate, could become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die. In the body, nitrate converts to nitrite. Nitrite interferes with the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. Symptoms, such as shortness of breath and blueness of the skin, can occur rapidly over a period of days.
Exposure and Risk
The risks of excessive levels of nitrates apply to infants:
- short-term: Excessive levels of nitrate in drinking water have caused serious illness and sometimes death. The serious illness in infants is due to the conversion of nitrate to nitrite by the body, which can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity of the child’s blood. This can be an acute condition in which health deteriorates rapidly over a period of days. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blueness of the skin.
- long-term: Researchers continue to explore if there are associations with long-term exposures to nitrates, including adverse reproductive effects and some cancers. The studies are not conclusive at this time, and health standards are focused on protecting infants.
Reduce Your Risk
Nitrate is monitored once a year during the quarter that previously had the highest nitrate result. If a water system's samples are less than 0.5 mg/L nitrite, the state specifies the frequency of additional monitoring. Initially, a water system samples quarterly for at least a year. The following treatment methods have been approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for removing nitrates/nitrites:
- ion exchange,
- reverse osmosis, and
If the levels of nitrates/nitrites exceed their Maximum Contaminant Levels, the system must notify the public via newspapers, radio, TV, and other means. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.
NH EPHT is tracking the following data about nitrates in public drinking water. Data about nitrates in public drinking water are available on the Environmental Health Data Integration Network EHDIN.
For more information on nitrates and nitrites:
Adobe Acrobat Reader format. You can download a free reader from Adobe. | <urn:uuid:0ba6cf65-d9ad-414e-ae7f-f85854c14db1> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.nh.gov/epht/topics/nitrates.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938166 | 674 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that makes it hard to:
Schizophrenia is a complex illness. Mental health experts are not sure what causes it. However, genes may play a role.
Schizophrenia affects both men and women equally. It usually begins in the teen years or young adulthood, but it may begin later in life. It tends to begin later in women, and is more mild.
Childhood-onset schizophrenia begins after age 5. Childhood schizophrenia is rare and can be hard to tell apart from other developmental problems in childhood, such as autism.
Schizophrenia symptoms usually develop slowly over months or years. Sometimes you may have many symptoms, and at other times you may only have a few symptoms.
People with any type of schizophrenia may have trouble keeping friends and working. They may also have problems with anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts or behaviors.
At first, you may have the following symptoms:
As the illness continues, you may have problems with thinking, emotions, and behavior, including:
Symptoms depend on the type of schizophrenia you have.
Paranoid schizophrenia symptoms may include:
Disorganized schizophrenia symptoms may include:
Catatonic schizophrenia symptoms may include:
Undifferentiated schizophrenia may include symptoms of more than one other type of schizophrenia.
There are no medical tests to diagnose schizophrenia. A psychiatrist should examine you to make the diagnosis. The diagnosis is made based on an interview of you and your family members.
The health care provider will ask questions about:
Brain scans (such as CT or MRI) and blood tests may help rule out other conditions that have similar symptoms.
During an episode of schizophrenia, you may need to stay in the hospital for safety reasons.
Antipsychotic medications are the most effective treatment for schizophrenia. They change the balance of chemicals in the brain and can help control symptoms.
These medications are usually helpful, but they can cause side effects. Many side effects can be managed, and they should not prevent you from seeking treatment for this serious condition.
Common side effects from antipsychotics may include:
Long-term use of antipsychotic medications may increase your risk for a movement disorder called tardive dyskinesia. This condition causes repeated movements that you cannot control, especially around the mouth. Call your health care provider right away if you think you may have this condition.
When schizophrenia does not improve with several antipsychotics, the medication clozapine can be helpful. Clozapine is the most effective medication for reducing schizophrenia symptoms, but it also tends to cause more side effects than other antipsychotics.
Schizophrenia is a life-long illness. Most people with this condition need to stay on antipsychotic medication for life.
SUPPORT PROGRAMS AND THERAPIES
Supportive therapy may be helpful for many people with schizophrenia. Behavioral techniques, such as social skills training, can be used to improve social and work functioning. Job training and relationship-building classes are important.
Family members of a person with schizophrenia should be educated about the disease and offered support. Programs that offer outreach and community support services can help people who lack family and social support.
Family members and caregivers are often encouraged to help people with schizophrenia stay with their treatment.
It is important that the person with schizophrenia learns how to:
The outlook with schizophrenia is hard to predict. Most of the time, symptoms improve with medication. However, some people may have trouble functioning and are at risk for repeated episodes, especially during the early stages of the illness.
People with schizophrenia may need housing, job training, and other community support programs. People with the most severe forms of this disorder may not be able to live alone. They may need to live in group homes or other long-term, structured residences.
Symptoms will return if you do not take your medication.
Having schizophrenia increases your risk for:
Call your health care provider if:
There is no known way to prevent schizophrenia.
You can prevent symptoms by taking your medication exactly as your doctor told you to. Symptoms will return if you stop taking your medication.
Always talk to your doctor if you are thinking about changing or stopping your medications. See your doctor or therapist regularly.
Freudenreich O, Weiss AP, Goff DC. Psychosis and schizophrenia. In: Stern TA, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M, Biederman J, Rauch SL, eds. Massachusetts General Hospital Comprehensive Clinical Psychiatry. 1st ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier;2008:chap 28.
Lyness JM. Psychiatric disorders in medical practice. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 404.
Updated by: Linda J. Vorvick, MD, Medical Director and Director of Didactic Curriculum, MEDEX Northwest Division of Physician Assistant Studies, Department of Family Medicine, UW Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington; Timothy Rogge, MD, Medical Director, Family Medical Psychiatry Center, Kirkland, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed physician should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Copyright 1997-2013, A.D.A.M., Inc. Duplication for commercial use must be authorized in writing by ADAM Health Solutions. | <urn:uuid:765aff38-d69e-4f9d-85e4-e30c601b0181> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000928.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929317 | 1,184 | 3.859375 | 4 |
|OddMix TECHNOLOGY - TELEPHONE|
Simple telephone circuits beginning design evolution variations
One of the most successful technical inventions of relatively recent times was the telephone. Prior to that, the telegraph was the only way to move information relatively fast. Faster then smoke signals or drum beats anyway. Many children know it for a long time that connecting two empty tin containers with a string would make a passable telephone Figure 1. Old ships used to be outfitted with lovely copper or brass piping to serve channeling the sound waves from the bridge to the engine room and to possible other places as needed.
|Figure 1. String Phone|
Sound waves travel a long way in the air, but as the distance increases, the wave intensity (sound pressure) decreases with the square of the distance. If the sound is confined and forced to move in a closed pipe, it can travel longer distances. Interestingly - to my knowledge - there was never any piped telephone service between villages or cities. Perhaps the ancients had problem producing enough pipes. We know that the Romans made lots of lead pipes and used them as underground conduit for their aqueducts when a deep valley was in their way.
|Figure 2. Two Headset Bell Telephone|
For a sound to move longer distances, the sound wave needed to be converted to another type. Figure 2 shows a simplified, but usable form of the Bell telephone. Actually the original Bell telephone as invented used two headphone pieces connected together with a length of wire. Our circuit uses tow identical speakers to achieve similar results. The sound moves the membrane of the speaker and when the attached voice coil moves in the surrounding magnetic field induces electrical voltages. The voltages travel along the wires to the other speaker and the fluctuating voltage moves the membrane thus reproducing the first speaker membrane's movements. This type of telephone is useable for longer distances, but after awhile the voice gets too low.
|Figure 3. Carbon Microphone Telephone|
Figure 3 shows a similar arrangement to Figure 2. The major difference that the left side speaker is changed to a carbon microphone and a voltage source is added to the circuit. When a sound wave move the diaphragm of the microphone, the pressure change compresses the carbon granules within. As the carbon gets more or less pressure, their resistance varies accordingly. The resulting varied current moves the speaker's voice coil. There is amplification in that circuit resulting in clearer, stronger sound that can be carry to longer distances. The amount of amplification is a function of the microphone, the voltage of the battery and the resistance and construction of the speaker. | <urn:uuid:361aba2b-2144-42ba-b5e7-7fb9782a73d9> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.oddmix.com/tech/tel_telephone_beginning.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927636 | 533 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Light from the most distant quasar yet seen reveals details about the chemistry of the early universe.
CREDIT: ESO/M. Kornmesser Enlarge
Astronomy changed forever 50 years ago this week, when scientists first began to understand the true nature of quasars, the brightest objects in the universe.
On March 16, 1963, Dutch-born astronomer Maarten Schmidt published the first-ever definitive measurement of the distance to aquasar, finding that a puzzling object called 3C 273 lies about 2.5 billion light-years from Earth.
The stunning discovery showed that 3C 273's inherent luminosity must be off the charts for it to appear so bright despite its immense distance. The object was no star, despite the starlike characteristics of its light emissions. ("Quasar" is short for "quasi-stellar radio source.")
Over time, astronomers figured out that quasars actually shine from the cores of galaxies, blazing forth when the supermassive black holes that lurk there gobble up huge quantities of gas, dust and other matter. Still, there remain many mysteries about quasars that researchers have yet to solve.
SPACE.com caught up with Schmidt, now a professor emeritus at Caltech in Pasadena, this week to discuss quasars, how they have improved our understanding of the universe and how he feels on the cusp of this big anniversary:
SPACE.com: So how does it feel now, 50 years after making that seminal discovery?
Maarten Schmidt: Besides the fact that I'm 50 years older (laughs)? It's somewhat hard to believe.
Quasars have had a major effect on astronomy, because they introduced black holes in astronomy. And of course they are objects that are so immensely bright you can see them all over the universe. [The History & Structure of the Universe (Infographic)]
SPACE.com: Are the memories of the discovery still vivid in your mind?
More of the story, click image | <urn:uuid:70864e4b-128d-4937-8088-761b045dbdd4> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.ok4me2.net/2013/03/16/50-year-cosmic-mystery-10-quasar-questions-for-discoverer-maarten-schmidt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906218 | 411 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Brunsvigia orientalis is one of the exciting surprises experienced
in the late summer, when little else is flowering. The emergence
of large pinkish 'eggs' suddenly pushing their way above ground,
and then very quickly elongating and becoming topped with spectacular
red spherical flowerheads is a sight to behold! What makes them
even more surprising is that they pop up out of the bare ground,
normally without a leaf in sight!
A large bulbous perennial from which flowers emerge between February
and March. The flowerhead forms a huge sphere, up to 600 mm in diameter,
with between 20 to 80 flowers. These are large, 6-tepalled, pink
to red and are soon followed by the 3-sided seed capsules.
The leaves appear from about May, after the flowerhead has dried
and broken off. There are generally 6 large tongue-shaped leaves
spread flat on the ground. The margins are often fringed. Leaves
start to die down from about October and the bulb lies dormant during
These plants occur on sandy lowland coastal areas from southern
Namaqualand to the Cape Peninsula and Plettenberg Bay.
Derivation of name and historical aspects
The genus Brunsvigia honours the House of Brunswick.
The common name kandelaarblom was first noted in about 1750.
Many of the common names refer to the candelabra-like inflorescence
and have been extended to several other species in the family with
a similar appearance.
Some of the names refer to flowering time, while others such as
rolbossie and perdespookbossie refer to the inflorescence
which tumbles (rol) along and which may spook horses (perde) in
Apparently if you stared long enough at the flower you got sore
eyes, hence the name sore-eye flower! A more likely explanation
is that pollen in the eyes would account for the irritation. Hesse
reported that the very first kandelaarsbloem to flower in
Europe was in the Academy Garden of Helmstad, but no date is given.
The candelabra flower, like many other amaryllids, has adapted to
the dry period of the year by resting underground in the form of
a large bulb. In the Western Cape the dry season is summer. All
above-ground parts dry out during this time to help prevent moisture
loss through transpiration. Just before the rainy season is due
to start the huge flowerhead appears.
Birds, including sunbirds, are the chief pollinators. They perch
on the sturdy flower stems, receiving a reward of nectar for their
the seed begins to develop the flower stalks elongate and the inflorescence
dries out. The dry flower stalks snap off and the wind sends the
spherical heads tumbling along. The tips of the inflorescence containing
the seeds break off, so spreading them. They are fleshy, with a
very short viability period, and germinate immediately. Seeds may
even germinate while still on the flowerhead. This strategy allows
the seedling a full rainy season to develop sufficiently to withstand
its first dry period underground.
Leaves usually appear well after the flowers. Because both the
inflorescence and the leaves lose relatively large amounts of moisture,
this adaptation prevents large quantities of moisture being lost
at any one time, reducing stress on the plants.
Growing Brunsvigia orientalis
Sow Brunsvigia seeds in deep seed trays as soon as possible after
harvesting in a very well-drained, sandy medium to which some fine
compost is added. Press lightly into the soil, so that the top of
the seed remains visible. Water well once and then again only after
the first leaves appear. After that, water well once every two to
three weeks. When the leaves begin to yellow, withhold watering
altogether. Judicious watering starts again when the leaves reappear
after the dormant period. Leave young plants in seed trays for at
least two years before potting up individually into large deep pots
about 30 cm in diameter. Select pots which will hold the mature
plants as they don't enjoy being disturbed again.
If planting into open ground, select a really well-drained position
which only receives natural rains and is not influenced by artificial
watering systems. This is truly a waterwise plant! Also select a
spot where the flowerheads can develop to their full size and be
appreciated without being smothered or hidden by other plants.
Away from the winter rainfall region it would be best to treat
this plant as a pot subject, so that watering can be carefully controlled.
Amaryllids can also be grown from offsets or from scales. Two publications
in the Kirstenbosch Gardening Series, Grow bulbs and Grow nerines,
both by Graham Duncan of the National Botanical Institute, have
further valuable propagation information.
Pests and diseases: These plants have a toxic principle
which prevents them from being eaten by moles and mole rats which
tend to be the scourge of many other bulbous plants planted out
in the garden. They suffer very few other problems.
- SMITH, C.A. 1966. Common names of South African plants. Memoirs
of the Botanical Survey of South Africa No. 35. The Government
- ADAMSON, R.S. & SALTER, T.A. (eds). 1950. Flora of the
Cape Peninsula. Juta, Cape Town and Johannesburg.
- MANNING, J. & GOLDBLATT, P. 2000. Wild flowers of the
fairest Cape. Red Roof Design in association with the National
Botanical Institute, Cape Town.
- RICE, E.G. & COMPTON, R.H. 1950. Wild flowers of the
Cape of Good Hope. The Botanical Society of SA, Cape Town.
- PAUW, A. & JOHNSON, S. 1999. Table Mountain: a natural
history. Fernwood Press.
- DUNCAN, G.D. 2000. Grow bulbs. Kirstenbosch Gardening Series,
National Botanical Institute, Cape Town.
- DUNCAN, G.D. 2002. Grow nerines. Kirstenbosch Gardening Series,
National Botanical Institute, Cape Town.
Harold Porter National Botanical Garden | <urn:uuid:8a0a4abf-5961-4a27-b60c-23b0bae5f731> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/brunswigorient.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917762 | 1,372 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Also known as a Class Method.
A code routine that belongs to the class or an object instance (an instance of the class). Methods that belong to the class are called class methods or static methods. Methods that belong to an object instance are called instance methods, or simply methods.
When a method returns a value, it is a function method. When no value is returned (or void), it is a procedure method.
Methods frequently use method parameters to transfer data. When one object instance calls another object instance using a method with parameters, you call that messaging.
Access VBA Member Method
Access VBA uses the keywords sub and function. A sub does not return a value and a function does. Many programmers like to use the optional call keyword when calling a sub to indicate the call is to a procedure. | <urn:uuid:279cd0cf-95c2-437e-a0c2-05dcc378111f> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.prestwood.com/ASPSuite/KB/Document_View.asp?QID=101750 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.843484 | 166 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Meta-ethicsIn Philosophy, Ethics is commonly divided into two branches, normative ethics and meta-ethics. Normative ethics addresses questions such as "What actions are good and bad?" and "What should we do?" Thus, a theory of normative ethics will endorse some ethical evaluations. Meta-ethics, on the other hand, seeks to understand the nature of ethical evaluations. Thus, examples of meta-ethical questions include: * What does it mean to say something is "good"? * How, if at all, do we know what is right and wrong? * How do moral attitudes motivate action? * Are there objective values? A meta-ethical theory, unlike a normative ethical theory, does not contain any ethical evaluations (notice that an answer to any of the above four questions would not itself be an ethical statement). In the last century, the field of meta-ethics has been dominated by five kinds of theories: 1. Ethical intuitionism, which holds that there are objective, irreducible moral properties (such as the property of 'goodness'), and that we sometimes have intuitive awareness of moral properties or of moral truths. 2. Ethical naturalism, which holds that there are objective moral properties, but that these properties are reducible. Most ethical naturalists hold that we have empirical knowledge of moral truths. Several have argued that moral knowledge can be gained by the same means as scientific knowledge. 3. Ethical subjectivism, which holds that moral statements are made true or false by the attitudes and/or conventions of observers. An example of this is the view that for a thing to be morally right is just for it to be approved of by society; this leads to the view that different things are right in different societies. 4. Non-cognitivism, which holds that ethical sentences are neither true nor false because they do not assert genuine propositions. Some have held that ethical sentences such as "Stealing is wrong" are merely expressions of emotion; others have argued that they are more like imperatives. 5. Moral skepticism, which holds that ethical sentences are generally false. Moral skeptics hold that there are no objective values, but that the claim that there are objective values is part of the meaning of ordinary ethical sentences; that is why, in their view, ethical sentences are false. | <urn:uuid:9e78fbeb-d73c-41ad-81ca-964c3cedf56e> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.public-domain-content.com/encyclopedia/Philosophy/Meta-ethics.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957762 | 469 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Supreme Court Opinions
As the Supreme Court recessed for the summer on June 2, 1941, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes announced his intention to retire. On June 12th, President Roosevelt nominated Associate Justice Harlan Fiske Stone to succeed Hughes as Chief Justice of the United States and Attorney General Jackson to succeed Stone as Associate Justice. Jackson's nomination was confirmed by the Senate on July 7, 1941. On July 11, Jackson took the judicial oath at the White House and received his commission as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.
Justice Jackson served on the Supreme Court for more than thirteen Terms, from his appointment in 1941 until his sudden death just after the start of the Court's new Term in October 1954. Justice Jackson was absent for the Court's entire October Term 1945, which was the year he spent as the American Chief of Counsel prosecuting the principal Nazi leaders before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
As a Supreme Court Justice, Jackson quickly became known for his independent judging and his eloquent written opinions. His opinions are hard to pigeonhole because, unlike some of his colleagues on the Court, he did not vote reflexively for either individual litigants claiming that their protected liberties had been violated or for government officials claiming legal power to act in various ways. Justice Jackson's votes and opinions explain and defend, in varying contexts, both the constitutional rights of individuals and the constitutional powers of national and state governments. He was keenly attentive to the facts of each case and brought a practical wisdom, clearly expressed, to each decision in which he wrote for the Court or himself. Justice Jackson, unlike some other Justices, did virtually all of his own opinion-drafting. His acclaimed opinions and rhetorical gems thus truly reflect his own efforts and skills. | <urn:uuid:e4213b6a-670c-4a72-8b8e-84ed47f91d97> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.roberthjackson.org/the-man/supreme-court/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986215 | 358 | 3.609375 | 4 |
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Problem 1 of 10
Click on the license plate with matching numbers:
Scroll down for hints and rules.
Hint: Try adding the digits of the second number and multiplying the digits of the first number.
Rules: The two numbers on the license plate match if adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing the digits of one of the numbers is equal to adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing the digits of the other number. Also they match if the product or sum of the digits of one number equals the other number. Finally they also match if the product of one of the numbers by an integer equals the other number. | <urn:uuid:e68809e1-538e-437d-a270-fac0ad6c5001> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/cp1.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.751699 | 155 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Ancient Hebrew Cosmology
The preceding description of the world doesn't share the same scientific view that we have, in which the Earth is one planet around one sun in a universe full of suns and planets. The ancient picture of the universe portrays a world in which the Earth is a disc surrounded by water not only on the sides, but underneath and above as well. A firm bowl (the firmament) keeps the upper waters back but has gates to let the rain and snow through. The Sun, Moon, and stars move in fixed tracks along the underside of this bowl. From below the disc, the waters break through as wells, rivers and the ocean, but the Earth stands firm on pillars sunk into the waters like the pillings of a pier. Deep below the Earth is Sheol, the abode of the dead, which can be entered only through the grave.
As portrayed in the illustration, the biblical cosmos consisted of three basic regions: the heavens, the land, and the underworld. In conclusion, by understanding how biblical writers viewed the cosmos, readers are in a better position to properly interpret the Creation, the Flood, and other biblical stories, and to place them in their proper context. The Bible is not a book of science. It was written in a pre-scientific era and its main purpose was to communicate moral and spiritual lessons. The Children of Israel had no advantage over their neighbors when it came to matters of science. In fact, this erroneous concept of the cosmos was quite common for that era. The Hebrews were inspired by nothing more than their political and religious motivations. Thus, being ignorant of scientific facts, they thought the earth was flat, that sick people were possessed by demons, and that essentially everything was caused by either gods or demons. Unfortunately, many people are still just as ignorant today.
All Christian sects recognize the Bible as the primary source of revelation. This compiled material was allegedly inspired by God and written by chosen authors to reveal him and his will to man. The Bible, then, is the foundation of the Christian religion. To Christian fundamentalists who believe in verbal inspiration, the Bible is an infallible foundation. They claim that "the Holy Spirit so dominated and guided the minds and pens of those who wrote (the Bible) as to make their writings free from mistakes of any and all kinds, whether it be mistakes of history or chronology or botany or biology or astronomy, or mistakes as to moral and spiritual truth pertaining to God or man, in time or eternity," (Wilbur F. Tillett, "The Divine Elements in the Bible," The Abingdon Bible Commentary).
© Copyright 2009 Michael Paukner. All Rights Reserved.
view on flickr! | purchase your poster! | <urn:uuid:3859b7f7-de17-430f-8f8a-0460f1d7cd23> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.substudio.com/306167/Ancient-Hebrew-Cosmology | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972038 | 556 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Unprecedented 5 degree heating of part of Arctic Ocean due to global warmingDecember 13th, 2007 - 4:32 pm ICT by admin
Washington, Dec 13 (ANI): A new research has indicated that sea surface temperatures in one section of the Arctic Ocean have risen up to 5 degree Celsius above average, due to the effects of global warming.
A major reason for this increase in temperature in the particular area of the Arctic Ocean is the record-breaking amounts of ice-free water, which has deprived the Arctic of more of its natural sunscreen than ever in recent summers.
Such superwarming of surface waters can affect how thick ice grows back in the winter, as well as its ability to withstand melting the next summer, said Michael Steele, an oceanographer with the University of Washington’s Applied Physics Laboratory.
The extra ocean warming also might be contributing to some changes on land, such as previously unseen plant growth in the coastal Arctic tundra, if heat coming off the ocean during freeze-up is making its way over land, adds Steele.
According to the research, warming is particularly pronounced since 1995, and especially since 2000. The spot where waters were 5 Celsius above average was in the region just north of the Chakchi Sea. The historical average temperature there is -1 C.
But this year, water in that area warmed to 4 C, for a 5-degree change from the average.
That general area, the part of the ocean north of Alaska and Eastern Siberia that includes the Bering Strait and Chukchi Sea, experienced the greatest summer warming.
Temperatures for that region were generally 3.5 C warmer than historical averages and 1.5 C warmer than the historical maximum.
Such widespread warming in those areas and elsewhere in the Arctic is probably the result of having increasing amounts of open water in the summer that readily absorb the sun’s rays, said Steele.
The warming also may be partly caused by increasing amounts of warmer water coming from the Pacific Ocean, something scientists have noted in recent years.
The Arctic was primed for more open water since the early 1990s as the sea-ice cover has thinned, due to a warming atmosphere and more frequent strong winds sweeping ice out of the Arctic Ocean via Fram Strait into the Atlantic Ocean where the ice melts.
Now the situation could be self-perpetuating, said Steele.
For example, he calculates that having more heat in surface waters in recent years means 23 to 30 inches less ice will grow in the winter than formed in 1965. Since sea ice typically grows about 80 inches in a winter, that is a significant fraction of ice that’s going missing, he says.
Then too, higher sea surface temperatures can delay the start of freeze-up because the extra heat must be discharged from the upper ocean before ice can form.
“The effect on net winter growth would probably be negligible for a delay of several weeks, but could be substantial for delays of several months,” said the authors. (ANI)
Tags: applied physics, arctic tundra, average temperature, bering strait, chukchi sea, degree celsius, degree change, degree heating, eastern siberia, effects of global warming, free water, michael steele, natural sunscreen, ocean north, oceanographer, part of arctic ocean, physics laboratory, s rays, sea surface temperatures, thick ice | <urn:uuid:bf1551b0-9b2f-4d51-8178-d5059262ee5a> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/unprecedented-5-degree-heating-of-part-of-arctic-ocean-due-to-global-warming_1008747.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943802 | 698 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Ivy, Tradition and Slavery
Then there are the great Southern universities, which were founded by slaveholders and that sought to justify slavery: the University of Virginia (founded by Jefferson); Washington and Lee (named after two slaveholders, one of whom was a leader of the war to maintain slavery); William and Mary and Randolph-Macon Colleges, whose presidents authored leading pro-slavery tracts. The list goes on. Indeed, the list of Southern schools that weren’t bastions of pro-slavery thought is much shorter than those that were.
The recent discussion of slavery at schools like Yale leads one to ask, “Why does all that matter?” Many think it is simply irrelevant. Professor John McWhorter of the University of California—Berkeley, one of this country’s leading conservative black intellectuals, maintains that it is “inappropriate to render a moral judgment on the worth of a person’s life based on moral standards which didn’t exist at that time.”
Great schools like Yale should not escape condemnation so quickly. Contrary to McWhorter’s claim, slavery was condemned by many intellectual leaders in early America. In the 1680s, shortly after the settlement of Pennsylvania, Quakers there began strenuous efforts to discourage slavery. In the wake of the Revolution, many people—inspired by Enlightenment ideas that taught the fundamental equality of humans—urged the abolition of slavery. Many Americans knew slavery was wrong, but the leading institutions—churches, school and courts—continued to embrace slavery.
Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of the best-selling novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, reached the hearts of Americans. Her many readers—it was the best-selling novel in history at the time—wanted to take action against slavery. But they could not break free from the constraints of the churches, political parties and laws that supported slavery. Stowe pessimistically concluded in her later years that “from the great institutions in society, no help whatever is to be expected.”
Had there been more support from the great bastions of intellectual power—like Yale—there might have been change. Some at Yale, like those who defended the Africans on the Amistad, did lend their support to the abolitionist cause. But as an institution, Yale took money made from slavery, celebrated slaveholders and even pro-slavery politicians, and educated others to follow in those steps. While Ralph Waldo Emerson, Class of 1821, was telling students to reject outmoded ideas—like slavery—orators at Yale ridiculed him. In the wake of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which required Northerners to return fugitive slaves to their Southern owners, college speakers throughout the country argued fiercely in favor of the act. They criticized those who broke the law to protect humans from being sent back to slavery.
There are some lessons in this for us. These episodes remind us that universities are often the product and beneficiary of the great interests (in this case what used to be called the “slave power”). As a result, they are often more likely to justify than to condemn those interests. Professor McWhorter is just another in a long line of teachers, stretching back to the leading pro-slavery authors of the 1800s, who believe with Alexander Pope that “whatever is, is right.” He may honestly, if mistakenly, believe that slavery was morally (as well as legally) acceptable in the 1830s; he may even believe that it is wrong to condemn a university for accepting pro-slavery dogma rather than challenging it. But maybe we can realize with Emerson that it is the duty of the scholar to rethink old institutions and old ideas—and that it is the duty of the university to lead the way.
Alfred L. Brophy is a professor of law at the University of Alabama. His book Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921—Race, Reparations, Reconciliation will be published by Oxford University Press in November. | <urn:uuid:402dbf89-0eea-4f07-8da1-3340e7d2d655> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2001/9/4/ivy-tradition-and-slavery-in-recent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969924 | 843 | 3.5 | 4 |
When NASA's space shuttle program was announced back in 1972, it was billed as a major advance — a key step in humanity's quest to exploit and explore space.
The shuttle would enable safe, frequent and affordable access to space, the argument went, with flights occurring as often as once per week and costing as little as $20 million each. But much of that original vision didn't come to pass. Two of the program's 134 flights have ended in tragedy, killing 14 astronauts in all. Recent NASA estimates peg the shuttle program's cost through the end of last year at $209 billion (in 2010 dollars), yielding a per-flight cost of nearly $1.6 billion. And the orbiter fleet never flew more than nine missions in a single year.
In other words, the shuttle was a government program, which means that by definition it came with appropriately astronomical high costs and chronic underachievement — at least in terms of the lofty prognostications of the program’s early proponents. The shuttle program carried out at least ten missions for the Department of Defense (a department nearly defined by budgetary bloat) and accomplished numerous scientific achievements, including launching, repairing and maintaining the Hubble space telescope. However, two of the 135 missions ended in disaster, with 40 percent of the fleet — two of the five shuttles — being destroyed. The program has been a powerful reminder that the exploration of space is not without its risks and costs. Still, public opinion has not rejected the concept of manned space flight on the basis of such expenses.
Now, the post-shuttle era begins, and private industry is demonstrating an eagerness to expand its role on the new frontier. New York Times writer Kenneth Chang observes that “Now that the last space shuttle has landed back on Earth, a new generation of space entrepreneurs would like to whip up excitement about the prospect of returning to the moon.” Google’s $30 million cash prize for the first private venture the Moon has certainly proven a significant incentive, but only insofar as it helps fuel a drive which was already underway to reach out into the heavens without hitching a ride with Uncle Sam. Google’s Lunar XPrize provides an incentive to contestants, offering the winner the opportunity to recover some of the expenses for a private sector Moon race. In Chang’s words:
Spurred by a $30 million purse put up by Google, 29 teams have signed up for a competition to become the first private venture to land on the moon. Most of them are unlikely to overcome the financial and technical challenges to meet the contest deadline of December 2015, but several teams think they have a good shot to win — and to take an early lead in a race to take commercial advantage of our celestial neighbor. …
While NASA had wanted to send astronauts back to the moon, its program was canceled last year, a victim of budget cuts and shifting priorities. But it has awarded $500,000 each to Moon Express, Astrobotic and a third competitor, Rocket City Space Pioneers, the first installments of up to $30 million that it will contribute to the X Prize efforts.George Xenofos, manager of NASA’s Innovative Lunar Demonstrations Data program, said he expected one or more teams to make it to the moon.
"It’s definitely not the technical issues that’s stopping them," he said.The contestants’ goals do not appear to face legal hurdles. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967, ratified by 100 nations including the United States, bars countries from claiming sovereignty over any part of the moon but does not prevent private companies from setting up shop. As for mining the moon, it could fall under similar legal parameters as fishing in international waters.
Given such an understanding of the Outer Space Treaty, private industry may prove that it can "boldly go" where government cannot go: Establishing a human presence off of the Earth’s surface and possibly beginning a process which could eventually lead to human settlements throughout the solar system. The first tentative steps were taken being taken even as the shuttle neared its last days; it remains to be seen whether or not such efforts will accelerate and take flight in the days to come.
Photo: The SpaceX Dragon privately built rocket. | <urn:uuid:9d52d7f8-045a-42da-bdca-b655096bcdef> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/space/item/7305-private-industrys-moon-race-now-underway | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961794 | 872 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Prevention of Disease From Potentially Contaminated Food Products
Foodborne diseases are associated with significant morbidity and mortality in people of all ages. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that there are more than 76 million cases of foodborne diseases in the United States each year, resulting in approximately 325 000 hospitalizations and 5000 deaths. Young children, the elderly, and especially immunocompromised people particularly are susceptible to illness and complications caused by many of the organisms associated with foodborne illness. Four general rules to maintain safety of foods are:
- Wash hands and surfaces often.
- Separate-don't cross contaminate.
- Refrigerate foods promptly.
- Cook food to the proper temperature.
The following preventive measures can be implemented to decrease the risk of infection and disease from potentially contaminated food.Unpasteurized milk and cheese.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) strongly endorses the use of pasteurized milk and recommends that parents and public health officials be fully informed of the important risks associated with consumption of unpasteurized milk. Interstate sale of raw milk is banned by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Children should not consume unpasteurized milk or products made from unpasteurized milk, such as cheese and butter, from species including cows, sheep, and goats. Serious systemic infections attributable to Salmonella
species, Mycobacterium bovis, Listeria monocytogenes, Brucella
species, Escherichia coli
O157:H7, and Yersinia enterocolitica
have been attributed to consumption of unpasteurized milk, including certified raw milk. In particular, an increasing number of outbreaks of campylobacteriosis among children are associated with school field trips to farms and consumption of raw milk. Raw milk consumption should be prohibited during educational trips. Cheese made from unpasteurized milk has been associated with illness attributable to Brucella
species, L monocytogenes, Salmonella
species, and E coli
Children should not eat raw or undercooked eggs, unpasteurized powdered eggs, or products containing raw eggs or undercooked eggs. Ingestion of raw or improperly cooked eggs can result in severe salmonellosis. Examples of foods that may contain raw or undercooked eggs include some homemade frostings and mayonnaise, ice cream from uncooked custard, tiramisu, eggs prepared "sunny-side up," fresh Caesar salad dressing, Hollandaise sauce, and cookie and cake batter.Raw and undercooked meat.
Children should not eat raw or undercooked meat or meat products, particularly hamburger. Various raw or undercooked meat products have been associated with disease, such as poultry with Salmonella
species; ground beef with E coli
O157:H7 and other enterohemorrhagic E coli
(also known as Shiga-toxin producing E coli
) or Salmonella
species; hot dogs with Listeria
species; pork with trichinosis; and wild game with brucellosis, tularemia, or trichinosis. Ground meats should be cooked to an internal temperature of 160°F. Using a food thermometer is the only sure way of knowing that food has reached a high enough temperature to destroy bacteria. Color is not a reliable indicator that ground beef patties have been cooked to a temperature high enough to kill harmful bacteria such as E coli
0157:H7. Knives, cutting boards, plates, and other utensils used for raw meats should not be used for preparation of fresh fruits or vegetables until the utensils have been cleaned properly.Unpasteurized juices.
Children should drink only pasteurized juice products unless the fruit is washed and freshly squeezed (eg, orange juice) immediately before consumption. Consumption of packaged fruit and vegetable juices that have not undergone pasteurization or a comparable Treatment have been associated with foodborne illness attributable to E coli
O157:H7 and Salmonella
species. To identify a packaged juice that has not undergone pasteurization or a comparable Treatment, consumers should look for a warning statement that the product has not been pasteurized.Seed Sprouts.
The FDA and the CDC have reaffirmed health advisories that people who are at high risk of severe foodborne disease, including children, people with compromised immune systems, and elderly people, should avoid eating raw seed sprouts until intervention methods are implemented to improve the safety of these products.2
Raw seed sprouts have been associated with outbreaks of illness attributable to Salmonella
species and E coli
O157:H7.Fresh fruits, vegetables, and nuts.
Many fresh fruits and vegetables have been associated with disease attributable to Cryptosporidium
species, noroviruses, hepatitis A virus, Giardia
species, E coli, Salmonella
species, and Shigella
species. Washing can decrease but not eliminate contamination of fruits and vegetables. All fruits and vegetables should be washed with cool tap water immediately before consumption. Produce should be scrubbed with a clean produce brush. Knives, cutting boards, utensils, and plates used for raw meats should not be used for preparation of fresh fruits or vegetables until the utensils have been cleaned properly. Raw shelled nuts have been associated with outbreaks of salmonellosis.Raw shellfish and fish.
Children should not eat raw shellfish, especially raw oysters. Raw shellfish, including mussels, clams, oysters, scallops, and other mollusks, have been associated with many pathogens and toxins (see Appendix IX
species contaminating raw shellfish may cause severe disease in people with liver disease or other conditions associated with decreased immune function. Some experts caution against children ingesting raw fish which has been associated with transmission of parasites.Honey.
Children younger than 1 year of age should not be given honey. Honey has been shown to contain spores of Clostridium botulinum.
Light and dark corn syrups are manufactured under sanitary conditions, and although the manufacturer cannot ensure that any product will be free of C botulinum
spores, no cases associated with light and dark corn syrups have been documented.Food irradiation.
There is no process to eliminate all foodborne diseases; however, food safety experts believe that irradiation of food can be an effective tool in helping control foodborne pathogens. Irradiation involves exposing food briefly to radiant energy (such as gamma rays, x-rays, or high-voltage electrons) and often is referred to as "cold pasteurization." More than 40 countries worldwide have approved the use of irradiation for various types of foods. In addition, every governmental and professional organization that has reviewed the efficacy and safety of food irradiation has endorsed its use. Irradiated meat and some produce items are available to US consumers. The risk of foodborne illness in children can be decreased significantly with the routine consumption of irradiated meat, poultry, and produce.
Appendix VIII :: Prevention of Disease From Potentially Contaminated Food Products is a sample topic found in
To find other Red Book topics | <urn:uuid:d5f40340-1bcd-4ac5-a841-c4c08f3547a1> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.unboundmedicine.com/redbook/ub/view/RedBook/187071/all/Beverages__infections_from__prevention_of | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704655626/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114415-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935941 | 1,482 | 3.625 | 4 |
One black antislavery campaigner, who worked alongside Equiano, was Ottobah Cugoano. He was born in 1757, in the part of Africa now called Ghana. In 1770, he was kidnapped and taken to the West Indies, where he spent nearly a year enslaved on Grenada. Cugoano was brought to England in 1772 and soon became one of the leaders of London's African community and their campaign to end slavery.
In 1786, Cugoano played a key part in the rescue of Henry Demane, an African who had been kidnapped and was being shipped out to the West Indies. Cugoano and another community leader, William Green, reported the kidnapping to Granville Sharp and Demane was rescued at the very last minute, just as the ship was about to leave.
In 1787, Cugoano published a book called 'Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Human Species'. Cugoano was the first published African critic of the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the first African to demand publicly the total abolition of the trade and the freeing of enslaved Africans. The book seems to have been written with the help of Olaudah Equiano. It set out the case for the abolition of the Slave Trade and contained accounts of slavery in Grenada:
"Every day I saw the most dreadful scenes of misery and cruelty. My miserable companions were often cruelly lashed, and as it were cut to pieces. I saw a slave receive twenty four lashes of the whip for being seen in church on a Sunday instead of going to work."
Cugoano travelled with Equiano on a tour of the country to promote their autobiographies. His book attracted many readers and was even translated into French. In it, Cugoano argued powerfully that slavery was morally wrong. How could British people call themselves the most ‘civilised' people in the world when they were involved in a trade of ‘barbarous cruelty and injustice' and thought that ‘slavery, robbery and murder were no crime'? Cugoano argued that every man in Britain was responsible in some degree for slavery and that the country should ‘set an example' and be the first to abolish the trade.
"Is it not strange to think, that they who ought to be considered as the most learned and civilized people in the world, that they should carry on a traffic of the most barbarous cruelty and injustice, and that many think slavery, robbery and murder no crime?"
Cugoano was also the first writer in English to argue that enslaved Africans had not only the moral right but also the moral duty to resist slavery.
"If any man should buy another man and compel him to his service and slavery without any agreement of that man to serve him, the enslaver is a robber. It is as much the duty of a man who is robbed in that manner to get out of the hands of his enslaver, as it is for any honest community of men to get out of the hands of rogues and villains."
Cugoano and Equiano's books influenced public opinion. Both Cugoano and Equiano, together with other members of Britain's African community, also wrote many letters to powerful people who, they thought, could help the abolition cause. | <urn:uuid:dc26b497-7cea-42f0-b789-0476ba5ff371> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://abolition.e2bn.org/people_26.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985299 | 687 | 3.578125 | 4 |
TRADITION: The holiday commemorates the victory over Syrian rulers by a band of Jews led by Judah Maccabee about 2,150 years ago. The Hellenized Syrian King Antiochus IV profaned the Jerusalem Temple by erecting an altar of sacrifice to the god Zeus. The Maccabees liberated the temple, then the focal point of Jewish worship. The Hanukkah festival also incorporates the legend of a lamp found at the rededicated temple that was thought to contain only one day's worth of undefiled oil. Instead, the lamp burned for eight days.
OBSERVANCES: Also called the Festival of Lights, the holiday is celebrated primarily in homes. The eight-branched menorah is its principal symbol. Family members light one candle each night, using the flame from a ninth candle on the menorah. Children often receive small gifts spread out over the holiday period. Some Jewish leaders say that the holiday has grown in popularity, especially in the United States, because of its proximity to Christmas. Synagogue sermons tend to recall the Maccabean revolt as a classic example of the striving for religious freedom. | <urn:uuid:c329721a-ad51-46c3-8623-6eea8d462d5e> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://articles.latimes.com/1990-12-11/local/me-6483_1_hanukkah-festival | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936042 | 236 | 3.625 | 4 |
The ability of an atom in a moleculeA set of atoms joined by covalent bonds and having no net charge. to attract a shared electronA negatively charged, sub-atomic particle with charge of 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs and mass of9.109 x 1023 kilograms; electrons have both wave and particle properties; electrons occupy most of the volume of an atom but represent only a tiny fraction of an atom's mass. pair to itself, forming a polar covalent bond, is called its electronegativity. The negative side of a polar covalent bond corresponds to the more electronegative elementA substance containing only one kind of atom and that therefore cannot be broken down into component substances by chemical means.. Furthermore the more polar a bond, the larger the difference in electronegativity of the two atomsThe smallest particle of an element that can be involved in chemical combination with another element; an atom consists of protons and neutrons in a tiny, very dense nucleus, surrounded by electrons, which occupy most of its volume. forming it.
Unfortunately there is no direct way of measuring electronegativity. DipoleIn an electrically neutral species, separated, equal positive and negative charges that consitute a positive and a negative pole; such a species tends to assume certain orientations more than others in an electric field.-moment measurements tell us about the electrical behavior of all electron pairs in the molecule, not just the bonding pairA pair of electrons between atoms joined by a covalent bond. in which we are interested. Also, the polarity of a bond depends on whether the bond is a single, double, or triple bondAttraction between two atoms (nuclei and core electrons) that results from sharing of three pairs of electrons between the atoms; a bond with bond order = 3. and on what the other atoms and electron pairs in a molecule are. Therefore the dipole momentThe magnitude of the separation of electrical charge in a molecule that makes the molecule polar; the partial positive charge times the partial negative charge divided by the distance by which the charges are separated. cannot tell us quantitatively the difference between the electronegativities of two bonded atoms. Various attempts have been made over the years to derive a scale of electronegativities for the elements, none of which is entirely satisfactory. Nevertheless most of these attempts agree in large measure in telling us which elements are more electronegative than others. The best-known of these scales was devised by the Nobel prize-winning California chemist Linus Pauling (1901 to 1994) and is shown in the periodic tableA chart showing the symbols of the elements arranged in order by atomic number and having chemically related elements appearing in columns. found below. In this scale a value of 4.0 is arbitrarily given to the most electronegative element, fluorine, and the other electronegativities are scaled relative to this value.
Electronegativities of the elements
|→ Atomic radius decreases → Ionization energy increases → Electronegativity increases →|
As can be seen from this table, elements with electronegativities of 2.5 or more are all nonmetals in the top right-hand comer of the periodic table. These have been color-coded dark red. By contrast, elements with negativities of 1.3 or less are all metals on the lower left of the table. These elements have been coded in dark gray. They are often referred to as the most electropositive elements, and they are the metals which invariably form binary ionic compounds. Between these two extremes we notice that most of the remaining metals (largely transition metals) have electronegativities between 1.4 and 1.9 (light gray), while most of the remaining nonmetals have electronegativities between 2.0 and 2.4 (light red). Another feature worth noting is the very large differences in electronegativities in the top right-hand comer of the table. Fluorine, with an electronegativity of 4, is by far the most electronegative element. At 3.5 oxygen is a distant second, while chlorine and nitrogen are tied for third place at 3.0.
If the electronegativity values of two atoms are very different, the bond between those atoms is largely ionic. In most of the typical ionic compounds discussed in the previous chapter, the difference is greater than 1.5, although it is dangerous to attach too much significance to this figure since electronegativity is only a semiquantitative concept. As the electronegativity difference becomes smaller, the bond becomes more covalent. An important example of an almost completely covalent bond between two different atoms is that between carbon (2.5) and hydrogen (2.1).
The properties of numerous compounds of hydrogen and carbon (hydrocarbons) are described in sections on organic chemistry. These properties indicate that the C―H bond has almost no polar character.
EXAMPLE 1 Without consulting the table of electronegativities (use the periodic table), arrange the following bonds in order of decreasing polarity: B—Cl, Ba—Cl, Be—Cl, Br—Cl, Cl—Cl.
SolutionA mixture of one or more substances dissolved in a solvent to give a homogeneous mixture. We first need to arrange the elements in order of increasing electronegativity. Since the electronegativity increases in going up a column of the periodic table, we have the following relationships:
- Ba < Be and Br < Cl
Also since the electronegativity increases across the periodic table, we have
- Be < B
Since B is a group III element on the borderline between metals and non-metals, we easily guess that
- B < Br
which gives us the complete order
- Ba < Be < B < Br < Cl
Among the bonds listed, therefore, the Ba—Cl bond corresponds to the largest difference in electronegativity, i.e., to the most nearly ionic bondThe electrostatic attraction that holds together the positive and negative ions of an ionic compound.. The order of bond polarity is thus
- Ba—Cl > Br—Cl > B—Cl > Br—Cl > Cl—Cl
where the final bond, Cl—Cl,is, of course, purely covalent. | <urn:uuid:12ebf05f-b1d0-4c44-ae92-4a0e2511f341> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://chempaths.chemeddl.org/services/chempaths/?q=book/General%20Chemistry%20Textbook/Further%20Aspects%20of%20Covalent%20Bonding/1348/electronegativity | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.867654 | 1,317 | 4 | 4 |
It was not until the following century when the artistic value of the song was perceived to be at the same level as those of the symphony, grand opera, oratorio, and string quartet. Early Romantic composers such as Schubert and Mendelssohn realized the potential of this medium, and transformed it from a genre intended for the middle-class amateurs into a vehicle for expressing the sublime. The musical qualities that distinguish the serious art song from the popular recreational song of the time include the unity of the music and the text, the equality of the vocal and piano parts, and the grouping of multiple songs together into a coherent cycle for expressing an idea. The three sets of songs by Debussy, Wolf, and Schumann we present this evening are good examples illustrating these hallmarks of the Romantic song, one of the greatest musical achievements of the 19th century.
Unity of Music and Text: Debussy’s Ariettes Oubliées
One ideal the Romantic song composer strives for is to write music that perfectly embodies the images and feelings suggested by the poem. Music functions not only to enhance the emotions expressed by the poet, but also to clarify any details or implied meanings behind the words. This ideal of song composition, obvious as it may seem to us, is a milestone in the history of song given that in many songs composed in the 18th century, the relationship between music and text could be very shallow, if not entirely absent. This is especially so for strophic songs in which successive stanzas portraying different imageries could be set to the same music. The lyric poets of the time such as Goethe and Heine in Germany wrote verses of sufficient emotional depth that became the perfect raw materials for the talented composers for their musical creations.
In France, Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) was one of the fin-de-siècle poets who became a champion of the Symbolist movement. The symbolist poets never explicitly or precisely describe a scene or an image, but design verses with “symbols” (i.e., the words) meant to subtly elicit moods or feelings. They believe that a poem should represent truths that can only be led to indirectly through metaphors, or even just the sound of the words. The suggestive power of the symbolist poems naturally makes them the ideal texts to be set to music by composers like Debussy, who was adept in creating musical colors by manipulating harmony, rhythm, texture, and scale. In his setting of six Verlaine poems in the song cycle Ariettes Oubliées, Debussy achieves perfect unity of music and text through musical nuances that magnify the evocative power of Verlaine’s words. For instance, in the first song, C’est l’extase langoureuse, subtle shades of harmony brings the listener to the world of sensuality and languor, while in the second song, Il pleure dans mon cœur, the monotonous note patterns in the piano, played with mute throughout, imparts perfectly the melancholic mood felt under a grey sky with constant drizzle. Here, Debussy’s music is as fluid, sensuous, and hypnotizing as Verlaine’s poetry.
Equality of the Voice and Piano: Songs by Hugo Wolf
In the 19th-century song repertory, the nature of the piano accompaniment sets the serious, artistic songs for connoisseurs apart from the simpler songs intended for the amateurs. The popular songs consisted mostly of simple, sometimes rigid, accompanimental patterns serving only to provide a harmonic foundation to the vocal melody. The art songs, by contrast, gave the piano an expressive weight equivalent to that of the voice. By this time, the piano was equipped with the mechanisms for producing more resonant and legato tones within a much wider dynamic range, so that it could mimic orchestral sound effects in addition to providing guitar-like accompaniment. It was also becoming a popular household instrument in the emerging middle class. It was thus sensible for composers to exploit this convenient yet flexible instrument (instead of, for instance, a string quartet that requires four accomplished players) to serve their artistic need of writing music adequately expressive for their chosen texts.
One recurring theme in lyric Romantic poems is the portrayal of how the feelings and emotions of a protagonist are affected by powerful external forces from nature, history or society. Naturally, in a song, the singer is often responsible for conveying personal feelings while the piano supplies music illustrative of the surroundings. Wolf, the late-Romantic pro-Wagnerian lieder composer, derives much of his expressive power in his songs from his dense keyboard writing. In Sie blasen zum Abmarsch from the Spanish Songbook, a village girl is saddened by the departure of her lover, presumably for a military mission. The piano part not only depicts the context of the story with sounds of trumpet calls and drums, but also clarifies the girl’s pain with a chromatic interlude supported by low notes. In the justly famous In dem Schatten meiner Locken, also from the Spanish Songbook, the constant Bolero rhythm in the piano part is essential not only in setting up a somewhat amusing mood for the mischievous protagonist to wonder whether she should wake her lover up, but also in spicing the whole song up with an exotic flavor. In Storchenbotschaft from Mörike Lieder, Wolf even inserts an extended bravura passage for the piano as a postlude to depict how the storks merrily fly away after delivering the message to the poor shepherd that his wife gave birth to twins, ironically reminding the listener, through the storks’ apparent oblivion to the shepherd’s feeling, of how perplexed he must be by this news.
Expressing an Idea through a Cycle: Schumann’s Liederkreis
Grouping multiple songs together into a single set was not a new idea in the 19th century. Song collections have a history probably as long as that of the song itself. But before Beethoven and Schubert, who pioneered the concept of composing song cycles, songs published within a set often have little relationship with each other besides originating from the same composer or the same poet. The early Romantic composers realized how the lowly genre of song could be made a medium for expressing the sublime by concatenating interrelated songs together. The songs can have the same protagonist, or have the same poetic theme behind the text, or have a loose narrative structure so that when sung together, they approximate a coherent story. In the ideal Romantic song cycle, however, this grouping of songs is different from a multi-movement symphony, sonata, or string quartet, in that each song can still function as an independent musical entity. In the words of Charles Rosen,
The song cycle is the embodiment of a Romantic ideal: to find – or to create – a natural unity out of a collection of different objects without compromising the independence or the disparity of each member. By a “natural” unity I mean one which is not imposed in advance by convention or tradition: the large form must appear to grow directly from the smaller forms, and this preserves their individuality (The Romantic Generation, p. 212).
Schumann clearly understood this principle. In his cherished song cycle Liederkreis (literally meaning “circle of songs”) based on poems by Eichendorff, each song, despite its brevity, can be readily appreciated and performed individually. In fact, during Schumann’s lifetime the Liederkreis was almost never performed together as a whole. But the twelve songs in the cycle nonetheless share the same theme of expressing a sentiment of distance and longing through the words of a wanderer in the forest. Schumann also took pain to cohere the songs further with a careful tonal scheme. The cycle begins with the elegiac In der Fremde in F-sharp minor, then progresses to the exciting sixth song Schöne Fremde in B major, and ending with the ecstatic Frühlingsnacht in F-sharp major. According to Graham Johnson, Schumann himself realized the possibility of constructing a unified cycle from these songs only after he composed them individually (liner notes for The Songs of Robert Schumann – 10, p. 7). The fact that the Liederkreis was a result of an “after-the-fact imposition of wishful symphonic thinking on to the Lied” probably explains why each individual song in the cycle still sounds musically satisfying and convincing.
- Vincent C. K. Cheung | <urn:uuid:ef9f4fc2-68b4-46c1-9e1e-48a8311b4bac> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://ckcheung.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946099 | 1,799 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Leaf Scorch of Ornamental Trees and Shrubs
Reviewed by Christopher J. Starbuck
Division of Plant Sciences
Leaf scorch is a noninfectious condition caused by an unfavorable environment. There is no chemical control for leaf scorch, so the most effective defense is good management.
Scorch is often called a disease, but it is not caused by fungus, bacteria or virus, nor does it result from insect attack. However, these problems may add to the seriousness of scorch.
Missouri shade trees most likely to develop scorch are sugar maple, Norway maple, beech, horse chestnut, ash, oak and linden. The problem may appear on almost any tree if weather conditions become particularly unfavorable — high temperatures, dry winds and low soil moisture.
Japanese red maples are more likely to scorch than other small trees, but dogwoods growing in full sunlight may develop the problem even though other growing conditions appear good.
Broad-leaved evergreens may show scorch, and the problem may develop on them in winter as well as in summer. Plants of this type most likely to scorch are southern magnolia, rhododendron, azalea, laurel and Japanese andromeda.
Narrow-leaved evergreens are also susceptible, and those most frequently affected are pine, hemlock and spruce.
Leaf scorch is most often restricted entirely to marginal areas and tips. Symptoms commonly appear as yellowing between veins or along margins (Figure 1). In general, the yellowing becomes increasingly severe and tissue dies and turns brown at leaf margins and between veins (Figure 2). This is the stage at which injury becomes easily noticeable. However, plants can differ in pattern of scorch development. Often, dead tissue appears without any previous yellowing.
Winter leaf scorch in plants such as rhododendron usually appears as two long brown areas paralleling the main leaf vein. Narrow-leaved evergreens show leaf scorch as browning of needle tips. As unfavorable conditions become more severe, browning of needles increases.
Symptoms usually appear after drying winds in conjunction with periods of hot, dry weather. Scorch may also suddenly appear when long periods of wet, cloudy weather are followed abruptly by windy and sunny weather. Symptoms may appear on only one branch or one side of the tree, or may be spread over the entire tree. Usually, the side of the tree exposed to damage, wind, sun or other unfavorable conditions will show injury first.
A Japanese maple shows the first signs of leaf scorch — death of the tips of the leaf lobes.
Leaf scorch may begin as yellowing, then browning, then expansion of the damaged area. In some plants it will continue to move between the veins of the leaves
Scorch usually is a warning that some condition has occurred or is occurring that is adversely influencing the plant. In some cases, scorch is simply an indication that a particular tree is unsuited to the local climate or has been given unsuitable exposure.
When water is lost from leaves faster than it can be replaced, the resulting condition appears as leaf scorch. Veins supply nearly all the water that reaches leaves, and leaf margins and interveinal areas cannot get water as rapidly as areas next to the main veins. Thus, marginal areas dry up while tissues adjacent to veins remain alive.
Many conditions may lead to reduction of water in leaves, including hot, drying winds; temperatures above 90 degrees; windy and hot weather following a long period of wet and cloudy weather; drought conditions and low humidity; or drying winter winds when soil water is frozen.
Conditions causing rapid loss of water in leaves do not always produce leaf scorch. Usually, these conditions must be coupled with other unfavorable growing conditions that might prevent rapid uptake and reduce flow of water to leaves — the most common cause of which is drought.
Less obvious conditions that could cause scorch include shallow soils that overlie rocks or a hardpan; poor, heavy soils or soils that do not retain water well; defective root systems caused by machinery damage or recent transplant; or layers of asphalt or concrete over root systems, which tend to keep soil dry and may cause heat buildup.
Poor drainage may also kill a portion of the root system and eventually lead to leaf scorch. Leaf scorch itself does not kill a tree but can weaken it.
In some instances, leaf scorch can be attributed to an insect, fungal or bacterial problem. Any insects or diseases affecting roots can create an imbalance of water between the tops and the roots. Wilt diseases such as oak wilt, verticillium wilt or pine wilt reside in the water-conducting cells in the plant. Such diseases cause a physical impairment of the xylem. This results in the diminished uptake of water and thus leads to leaf scorch. (For more information on wilt diseases, see MU Extension publication MX858, Pine Wilt: A Fatal Disease of Exotic Pines in the Midwest.) Bacterial leaf scorch is a disease of certain tree species in which bacteria develop in xylem cells. Before attributing leaf scorch to environmental or site factors, it is important to rule out these biotic causes of leaf scorch.
When leaf scorch is noticed, the tissue has usually dried past the point of recovery, but several steps can be taken to prevent more severe damage and improve the condition in subsequent years. Thorough, deep watering will usually help increase water uptake.
Test the soil around scorched plants to rule out a mineral imbalance as the cause. Spring application of a complete fertilizer high in potash and containing minor elements may reduce the problem if soil testing indicates the soil is low in potash. Do not fertilize after June, however, because some plants will then develop young, soft growth that will scorch easily in hot August winds. Also, avoid fertilizing with excessive nitrogen.
If the root system of a tree has been injured by grading or is suppressed by concrete, improve its condition by pruning the top to balance the reduced root system. Often, the tree also can be shaped to enhance its appearance in addition to improving the leaf scorch problem. Be sure to water root-damaged trees during drought conditions.
Establish a good insect and disease control program. Insect and disease damage can reduce tree vigor and encourage leaf scorch.
Conserve soil moisture by mulching trees and shrubs with rotted leaves, bark or other material. If watering is necessary, be sure to water thoroughly because mulches absorb water from the surface. Light waterings will do no more than wet the mulch.
Use screens to protect trees or plants not suited to the climate or location. Burlap screens for wind and lath shades for sun can provide protection.
Practices that improve growing conditions usually help prevent leaf scorch. Select plants suited to the region, and give them the most suitable exposure.
Minimize injury during transplantation, grading or any other operation that involves the plant’s root system. If the root system has been injured recently, you might expect some scorch until the plant has repaired the damage by producing new roots.
G6881, reviewed April 2010 | <urn:uuid:443c1664-ccee-43b8-9f38-48ca7533863b> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6881 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952502 | 1,494 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Spina Bifida, also referred to as Myelomeningocele is a bony defect of the spine with a visible or hidden opening into the spinal cord. Spina Bifida may occur as a result of a genetic abnormality, or prenatal exposure to teratogens including excess alcohol or nutritional deficiency including folic acid.
Symptoms and severity of Spina Bifida depends on where the spinal cord is affected. Children affected at the cervical (neck) or thoracic (upper back) level will have more complications than children affected in the lumbar (lower back) region.
Many children with Spina Bifida also have additional medical diagnoses. Hydrocephalus (excess fluid inside the skull) is a concern for many children with Spina Bifida. A shunt is required in 80% of children.
Bowel and bladder complications are common as well as orthopedic complications. Orthopedic considerations include spine and lower limb deformities, joint contractures, muscle weakness, limitations in movement, and difficulty with activities of daily living.
Children with Spina Bifida may also experience sensory deficits, poor coordination, thinking and language difficulties, difficulty with visual perception, and obesity.
Diagnosis and Therapy
Most parents know there child has Spina Bifida before birth as it can be seen during an ultrasound. The initial newborn assessment includes a neurological and physical exam of the level of lesion, motor weakness, sensation, and anal tone.
However, mild cases may not be diagnosed until after birth. These cases are diagnosed by x-ray, MRI, or CT scan of the spine and vertebrae.
Spina Bifida Clinic at Primary Children’s Medical Center takes a multi-disciplinary approach to the evaluation and treatment of Spina Bifida. The clinic includes Nursing, Neurology, Orthopedics, Nutrition, Social Work, Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Speech Language Pathology, and an equipment vendor.
Common Physical Therapy Treatment Intervention:
- Equipment Evaluation
- Muscle Strengthening
- Transition and transfer training
- Gait training
- Coordination and Balance
Common Occupational Therapy treatment intervention:
- Equipment Evaluation
- Hand function – self feeding, putting on and fastening clothing, tying shoes, writing, etc.
- Managing clothing and hygiene to use the bathroom
- Independent living skills | <urn:uuid:2c162061-9520-4813-9c4a-1b94312f24ba> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://intermountainhealthcare.org/services/pediatricrehab/symptoms-conditions/Pages/spina-bifida.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922985 | 491 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Khafre (Chephren) was the son of Cheops, who succeeded his brother Dedefre to the throne. He ruled probably for 25 years, and he returned to Giza for his burial, and he constructed there next to pyramid complex of Cheops, which represented the standard pattern adopted by subsequent pyramids.
Its name was "wr hc.f Re", "Chephren is great". Chephren's pyramid lay to the south of the great pyramid, and it was only 13m. (10 ft.) lower than that of Cheops. He has chosen a higher place to build his pyramid on it, accordingly his pyramid came to be the central one being in between the other 2 pyramids, and this pyramid appeared to be dominating the Giza plateau. In addition to this, the pyramid was surrounded in its northern, southern and western sides by temenos wall, and parts are still visible.
The most distinctive external feature of Chephren's pyramid was that a part from its size was the substantial position of its outer casing, which remained intact near the Apex. Moreover, some parts from the casing have been preserved at the base. The stones employed in building the pyramid differed in each place; the upper remnant was composed of Tura limestone, whereas the lower was composed of red granite stone, and this was the sole material used to case parts at the bottom. The height of the pyramid originally was 143.3 meters and 215.5 square with slope of 53 10 , and the faces rising slightly more steeply than those of the great pyramid.
This pyramid has two entrances on its northern face. The one which was discovered by Belzoni stood about 11 meters from the ground, whereas the other one was cut in the rock at ground level a few meters from the pyramid. Moreover, its interior arrangement was very simple. In addition to this, the upper entrance on one hand led to a passage, which was walled and roofed with red granite. It descended at angle of 26 to a horizontal passage, which was closed vertically by granite portcullis. On the other hand, the lower entrance led to a descending passage with a slope of 22 and this seemed to have been the original entrance. The sloping passage ended at a portcullis, then followed a horizontal corridor and another sloping passage, which led to a burial chamber. As a matter of fact, the horizontal passage continued after another portcullis sloping upward again, and it joined the passage coming from the upper entrance and both merged into a long horizontal gallery cut in the rock, which ended at the final chamber. The chamber was excavated in the rock, but was roofed with slabs of limestone. Finally we have to mention the fact, that the sarcophagus was set on the floor at the far (western) end of the chamber and it was polished with beautiful granite, when it was polished with beautiful granite, when it was discovered, its lid lay upon the floor.
Language: Aspects of writing | Linguistic Features | Hieroglyphs etc.Gods
Gods: Isis | Ra | Set | Osiris | Qebhsennef | Maat
Pyramids: Building stones | Egypt Land of the pyramids | Canstruction of Pyramids | Huni's Pyramid | Zoser's step Pyramid | Sneferu's Pyramid | The solar Boat | The grest pyeamid of cheops | Chephren's pyramid | Senusert I's pyramid | Sphinx
Paint: Introduction | Subjects of paint scenes
sports: Introduction | Chariots-training horses | Running | Combating sports | Aquatic sports | Competition | Games and toys | Acrobtics
jewellery: Introduction | Gold | Silver | The precious & semi-precious Stones | The substitutes of precious stones | Same kinds of jewellery | Discoveries of jewellery
Sculpture: Introduction | Old kingdom statues | Middle kingdom statues | New kingdom statues | <urn:uuid:1982443b-b170-4dc2-b216-1fd2c925e7ee> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://library.thinkquest.org/C0121761/18.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968434 | 814 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Air Pressure and Wind Basics
Air pressure depends on the density and temperature of the air in addition to the altitude.
Air pressure was first measured by Torricelli (1600s), Galileo's pupil.
Barometer (Gk: baros = weight)
- mercury barometer: the weight of the air pushes mercury up an evacuated glass tube
- anneroid barometer (anneroid = without fluid): weight of air pushes in on partially evacuated chamber
Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured in inches or milimeters of mercury, or as milibars or kilopascals of pressure.
Winds are produced by pressure differences between two locations. Wind speed is measured by an anemometer. Wind speed is recorded in miles per hour (mph), kilometers per hour (kmph), or knots (1 knot = 1.15 mph). Wind direction is measured by a wind vane. Wind direction is the direction that the wind is coming from (not the direction it is moving toward).
The Beaufort Wind Scale was developed in 1806 to estimate wind speed from visual cues at sea. It was modified for using visual cues on land by Simpson in 1926.
Driving Forces of the Wind
Gravitational Force - compresses the atmosphere
Pressure Gradient Force - air moves from high pressure (more compressed) toward low pressure (less compressed)
Coriolis Force - air in motion appears to be deflected as Earth spins west to east
Friction Force - drag against the Earth's surface slows the wind; slows surface winds the most, high level winds the least
- Pressure Gradient Air pressure differences are the result of uneven heating of the atmosphere. In some areas, stronger heating leads to expansion of air, making it less dense (fewer molecules and less weight per cubic foot or cubic meter of air). Hot, rising air is associated with low pressure. Cold, dense, sinking air is associated with high pressure.
Pressure gradient refers to the pressure difference (inches or mm of mercury or milibars) divided by the distance over which the pressure drop occurs. Since wind (moving air) is caused by pressure differences, the greater the pressure gradient the stronger the wind.
Air pressure maps plot lines of equal pressure called isobars. Isobars are drawn at equal increments of air pressure. The more closely spaced the isobars are, the greater the pressure gradient and the stronger the winds.
The pressure gradient force, if it acted by itself (which it doesn't), would produce winds that moved at very high speeds at right angles to the isobars, the shortest path from high to low pressure. But...(see the next two forces)
- Coriolis Force As winds move north or south they are deflected due to the rotation of the Earth. As the Earth spins on its axis, a person standing on the equator moves from west to east at around 1000 mile per hour. At the poles, on the other hand, that person would not move at all, just spin around in place. So, the equator and anything on it moves west to east faster than any other place on Earth. The west to east motion decreases from the equator to the pole.
As winds move away from the equator, their west to east momentum carries them to the east of a true poleward trajectory. In the northern hemisphere they are deflected to the right. In the southern hemisphere they are deflected to the left. For the opposite case, as air masses move toward the equator, their west to east momentum lags behind the west to east motion of the Earth at lower latitude and they curve to the west. In the northern hemisphere moving air (wind) is deflected to the right. In the southern hemisphere winds are deflected to the left.
The strength of the coriolis force is zero at the equator, half its maximum strength at 30° latitude, and maximum at the poles. Fast winds and winds covering the greatest distances are deflected the most. In the absence of friction (approximated in the upper atmosphere), the coriolis force would cause the winds to blow parallel to isobars, in circles, clockwise around high pressure and counterclockwise around lows in the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere the effect is the opposite, counterclockwise around highs and clockwise around lows. These isobar parallel circular winds, geostrophic winds, only occur in the upper atmosphere, away from friction with the Earth's surface.
- Friction Force Friction with the Earth's surface only affects wind speed up to altitudes around 500 m (1640 ft). Friction prevents geostrophic winds at low altitude. Rather, low level winds move at an angle across isobars.
The net effect of these forces is that near surface winds spiral outward away from high pressure centers and inward toward low pressure centers.
In the northern hemisphere, where winds are deflected to the right,
winds spiral clockwise around high pressure
and counterclockwise around low pressure
- In the southern hemisphere, where winds are deflected to the left,
winds spiral counterclockwise around high pressure
and clockwise around low pressure
Low pressure centers are zones of convergence, with winds spiralling inward. These are called cyclones.
Tornadoes and hurricanes are strong cyclonic storms.
High pressure centers are zones of diveregence, with winds spiralling outward. These are called anticyclones.
Primary Gobal Pressure Systems, Atmospheric Circultion, and Climate Belts
Equatorial Low-Pressure - Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The equatorial region is the most strongly heated area on the Earth. It is there that we find the most vigorous upward convection. Low pressure is found all along the equator. Winds converge on the intertropical convergence zone from the northeast (northeast tradewinds) and the southeast (southeast tradewinds). The trades are fairly strong and consistent. Right at the ITCZ winds are weak and variable. Sailors in the days of sailing ships called this the doldrums.
Subtropical Highs At latitudes around 25° to 30° north and south of the equator there are several more-or-less continuous and stationary centers of high pressure. For example the Bermuda High (or Azores High) in the north Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific High (or Hawaiian High) in the north Pacific, and highs over the south Atlantic, south Pacific, and south Indian oceans. Winds diverging from these highs toward the equator form the tradewinds. Winds diverging from the highs towards the poles are deflected to the east in northern and southern hemispheres forming the prevailing westerlies in midlatitudes.
Subpolar Lows A series of low pressure centers encircle Antarctica summer and winter. In the northern hemisphere, the Icelandic Low in the north Atlantic and Aleutian Low in the north Pacific spawn cyclonic storms in winter but weaken or die out in summer as the subtropical highs strengthen in the north Atlantic and north Pacific.
Polar Highs High pressure dominates in the polar regions because the air is very cold and dense. Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth because it lies over the south pole, because it is continental, and because the ice sheet is very thick and so the surface elevation is also high. High pressure dominates Antarctica year-round. The north pole, however, lies in the Arctic Ocean. The ocean has a moderating effect on the arctic. High pressure is less well developed in the north polar summer, but devlops over land as the Canadian and Siberian Highs in winter.
Climate Belts Simplified
It is commonly known that when materials (such as atmospheric gases) are heated they expand thereby becoming less dense or "lighter." In a room with a radiator or other such heater, as the air around the radiator becomes heated it expands and rises to the ceiling and is replaced by cooler denser air. This is an example of convection. A similar process occurs near the coast in summer. Land heats up faster during the day than the water does. Air over the land is heated, expands, and rises. It is replaced by cooler, denser air from over the water forming a cool sea breeze. Convection also occurs on a global scale driven by the uneven heating of the Earth.
equatorial: hot & wet
The equatorial regions are the most strongly heated areas on the Earth's surface. It is there that we find the most vigorous upward convection. Hot air is capable of holding much water vapor. Hot, humid air rises over the equator. As it rises to high altitude it expands because the air pressure decreases (there is less mass of air above it). As air expands due to this decreasing pressure, it also cools. Since cool air is able to hold less water vapor than warm air, condensation occurs. This is why the equatorial regions normally have very high rainfall. It is here that we find tropical rainforests such as those in the Amazon, Congo, and Indonesia. Areas of upward convection are dominated by low atmospheric pressure.
desert belts: hot & dry
The rising air at the equator is replaced by low-level air from higher latitudes north and south of the equator. To balance the air moving toward the equator at low altitude, the convecting air moves away from the equator, toward the north and south, at high altitude. It is now cool because of expansion and dry because it has dropped off excess moisture. To complete the convection loop, in the regions around 25 degrees north and 25 degrees south of the equator, this cool and dry air descends back to the surface (subtropical highs). As it descends, the pressure increases (because there is now more air overhead). The increased pressure increases the temperature of the air and therefore increases the capacity of the air to hold water vapor. Now the air is very dry and has the capacity to soak up much evaporation. Consequently, these latitudes are very dry with high evaporation and low rainfall. These are the desert belts, including the Sahara, Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the U.S. southwest and Mexico, the Kalahari and Namib in southern Africa, the Australian desert, and the Atacama Desert on the west coast of South America. Areas of descending air are dominated by high atmospheric pressure.
midlatitude: temperate - cool and moist
The midlatitudes are a battleground between very cold, dense polar air and warm air moving poleward from the subtropical highs. The boundary between them is called the polar front. The polar front is an undulating boundary. The undulations are called Rossby Waves. In the midlatitudes, these undulations are sites where cold air pushes equatorward and warm air pushes poleward. Cyclonic circulation (convergence, counterclockwise in northern hemisphere) develops around the southward bulges of the polar front. As these undulations of the polar front sweep southward and eastward (northern hemisphere) cold dense air pushes under warmer, less dense air. As the warmer air rises, it expands, cools, and condenses some of its water vapor. That is why cold fronts bring clouds and rain. During the summer the polar front lies farther north and we seldom see summer cold fronts on Long Island.
polar: cold & dry
The polar regions are the coldest on Earth. The air is very cold, dense, and dry. High pressure dominates. Much of Antarctica is essentially a desert because so little precipitation falls (though what does fall remains frozen).
Wind drives both waves and surface currents in the oceans. Warm surface waters at the equator are driven westward by the easterly trade winds. When the equatorial currents reach the western edge of the ocean basin (east coast of some continent) they are diverted to the north and south along the continents. In the central Atlantic this northward flowing branch is called the Gulf Stream. It carries warm water from the equator, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, northward along the east coast of North America, across the North Atlantic, and to arctic Ocean off northwestern Europe. The westerlies help to drive the Gulf Stream eastward across the Atlantic toward Europe. The warmth of the Gulf Stream moderates the climate of northwestern Europe. The waters in the North Atlantic cool. The cooled waters then flow southward along the coast of Europe and Africa. This southern current is called the Canary Current. It brings cool waters down to northwest Africa and keep the coast here relatively cool. Eventually this current approaches the equator where the waters warm again and the easterly winds drive them westward across the Atlantic again to start another clockwise loop. Such large surface current loops, called subtropical gyres, are found in all the open ocean basins. They generally flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.
deep ocean currents
As water chills in the North Atlantic it becomes more dense. Also, when the cold water begins to freeze to form sea ice the ice that forms is from pure water; the salt is left behind in the remaining sea water. The sea water gets saltier. The saltier the water the denser it becomes. These cold, salty, dense surface waters sink down to the bottom of the Atlantic. The sinking waters are replaced by less dense surface waters from the south. The sinking waters flow southward along the bottom of the ocean as surface waters flow northward to replace them. The North Atlantic Deep Water continues south until they meet a northward flowing bottom current of even denser waters that formed off the coast of Antarctica. The North Atlantic Deep Water then rides up above the Antarctic Bottom Water and continues southward at intermediate depths until they eventually rise to the surface near Antarctica. From there they follow other currents that carry them throughout the oceans.
ocean conveyor belt There is an ocean conveyor belt that mixes waters through all the ocean basins from the sea bottom to the sea surface, connecting the surface, intermediate, and bottom water currents. This mixing moves heat, dissolved gases, and nutrients through the oceans in one grand cycle. Breakdown of this conveyor belt may have been responsible for sudden changes in the Earth's climate in the past.
global warming and sudden cooling in Europe? The Earth is warming, largely due to the release of greenhouse gases from industrial and agricultural activity. As a result of the warming, the rate of melting and release of icebergs from Greenland into the far north Atlantic and Arctic Ocean is increasing. The increased influx of fresh water into the sea will make these surface waters less dense which could slow or stop the formation of deep water (sinking of surface water). This should slow the northward movement of the Gulf Stream. Because heat carried into the far north Atlantic helps to moderate the climate of densely populated northwestern Europe, a weakening or cessation of the Gulf Stream would cause major social, agricultural, and economic problems. Geologic evidence has shown that this has happened very rapidly in the past yielding a sudden cooling of northwestern Europe within about two decades time. | <urn:uuid:631e49dd-c29b-4394-bc4d-9585ff4a63a2> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://myweb.cwpost.liu.edu/vdivener/ers_1/chap_6.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931899 | 3,125 | 3.765625 | 4 |
March 22, 2012
Macaya reserve in the Massif de la Hotte, southwest Haiti, is the number one AZE site containing 13 frog species found nowhere else in the world. Photo © Robin Moore/iLCP.
"Shockingly, half of the most important sites for nature conservation have not yet been protected," said Stuart Butchart, Global Research and Indicators Coordinator with Birdlife International, which identifies IBAs worldwide. “And only one-third to one-fifth of sites are completely protected—the remainder are only partially covered by protected areas."
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) are defined by ecosystems containing endangered birds or bird species restricted to a particular area. In addition, IBAs include vital wetland and marine areas. In all, BirdLife International has identified 10,993 IBAs, of which 49 percent lack protection. Less numerous, but more critical, are the Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites. These areas target species listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List—from mammals to plants—which are in addition restricted to one locality. In other words if their habitat is destroyed, extinction is a foregone conclusion; one could refer to them as a step away from extinction. AZE has identified 588 such sites worldwide, but 51 percent are unprotected. The 414 Endangered or Critically Endangered species living in these unprotected habitats "will likely be part of the next wave of extinctions unless urgent action is taken," the study warns.
Worldwide around 13 percent of the land's surface is under some form of protection, and global governments have agreed to expand that to 17 percent by 2020. While the study agrees that "there has been considerable progress towards meeting global protected areas targets," it also notes that this has not translated into protection for many species. The study's authors argue that in the future governments should target unprotected IBAs and AZE sites for expanding protected areas. Some countries—such as the EU, Madagascar, Nicaragua, and the Philippines—have already turned to IBAs and AZE for conservation planning.
"With the global population projected to skyrocket over the next 30 years, so will our demand for natural resources. Protecting those remaining pockets of nature will be crucial if we want to have food, water and a host of other vital benefits that that will allow us to survive and prosper," said co-author Frank Larsen Conservation International.
Of course, conservation doesn't end with putting aside an area for protection. Many of the world's protected areas are little more than "paper parks", set aside by government but plundered of their natural resources due to a lack of enforcement. Adequate management of the unprotected IBAs and AZE sites would cost around $23 billion annually, according to a "crude" estimate by the paper's authors.
"Such sums may seem large, but they are tiny by comparison to the value of the benefits that people obtain from biodiversity. These 'ecosystem services', such as pollination of crops, water purification and climate regulation, have been estimated to be worth trillions of dollars each year," said Butchart.
Birders beware: climate change could push 600 tropical birds into extinction
(02/21/2012) There may be less birds for birders to see in the world as the planet warms. Climate change, in combination with deforestation, could send between 100 and 2,500 tropical birds to extinction before the end of century, according to new research published in Biological Conservation. The wide range depends on the extent of climate and how much habitat is lost, but researchers say the most likely range of extinctions is between 600 and 900 species, meaning about 10-14 percent of tropical birds, excluding migratory species.
The camera trap revolution: how a simple device is shaping research and conservation worldwide
(02/14/2012) I must confess to a recent addiction: camera trap photos. When the Smithsonian released 202,000 camera trap photos to the public online, I couldn’t help but spend hours transfixed by the private world of animals. There was the golden snub-monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), with its unmistakably blue face staring straight at you, captured on a trail in the mountains of China. Or a southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), a tree anteater that resembles a living Muppet, poking its nose in the leaf litter as sunlight plays on its head in the Peruvian Amazon. Or the dim body of a spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) led by jewel-like eyes in the Tanzanian night. Or the less exotic red fox (Vulpes vulpes) which admittedly appears much more exotic when shot in China in the midst of a snowstorm. Even the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), an animal I too often connect with cartoons and stuffed animals, looks wholly real and wild when captured by camera trap: no longer a symbol or even a pudgy bear at the zoo, but a true animal with its own inner, mysterious life.
Unanimous agreement among scientists: Earth to suffer major loss in species
(11/09/2011) The thylacine, the dodo, the great auk, the passenger pigeon, the golden toad: these species have become symbols of extinction. But they are only the tip of the recent extinction crisis, and according to a survey of 583 conservation scientists, they are only the beginning. In a new survey in Conservation Biology, 99.5 percent of conservation scientists said a serious loss in biodiversity was either 'likely', 'very likely', or 'virtually certain'. The prediction of a significant loss of species is not surprising—scientists have been warning for decades that if global society continues with business as usual the world will suffer from mass extinction—what is perhaps surprising is the practically unanimous expectation that a global biodiversity decline will occur.
Controversial study finds intensive farming partnered with strict protected areas is best for biodiversity
(09/01/2011) Given that we have very likely entered an age of mass extinction—and human population continues to rise (not unrelated)—researchers are scrambling to determine the best methods to save the world's suffering species. In the midst of this debate, a new study in Science, which is bound to have detractors, has found that setting aside land for strict protection coupled with intensive farming is the best way to both preserve species and feed a growing human world. However, other researchers say the study is missing the point, both on global hunger and biodiversity.
Humanity knows less than 15 percent of the world's species
(08/23/2011) Scientists have named, cataloged, and described less than 2 million species in the past two and a half centuries, yet, according to an new innovative analysis, we are no-where near even a basic understanding of the diversity of life on this small blue planet. The study in PLoS Biology, which is likely to be controversial, predicts that there are 8.7 million species in the world, though the number could be as low as 7.4 or as high as 10 million. The research implies that about 86 percent of the world's species have still yet to be described.
Over 80 percent of rediscovered species still face extinction
(08/18/2011) Imagine if your job was to locate extinct species. In 2010, biologists with The Search for Lost Frogs set out on a tropical mission hoping to confirm the existence of frog species not seen in decades. The team recovered proof of four out of a hundred missing species, including a toad among the expedition's Top Ten Amphibians list. According to a new study study in the open access journal PLoS ONE, such biological surveys are critical conservation tools to prevent the 'romeo error': the abandonment of conservation efforts due to belief that a species is extinct. The study, the first of its kind, found that rediscovered species are especially in danger of vanishing again, this time altogether, without targeted conservation measures. | <urn:uuid:b8049610-37d5-4ac2-ba15-67dea2f3a6da> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://news.mongabay.com/2012/0322-hance_ibas_aze.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937843 | 1,652 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Objective C Tutorial
Objective-C is an object-oriented programming language that adds another programming language's Smalltalk-style syntax to the C programming language.
These days, it is used primarily for Apple's Mac and iPhone based iOS development. Objective-C is a thin layer on top of C, and is a strict superset of C. It is possible to compile any C program with an Objective-C compiler, and also to freely include C code within an Objective-C class.
Objective-C object syntax is based on another programming language Smalltalk. All of the syntax for non-object-oriented operations (including primitive variables, preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls) are identical to that of C, while the syntax for object-oriented features is similar to Smalltalk-style messaging.
In this section we shall try to discuss Objective C topics like stringwithformat and hence, slowly move towards iphone development as well.
Another useful resource for learning objective c is linked here. | <urn:uuid:2f9a71ea-a73a-4240-8650-fbc6e252ce1a> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://programmingbulls.com/objectivec-tutorial | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889749 | 210 | 3.75 | 4 |
Banff National Park of Canada
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Banff National Park (pronunciation: /ˈbæmf/) is Canada's oldest national park, established in 1885 in the Rocky Mountains. The park, located 110–180 kilometres (70–110 mi) west of Calgary in the province of Alberta, encompasses 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi) of mountainous terrain, with numerous glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes. The Icefields Parkway extends from Lake Louise, connecting to Jasper National Park in the north. Provincial forests and Yoho National Park are neighbours to the west, while Kootenay National Park is located to the south and Kananaskis Country to the southeast. The main commercial centre of the park is the town of Banff, in the Bow River valley.
The Canadian Pacific Railway was instrumental in Banff's early years, building the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise, and attracting tourists through extensive advertising. In the early 20th century, roads were built in Banff, at times by war internees, and through Great Depression-era public works projects. Since the 1960s, park accommodations have been open all year, with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s. Millions more pass through the park on the Trans-Canada Highway. As Banff is one of the world's most visited national parks, the health of its ecosystem has been threatened. In the mid-1990s, Parks Canada responded by initiating a two-year study, which resulted in management recommendations, and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity.
Throughout its history, Banff National Park has been shaped by tension between conservation and development interests. The park was established in 1885, in response to conflicting claims over who discovered hot springs there, and who had the right to develop the hot springs for commercial interests. Instead, prime minister John A. Macdonald set aside the hot springs as a small, protected reserve, which was later expanded to include Lake Louise and other areas extending north to the Columbia Icefield.
Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes radiocarbon dates the first human activity in Banff to 10,300 B.P. Prior to European contact, aboriginals, including the Stoneys, Kootenay, Tsuu T'ina, Kainai, Peigans, and Siksika, were common in the region where they hunted bison and other game.
With the admission of British Columbia to Canada on 20 July 1871, Canada agreed to build a transcontinental railroad. Construction of the railroad began in 1875, with Kicking Horse Pass chosen, over the more northerly Yellowhead Pass, as the route through the Canadian Rockies. Ten years later, the last spike was driven in Craigellachie, British Columbia.
With conflicting claims over discovery of hot springs in Banff, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi) around the hot springs at Cave and Basin as a public park known as the Banff Hot Springs Reserve in 1885. Under the Rocky Mountains Park Act, enacted on 23 June 1887, the park was expanded to 674 square kilometres (260 sq mi) and named Rocky Mountains Park. This was Canada's first national park, and the second established in North America, after Yellowstone National Park. The Canadian Pacific Railway built the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise to attract tourists and increase the number of rail passengers.
Early on, Banff was popular with wealthy European tourists, who arrived in Canada via trans-Atlantic luxury liner and continued westward on the railroad, as well as upper-class American and English tourists. Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities, often hiring local guides. Tom Wilson, along with Jim and Bill Brewster, was among the first outfitters in Banff. The Alpine Club of Canada, established in 1906 by Arthur Oliver Wheeler and Elizabeth Parker, organized climbs and camps in the backcountry.
By 1911, Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary. Beginning in 1916, the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff. In 1920, access to Lake Louise by road was available, and the Banff-Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff with British Columbia.
In 1902, the park was expanded to cover 11,400 square kilometres (4,402 sq mi), encompassing areas around Lake Louise, and the Bow, Red Deer, Kananaskis, and Spray rivers. Bowing to pressure from grazing and logging interests, the size of the park was reduced in 1911 to 4,663 square kilometres (1,800 sq mi), eliminating many foothills areas from the park. Park boundaries changed several more times up until 1930, when the size of Banff was fixed at 6,697 square kilometres (2,586 sq mi), with the passage of the National Parks Act. The Act also renamed the park as Banff National Park, named for the Canadian Pacific Railway station, which in turn was named after the Banffshire region in Scotland. With the construction of a new east gate in 1933, Alberta transferred 0.84 square kilometres (207.5 acres) to the park. This, along with other minor changes in the park boundaries in 1949, set the area of the park at 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi).
In 1887, local aboriginal tribes signed Treaty 7, which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources. At the beginning of the twentieth century, coal was mined near Lake Minnewanka in Banff. For a brief period, a mine operated at Anthracite, but was shut down in 1904. The Bankhead mine, at Cascade Mountain, was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922. In 1926, the town was dismantled, with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere.
During World War I, immigrants from Austria, Hungary, Germany and Ukraine were sent to Banff to work in internment camps. The main camp was located at Castle Mountain, and was moved to Cave and Basin during winter. Much early infrastructure and road construction was done by Slavic Canadian internees.
In 1931, the Government of Canada enacted the Unemployment and Farm Relief Act which provided public works projects in the national parks during the Great Depression. In Banff, workers constructed a new bathhouse and pool at Upper Hot Springs, to supplement Cave and Basin. Other projects involved road building in the park, tasks around the Banff townsite, and construction of a highway connecting Banff and Jasper. In 1934, the Public Works Construction Act was passed, providing continued funding for the public works projects. New projects included construction of a new registration facility at Banff's east gate, and construction of an administrative building in Banff. By 1940, the Icefields Parkway reached the Columbia Icefield area of Banff, and connected Banff and Jasper.
Internment camps were once again set up in Banff during World War II, with camps stationed at Lake Louise, Stoney Creek, and Healy Creek. Prison camps were largely composed of Mennonites from Saskatchewan.Japanese internment camps were not stationed in Banff during World War II, but rather were located in Jasper National Park where their detainees worked on the Yellowhead Highway and other projects.
Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917, with the first Banff Winter Carnival. The carnival featured a large ice palace, which in 1917 was built by internees. Carnival events included cross-country skiing, ski jumping, curling, snowshoe, and skijoring. In the 1930s, the first downhill ski resort, Sunshine Village, was developed by the Brewsters. Mount Norquay ski area was also developed during the 1930s, with the first chair lift installed there in 1948.
Since 1968, when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized, Banff has been a year-round destination. In the 1960s, the Trans-Canada Highway was constructed, providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley, in addition to the Bow Valley Parkway, making the park more accessible. Also in the 1960s, Calgary International Airport was built.
Canada launched several bids to host the Winter Olympics in Banff, with the first bid for the 1964 Winter Olympics which were eventually awarded to Innsbruck, Austria. Canada narrowly lost a second bid, for the 1968 Winter Olympics, which were awarded to Grenoble, France. Once again, Banff launched a bid to host the 1972 Winter Olympics, with plans to hold the Olympics at Lake Louise. The 1972 bid was most controversial, as environmental lobby groups provided strong opposition to the bid, which had sponsorship from Imperial Oil. Bowing to pressure, Jean Chrétien, then the Minister of Environment, the government department responsible for Parks Canada, withdrew support for the bid, which was eventually lost to Sapporo, Japan. The cross-country ski events were held at the Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park at Canmore, Alberta, located just outside the eastern gates of Banff National Park on the Trans-Canada Highway, when nearby Calgary hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics.
Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act, subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation. With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism, Parks Canada issued major new policy in 1979, which emphasized conservation. The National Parks Act was amended in 1988, which made preserving ecological integrity the first priority in all park management decisions. The act also required each park to produce a management plan, with greater public participation.
In 1984, Banff was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, together with the other national and provincial parks that form the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, for the mountain landscapes containing mountain peaks, glaciers, lakes, waterfalls, canyons and limestone caves as well as fossils found here. With this designation came added obligations for conservation.
During the 1980s, Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses, and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts. In 1990, the Town of Banff was incorporated, giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments.
In the 1990s, development plans for the park, including expansion at Sunshine Village, were under fire with lawsuits filed by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS). In the mid-1990s, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns, and issues relating to development in the park.
Banff National Park is located in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta's western border with British Columbia in the Alberta Mountain forests ecoregion. Banff is about an hour and half driving distance from Calgary, and four hours from Edmonton. Jasper National Park is located to the north, while Yoho National Park is to the west, and Kootenay National Park is to the south. Kananaskis Country, which includes Bow Valley Wildland Provincial Park, Spray Valley Provincial Park, and Peter Lougheed Provincial Park, is located to the south and east of Banff.
The Trans-Canada Highway passes through Banff National Park, from eastern boundary near Canmore, through the towns of Banff and Lake Louise, and into Yoho National Park in British Columbia. The Banff townsite is the main commercial centre in the national park. The village of Lake Louise is located at the junction of the Trans-Canada Highway and the Icefields Parkway, which extends north to the Jasper townsite.
Banff, established in 1883, is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park, as well as a centre for cultural activities. Banff is home to several cultural institutions, including the Banff Centre, the Whyte Museum, the Buffalo Nations Luxton Museum, Cave and Basin National Historic Site, and several art galleries. Throughout its history, Banff has hosted many annual events, including Banff Indian Days which began in 1889, and the Banff Winter Carnival. Since 1976, The Banff Centre has organized the Banff Mountain Film Festival. In 1990, Banff incorporated as a town of Alberta, though still subject to the National Parks Act and federal authority in regards to planning and development. As of the 2005 census, the Town of Banff has a population of 8,352, of which nearly 7,000 are permanent residents. The Bow River flows through the Town of Banff, with the Bow Falls located on the outskirts of town.
Lake Louise, a hamlet located 54 kilometers (34 mi) northwest of the Town of Banff, is home to the landmark Chateau Lake Louise at the edge of Lake Louise. Located 15 kilometers (9 mi) from Lake Louise, Moraine Lake provides a scenic vista of the Valley of the Ten Peaks. This scene was pictured on the back of the $20 Canadian banknote, in the 1969–1979 ("Scenes of Canada") series. The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is also located near the village.
The Icefields Parkway extends 230 kilometres (143 miles), connecting Lake Louise to Jasper, Alberta. The Parkway originates at Lake Louise, and extends north up the Bow Valley, past Hector Lake, Bow Lake, and Peyto Lake. The Parkway then crosses a summit, and follows the Mistaya River to Saskatchewan Crossing, where it converges with the Howse and North Saskatchewan River.
The North Saskatchewan River flows east from Saskatchewan Crossing, out of Banff, into what is known as David Thompson country, and onto Edmonton. The David Thompson Highway follows the North Saskatchewan River, past the man-made Abraham Lake, and through David Thompson Country. At Saskatchewan Crossing, basic services are available, including gasoline, cafeteria, a gift shop, and small motel.
North of Saskatchewan Crossing, the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to the Columbia Icefield. The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park at Sunwapta Pass at 2,023 metres (6,635 ft) in elevation, and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite.
The Canadian Rockies consist of several northwest-southeast trending ranges. Closely following the continental divide, the Main Ranges form the backbone of the Canadian Rockies. The Front Ranges are located east of the Main Ranges. Banff National Park extends eastward from the continental divide and includes the eastern slope of the Main Ranges and much of the Front Ranges. The latter include the mountains around the Banff townsite. The foothills are located to the east of the Park, between Calgary and Canmore. On the other side of the Park, the Western Ranges pass through Yoho and Kootenay National Parks. Still farther west is the Rocky Mountain Trench, the western boundary of the Canadian Rockies region in British Columbia.
The Canadian Rockies are composed of sedimentary rock, including shale, sandstone, limestone and quartzite, that originated as deposits in a shallow inland sea. The geologic formations in Banff range in age from Precambrian eon to the Jurassic period. The mountains were formed 80–120 million years ago, as a product of thrust faults.
Over the past 80 million years, erosion has taken its toll on the landscape, with more extensive erosion occurring in the foothills and Front Range than in the Main Range. Banff's mountains exhibit several different shapes that have been influenced by the composition of rock deposits, layers, and their structure. Numerous mountains in Banff are carved out of sedimentary layers that slope at 50–60 degree angles. Such dip slope mountains have one side with a steep face, and the other with a more gradual slope that follows the layering of the rock formations, e.g., Mount Rundle, near the Banff townsite.
Other types of mountains in Banff include complex, irregular, anticlinal, synclinal, castellate, dogtooth, and sawback mountains.Castle Mountain exemplifies a castellate shape, with steep slopes and cliffs. The top section of Castle Mountain is composed of a layer of Paleozoic-era shale, sandwiched between two limestone layers. Dogtooth mountains, such as Mount Louis, exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross gullies. Scree deposits are common toward the bottom of many mountains and cliffs.
Banff's landscape has also been marked by glacial erosion, with deep U-shaped valleys and many hanging valleys that often form waterfalls. Matterhorn-type mountains, such as Mount Assiniboine, have been shaped by glacial erosion that has left a sharp peak. A number of small gorges also exist, including Mistaya Canyon and Johnston Canyon.
Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, many of which are easily accessed from the Icefields Parkway. Small cirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges, situated in depressions on the side of many mountains. As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world, the glaciers in Banff are retreating. Photographic evidence alone provides testimony to this retreat and the trend has become alarming enough that glaciologists have commenced researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly, and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers. The largest glaciated areas include the Waputik and Wapta Icefields, which both lie on the Banff-Yoho National Park border. Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 square kilometres (30.9 sq mi) in area. Outlets of Wapta Icefield on the Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto, Bow, and Vulture Glaciers. Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) between the years 1850 and 1953, and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine. Peyto Glacier has retreated approximately 2,000 metres (6,561 ft) since 1880, and is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years. Both Crowfoot and Hector Glaciers are also easily visible from the Icefields Parkway, yet they are singular glaciers and are not affiliated with any major icesheets.
The Columbia Icefield, at the northern end of Banff, straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia. Snow Dome, in the Columbia Icefields, forms a hydrological apex of North America, with water flowing from this point in to the Pacific via the Columbia, the Arctic Ocean via the Athabasca River, and into the Hudson Bay and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean, via the North Saskatchewan River.Saskatchewan Glacier, which is approximately 13 kilometers (8 mi) in length and 30 square kilometres (11.6 sq mi) in area, is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff. Between the years 1893 and 1953, Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1,364 metres (4,474 ft), with the rate of retreat between the years 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 meters (180 ft) per year. Overall, the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies lost 25% of their mass during the 20th century.
Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, Banff National Park receives 472 millimetres (19 in) of precipitation annually. This is considerably less than received in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia, with 884 millimetres (35 in) annual precipitation at Wapta Lake and 616 millimetres (26.3 in) at Boulder Creek. 234 centimetres (92 in) of snow falls on average falls each winter in the Banff townsite, while 290 centimetres (114 in) falls in Lake Louise.
During winter months, temperatures in Banff are moderated, compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta, due to Chinook winds and other influences from British Columbia. The mean low temperature during January is −15 °C (6 °F), and the mean high temperature is −5 °C (24 °F) for the Town of Banff. Weather conditions during summer months are pleasant, with high temperatures during July averaging 22 °C (71 °F), and daily low temperatures averaging 7 °C (45 °F).
Banff National Park spans three ecoregions, including montane, subalpine, and alpine. The subalpine ecoregion, which consists mainly of dense forest, comprises 53% of Banff's area. 27% of the park is located above the tree line, in the alpine ecoregion. The tree line in Banff lies approximately at 2,300 meters (7,544 ft), with open meadows at alpine regions and some areas covered by glaciers. A small portion (3%) of the park, located at lower elevations, is in the montane ecoregion.Lodgepole pine forests dominate the montane region of Banff, with Englemann spruce, willow, aspen, occasional Douglas-fir and a few Douglas maple interspersed. Englemann spruce are more common in the subalpine regions of Banff, with some areas of lodgepole pine, and subalpine fir. The montane areas, which tend to be the preferred habitat for wildlife, have been subjected to significant human development over the years.
The park has 56 mammal species that have been recorded. Grizzly and black bears inhabit the forested regions. Cougar, lynx, wolverine, weasel, northern river otter and wolves are the primary predatory mammals. Elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer are common in the valleys of the park, including around (and sometimes in) the Banff townsite, while moose tend to be more elusive, sticking primarily to wetland areas and near streams. In the alpine regions, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, marmots and pika are widespread. Other mammals such as beavers, porcupines, squirrels, chipmunks, and Columbian ground squirrels are the more commonly observed smaller mammals. In 2005, a total of 5 caribou were counted, making this species one of the rarest mammals found in the park.
Due to the harsh winters, the park has few reptiles and amphibians with only one species of toad, three species of frog, one salamander species and two species of snakes that have been identified. At least 280 species of birds can be found in Banff including bald and golden eagles, red-tailed hawk, osprey, falcon and merlin, all of which are predatory species. Additionally, commonly seen species such as the gray jay, American three-toed woodpecker, mountain bluebird, Clark's nutcracker, mountain chickadee and pipit are frequently found in the lower elevations. The white-tailed ptarmigan is a ground bird that is often seen in the alpine zones. Rivers and lakes are frequented by over a hundred different species including loons, herons and mallards who spend their summers in the park.
Endangered species in Banff include the Banff Springs snail (Physella johnsoni) which is found in the hot springs of Banff. Woodland caribou, found in Banff, are listed as a threatened species, as are grizzly bears.
Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large-scale infestations in Banff National Park, feeding off of the phloem of mature lodgepole pines. Alberta's first known outbreak occurred in 1940, infecting 43 square kilometres (17 sq mi) of forest in Banff. A second major outbreak occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region.
Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America, with 3,927,557 visitors in 2004/2005. During summer, 42% of park visitors are from Canada (23% from Alberta), while 35% are from the United States, and 20% from Europe. Tourism in Banff contributes an estimated C$6 billion annually to the economy.
A park pass is required for stopping in the park and permit checks are common during the summer months, especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway. A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping. Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans-Canada Highway without stopping.
Attractions in Banff include Upper Hot Springs, and a 27-hole golf course at Fairmont Banff Springs Hotel, and three ski resorts including Sunshine Village, Lake Louise Mountain Resort, and Mount Norquay ski resort. Day hikes, such as the Cory Pass Loop, are popular with visitors. Other activities include alpine and Nordic skiing, and horseback riding.
Backcountry activities in Banff include hiking, camping, climbing, and skiing. Parks Canada requires those using backcountry campgrounds, Alpine Club of Canada huts, or other backcountry facilities to purchase a wilderness pass. Reservations for using the campgrounds are also required.
The park saw a surge in visitors and interest in the park around August 2009 after the appearance of the "Crasher Squirrel" Internet meme. The meme is based a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was "crashed" by a Columbian ground squirrel; the photograph was quickly published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos. The Banff Tourism Board has used the popularity of the meme to gain interest in the park, including setting up Twitter and Facebook pages for the squirrel.
Banff National Park is managed by Parks Canada, under the National Parks Act which was passed in 1930. Over time, park management policies have increasingly emphasized environmental protection over development. In 1964, a policy statement was issued that reiterated ideals of conservation laid out in the 1930 act. With the controversial bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics, environmental groups became more influential, leading Parks Canada to withdraw its support for the bid. The 1979 Beaver Book was a major new policy, which emphasized conservation. In 1988, the National Parks Act was amended, making the maintenance of ecological integrity the top priority. The amendment also paved the way for non-governmental organizations to challenge Parks Canada in court, for breaches in adhering to the act. In 1994, Parks Canada established revised "Guiding Principles and Operating Policies", which included a mandate for the Banff-Bow Valley Study to draft management recommendations. As with other national parks, Banff is required to have a Park Management Plan. On a provincial level, the park area and the included communities (other than the Town of Banff which is an incorporated municipality) are administered by Alberta Municipal Affairs as Improvement District No. 9 (Banff).
Since the 19th century, humans have impacted Banff's environment through introduction of non-native species, controls on other species, and development in the Bow Valley, among other human activities. Bison once lived in the valleys of Banff, but were hunted by indigenous people and the last bison was killed off in 1858.Elk are not indigenous to Banff, and were introduced in 1917 with 57 elk brought in from Yellowstone National Park. The introduction of elk to Banff, combined with controls on coyote and wolves by Parks Canada beginning in the 1930s, has caused imbalance of the ecosystem. Other species that have been displaced from the Bow Valley include grizzly bears, cougars, lynx, wolverines, otter, and moose. Beginning in 1985, gray wolves were recolonizing areas in the Bow Valley. However, the wolf population has struggled, with 32 wolf deaths along the Trans-Canada Highway between 1987 and 2000, leaving only 31 wolves in the area.
The population of bull trout and other native species of fish in Banff's lakes has also dwindled, with the introduction of non-native species including brook trout, and rainbow trout.Lake trout, Westslope cutthroat trout, and Chiselmouth are also rare native species, while Chinook salmon, White sturgeon, Pacific lamprey, and Banff longnose dace are likely extirpated locally. The Banff longnose dace, once only found in Banff, is now an extinct species.
The Trans-Canada Highway, passing through Banff, has been problematic, posing hazards for wildlife due to vehicle traffic and as an impediment to wildlife migration. Grizzly bears are among the species impacted by the highway, which together with other developments in Banff, has caused fragmentation of the landscape. Grizzly bears prefer the montane habitat, which has been most impacted by development. Wildlife crossings, including a series of underpasses, and two wildlife overpasses, have been constructed at a number of points along the Trans-Canada Highway to help alleviate this problem.
Parks Canada management practices, notably fire suppression, since Banff National Park was established have impacted the park's ecosystem. Since the early the 1980s, Parks Canada has adopted a strategy that employed prescribed burns, which helps to mimic effects of natural fires.
In 1978, expansion of Sunshine Village ski resort was approved, with added parking, hotel expansion, and development of Goat's Eye Mountain. Implementation of this development proposal was delayed through the 1980s, while environmental assessments were conducted. In 1989, Sunshine Village withdrew its development proposal, in light of government reservations, and submitted a revised proposal in 1992. This plan was approved by the government, pending environmental review. Subsequently, Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) filed a court injunction, which halted the development. CPAWS also put pressure on UNESCO to revoke Banff's World Heritage Site status, over concerns that developments were harming the park's ecological health.
While the National Parks Act and the 1988 amendment emphasize ecological integrity, in practice Banff has suffered from inconsistent application of the policies. In 1994, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was mandated by Sheila Copps, the minister responsible for Parks Canada, to provide recommendations on how to better manage human use and development, and maintain ecological integrity. While the two-year Banff-Bow Valley Study was underway, development projects were halted, including the expansion of Sunshine Village, and the twinning of the Trans-Canada Highway between Castle Junction and Sunshine.
The panel issued over 500 recommendations, including limiting the growth of the Banff townsite, capping the town's population at 10,000, placing quotas for popular hiking trails, and curtailing development in the park. Another recommendation was to fence off the townsite to reduce confrontations between people and elk. By fencing off the townsite, this measure was also intended to reduce access to this refuge for elk from predators, such as wolves that tended to avoid the townsite. Upon release of the report, Copps immediately moved to accept the proposal to cap the town population. She also ordered a small airstrip to be removed, along with a buffalo padlock, and cadet camp, that inhibited wildlife movement.
In response to concerns and recommendations raised by the Banff Bow Valley Study, a number of development plans were curtailed in the 1990s. Plans to add nine holes at the Banff Springs Golf Resort were withdrawn in 1996.
With the cap on growth in the Town of Banff, Canmore, located just outside the Banff boundary, has been growing rapidly to serve increasing demands of tourists. Major developments proposals for Canmore have included the Three Sisters Golf Resorts, proposed in 1992, which has been subject of contentious debate, with environmental groups arguing that the development would fragment important wildlife corridors in the Bow Valley.
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An additive color model involves light emitted directly from a source or illuminant of some sort. The additive reproduction process usually uses red, green and blue light to produce the other colors. See also RGB color model. Combining one of these additive primary colors with another in equal amounts produces the additive secondary colors cyan, magenta, and yellow. Combining all three primary lights (colors) in equal intensities produces white. Varying the luminosity of each light (color) eventually reveals the full gamut of those three lights (colors). Computer monitors and televisions are the most common application of additive color.
Results obtained when mixing additive colors are often counterintuitive for people accustomed to the more everyday subtractive color system of pigments, dyes, inks and other substances which present color to the eye by reflection rather than emission. For example, in subtractive color systems green is a combination of yellow and blue, in additive color, red + green = yellow and no simple combination will yield green. It should be noted that additive color is a result of the way the eye detects color, and is not a property of light. There is a vast difference between yellow light, with a wavelength of approximately 580 nm, and a mixture of red and green light. However, both stimulate our eyes in a similar manner, so we do not detect that difference. (see eye (cytology), color vision.)
James Clerk Maxwell is credited as being the father of additive color. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon three times, first with a red, then green, then blue color filter over the lens. The three images were developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors, each equipped with the corresponding red, green, or blue color filter used to take its image. When brought into register, the three images formed a full color image, thus demonstrating the principles of additive color.
- http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/1_P/1_photographers_maxwell.htm - Photos and stories from the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation.Template:Color-stub | <urn:uuid:abf96de5-4fdc-4f8d-b703-56b28fe9091d> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Color_additivity | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90914 | 453 | 3.703125 | 4 |
A quadriga is a chariot drawn by four horses (a two-horse team was called a biga, a three-horse team a triga) its main use was in races or as a triumphal chariot driven by victorious generals and emperors during triumphal processions. In battle the chariots that were used had two horses because a four horse chariot was way to hard to control.
The racing quadriga was immensely popular in ancient Rome. The charioteer drove standing upright in his chariot and he belonged to one of four teams or stables (factiones)(the red (russata), the green (prasina), the white (albata) or the blue (veneta). Everyone supported one of the four teams and this went so far that fights between supporters were not uncommon. Its known that the emperor Caligula was a huge green supporter who spend a lot of time with the riders and in the stables of his beloved team. With such an intense popularity its not strange that the best drivers were considered to be real superstars not unlike modern day sports stars. Gaius Appuleius Diocles was perhaps the greatest star of them all. He was a quadriga charioteer who is said to have contested in 4257 races. Of those he finished second 1437 times and won 1462, his winnings totaled nearly 36 million sesterces. During Caligula's reign the great name was Eutyches, he was the emperors favorite and he received no less than two million sesterces in rewards and prizes.
The most famous racing arena was the Circus Maximus which could seat no less then 250000 people, it dates back to the sixth century BC and was approximately 1,970-feet long and 660-feet wide. The two horses in the middle of a quadriga where tight to the yoke and the two outer horses where connected to the middle horses with sturdy ropes. All races were run counterclockwise. The horse closest to the spina, or median wall of the course, had to be the strongest and the best trained. This was especially true in quadriga races where the outside-right had to drop back a half stride and pull the others around the corner. The outside-left horse on a quadriga stepped forward, turned in, and pushed around the turns. It had to have the most stamina since it actually ran farther, and faster around the turns. This outside horse was considered to be the most valuable. The race lasted seven laps around the stadium, for a length of roughly 4000 meters when measured in the Circus Maximus. There were incredible tight turns at either end of the track, around the narrow isle (spina) which divided the arena. Each end of the spina would be formed by an obelisk, which was called the meta. The charioteers would try to corner the meta as tightly as possible and this could lead to crashes which were quite frequent and spectacular and of course part of the entertainment, not unlike modern day autoraces. Rules were virtually none existent and the first to complete the seven rounds was the winner. A lot of drivers died at a young age, they had almost no protection and wore only a light helmet. They tended to wrap the rains tightly around themselves so that they could control the horses with their bodyweight but in case of an accident they would be dragged along by the horses and ran the risk of being trampled to death. The races however were by no means as deadly as other forms of Roman entertainment, drivers and horses could win and survive hundreds of races. For a (perhaps not entirely historically correct) spectacular quadriga race see the racing scene in the movie Ben Hur.
The other use of the quadriga was during triumphal parades, a procession in which a victorious general entered the city in a chariot drawn by four, preferably snow-white, horses (sometimes four elephants).A line from the Greek poet Simonides reads:
"To win glory, stepping into the chariot of honored Nike: for to one man only does the goddess grant to jump into her great carriage."
Nike was the Greek equivalent of the Roman Victory. After Augustus this honor of a triumphal parade was strictly reserved for the emperor. He was preceded by his captives and spoils taken in war and was followed by his troops. His captive was preferably the enemy king or chieftain who would be unceremoniously killed after the parade. The procession went up to the Capitoline hill where sacrifices would be made at the temple of Jupiter. Jupiter was considered to be the conqueror of all things and was the god in whose honor a triumph was held. The triumphal quadriga was a splendid piece of work sculpted and painted with wonderful decorations finished with gold and ivory. The extremities of the axle, the pole, and the yoke, were highly wrought in the form of animals' heads. The chariot was elevated so that he who triumphed might be the most conspicuous person in the procession, and for the same reason he was obliged to stand erect. A slave stood behind the triumphator and held a golden laurel crown over his head (not touching it). This slave had to repeat continuously "Memento homo." (Remember you are mortal) warning that all glory is fleeting.
On coins the quadriga was used as a symbol of victory and its often driven by Victory herself. The quadriga was a feature commonly found on the Greek coins of Syracuse. The early silver coinage of the Republic resembled those coins and included a didrachm and drachm denomination. The didrachm was known as the quadrigatus due to the commonly used quadriga reverse design. The quadriga's on coins are not only pulled by horses or elephants but also by goats and even snakes. On later Roman coins the quadriga is often driven by a deity or the emperor himself with sometimes Victory flying overhead holding a laurel wreath over his or her head. The quadriga is also used on posthumous coins taking the emperor to the heavens and is also depicted as the chariot of Sol Invictvs. | <urn:uuid:7aca64ac-151e-4a17-8371-d11f1e333f4a> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://sp88k.home.xs4all.nl/Coin/Traveler/Objects/Quadriga.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985948 | 1,277 | 3.5 | 4 |
LAWS SPECIFIC TO ARCHEOLOGY
Virtually every state has adopted laws specifically to protect archeological sites. Protection tends to be achieved through controlling the practice of archeology, such as how or by whom a site is excavated, rather than regulating the uses of the land of which the site is a part. The establishment of a permit system and prohibitions on unscientific investigations, sometimes called looting, pothunting, or relic-hunting, are common. Many of the state laws mimic those at the federal level that govern activities on federal lands.
|STRATEGY||BENEFITS||PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO|
|Antiquities Statutes. Protects archeological sites by requiring a permit to excavate sites on public land or specially designated sites. Provides penalties for violations. Federal government and nearly all states have enacted antiquities legislation; some local communities may have adopted ordinances to prohibit unauthorized excavation and metal detecting on public lands. The antiquities statutes of some states cover private lands.
See Case Study 19
|Permit process ensures that archeological work is carried out according to professional standards. Prosecutions of looters and vandals can serve as a deterrent.||Effective only when application is made. Needs monitoring and enforcement to catch violators. May not cover private lands. Doesn't control land uses that can damage or destroy sites.|
|Burial Laws. Similar to antiquities laws, burial laws regulate the archeological removal of human burials by a permitting system, and often require the return of human skeletal remains and associated funerary objects that can be related to modern tribes or descendants. Provides penalties for violations. Other relevant state and local laws regulate the establishment and operation of active cemeteries; establish procedures for authorized removal and reinterment of burials; provide penalties for vandalism, desecration, and unauthorized disinterments; and often address abandoned or unmarked cemeteries.||Permit process ensures that archeological work is carried out according to professional standards. Prosecutions of looters and vandals can serve as a deterrent.||Only applies if burial is to be disinterred or excavated. Requires monitoring and enforcement. May not cover all types of burials, or other types of sites. Does not control land uses that can damage or destroy human burials.|
|Abandoned Shipwrecks. The federal Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 gives states title and management responsibility to certain abandoned shipwrecks in their waters. States followed with laws of their own to protect underwater sites and allow sport diving.||Permitting system ensures that archeological work is carried out according to professional standards. Penalties for violations can deter looters.||Effective only when permit application is made. Needs monitoring and enforcement. Multiple agency jurisdictions can complicate statute administration. State laws vary in their effectiveness in protecting shipwrecks.| | <urn:uuid:d0c27ca7-6e73-4ece-a1ab-d911a642faef> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://tps.cr.nps.gov/pad/strat4.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926516 | 594 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Coral reef ecosystems are under assault from multiple stressors. These range from local to global disturbances, some falling into the realm of naturally-induced. Some of these disturbances can be exacerbated through anthropogenic means. Some of the most insidious threats to these ecosystems are completely human-induced, such as the current inextricable acidification of the global ocean.
There have been mechanisms proposed that corals could theoretically use to deal with a rapidly changing global environment, particularly a warming surface ocean. Existing coral reef ecosystems are built around a symbiosis between the corals themselves and an intracellular photosynthetic dinoflagellate symbiont, within the genus Symbiodinium. Shallow-sea corals are capable of capturing bits of organic matter and small plankton in the water column for subsidence, but these organisms garner most of their energy from their photosynthetic tenants. Bleaching occurs when this symbiosis is compromised–one common mechanism is heat stress. Other causes exist, but bleaching via heat stress is an increasing dominant phenomenon; stark bleaching predictions related to oceanic temperature anomalies were recently announced for most of the Caribbean. Scleractinian corals (stony, hypercalcifying, reef-building corals) show variability in terms of which species bleach at certain thermal thresholds, as well as their geographic locations around the world. This variability may be at least partially explained by the different symbiont types within the corals. All types of coral symbionts are apparently not equal in how they can deal with warmer temperatures. For example, evidence exists that type D symbionts are more abundant after severe bleaching episodes and the ensuing mortality1. One proposed hypothesis states that reef-building corals can switch out their existing internal symbionts in exchange for more heat-tolerant symbiont types. A study in the Public Library of Science2 warns that this mechanism may not the panacea hoped for. Colonies of a scleractinian coral, Porites divaricata, were bleached and then exposed to symbiont types not usually found associated with this species. Some colonies were actually able to uptake these new symbionts–the first time that this environmental acquisition has been shown experimentally for scleractinian corals–however, this was an evanescent acquisition. Only the original symbiont types proved to be stable during the bleaching recovery, implying that not all corals have the capacity to acclimate to a warming ocean by uptaking more heat-resistant symbionts.
However, a recent review of coral reef resilience3 by Dr Terry Hughes and collagues reveals guarded optimism for these heavily-impacted ecosystems, provided that action is taken. In this context, resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to absorb and adapt to disturbances, without ecosystem functions being profoundly altered. These disturbances can vary in their rates of change; for instance, when long-term stressors are at a low level, reefs can be acted upon point (acute) disturbances of greater magnitude and speed and still recover. The authors point out that natural dynamics are inherent in complex biological systems–Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef loses almost all coral cover on a decadal basis due to cyclones, yet can recover due to their locally high resilience. However, this is proving to be the exception, rather then the rule: many reef systems have been pushed near the proverbial tipping-point, rending them ecologically unable to recover from acute, high-magnitude disturbances. Hurricanes are enormously powerful disturbances, yet resilient reefs will recover relatively quickly. However, even a gradual shift away from a coral-dominated ecosystem from long-term chronic impacts, say increased levels of pollution or sedimentation, can reduce resilience over time. These types of local stressors can accumulate and produce community changes without acute, large disturbances. Even some deep reef sites, below wave action and thus unaffected from hurricanes, have been gradually moved away from normally coral-dominated ecosystems, undergoing phase-shifts. Unfortunately, these local impacts can be compounded by global impacts such as invasive species, warming, and ocean acidification. Phase-shifts refer to a change in the species assemblage to one that is not normally dominant. Consider the Caribbean. Coral cover has declined by ~80-90% since the late 1970s at sites throughout the region, while macroalgae cover has increased markedly. In a nutshell, many grazing fishes were once present, keeping the macroalgae at bay and allowing for both the persistence of coral-dominated reefs and the settlement of coral larvae. Once these grazer populations were exploited by overfishing, a sea urchin became the dominant grazer until it was decimated from a disease epidemic in the early 1980s. This die-off was a pivotal event, and phase-shifts to algal systems become to become more common and many reefs are still operating under this alternative stable state today. Atolls in the Pacific are thought to be much more resilient to these types of ecological changes, due to lower fishing pressure and less directly-induced human impacts overall. On the other hand, the isolation of these oceanic oases means that these sites are much more self-dependent than other sites, due to reduced larval connectivity (e.g. coral reef organisms’ larvae have less success getting to isolated sites, simply due to distance and ocean currents).
So is there good news to be had? These phase-shifts have been shown to be reversible in some cases. Diadema antillarum populations in the Caribbean is recovering, albeit slowly and in spatially discrete locations, providing increased herbivory on some reefs–at these locations, the macroalae is being grazed back and coral-dominated systems are possible again. This is not widespread currently, as most Caribbean reefs continue to be algal-dominated. Another example of the reversibility of these trends involve No-Take-Zones (NTAs), a type of Marine Protected Area (MPA). In the Bahamas, NTAs have resulted in higher densities of herbivorous fishes, contributing to declining macroalgal cover and more young corals settling on the reef. MPAs have also been shown to increase coral cover on a global basis.
Rather than dealing with each threat to coral reefs individually, a common approach, they must be dealt with in an integrated, proactive fashion, rather than reactively after the damage is likely already done. Hughes et al. stress the need for: the enforcement of harvesting regulations, local education, integrative decision-making via better access to “international networks of expertise”, and the confrontation of climate change by rapidly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Rapid climate change and ocean acidification will ultimately undo any management policies for coral reef ecosystems. It is imperative for the state of coral reefs worldwide to be recognized for what it is: “a crisis of governance.” Though the situation may be daunting, these systems can be saved.
[This article has been cross-posted, albeit with a different image 1, at The Urban Times, an online magazine.]
Images 1: Close-up of a scleractinian brain coral. From Flickr user Laszlo Ilyes (cc) 2: Scleractinian coral colonies shown before (A) and after (B) one month of increased temperatures (Coffroth et al 2010).
1. Baker AC, Starger CJ, McClanahan TR, & Glynn PW (2004). Coral reefs: corals’ adaptive response to climate change. Nature, 430 (7001) PMID: 15306799
2. Coffroth MA, Poland DM, Petrou EL, Brazeau DA, & Holmberg JC (2010). Environmental symbiont acquisition may not be the solution to warming seas for reef-building corals. PloS one, 5 (10) PMID: 20949064
3. Hughes TP, Graham NA, Jackson JB, Mumby PJ, & Steneck RS (2010). Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience. Trends in ecology & evolution (Personal edition) PMID: 20800316 | <urn:uuid:326cd2c2-e370-46a2-8def-1b6d0cf56171> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://unchartedatolls.com/tag/coral/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9332 | 1,669 | 4.125 | 4 |
Who might you meet if you could visit Europe 35,000 years ago?
If you ran across people who looked pretty ordinary, you'd have met Cro-Magnon people, or "European Early Modern Humans." However, you might run across folks who are somewhat shorter and stockier, with heftier bone structures and somewhat protruding foreheads. Such was the appearance of Neanderthals.
Bones of over 400 individual Neanderthals have been unearthed across the vast expanse of Europe, the Middle East, and much of western and central Asia. They existed in one part or another of this region for roughly 200,000 years.
Modern humans started migrating to Europe from Africa only about 40,000 to 50,000 years ago. Though most Neanderthals were gone about 28,000 years ago, a few survived another 4000 years. The last evidence for them is found in Southern Spain on the coast of Gibraltar.
It has been hard to learn about the first 100,000 years of Neanderthal's existence. This was the period of the Last Glacial Age. Glaciers have the nasty habit of wiping out evidence of human-like habitation.
How are Neanderthals related to other humans? Family trees illustrate the lines of descent of individuals, or groups of people, from their ancestors. As with all living things, the family tree for humans is very bush-like.
The broad picture of that tree is not in dispute. However, for closely related ancestors, disagreements occur about the exact nature of the branching. There are a lot of fossils and biomolecular and DNA data that must all fit together to tell a coherent story.
It is still a matter of debate whether Neanderthals are a subspecies of our species or a unique species of their own. Fossil and DNA evidence show the two diverged somewhere between 400,000 and just over 500,000 years ago.
Both are members of the genus Homo. Their last common ancestor was a variety of Homo erectus. There is fossil evidence that, once they diverged, there were a number of intermediaries. The most recent ancestor of Neanderthals is, Homo Heidelbergensis. Their oldest fossils in Europe date to about 600,000 years ago.
It wasn't until 2009 that the Neanderthal genome was completely decoded. Comparison with genomes of modern people from around the globe has shed light on interbreeding between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons.
A study published in May of this year shows 1 to 4 percent of the genetic material of non-Africans to have Neanderthal origins. The evidence further indicates that whatever interbreeding occurred, it happened shortly after the migration of modern humans out of Africa.
Though the newcomers from Africa coexisted with Neanderthals for well over 10,000 years, there is no evidence of direct conflict. They surely competed for some of the same resources. However, the newcomers had some significantly advantageous skills.
The total population of Neanderthals was never more than a few hundred thousand. They lived in widely separated, small groups. For a long time before moderns appeared, the climate had been one of relatively mild cyclical changes.
Soon after modern humans arrived, those cycles sped up. These circumstances created extreme challenges. In the end, they were simply overwhelmed and, it now seems, to some extent, absorbed by modern humans.
It is becoming increasingly evident they were unlikely to have been the brutish, plodding creatures they are often depicted to be. In fact, their brain sizes were comparable to our own. Recent finds show we have been mistaken about how advanced at least some of them were in tool making.
The northern and southern populations of Neanderthals became separated at some point. Each seems to have adapted to climate change and encroachment of moderns differently. Archeological sites in Southern Italy and the Southern Caucasus Mountains have yielded artifacts that include blade-like stone tools, bone weapons and tools, ochre for coloring, and implements for fishing.
In some of these discoveries, evidence indicates that, though their tools were less sophisticated, they were created and developed independent of influence from modern humans. It would also seem that, in some regions, their hunting skills were not substantially inferior to contemporary Cro-Magnon humans. Neanderthals were probably more intelligent than we once thought.
It is fascinating to see how evidence continues to come together creating an ever sharper picture of human ancestry. New species were spun off branches of the family tree at various times. Sometimes the old line persisted, only to later find itself co-habiting some space with their descendants.
Those descendants would have changed after adapting to the unique environment they occupied during their separation. The extent to which they competed upon finding themselves in overlapping territory depended on the nature of those changes and the demands of their current environment.
Neanderthals were displaced and to a small extent absorbed by Cro-magnon humans. Whether they would have met their demise without the competitive pressure imposed by immigrants from Africa, we probably can never learn. History runs in just one direction, we can't rewind and see if things would be different if circumstances were slightly different.
Steve Luckstead is a medical physicist in the radiation oncology department at Providence St. Mary Medical Center. He can be reached at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:588610fb-027f-431f-8c8a-336b0f620abd> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://union-bulletin.com/news/2011/jan/03/science-matter-its-difficult-to-know-why/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975699 | 1,093 | 3.984375 | 4 |
Certain disease outbreaks, including some of the worst pandemics of the 20th century, are linked to weather patterns in the Pacific Ocean, according to new research. Scientists said tracking these climate changes can help officials anticipate and plan for surges in illnesses.
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle causes ripples through the global climate, changing rainfall and air currents. These shifts, in turn, can cause disease carriers to interact in new ways, creating novel pathogens. Weather changes can also increase the number of people exposed to a disease, increasing the likelihood of an outbreak.
El Niño is the warm phase of the ENSO, characterized by unusually high sea surface temperatures along the equator in the Pacific, lasting between nine months and two years, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
The temperature changes seem small -- usually 0.5 to 1 degree Celsius -- but they can alter rainfall patterns all over the world. "It's a shift in the large-scale dynamics of the tropical atmosphere," said Jon Gottschalck, head of forecast operations at NOAA's Climate Prediction Center. "It's not regular, and it's not predictable. They call it an oscillation, but it's an aperiodic oscillation."
After three to five years, the ENSO usually cycles to La Niña, when sea surface temperatures reach a low point. Gottschalck said this leads to more rainfall over Indonesia while weakening jet streams -- fast-moving, high-altitude air currents -- and pushing them further north. This leads to drier conditions in the southern United States.
Currently, the planet is in the middle of a La Niña phase, and parts of the American South, like Texas, experienced record drought last year.
Shifts in bird migrations create flu strains
These regular precipitation patterns change how migratory birds interact. The birds are vectors for the influenza virus. As their populations split off and reunite every few years due to ENSO, new flu strains emerge. "Flu is interesting because it mutates all the time," explained Jeffrey Shaman, an assistant professor in the Environmental Health Sciences department at the Mailman School of Public Health at Columbia University. The illness is transmitted through feces, fluids and aerosols.
As the flu virus reproduces in its host, it changes over time. When carriers are separated, the virus mutates differently in the two groups. Once La Niña comes around, disparate bird populations start to mingle again, increasing the likelihood that a carrier is infected with more than one variety of the virus.
These two versions can then form hybrid viruses in a process known as reassortment. "This reassortment happens more often than there are pandemics. In order for there to be a pandemic, there needs to be a radical change," said Shaman. | <urn:uuid:4022f62c-7fee-47c3-ac12-57fa2ea220e8> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.accuweather.com/en/health-articles/aches-pains/el-nino-climate-pattern-may-in/60960 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938752 | 579 | 3.859375 | 4 |
ohmArticle Free Pass
ohm, abbreviation Ω, unit of electrical resistance in the metre-kilogram-second system, named in honour of the 19th-century German physicist Georg Simon Ohm. It is equal to the resistance of a circuit in which a potential difference of one volt produces a current of one ampere (1Ω = 1 V/A); or, the resistance in which one watt of power is dissipated when one ampere flows through it. Ohm’s law states that resistance equals the ratio of the potential difference to current, and the ohm, volt, and ampere are the respective fundamental units used universally for expressing quantities.
Impedance, the apparent resistance to an alternating current, and reactance, the part of impedance resulting from capacitance or inductance, are circuit characteristics that are measured in ohms. The acoustic ohm and the mechanical ohm are analogous units sometimes used in the study of acoustic and mechanical systems, respectively.
What made you want to look up "ohm"? Please share what surprised you most... | <urn:uuid:c70af884-b34d-4608-99ad-799bcb081f34> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/426051/ohm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916071 | 222 | 3.875 | 4 |
WHAT IS SUCCULENT PLANT?
Succulents are plants from more than 60 families and 300 genera. They have evolved special water-storage tissues in thickened or swollen leaves, stems or roots as an adaptation to arid environments. By making the most of scarce available moisture, succulents can survive in habitats that are far too dry for most other plants.
Leaf Succulents: Leaves are almost entirely composed of water storage cells covered by a thin layer of photosynthetic tissue.
Examples: Aloe, Haworthia, Lithops, Sempervivum.
Stem Succulents: Fleshy stems contain water storage cells overlaid by photosynthetic tissue. Leaves are almost or entirely absent, reducing surface area to prevent evaporative loss of water.
Examples: most cacti, Euphorbia obesa, Stapelia.
Root Succulents: Swollen fleshy roots store water underground away from the heat of the sun and hungry animals. Stems and leaves are often deciduous and shed during prolonged dry seasons.
Examples: Calibanus hookeri, Fockea edulis, Pterocactus kunzei, Peniocereus striatus.
Click on image to enlarge | <urn:uuid:a8b682df-6ece-4746-934a-7f8d53dea3aa> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.cactusinfo.net/succulents.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.877567 | 267 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Jesus walks on the water to the boat of the apostles and Peter tries to walk out to meet Jesus but sinks in the water.
These activities books and graphics are FREE for use by families and non-profit organizations at home, school or church but may not be copied to other websites without written permission.
Children love for teachers to tell them a story. Tell you students the Bible story using the printed story books or displaying the story on your iPad or tablet. Pick out and print the pages from the activity books that are appropriate for your class.
Lesson Activities, Worksheets and iPad/Tablet Storybook:
Download the Flip Chart in PDF version above or PowerPoint Slideshow format below for iPad, tablet or video projector:
Children's Bible Story Images:
Individual images for teacher use. Click on the thumbnails to view the full size image.
Jesus Walks on Water Cover Page
BIBLE TEXT: The story is taken from Matthew 14:22-33. Teachers should read the story first to review what they are teaching. Simplified story text is associated with each chart for the teacher to read as they show the material. MATTHEW 14:22 Immediately Jesus made the disciples get into the boat and go on ahead of him to the other side, while he dismissed the crowd. 23 After he had dismissed them, he went up on a mountainside by himself to pray. When evening came, he was there alone, 24 but the boat was already a considerable distance from land, buffeted by the waves because the wind was against it. 25 During the fourth watch of the night Jesus went out to them, walking on the lake. 26 When the disciples saw him walking on the lake, they were terrified. "It’s a ghost," they said, and cried out in fear. 27 But Jesus immediately said to them: "Take courage! It is I. Don’t be afraid." 28 "Lord, if it’s you," Peter replied, "tell me to come to you on the water." 29 "Come," he said. Then Peter got down out of the boat, walked on the water and came towards Jesus. 30 But when he saw the wind, he was afraid and, beginning to sink, cried out, "Lord, save me!" 31 Immediately Jesus reached out his hand and caught him. "You of little faith," he said, "why did you doubt?" 32 And when they climbed into the boat, the wind died down. 33 Then those who were in the boat worshipped him, saying, "Truly you are the Son of God."(NIV)STORY TO TELL: Today we are learning the story about Jesus walking on the water.
Jesus Walks on Water Flip Chart Cover Page
Welcome to the Lessons of Love children’s series as provided with love by the church of Christ in Carbondale, Illinois. These lessons and illustrations were created using paper flip charts and colored markers. You can print these out from PowerPoint and use as regular flip charts. Print the illustrations on one side of the paper and the notes on the other. You can also simply present them from your computer. These lessons are copyrighted but are provided free for your use. You may use them as long as you don’t charge money for them. If you wish to use them in a commercial project, email Terry Taylor for permission.
Jesus Prays by Himself
Jesus needed some time alone, so He told His Apostles to get in a boat and go ahead of Him to Bethsaida. Then Jesus dismissed the crowd that was with Him and went up to a mountain by himself.
Jesus Walks on Water
Now the boat with the apostles in it was out in the middle of the lake and Jesus saw that the apostles were really having a hard time rowing the boat because the wind was against them. On toward morning while it was still dark, Jesus went walking across the water toward the apostles. He intended to walk on past them but they saw Him and thought He was a ghost. They cried out in fear. Jesus called to the men, “Don’t be afraid. It’s just me.”
Peter Walks on Water
When Peter realized it was Jesus and saw what He was doing, he thought, “I ‘d like to do that too.” So he called Jesus, “Lord if it’s really you, let me com to you on the water.” Jesus said, “Come.”Then Peter got out of the boat and walked on the water toward Jesus. Everything was going fine as long as peter kept his eyes on Jesus. But when he began to notice the wind, he became afraid.
Peter began to sink. “Help, I’m drowning,” he screamed. Jesus reached out to him and took his hand and said, “Peter, why do you have such little faith? Why do you doubt?”(Application may be made here that as long as we keep our eyes on Jesus and His power, we can walk over our own problems. But when we begin to focus our attention on our problems and our own power to solve them, we begin sinking in our problems.)
Apostles Worship Jesus
And Jesus and Peter got back into the boat and the apostles fell down and worshipped Jesus. “Truly, you are the Son of God,” they said.
Similar Lessons On This Site: | <urn:uuid:d53ef11a-986a-4355-bcb2-b500f9ee9856> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.ebibleteacher.com/children%20flip%20charts/walk_on_water_flipchart.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978004 | 1,127 | 3.5 | 4 |
Challenge your child to see who in the family has the “biggest” fist. "Big" is relative, but in math terms it refers to what has the most volume, from which you can discover the mass of the object. This is a fun way to introduce kids to the concept of volume, and give them a quick hands-on activity to boot.
What You Need:
- Container large enough for most hands
- Erasable marker or masking tape
What to Do:
- Find a container big enough for most hands. Fill it about halfway with water. Make a mark to show the water level.
- Have your child make a fist and put it in the water. Mark the water level on the container.
- Take the fist out. The amount of water that was between the marks equals the space that your child's hand took up.
- Who has a bigger fist? Who has the smallest one? To find out, have each person put his or her fist in the water. Mark the water level each time. The person who makes the water level rise the most has the biggest fist.
Did You Know? When Archimedes, the ancient Greek mathematician, hopped in the bathtub, he noticed that the water rose a certain amount, and realized that he had just discovered the way to measure volume. The story goes that he was so excited, he ran down the street naked shouting, “Eureka!” (that's Greek for "I've found it!") Though your child may not be quite so enthused, it's a great introduction to this important mathematical concept.
Reprinted with permission from "Math Detectives: Finding Fun in Numbers", the book that introduces geometry, probability, ratios, and more! Get your child on the case by becoming a "math detective" with this fun and engaging book. By Lalie Harcourt and Ricki Wortzman (Sterling Publishing, 2003)
Updated on Jun 10, 2013 | <urn:uuid:5a44be3f-9bec-45e7-ad09-ad69c87479c7> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.education.com/activity/article/volumescience_first/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957714 | 413 | 3.96875 | 4 |
is a person involved in the shaping of metal
objects. The traditional working place for a smith is a forge
or smithy. A smith working with iron
forging is a blacksmith
. Someone who works in silver
is a silversmith
; one who works with gold is a goldsmith
In pre-industrialized times, a smith was a person of high social standing, as he would supply the metal tools needed for efficient farming (especially the plough).
The Smith is also a river in the western United States of America (See Smith River.)
Smith is a relatively common surname amongst those of English descent. | <urn:uuid:5f587e90-b57c-4600-9ebd-93cb6656463c> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.encyclopedia4u.com/s/smith.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94367 | 134 | 3.53125 | 4 |
MIT's researchers have discovered a way to blend carbon nanotubes, current media darlings of the chemistry world, with an existing material used for storing heat energy. In doing so they've come up with something incredible: A new chemical, far cheaper than its competition, that can store solar heat energy with about the same density as the electrical power we jam into lithium-ion batteries. What could this mean? If we're lucky, in the sunnier parts of the world it could mean an end to home heating bills... but that's just the start.
The material works like this: The molecules are simply exposed to the radiation of plain, bright sunlight. Incoming energy excites the molecules, and causes some of their cleverly engineered chemical bonds to "flip" as they get excited. This means a tiny sliver of energy is stored in each bond, and if you have trillions of the molecules in a bulk material, this energy can quickly add up. To discharge this solar-thermo-chemical battery, you need a trigger such as a small burst of heat or a catalyst material, and the bonds begin to flip back to their resting state, releasing the stored energy as heat.
It's much cheaper than an earlier success, which contained the rare and expensive material ruthenium, and it's also about 10,000 times better than its competitors at storing energy densely--in fact it can fit in about as many units of energy per cubic centimeter as devices like lithium-ion batteries, a tech we now take for granted.
The benefits of this new material are myriad: It's cheap and doesn't degrade, so it can be recycled in the same apparatus day after day after day. Unlike other systems that grab solar energy and convert them into electrical energy, it can both store and release heat--with potential efficiencies in energy or design. It's an experimental material, but the MIT team is already looking at improving it and adapting the new tech.
But the implications of this sort of material are easy to overlook, because they seem so obvious. What if you could store the sun's heat energy falling onto your home's roof all day and then release it to heat your rooms up only when you get home after the late-night movie--long after darkness has fallen? No need to burn any gas or electricity to heat your home before bed. There's also no reason you couldn't supplement the solar-electric roof panels of your future electric car with a solar-thermal cell, and use it to capture heat in the office parking lot all day and then warm you on the way home, which would result in much higher efficiency for whatever fuel system your car uses.
With some design engineering spit-and-polish, it's even plausible the tech could result in heat "batteries" that you'd think about the same way you currently do for a bunch of AA cells. The sun's energy is boundless. The only thing keeping us from using it is our ability to convert it to electricity and store it. This is a giant leap toward solving that problem.
[Image: Flickr user guldfisken] | <urn:uuid:82d00db9-a988-4a1c-8b0e-f6a6500d5a32> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.fastcompany.com/1766774/suns-heat-now-demand | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95294 | 641 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Lecturer gives glimpse of cosmic ray research
A surface detector at Pierre Auger Observatory in Malargue, Argentina.
There's more than one way to study particle physics. You can use huge
man-made accelerators such as the Tevatron. Or you can rely on nature to
supply you with its tiniest constituents for research.
Tapping nature's supply of cosmic rays is one of the oldest forms of
particle physics research.
The Pierre Auger Observatory gives it a modern twist with cutting-edge
technology, including the world's largest array of detectors and solar
panels powering them used in an experiment.
Angela Olinto said the chance to find out about the birth of the universe
as well as work in a field with a long history drew her to the study of
cosmic rays and the Pierre Auger collaboration.
"The birth of particle physics is closely tied to cosmic rays," she says.
Olinto, a University of Chicago Astronomy and Astrophysics professor,
captivated an audience of about 500 people at Fermilab Feb. 27 for a lecture
on the Pierre Auger Observatory, the world's largest cosmic-ray experiment,
based in Argentina.
Cosmic rays may provide a window into exotic, undiscovered particles or
explain dark matter, the mysterious, invisible force thought to influence
the spinning of stars and hold galaxies together.
Ultimately scientists want to know the origin of cosmic rays. The Pierre
Auger Observatory project, which includes 700 scientists, 70 institutions
and 18 countries, in 2007, announced that active galactic nuclei are the
most likely source of the high-energy cosmic rays. These massive black holes
swallow gas, dust and matter from galaxies and spew out particles and
-- Kristine Crane | <urn:uuid:60f67b45-c55c-48dc-81f9-5f1b68cc52b3> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.fnal.gov/pub/today/archive/archive_2009/today09-03-10.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879232 | 373 | 3.90625 | 4 |
The purpose of Writer's Workshop is to help students draft, share, edit, and publish their writing. Teachers provide daily mini-lessons on ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions.
ROLE OF THE EDUCATOR:
- Work with whole class or small groups of students to provide general guidance on any aspects of writing
- Provide specific instruction on mini-lessons
- Allow students to select their own topics with feedback from educators
- Give individual conferences with writers, giving selected feedback
WHAT OBSERVERS WILL SEE:
- Use of word walls, dictionaries, thesaurus, and other resources to help students write
- Use of words like ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions used by educators and students
- Use of mini-lessons for honing the craft of writing
- Examples of books written by the students displayed and celebrated
WRITER’S WORKSHOP OVERVIEW:
All students participate in a writer’s workshop process to help improve their writing. Here are the components of the workshop. (Schleper, 2002):
1. First Draft:
Each student writes about a topic that holds special interest to them. For some, this means drawing a picture. For others, it may be writing a complex story.
2. Share With Class:
Each student shares the writing with the class. As each student finishes sharing, the group queries the student about the writing. One person will write down the questions. This list of questions is later used by the writer to guide the revision.
3. Second Draft:
When the student finishes sharing, the student then begins working on the second draft.
4. Content Conference:
Once finished with the second draft, the student and educator meet for a content conference, where the educator reviews the writer’s progress and may suggest additional improvements.
The student self-edits the piece, using forms developed by the educator.
6. Editing Conference with Educators:
After self-editing, the student puts the writing in an editing box. The educator reads through the piece, highlighting the positive aspects as well as those needing improvements. Together, the educator and student meet, discuss what works and what needs work, and then the student makes necessary changes to the story.
7. Prepare for Publishing:
The student composes the writing, including a "dedication" and an "about the author" section. The whole piece is then typed on a computer.
8. Publish the Book:
The student binds their book, shares it with the class, and shares it with parents and caregivers.
During the daily writer’s workshop, educators and students participate in:
- Mini-Lessons (10 minutes) on techniques for writing
- Writing (30 minutes) for all, while educators observe and have conference with students
- Sharing (10 minutes) where students shared what they are working on
For more information about Writer's Workshop, click on the topic of interest below:
6 + 1 Traits for Writing:
At the Clerc Center, the 6+1 Traits Writing Framework is used for an analytic scoring system and to develop mini-lessons.
The 6+1 Trait Writing Framework, developed by the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory in Portland, Oregon, is a powerful way to learn and use a common language to refer to characteristics of writing, as well as create a common vision of what “good writing” looks like. The traits include:
- Ideas —the content of the piece, the main theme along with the details that enrich and develop that theme.
- Organization—the internal structure, the thread of central meaning.
- Voice—the author’s feelings, humor, and emotions regarding the subject written. The author includes a personal tone that distinguishes the piece from others.
- Word choice—the use of rich, colorful, precise language that moves and enlighten the reader.
- Sentence fluency—variety and rhythm in the writing. The writing is free of awkward word patterns that slow or confuse the reader.
- Conventions—little details such as spelling, punctuation, paragraph indentation, capitalization, grammar, and word usage that make the piece work.
- Presentation—includes a nice, clean, clear piece that is pleasing and attractive to the reader.
A GOOD PLACE TO START:
For more information about the 6+1 Trait Writing Framework, visit the following Web sites:
Good Books for Teaching 6 + 1 Traits in the Classroom [ PDF, 22KB ]
For Mini-Lesson Information:
Atwell, N. Lessons That Change Writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, c2002.
Culham, R. Picture Books: An Annotated Bibliography with Activities for Teaching Writing. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, c1998.
Dierking, C. C., and Jones, S. Growing Up Writing: Mini-Lessons for Emergent and Beginning Writers. NY: Maupin House Publishers, c2003.
Fletcher, R., and Portalupi, J. Craft Lessons: Teaching Writing K-8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, c1998.
Hoyt, L. Snapshots: Literacy Minilessons Up Close. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, c2000.
Lane, B. After the End: Teaching and Learning Creative Revision. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, c1993.
Portalupi, J., and Fletcher, R. Nonfiction Craft Lessons: Teaching Information Writing, K-8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, c2001.
Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of Writing. NY: Scholastic, c2003.
Fisher, S. The Writer’s Workshop. Washington, DC: Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center at Gallaudet University, c1994.
Schleper, D. R. "Writer’s workshop: I-Chun “Eugene” Shih=Brave student." Odyssey, 1:2, (Spring 2000), 23-26.
Spandel, V. Creating Writers Through 6-Trait Writing Assessment and Instruction. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Publishers, c2001.
CLERC CENTER RESOURCES: | <urn:uuid:d9367bec-3edb-4097-844d-d1b4aecbcbdc> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.gallaudet.edu/Clerc_Center/Information_and_Resources/Info_to_Go/Language_and_Literacy/Literacy_at_the_Clerc_Center/Literacy-It_All_Connects/Writers_Workshop.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.891596 | 1,335 | 4.125 | 4 |
Playground Activities that Promote Character Development
Designing inclusive play environments that meet the 7 Principles of Inclusive Playground Design™ is a critical first step to provide the foundation for inclusive play to occur. However, teaching or providing children with strategies about how they can successfully play together can be just as important.
Developed in partnership with the National Lekotek Center, 2PlayTogether: Fostering Friendships Through Inclusive Play equips educators and programmers with tips and playground activities to promote meaningful play, understanding, and fun between children with and without disabilities.
The resources and playground activities are specifically designed to promote character development and build inclusive communities by:
- Creating awareness
- Breaking down barriers
- Fostering friendships | <urn:uuid:dbf3ede9-eb0d-4470-a2b1-2feeddfb4bc1> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.gametime.com/resources/curriculum-programs/2play-together/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931853 | 149 | 3.703125 | 4 |
AWRI Information Services Center
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A Geographic Information System is a collection of tools that are used to (1) create, display, modify and organize geo-spatial information and (2) permit the analysis of this geo-spatial data in "real world" decision making. Natural resource professionals manage a wide range of environmental conditions over a variety of landscapes and need to carefully monitor any changes or modifications to these systems over time. A GIS can be used by these managers to model and implement management alternatives and assess any potential impacts, so that they may sustain, protect and improve the resource.
With discrete geographic locations stored in a computer as sets of mathematical coordinates, any type of map can be produced. It is possible to create a map of the world, your neighborhood, or a map of the watershed you live in.
GIS also allows the user to display multiple layers simultaneously and analyze each layer in respect to the other. For instance, a map could display one layer showing soil type, an elevation layer, and a land use layer. By integrating these layers together, a user can decide where the best areas for agriculture would be.
Combining all of these aspects together, GIS can develop models allowing the user to predict processes using sample data. With the use of GIS layers, assumptions about the movements of forces like winds and tides, and other data like average rainfall for an area a user can predict spatially over time the spread of oil slicks, wildfires, or even erosion.
Newaygo County Road/Stream Crossing Decision Support System using ESRI Arcview 3.3 Software
The Global Positioning System was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) as a global navigation system, originally made exclusively for the military, later released for civilian use. The GPS is constructed of more than twenty-four geosynchrous satellites orbiting the Earth, at an altitude of over twenty thousand kilometers. These satellites constantly transmit their positions as a a data signal to ground based stationary receiving stations around the world, fixing their orbiting locations as global geographic reference points. GPS mobile users can then determine their location as an accurate geographic position from anywhere on the earth, down to a few meters.
After collection of GPS coordinates, they can be used in a GIS. Let's say you wanted to map the locations of your favorite campgrounds throughout the state. After getting a GPS point for each campground you can use them in a GIS overlayed with other layers, such as roads, streams, and lakes.
For more information regarding GIS visit the GIS Lounge.
While GIS is relatively new much advancement has been made since the first software was available. One such advancement is the capability for distributing GIS and mapping services via the internet. Using ArcIMS (a component of ArcGIS) enables users to integrate local data sources with internet data sources for display, query, and analysis.
Anyone from the general public to our local decision makers can have access to a variety of data layers for many of our watersheds in Western Michigan using the WIM. The ISC developed the WIM as part of the Lower Grand River Watershed Project, but have extended it's use to many of the watersheds throughout Michigan.
The WIM can be a a very useful tool for local watershed groups, educational institutions, or even the general public who are interested in learning more about the watershed they live in. Click on the following link WIM to access the Interactive Mapping.
Page last modified November 19, 2011 | <urn:uuid:66f21691-acf4-4b41-998e-b3abbead8e31> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.gvsu.edu/wri/isc/geographic-information-systems-gis--62.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922535 | 730 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Because people pronounce things differently, there are no “official rules” for transliterating Hebrew letters and words into the English alphabet. Because there are various transliteration schemes, often you will find different transliterations (and hear different pronunciations) for the same Hebrew word!
For example, Ashkenazi (German and eastern European) pronunciations common in English-speaking countries often shift “a” sounds towards “o,” turn some “t’s” into “s’s,” and accent the next-to-last syllable whereas Israelis accent the last syllable. For example, Ashkenaz say “Shab•bos” instead of “Shab•bat”; “Mo•shi•ach” instead of “Ma•shi•ach”; and “Tal•lis” instead of “Tal•lit”.
Of course, Hebrew vowels marks are also transliterated using English vowel letters
(A E I O and U). See Section 2.9 for more information.
On this web site, transliterations will use dots to separate syllables and the accented syllable will be shown in boldface. For example:
Advanced Grammatical Note
(You may ignore this information if you are just learning the Aleph-Bet)
The Begedkephat letters are transliterated as indicated in the table above, though you should be aware that the dagesh in any one of these letters may be Chazak (strong) rather than Kal (weak). If the dagesh is Chazak, the Begedkephat letter will be preceded by a vowel; in other words, if the dageshed letter opens a syllable (or word), then you can assume it is Kal, not Chazak. This will become more important in Unit Three when discussing how to divide Hebrew words into syllables. The Dagesh Chazak “doubles” the consonantal value whereas the Dagesh Kal does not. | <urn:uuid:53975046-7570-4869-b530-e0bfcb46547d> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Transliteration/transliteration.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.863687 | 440 | 3.9375 | 4 |
What is the essential message of Hanukkah, the beloved Festival of Lights? Like many of our holidays, this celebration is protean, shifting shape to accommodate our changing Jewish needs. American Jews have viewed it as a celebration of religious freedom, as if Judah Maccabee were an ancient Roger Williams, championing the rights of religious minorities and establishing the separation of religion and state. Israelis have seen the Maccabees as early nationalists, rising up to wrest sovereignty over the Holy Land from its foreign occupiers, and establishing a political refuge where Jews could live in dignified self-determination. Mystics have viewed Hanukkah as the recurrent flow of hidden light from the uppermost realms of heaven into the darkest expanses of the material world so that every year is a miraculous expression of divine grace. And children everywhere have claimed Hanukkah as their own—it is the festival of candles, candies, doughnuts, games, and presents galore.
These multiple meanings may each claim a measure of plausibility, since defining the historical Hanukkah is practically futile. While the Hasmoneans (Maccabees) were in some ways traditionalists who sought to augment Jewish ethnic and religious solidarity in the face of Hellenism, they themselves were also innovators who bucked venerable Jewish traditions. Historian Seth Schwartz reviews some of these innovations in his book Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BCE to 640 CE. The Hasmoneans were from neither the Davidic line of Judean kings nor the Zadokite line of the high priests, yet they eventually claimed both of these crowns. While they opposed the Seleucids, they integrated Greek language, rhetoric, and material culture into their own governing practices. The Hasmoneans conquered neighboring territories and mass-converted the Idumeans and other ethnic groups. This large-scale integration of non-Judeans into the Jewish religion was in contrast to prior and subsequent Jewish policy, and had far-reaching consequences. Eventually, the Hasmoneans turned on each other, drawing in the Romans and sowing the seeds of destruction for Jewish sovereignty, Temple worship, and even existence in Judea.
The Hasmoneans both resisted and embraced Greek culture, and their holiday therefore exemplifies the inner Jewish conflict between piety and assimilation. Hanukkah always feels contemporary because most Jews continue to feel conflicted by its themes of integration and separation from surrounding cultures. Jews simultaneously want to participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of their Gentile neighbors while also maintaining a sense of Jewish difference and even destiny. The Joseph story always coincides with Hanukkah, and who could be a better exemplar of the challenges of living in two worlds than the grand vizier of Egypt? In Parashat Mi-ketz, Joseph rises in spectacular fashion from prison to the throne, changing his clothes, name, and even language to the extent that his own brothers do not recognize him. And yet within, he remains Joseph, son of Jacob, the Hebrew lad who remembers his essential difference and destiny. Joseph's appearance on Hanukkah reminds us that success in secular society must not be permitted to draw us away from our distinctive Jewish identity.
A final facet of Hanukkah, which is particularly apt for our times, is its demonstration of the possibility of and need for religious creativity. However Hanukkah began, it developed and flourished as a new Jewish festival replete with unprecedented rituals and liturgy. This feature of Hanukkah is recognized in an early collection of festival midrash called Pesikta Rabbati (#3). The text opens by noting that the Torah reading for Hanukkah from Parashat Naso in Numbers lists the gifts of Ephraim on the seventh day, prior to the gifts of Menashe on the eighth. This order follows the preference of Jacob, who back in Genesis reversed hands and blessed his younger grandson first. The text from Numbers likewise reverses the birth order of Joseph's sons, apparently in deference to the actions of Jacob. According to the midrash, Jacob made a decree that God, as it were, had to follow. The midrash then links Jacob's innovation to that of the Sages who invented Hanukkah. They decreed a festival that later generations of Jews would be commanded to follow, and which would eventually assume the status of divinely mandated religious law.
The essence of Hanukkah is thus the power of religious innovation. Judaism must continue to adapt its religious message, ever growing and evolving so that Jews may spread the light of holiness in every land and era where they live. As we celebrate this Festival of Lights, let us think of the innovations that are demanded by our day, and the ways that these can be bound to our tradition so that they too can become sanctified features of Judaism for future generations. Hag urim sameah—Happy Hanukkah!
The publication and distribution of the JTS Commentary are made possible by a generous grant by Rita Dee and Harold (z"l) Hassenfeld. | <urn:uuid:80d63e07-7317-4ab7-8788-d4e38ada1114> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.jtsa.edu/Conservative_Judaism/JTS_Torah_Commentary/Mi-ketz_5773.xml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955441 | 1,045 | 3.859375 | 4 |
i before e, except after c
or when sounded like "ay"
as in neighbor and weigh
drop this rule when -c sounds as -sh
IE words: believe, field, relief
CEI words: ceiling, deceit, receive
EI words: freight, reign, sleigh
EI words: either, neither, foreign, height, leisure, protein, weird, neither, sovereign, seized, counterfeit, forfeited
CIEN words: science, ancient, efficient (in these words, -c is pronounced -sh)
Directions: Answer the following questions. On a sheet of a paper, write examples for the rules (& exceptions to the rules) given above. | <urn:uuid:b52a3c86-71d1-43e4-b089-0ebd8a05a146> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10017&CurriculumID=26 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.853653 | 143 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Lesson for Core Concept #2: Attempting to Resolve Disputes by Communication
Duncan Wood, Newton North High School, MA
In both Britain and America, those involved in economic and political disputes used a variety of tactics and forms of communication before resorting to military action.
Colonies Fight British Taxation
The colonial American separation from Britain did not occur because of one dramatic incident. Instead it was the slow escalation of an argument in which no middle ground could be found that led to the American secession from the British Empire. The colonists felt put upon because of Britain’s many attempts to levy taxes on them. Colonial Americans believed that taxation without direct representation in Parliament made them not citizens of Britain, but a subjugated people like the Irish.
This lesson is designed to give students a look into the nonviolent political tactics used by the colonies to kill the taxes levied by Britain. Though initially successful, Parliament’s anger caused by these tactics would elicit responses that would in turn anger the colonists and lead to armed conflict.
- The reasons the colonists thought the taxes were unfair.
- The various political tactics the colonists used to try and defeat the taxes.
The Formation of the Sons of Liberty
The Badge of Slavery
"Boston, February 24. Last Week was taken up ..."
Article from page 3 of The Boston-Gazette, and Country Journal, number 569, 24 February 1766
The Stamp Act
The Cost of Resistance
Non-Consumption and Non-importation
Merchants vote: block English trade!
John Rowe diary 5, 4 March 1768, pages 717-718
The Boston Tea Party
"You Are ... Political Bombadiers"
"The following was dispersed in Hand Bills among the worthy Citizens of Philadelphia ..."
Article from page 2 of The Boston-Gazette, and Country Journal, Number 968, 25 October 1773
- Give the class the background for why Parliament felt the need to levy taxes on the colonies after the French and Indian War.
- Break the class into four groups. Give each group a copy of the readings above. Group One will read the The Formation of the the Sons of Liberty, Group Two The Stamp Act and so on.
- Groups will read their documents and draw up a list of what political tactics (economic protest, public protest, written protest) the colonists used to defeat British taxation.
- Groups will present their findings to the class. | <urn:uuid:c1403780-c50b-4289-8d7b-388f20402fae> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.masshist.org/revolution/teachers/lessons/lesson_concept_2.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941476 | 504 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Area enclosed by an ellipse
From Latin: area - "level ground, an open space,"
The number of square units it takes to exactly fill the interior of an
Try this Drag the orange dots to move and resize the ellipse. As the shape and size of the ellipse
changes, the area is recalculated.
An ellipse is actually a line, one that connects back to itself making a loop. Imagine the ellipse to be a loop of string.
The string itself has no area, but the space inside the loop does.
So strictly speaking an ellipse has no area.
However, when we say "the area of an ellipse" we really mean the area of the space inside the ellipse.
If you were to cut a elliptical disk from a sheet of paper, the disk would have an area, and that it what we mean here.
Given the major radius and
minor radius* of an ellipse, the area inside it can be calculated using the formula
*Also known as the semi-major and semi-minor axis of the ellipse
Relation to a Circle
A circle is just a special case of an ellipse where both axes are the same length.
In the figure above, carefully adjust the ellipse by dragging any orange dot until the ellipse becomes a circle.
You will see that because the major and minor radii are the same, the area is the familiar 'Pi times radius squared'.
Things to try
When you done click "show details" to see how close you got.
- In the figure above, click on "hide details"
- Drag one of the four orange dots on the edge of the ellipse to make a random-size ellipse.
- Estimate the area enclosed by the ellipse just by looking at the squares inside it
Other ellipse topics
(C) 2009 Copyright Math Open Reference. All rights reserved | <urn:uuid:46b509a2-19eb-4b7e-9f55-de0ae9f7abee> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.mathopenref.com/ellipsearea.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892065 | 417 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Supercontinent Pangea may have eaten itself to pieces 300 million years ago
Washington, July 7 (ANI): Scientists have come up with a plausible explanation for the splitting up of the supercontinent Pangea, attributing the break-up to a mechanism which caused the massive land mass to eat itself to pieces.
According to a report in New Scientist, convection in the Earth's mantle shifts the floating continental plates around, eventually driving them together into supercontinents every few hundred million years.
Though it is known that supercontinents eventually break up again, it's not clear how they do this.
Now, Gabriel Gutierrez-Alonso of the University of Salamanca in Spain and colleagues have explained the most recent break up which split Pangaea into today's continents.
They have proposed a mechanism called "self-subduction", which would explain several geological mysteries better than prior theories.
In standard subduction, one tectonic plate slips under another.
The situation could have been slightly different 300 million years ago because Pangaea was shaped like a pie with one piece missing. This area was occupied by an ocean called Paleo-Tethys.
The new theory has it that, as Pangaea's southern coast moved northward, the ocean began to close up.
Eventually, the continent's southern continental shelf was subducted beneath the northern coast.
"It's like a cat trying to bite its own tail," said Fernando Corfu, a geologist at the University of Oslo, and one of Gutierrez-Alonso's collaborators.
The theory predicts that the land in Pangaea's centre would have compressed, explaining the Iberian-Armorican Arc, a twisted mountain range that is known to have stretched from modern-day Turkey up to the UK and then down to Spain.
Meanwhile, the rest of the pie would have stretched to breaking point, allowing surrounding oceanic plates to move into the gaps.
This explains why a number of ancient rifts, including ones that can be visited today in Norway and Madagascar, were once arranged radially like the spokes of a bicycle. (ANI)
Read More: University Grants Commission (UGC) | Norway | Madagascar | Guru Nanak Dev University | New University Campus So | University Campus | Kashmir University | Aligarh Muslim University | K P University | University Po | Kumaon University Nainital | M.l.a.rest House | Bhopal University | University | Jiwaji University | S.v.u. P.g .centre | G.s.t.centre | K.p.centre | K.r.centre | Robert Gabriel Mugabe
HARBHAJAN THANKS ITBP FOR SAVING HIS LIFE
June 18, 2013 at 7:51 PM
DELHI CM LAUDS UPGRADATION OF CONSUMER REDRESSAL FORUM
June 18, 2013 at 7:26 PM
4th Generation Intel Core Processors
June 18, 2013 at 7:19 PM | <urn:uuid:25efd8ca-7d50-4bfb-8769-f252ae84ff51> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.newstrackindia.com/newsdetails/5357 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939668 | 630 | 3.6875 | 4 |
+ 7.9 MEGAWATTS PER LANDFILL
Food is a highly efficient energy-storage mechanism: a 2-ounce granola bar contains as much energy as a 12-pound lithium battery. Rotting organic matter in landfills releases some of that energy as gas, typically about 50 percent methane, which can be captured, cleaned and burned to generate electricity and heat. Before its 7.9-megawatt EcoLine cogeneration project could start operating, the University of New Hampshire had to build its own gas processing plant to enrich the gas from a nearby landfill. This facility is necessary to remove carbon dioxide, as well as strip out contaminants like sulfur and volatile organic compounds. Nationally, there are 558 landfill gas-to-energy projects operating out of 2400 possible landfills. The EPA has identified another 510 sites as highly promising but untapped, with the potential to produce enough electricity to power 690,000 homes. | <urn:uuid:f06a1c8a-60db-4f3a-812b-0ce7e7c59a75> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/efficiency/10-smart-ways-we-could-stop-wasting-energy-9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93948 | 195 | 3.625 | 4 |
A species of seahorse unique to the waters of the Gulf Coast could face extinction because of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, warns marine conservation organization Project Seahorse. Without careful intervention, the dwarf seahorse (Hippocampus zosterae) could virtually disappear within a few years, while many other fish populations, including several other species of seahorse, face a similarly bleak future as cleanup continues.
“We’re very worried,” says Assoc. Prof. Amanda Vincent, director of Project Seahorse at the University of British Columbia and a leading expert on seahorse conservation “All of the seahorse populations in the area will be affected, but the dwarf seahorse is at greatest risk of extinction because much of its habitat has been devastated by the spill.”
Dwarf seahorses are tiny (less than 2.5 cm long), sedentary animals that feed and reproduce in shallow coastal seagrass beds for much of the year. Unusually, it is the males who give birth; they produce very few young, making the species particularly vulnerable to environmental change. The spill has exposed them to high levels of oil toxins and destroyed large swaths of their food-rich habitat. Their numbers are expected to drop, even as the cleanup gains momentum.
“While the spill itself was catastrophic for these animals and ecosystems, the cleanup poses considerable threats, too,” says Assoc. Prof. Heather Masonjones, a seahorse biologist at the University of Tampa. “The dispersants used to break up the oil cause some of the toxins to sink and spread, accumulating in their food sources and poisoning more animals.”
To slow the movement of the spill, BP has burned off the oil caught in seagrass mats floating in open water. While the majority of the animals live in seagrass beds in the coastal shallows of the Gulf, others live in these loose mats of vegetation offshore.
The burning of the mats has killed many marine animals while depriving others of their habitat and exposing them to further toxicity. Seagrass is vital to the long-term health of coastal ecosystems, sheltering marine animals, acting as fish nurseries, improving water quality, and preventing erosion.
Where possible, the use of chemical dispersants and the burning of oil should be avoided, urge the researchers. Booms have been, and should continue to be, used to isolate the slicks. They can then be skimmed, left to evaporate, or treated with biological agents such as fertilizers. These organic agents promote the growth of micro-organisms that biodegrade oil. In extreme cases where animals are at high risk of poisoning, seagrass mats and beds can be cut to reduce toxic exposure.
“It’s absolutely critical that measures be taken to preserve the seagrass mats and beds,” says Masonjones. “We must act quickly and carefully to give these fragile species the best chance of survival.”
The Gulf of Mexico spill — and the explosion last Thursday of the Mariner Energy platform — raise questions about the safety of oil extraction and transport closer to home, in British Columbia’s coastal waters.
“An oil spill in B.C. would present a grave threat to several species of pipefish, close relatives of the seahorse, and to plenty of other marine life,” says Vincent. “Because of the coastal topography and wind patterns, clean up could be extremely difficult, and here, too, we could see a number of species catastrophically affected.”
For more information, or images, contact Project Seahorse at [email protected] or 604-827-5142.
About Project Seahorse
Collaborating with stakeholders and partners around the world, Project Seahorse is an interdisciplinary organization committed to conservation and sustainable use of the world’s coastal marine ecosystems. Based out of the University of British Columbia and the Zoological Society of London, Project Seahorse engages in connected research and management at scales ranging from community initiatives to international accords. Seahorses are our focus for finding marine conservation solutions. Project Seahorse benefits greatly from partnerships in marine conservation with Guylian Belgian Chocolates and the John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago.
Assoc. Prof. Amanda Vincent holds the Canada Research Chair in Marine Conservation at the University of British Columbia’s Fisheries Centre, Canada. She has a PhD in marine biology from the University of Cambridge and was Darwin Senior Research Fellow at the University of Oxford from 1994 to 1996. She is considered the leading authority on seahorse biology and conservation, and in 2000 was named a Pew Fellow in Marine Conservation. She also serves as lead scientific advisor and chair of the seahorse working group for CITES.
An associate professor of biology and department chair at the University of Tampa, Heather Masonjones is a marine biologist specializing in behavioral ecology and reproductive physiology of seahorses and related fish species. Her research focuses on the evolution and diversification of male parental care in fishes, sexual selection and reproductive behavior of fish, and the ecology and distribution of syngnathid fishes (seahorses and pipefishes) in Tampa Bay, the Florida Keys, and the Bahamas. | <urn:uuid:0c8bae2f-894b-49e4-a672-b41927016255> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/2010/09/07/gulf-of-mexico-oil-spill-threatens-seahorse-species-with-extinction-researchers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931417 | 1,103 | 3.65625 | 4 |
We know that the young learn language all the time whether or not teachers are involved. On the other hand, teachers have significant opportunities to help students make explicit their intuitive knowledgeabout language, to reflect on what they know about language, and to see if what they know fits whatothers know about language use (Goodman, 2003). Reader's responses to text provides insights into the depth and breadth of their comprehension.Additionally, responding to text by retelling, illustrating, dramatizing, setting the story to music or dance or discussing it with others provides opportunities for readers to relive, rehearse, modify andintegrate their interpretations of text, giving them a chance to enhance the construction of meaning ((Burke, Goodman & Watson, 2005).Richard Allington argues that an independent-level or "good-fit" book for children is one they can readwith 99% accuracy (Allington 2006). Based on research-based best practices for classroom literacyinstruction, I believe it is essential to spend focused classroom time teaching readers to choose booksthat are a good fit for them, books they enjoy and that, as Routman says in her book
, "seem custom-made for the child" (2005). Simply put, it is essential to teach children thatone of the most important things to do to become a better reader is to read a good-fit book. Matching text and strategies to readers (and writers) that they connect to and make meaning from is the mostimportant component of any literacy program. | <urn:uuid:f17af6b6-f2d0-4cce-a023-741bd52a10ff> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.scribd.com/doc/76789811/Reading-Strategies-Comic-Strip-and-Rationale | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938604 | 309 | 3.96875 | 4 |
Today's Shmoop lesson is about the literal and the figurative.
Ready? Here we go.
Well, to think literally means to think of a word's exact meaning. So, we guess "The Hunger Games" are literally an annual competition held each year by the government of Panem to remind all of the districts that rebellion is, um, not a good idea. A tribute is selected from each region (one boy and one girl) and then they're plopped into an arena where the contestants battle to the death. It's kind of like a giant chess game where the Gamemakers move the contestants around with mutant wolves and fireballs and stuff. Basically it's the government's way of showing how much power they have. Oh yeah, and it's all televised and broadcast on TV with lots of hoopla and spectacle. In the districts, it's required viewing. There's an opening ceremony, interviews, a reunion show and all that, like the Olympics, but deadly.
OK, so now let's talk figuratively, which means to think above or beyond the word's surface meaning. Well, we guess there's also a bigger Hunger Games going on in the book. Katniss's life in District 12 is pretty much a competition to survive against poverty and starvation and hunger. There are no TVs or cameras or winners or losers, so it's not literally a game, but District 12 is very much like the arena. The cruel government controls Katniss and the people of District 12 the same way that the Gamemakers control her in the arena. So, even though she's not technically playing a game, her whole life is very much a figurative Hunger Games. | <urn:uuid:c88d0371-9864-46c1-bda1-abbb7a96c650> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.shmoop.com/hunger-games/title.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969844 | 345 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Like the color of the soil on which they live: The birds of Peru’s coastal Desert.
When thinking of birding overseas, Peru is in almost everyone’s to-do list. The mention of birding in Peru evokes a vision of lots of brightly colored and bizarre tropical birds. Parrots and macaws on a clay lick, cotingas, manakins, tanagers, and hummingbirds come to mind when thinking of tropical birds. However, there are many birds that aren’t as brightly colored, or perhaps not as prominent on target lists, because of their modest looks. An example is the set of birds living in the coastal desert of Peru. Some of these birds are endemic, rare, regionally restricted and even threatened. These are the characteristics that generally elevate a species higher in a birder’s wish list, but often times this is not the case. These are the birds that inhabit the largely lifeless coastal desert of Peru.
The richness of birds in Peru stems from its ecological and geographical diversity. The coastal desert is a unique ecosystem, supporting birds adapted to life in these harsh conditions. These birds exploit the scarce and often ephemeral food resources. Generally, they resemble the colors of soil in which they live. In fact, most of the native birds of Peru’s coastal desert have a range of shades between brown and black, and not in the bright colors that we associate with Tropical Birds.
It is unlikely these birds are going to make it to an advertisement brochure, or be featured in a bird calendar. However, they have incredible natural histories; and more importantly, they are relatively easy to find in the open country they live in. As one drives along the barren coast of Peru, the only form of life are sporadic small brown birds that fly away from the road and back into the desert. Those would be Coastal Miners, which rely largely on insects; in fact, there has to be insects living in the Miners’ habitat to keep them alive.
The widely spaced, and often seasonal rivers coming down the western Andes give life to grasses and sparse vegetation. This is the habitat favored by Croaking Ground-Dove, Short-tailed Field Tyrants, Dark-faced Ground-Tyrant, and Yellowish Pipits.
A walk through this land may wake up a family group of Peruvian Thick-knees crouched on their day roost, or flush a flock of Least Seedsnipes taking advantage of the seasonal seed production. Thick-knees will walk away as you approach them, but will only fly if approached too fast. Least Seedsnipes are nomads of the coastal desert, where they track down ephemeral sources of food.
Colors of the desert remain well represented in birds inhabiting the Riparian Scrub along the coastal rivers. You can say these are true LBJs (little brown jobs). Take for instance White-crested Elaenia, Southern Beardless Tyrannulet, Blue-Black Grassquit, Chestnut-throated, Parrot-billed, and Drab-seedeaters, and the Slender-billed Finch.
They may be a little dull, but these birds were my inspiration growing up; that’s all I knew and enjoyed before I saw my first Masked Trogon from the top of a moving truck, driving down the eastern Andes. I was so awed that I continued to stare at it until I was no longer able to see it and the truck continued down the road. The burst of color I saw that day opened up a whole new, amazing world of birds to me.
Having gone birding in just about every corner of Peru and its neighboring countries, I always make sure to set aside time for birding in the coastal habitats, whenever I am in Peru. Knowing these birds’ sounds allows me to quickly know who is there, and who is not. I grew up there, so every time I visit that magical place, the nostalgic songs and calls always give the feeling of being greeted by old friends.
Special thanks to Juan Chalco, Enrique Kindleman, and Juan Redhead for sharing their photos for this post.
Written by: Alfredo Begazo | <urn:uuid:92314047-9c6e-4331-ac3c-01fa769e82eb> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.surbound.com/blog/2013/03/11/like-the-color-of-the-soil-on-which-they-live-the-birds-of-perus-coastal-desert-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954451 | 876 | 3.609375 | 4 |
The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus
) is an even-toed, hoofed MAMMAL
of the cattle family (Bovidae), derived during the ICE AGES
from the primitive Asiatic goat-antelopes. It entered North America during the last ice age from Siberia. It is not a true goat but belongs to a tribe ancestral to sheep and goats. The mountain goat, largest and most cold-hardy species of its tribe, is widely distributed in the Canadian western MOUNTAINS
below the Arctic circle. Adapted to life on steep cliffs where footholds are often covered by snow or ICE
, it is a slow, methodical climber who prefers to move during daylight when there is good visibility. It may select resting spots for the night already in the afternoon. The mountain goats eyes are smaller than those of mountain sheep and are less widely set apart. It compensates for a narrow habitat preference with wide food habits.
Males may exceed 125 kg; females weigh about 15% less. Both sexes have short, curved, stiletto-like horns that can inflict severe damage in rare but vicious fights. Male goats are protected by an exceptionally thick hide that, during mating season, swells on the haunches to a thickness exceeding 2 cm. Goats have thin, fragile skulls and do not clash head on. Adult males avoid combat if possible, relying on elaborate dominance displays. They normally withdraw from aggressive females.
Adult females with kids dominate all other goats, including the largest males. They form loose bands in summer. In hard winters, such females with kids form a territory by evicting other goats from choice habitat; in mild winters goats remain gregarious. Males are dominant only at the peak of the mating season. Afterwards, they leave the female ranges or are evicted. One, rarely 2, kids are born in June and are carefully guarded by females.
Natural predators include golden EAGLES
and, rarely, BEARS
. Wounded or cornered mountain goats have attacked human hunters. The meat of the males becomes unpalatable 2 weeks before the rutting season. Among coastal First Nations, mountain goat hunting was traditionally restricted to a few families. Hunts were highly ceremonial accompanied before during and after by ritual songs and dancing. The long fur was treasured and together with dog wool and cedar fibres was woven into artful blankets. The high commercial demand for these blankets drove goats to near extinction, but they were saved by the introduction of the Hudson's Bay blanket. Mountain goats are adversely affected by disturbances and over-hunting. Their success in decades past was predicated on the absence of helicopters, snow machines, all-terrain vehicles and a monetary value for their carcasses.
The mountain goat is not a true goat but belongs to a tribe ancestral to sheep (Corel Professional Photos).
Mountain Goat Distribution
Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus
) (artwork by Jan Sovak).
Links to Other Sites
Canadian Biodiversity Website
A great information source for all budding biologists. Learn about biodiversity theory, natural history, and conservation issues. From McGill’s Redpath Museum. | <urn:uuid:a8d4109c-e5cf-4688-a7ab-ea7165b877ee> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/mountain-goat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95095 | 654 | 4.28125 | 4 |
The first time scientists explored deep in the Indian Ocean, they found a new species of glowing squid. Now researchers who are departing from South Africa on Monday with even better equipment are hoping for similar success.
In 2009, the scientists collected some 7,000 samples including the newly discovered squid, which has light-producing organs that it uses to attract its prey. Researchers aboard the RRS James Cook are taking along special cameras for photographing the ocean floor something they didn’t have last time.
“We don’t know much about the deep sea community,” Aurelie Spadone, a sea specialist with the International Union for Conservation of Nature, said in a telephone interview Monday before setting out. “It would be very surprising if we don’t find something like a new species.”
The trip is focused on learning more about how deep sea fishing is affecting marine life along seamounts peaks rising from the floor of the southern Indian Ocean.
Carl Gustaf Lundin, director of IUCN’s Global Marine and Polar Programme, said many of the species that live around seamounts grow and reproduce slowly, so overfishing can severely affect their populations.
“Deep-sea bottom fisheries, including bottom trawling, can damage seamount habitats and negatively impact fish stocks,” Lundin said. “It can also irreversibly damage cold water corals, sponges and other animals.”
Oxford’s Alex Rogers, the expedition’s chief scientist, said the goal was to better understand a unique underwater environment and the threats it faces.
“Based on what we learn by studying five seamounts in the southwest Indian Ridge, we’re hoping to get a better idea of where special habitats, such as cold water coral reefs, occur on seamounts and how we can protect them in the ocean globally,” he said in a statement. “Perhaps we’ll also be lucky enough to discover some new species living in these virtually unknown waters.”
The expedition is being funded by IUCN, the Global Environment Facility and Britain’s Natural Environment Research Council. | <urn:uuid:759f1ecd-2c9f-4ff3-a60c-978b89507d60> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/scientists-to-explore-indian-oceans-depths/article2606457.ece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938678 | 452 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Student _________________________ Date ___________________________
TEST on Units 1 & 2 [Chapters 1-5]
3 points each Circle the correct answer, or fill in the blank.
- Druid Priests were the rulers of an early tribal people in Britain, Wales, and Gaul known as the
a. Picts b. Celts c. English
- What Roman general was first to conquer the wild tribes on the island of Britain?
a. Constantine b. Augustus Caesar c. Julius Caesar c. Caesar Romero
- An early Roman fort grew into the city of London and is located
a. on the Thames River
b. on the Londinium River
c. on the English Channel
d. on the Canterbury River
- What structure was built by the Romans to help protect them from the northern tribes of Picts and Scots?
a. Londinium Fort
b. Wall of Scotland
c. Monastery of Northumberland
d. Hadrian’s Wall
- Constantine is famous for being
a. the first emperor of the Roman Empire to send settlers to Britain
b. The first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire
c. A druid priest who was the first person on record to swim the English Channel.
- The three-leaf clover was used by St. Patrick to share the doctrine of the Trinity with the pagan tribes of
a. Ireland b. Scotland c. Wales d. Cornwall
- The historical event which marks the beginning of the period known as the Middle Ages:
a. Consolidation of British tribes
b. Fall of Rome
c. End of Constantine’s reign
d. Close of Christian persecutions
- The early English were made up primarily of three tribes of Germanic people. Name them:
_____________________, _____________________, and _____________________
- (Circle correct word in each pair) If King Arthur really lived, he was [ British / English ], and he was fighting the
[ British / English].
- Give the rounded-off dates for the Middles Ages: ____________AD to_____________AD
- Write out the “law” that describes how languages change:
- According to the law for language change, would Adam have spoken a simple, primitive language, or a highly complex one?
(circle correct answer) a. simple b. complex
- Linguists believe that most of the languages of Europe come from a common source called the
a. Proto Sanskrit-European Language
b. Proto Asia-European Language
c. Proto Indo-European Language
- If you have two or more words for the same thing in English, how can you know which one is probably derived from Anglo Saxon?
- The Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, is also the bishop of the city of
a. Rome b. Paris c. London d. Italy
- Augustine was appointed by the Pope to be the very first
a. Bishop of London
b. Archbishop of Kent
c. Archbishop of Canterbury
d. Bishop of England
- After the church came to England, all historical, scientific, legal, and church documents were in the language of
a. Latin b. French c. English d. German
- The alphabet we use today to write modern English comes from
a. the French b. the Welsh c. the Romans d. the British
- Chapters or books of the Bible which were heavily and beautifully illustrated with intricate and colorful designs and drawings were known as
a. illustrated manuscripts
b. illuminated manuscripts
c. illuminated texts
- Who is considered to be the Father of English History?
a. Caedmon b. Augustine c. St. Patrick d. Venerable Bede
- Put a checkmark by the four main aspects that define Anglo Saxon poetry:
___a. number of syllables in each half-line
___e. number of beats per measure
___f. inclusion of dragons and other mythological beings
___h. a patterned repetition of words or phrases
- Why is Cædmon significant?
a. He is the first known English poet.
b. He started the monastic tradition of playing the harp after dinner.
c. He killed a dragon that was threatening a monastery in Northumbria.
- After the Anglo Saxons were finally settled in England, they were invaded by
a. the French b. the Norse c. the Latins d. the Welsh
- King Alfred never expected to be king because
a. he had older brothers who would inherit the throne before him.
b. his uncle was king and he could not directly inherit the throne
c. he grew up in a monastery and planned to be a monk.
- One reason the Anglo Saxon Chronicles are so important is that they were
a. the very first history of England to be written in the English language.
b. the first history of England.
c. the first record of early English life.
- The Danish territory in England was limited to a northern area known as
- Circle the word in each pair that is derived from the Old Norse:
- English is no longer an inflected language, but is now considered an analytical language because the most important thing for understanding the meaning of a sentence in English today is
a. word order
b. prefixes and suffixes on words
d. verb placement | <urn:uuid:09207c86-a41b-4590-83af-85b2f9675c42> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.theshorterword.com/king-alfreds-english/test-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929264 | 1,125 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Ice Age Fossils
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Ice Age Fossils
Why Did Ice Age Mammals Become Extinct?
Scientists Continue to Debate this Question at Tule Springs
In 1901, the U.S. Geologic Survey reported the first findings of vertebrate fossils in the area.
In 1933, paleontologists, including Fenley Hunter, working for the American Museum of Natural History unearthed the bones of two ground sloths, a Camelops (a large version of camel), and a partial skeleton of a mammoth – and remain a part of the museum’s fossil collection.
In 1954 and 1955, the University of Chicago Institute of Nuclear Studies conducted the first scientific applications of Dr. Willard Libby’s new radiocarbon dating technique to document the area’s fossils.
In 1955 and 1956, the Southwest Museum confirmed the importance of the site, and recommended interdisciplinary studies of the area’s geology, paleontology and archaeology resources.
In 1962, the area was considered “The Big Dig.” A team of scientists, funded by the National Science Foundation and chronicled by National Geographic, camped at the site for four months and bulldozed two miles of deep trenches to study the area’s fossils. The trenches still can be seen from Google Earth.
In 1979, 1000 acres was found eligible for the National Register of Historic Places, and listed as the “Tule Springs Archaeological Site.”
In the 2000s, the Bureau of Land Management put this area in “disposal consideration,” with intent to transfer the area to developers. Environmental review and the persistence of local groups built momentum to preserve and protect the area as a unit of the National Park Service.
Copyright 2013 by Protectors of Tule Springs | <urn:uuid:b1455292-2982-411d-832a-327bce5ff43e> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.tulespringslv.com/IceAgeFossils/RecentHistory.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707439689/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123039-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.872558 | 375 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Most lasers have operated along similar physical principles: a small, precisely dimensioned, closed cavity containing specific materials that will get incoming photons excited enough to band together and form a coherent laser beam. However, this isn't the only way to get a material to lase, as it's possible to get the same effect by taking advantage of the scattering of light. Researchers have now demonstrated a scattering-based laser that relies on light pumped into a 50 mile long fiber optic cable.
A laser needs two things to work: a cavity that traps the light, usually created by two mirrors, and a material that is able to amplify the radiation while it's trapped. This amplification is usually caused by gas particles that are excited by an electric current running through the cavity. The excited particles will catch the photons, become even more excited, and emit additional photons of the same wavelength. This process can take place over and over until there are enough photons to populate a laser beam.
The new work involved making a laser that used fiber as a guide for scattered photons. The long, straight fibers help direct the photons, generally keeping them on a straight course. Light traveling through the fiber can accumulate a certain amount of disorder because of small imperfections in the medium. That disorder turns out to be critical to the operation of the laser.
The fiber laser depends on two photon scattering properties. One is Rayleigh scattering, which occurs when light hits fetures that are smaller than the wavelength of the light itself, usually individual molecules or atoms. In this case, the photon bounces away, leaving with the same amount of energy it came with.
The second is Raman scattering, where particles bounce off a feature and leave with a different amount of energy than they had prior to the collision. Raman scattering happens significantly less often than Rayleigh but, given enough space and time, Raman effects can accumulate.
In the new laser, two pumps direct photons into the open cavity formed by a fiber. As photons travel along the length of the fibers, they hit imperfections that cause them to scatter. Some of the Rayleigh-scattered photons will scatter backwards, much like the photons that strike a mirror in a closed cavity laser. Others will be Raman scattered, which not only causes them to reverse directions, but also ramps up their energy—this is the equivalent of the excited atoms in a closed cavity laser.
While, individually, these effects are weak at best, the researchers found that, if enough photons are given enough space for these scattering events to happen many times, there are eventually enough excited photons to create a laser beam.
The scattering has to be allowed to happen over a significant distance—the fiber laser tested was over 51 miles long, and scientists estimate that the fiber tunnel needs to be at least 43 miles in order for lasing to happen at all. In some ways, the fiber lasers are cheaper, as they require no mirrors or glass, and use easily acquired materials that need less calibration. Of course, they aren't about to replace the pocket-sized one you use to play with your cat.
Still, it might be possible to find a use for lasers of this sort, given the huge lengths of fiber optic cable that are already out there. The authors also suggest that it could be immensely useful for scientists to take a second look at other already well-known physical anomalies—their new applications could be only 43 miles away.
Nature, 2010. DOI: 10.1038/NPHOTON.2010.4 | <urn:uuid:4876afa0-9b0c-46a5-89b1-0235ab5340a5> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://arstechnica.com/science/2010/02/natural-photon-scattering-can-create-lasers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95815 | 712 | 4.125 | 4 |
Steering by the stars, finding routes and locations by them, and orienting oneself from the positions of celestial bodies is the ancient art of Wayfinding,or non-instrument navigation. People have been wayfinding since the beginning of history because the stars are (relatively) fixed markers. This page will concentrate on the theory behind modern celestial navigation, what is called “modern,” “mathematical,” or “instrument” celestial navigation.
Just about everything on theory and practice is in Bowditch’s American Practical Navigator Online, but it’s not an easy place to start. I will try to make this page as concise as possible.
The basic theory behind Celestial Navigation is simply that we find our unknown position from a known position. If we have some information, we can deduce the rest.
For example, if we know we are three miles from a flagpole, we could be anywhere on a circle with a three-mile radius and the flagpole as its center. If we knew the bearing of the flagpole (the compass direction, such as 135 degrees or Southeast), we could fix our exact position on the circle. Or if we knew bearings from two objects spaced a reasonable distance apart, we could draw straight lines on a map or chart along those bearings from each, and where the lines crossed, there we are.
This is fairly easy to do on land or on the coast, where we can find our position from known landmarks on charts and maps. On the open ocean, it’s a different story, as there are no landmarks. We can’t take a bearing from an object as distant as the sun or a planet, because the compass is too clumsy an instrument. It measures in degrees, while a sextant measures in degrees, minutes, and seconds (there are 3600 seconds in a degree). [The sextant does not give us a bearing, or azimuth, to a celestial body, but gives us information that helps us find the azimuth].
The stars pretty much stay in the same place – that’s why they were known as the “fixed stars” throughout history, except they rise and set; the sun, moon, and planets move, but predictably, and so with the aid of almanacs that tell us precisely where each body is at every second of every minute of every hour of every day of the year, and the practice of “sight reduction” (see Practice), we can take a position from two or preferably three stars, or planets, or the sun and moon when both are visible, or the sun at different times of the day, and where the lines of position cross is where we are.
Before going on to Practice, this is what you need to know:
“Modern” celestial navigation is based on spherical trigonometry and solving the “navigational triangle.” (IMPORTANT: DON’T PANIC IF YOU DON’T KNOW TRIGONOMETRY! TABLES OR SOFTWARE DOES ALL THE WORK FOR YOU AND YOU ONLY NEED TO KNOW ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION TO NAVIGATE!) This is a triangle on the earth’s surface with:
1) The North (or South) Pole as one corner,
2) The “Geographical Position” (GP*) of the celestial body as another, and,
3) Our Assumed Position (AP*) as the third.
The sides are:
1) the Pole to our assumed position (or 90 degrees minus our assumed latitude);
2) the Pole to the GP or 90 degrees minus the body’s declination*; and
3) from our assumed position to the GP or 90 degrees minus the calculated height of the body above the horizon (our “zenith distance”).
We are able to find the first two sides and the angle included in them, because we know our assumed latitude, can find the body’s declination at that moment from the Nautical Almanac, and can figure the angle – the Local Hour Angle – from our data.
With this information, we can find the third side – our distance from the GP – and the angle or direction to the GP. For accuracy’s sake, it is best to use at least two or preferably three bodies; where the lines of position cross on our chart will be a point, or more likely a small triangle called a “cocked hat,” which is our location.
*GP – imagine a string stretched from the center of the earth, through its surface, and into the center of the celestial body. The point at which in passes through the earth’s surface is its geographical position. This information is in the Almanac.
*AP – The spot chosen as a reference point upon which to base our calculation. It is reasonably close to where we actually are if we base it on “dead reckoning” (having kept track of our position by recording speed and direction). Explained further under Practice.
*Declination – see Navigational Astronomy. Similar to the earthly coordinate latitude, it is the star’s distance in degrees above the celestial equator.
Finding latitude by Polaris, and taking noon sun sights, do not require solving the navigational triangle. They involve simpler right triangles. For example, the sun at noon – real noon, that is, when the sun is at its highest point, on our meridian – is either due north or south of us, and our line of position is then due east or west. An east-west line is a parallel of latitude. These two are easiest to teach beginners. A simple explanation of latitude by Polaris is available (however, it does not include reference to the corrections that are necessary because Polaris is not precisely North, but a bit under a degree away). See also here – historically interesting. | <urn:uuid:baea2d43-d528-44d3-bc64-8b2cbce16fe9> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://celestialnavigation.net/theory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931119 | 1,231 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Important function in the company’s economic activities are as follows:
a. Produce goods and services
there are needs to be met encourage companies to create goods and services satisfying the needs. Goods and services produced by firms will be distributed to other economic actors.
1. Household. Distribution of goods and services to domestic production can be made directly or through distributors.
2. Government. Government needs for goods and services produced to support the course of government activities in order to serve the community. Channeling can also be done directly or through the goods market.
3. Other companies. Sometimes the goods and services produced by a company is required by other companies as raw materials, auxiliary materials, semi-finished, or even as capital. For example the company will supply fabric to garment production.
4. Communities abroad. In addition to domestic production, goods and services companies are also used by people overseas. Purchase and delivery of goods and services will lead to export activities.
b. As input users
how companies can produce goods and services? Companies must process the factors of production into goods and services. Production factors in the form of labor, natural resources, and capital. Factors of production are provided by the household. For all the factors of production which has been provided, the company will provide remuneration to the household. Remuneration in the form of wages or salaries, rent, interest, and profits. Purchase of production factors are sometimes also involved the public abroad, either in the form of experts, loan capital, capital goods, and raw materials.
c. Paying taxes to the government
company is also part of the general public. Thus, the company participated utilize public facilities provided by the government. Hence also, the company must pay taxes to the government as evidence of his participation on development.
d. As agents of development
economic activities of the company proved to be a major influence on economic development. Of its activity the company has helped the government in terms of providing employment, improving the welfare of employees, and build various economic facilities. | <urn:uuid:c7b08629-ec5a-4325-8900-0e807c970f07> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://dailytape.com/2011/07/27/corporate-functions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966424 | 417 | 3.53125 | 4 |
This year I have been trying to teach the kids to draw BIG and understand some elements of art that will help their composition look more interesting.
We also talked about the artist, Wassily Kandinsky and looked at some of his paintings.
We talked about 8 important things: (I have a big poster with this list on my wall.)
2. Repeating Shapes (geometric and organic)
3.Shapes inside of shapes
4.line (follow the leader lines)
6. Things that run off the edge of the paper
7. 3-D shapes
8. shapes and background areas that are filled in and some that are open
Then we watched this video clip on youtube and I would pause it to point out the things on our list..
There are LOTS more REALLY AWESOME videos on this facebook pagehttp://www.youtube.com/user/RinpaEshidan
Students made drawings using all of the things on the list….heres a few
Then students voted with their table group on one artwork to make a mural with. They used parts of the other ones that they liked as well.
This project allowed for a great lesson in communication. Kids had to talk to each other about which parts to paint, what color, and who did what. This was a challenge for some!
The next class, students chose two colors to add to their murals. They could use different values (dark and light) of each color. They had to leave some parts white. These are third and fourth grade. Fifth grade has some beautiful ones in the works that I will post when they finish. | <urn:uuid:8f02be32-a999-4e43-bbe8-6907e2c5a5b4> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://elementaryartfun.blogspot.com/2011/02/hip-hop-kandinsky-murals.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970862 | 336 | 3.578125 | 4 |
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plymouth (Massachusetts)
|←Plymouth (England)||1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 21
|See also Plymouth, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.|
PLYMOUTH, a township and the county-seat of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the south-eastern part of the state, on Plymouth Bay, about 37 m. S.E. of Boston. Pop. (1905) 11,119; (1910) 12,141. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by inter-urban electric lines and in summer by steamers to Boston. The harbour is well sheltered but generally shallow; it has been considerably improved by the United States government and also by the state, which in 1909 was making a channel 18 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide from deep water to one of the township's wharves. The township has an area of 107.3 sq. m., is 18 m. long on the water front and is from 5 to 9 m. wide. Plymouth is a popular resort for visitors, having, in addition to its wealth of historic associations and a healthy summer climate, thousands of acres of hilly woodland and numerous lakes and ponds well stocked with fish. Morton Park contains 200 acres of woodland bordering the shores of Billington Sea (a freshwater lake).
Few, if any, other places in America contain so many interesting landmarks as Plymouth. The famous Plymouth Rock, a granite boulder on which the Pilgrims are said to have landed from the shallop of the “Mayflower,” lies on the harbour shore near the site of the first houses built on Leyden Street, and is now sheltered by a granite canopy. Rising above the Rock is Cole's Hill, where during their first winter in America the Pilgrims buried half their number, levelling the graves and sowing grain over them in the spring in order to conceal their misfortunes from the Indians. Some human bones found on this hill when the town waterworks were built in 1855 have been placed in a chamber in the top of the canopy over the Rock. Burial Hill (originally called Fort Hill, as it was first used for defensive purposes) contains the graves of several Pilgrims and of many of their descendants. The oldest stone bears the date 1681; many of the stones were made in England, and bear quaint inscriptions. Here also are a tablet marking the location of the old fort (1621), which was also used as a place of worship, a tablet showing the site of the watch-tower built in 1643, and a marble obelisk erected in 1825 in memory of Governor William Bradford. Pilgrim Hall, a large stone building erected by the Pilgrim Society (formed in Plymouth in 1820 as the successor of the Old Colony Club, founded in 1769) in 1824 and remodelled in 1880, is rich in relics of the Pilgrims and of early colonial times, and contains a portrait of Edward Winslow (the only extant portrait of a “Mayflower” passenger), and others of later worthies, and paintings illustrating the history of the Pilgrims; the hall library contains many old and valuable books and manuscripts — including Governor Bradford's Bible, a copy of Eliot's Indian Bible, and the patent of 1621 from the Council for New England — and Captain Myles Standish's sword. The national monument to the Forefathers, designed by Hammatt Billings, and dedicated on the 1st of August 1889, thirty years after its corner-stone was laid, stands in the northern part of the town. It is built entirely of granite. On a main pedestal, 45 ft. high, stands a figure, 36 ft. high, representing the Pilgrim Faith. From the main pedestal project four buttresses, on which are seated four monolith figures representing Morality, Education, Law, and Freedom. On the faces of the buttresses below the statues are marble alto-reliefs illustrating scenes from the early history of the Pilgrims. On high panels between the buttresses are the names of the passengers of the “Mayflower.” The court-house was built in 1820, and was remodelled in 1857. From it have been transferred to the fireproof building of the Registry of Deeds many interesting historical documents, among them the records of the Plymouth colony, the will of Myles Standish, and the original patent of the 23rd of January 1630 (N.S.).
Modern Plymouth has varied and important manufactures comprising cordage, woollens, rubber goods, &c. In 1005 the total value of the factory products was $11,115,713, the worsted goods and cordage constituting about nine-tenths of the whole product. The cordage works are among the largest in the world, and consume immense quantities of sisal fibre imported from Mexico and manila from the Philippine Islands; binder-twine for binding wheat is one of the principal products. From 1900 to 1905 the capital invested in manufactures increased 83% and the value of the product 101%. Large quantities of cranberries are raised in the township. Plymouth is a port of entry, but its foreign commerce is unimportant; it has a considerable coasting trade, especially in coal and lumber. The township owns its waterworks.
Plymouth was the first permanent white settlement in New England, and dates its founding from the landing here from the “Mayflower” shallop of an exploring party of twelve Pilgrims, including William Bradford, on the 21st of December (N.S.) 1620. The Indian name of the place was Patuxet, but the colonists called it New Plymouth, because they had sailed from Plymouth, England, and possibly because they were aware that the name of Plymouth had been given to the place six years before by Captain John Smith. When and how the town and the colony of Plymouth became differentiated is not clear. Plymouth was never incorporated as a township, but in 1633 the General Court of the colony recognized it as such by ordering that “the chiefe government be tyed to the towne of Plymouth.” In 1686 the colony submitted to Sir Edmund Andros, who had been commissioned governor of all New England, and chose representatives to sit in his council. Plymouth remained the seat of government of the colony until 1692, when Plymouth Colony, and with it the town of Plymouth, was united to Massachusetts Bay under the charter of 1691 (see Massachusetts: History). Part of Plymouth was established as Plympton in 1707, and part as Kingston in 1726.
Bibliography. For the sources of the early history of Plymouth consult (George) Mourt's Relation, or Journal of the Plantation of Plymouth (Boston, 1865, and numerous other editions); William Bradford's History of the Plimouth Plantation (Boston, 1858, and several later editions), the most important source of information concerning Plymouth before 1646; the Plymouth Colony Records (12 vols., Boston, 1855-1861); the Records of the Town of Plymouth (3 vols., Plymouth, 1889-1903); J. A. Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers (Boston, 1841); and E. Arber's Story of the Pilgrim Fathers (London, 1897), the two last containing excerpts from the leading sources. See also, James Thacher's History of the Town of Plymouth (Boston, 1832); W. T. Davis's History of the Town of Plymouth (Philadelphia, 1885); also his Ancient Landmarks of Plymouth (Boston, 2nd ed., 1899); and his Plymouth Memories of an Octogenarian (Plymouth, 1906); and John A. Goodwin, The Pilgrim Republic (Boston, 1888). For accounts in general histories, see J. G. Palfrey's History of New England, I. (Boston, 1858); the appreciative sketch by J. A. Doyle, in his English Colonies in America, II. (New York, 1889); and, especially, the monograph by Franklin B. Dexter, in Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. iii. (Boston, 1884). As to the truth of the tradition that the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock, consult the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1903), 2nd series, vol. xvii. containing articles by E. Channing and W. W. Goodwin; the article by Herbert B. Adams in the Magazine of American History, ix. 31 sqq., and that by S. H. Gay in the Atlantic Monthly, xlviii. 612 sqq. | <urn:uuid:0c0d2625-0828-4259-a7b2-a3742f950df5> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Plymouth_(Massachusetts) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953668 | 1,825 | 3.5 | 4 |
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Media Education in the English Language Arts Curriculum
The English Language Arts 8 to 10 curriculum provides opportunities for students to learn to use and appreciate language through a variety of communication forms in a variety of contexts, including mass media.
The curriculum focuses on using mass media as well as analyzing its impact on society. As students use electronic communications and examine the nature of information conveyed to the public in newspapers, magazines, radio, television programs, and other media, they learn to:
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BC MOE Program Standards and Education Resources.
On the left menu you will find outcome charts containing media-related learning outcomes from the English Language Arts curriculum, with links to supporting resources on the MediaSmarts site. As many of our lessons can be adapted to suit different grade levels, specific lessons may be listed for more than one grade. Teachers should also note that individual lessons often satisfy a number of learning outcomes.
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Find out how you can get involved.Learn more | <urn:uuid:3e0c2479-e8fc-4c64-adc5-ed803f2a602e> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://mediasmarts.ca/teacher-resources/media-education-outcomes-province/british-columbia/british-columbia-english-language-arts-8-10 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91968 | 232 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Happy Birthday Darwin: Evolution Then and Now
Darwin's theory grew out of an era when a considerable amount of careful observation from around the world was beginning to be formulated into careful scientific ideas. Not all ideas from this era were equally scientific, nor equally valid. Charles Darwin's theory was formulated based on a huge amount of observation both personally made by Darwin and made by correspondents he wrote to from all over the world. It took many years for Darwin to put his ideas into words and his book, Origin of Species, spends a great deal of time addressing criticisms of the theory of Evolution. When Darwin formulated his theory, the Mendelian rules of genetics were unknown, and DNA wasn't even conceived of. So, in essence, the mechanisms and rules that govern evolution were unknown. Darwin defined the patterns of how living things changed and competed, and it was only later that those mechanisms were discovered, giving the statistical and molecular context for Darwin's theory. Those later discoveries have only strengthened Darwin's theory, never contradicting his ideas.
The most fundamental basis for the theory of evolution is the very simple and very evident observation that individuals within a species vary from one another. This may seem so obvious that it seems silly to state it, but it really is the foundation of Darwin's theory and he spends an entire chapter of his book demonstrating variability within species in nature. We now know that this variation is due to genetic differences, differences in the DNA sequence, among individuals. Darwin did not know this. He simply observed that in every species he had any information on, individuals showed clear differences in appearance, in abilities, in behavior and in internal structures. Simple differences like human skin color or our differences in eyesight are examples of this. What is important about individual variation is that such variations can make an individual better or worse able to survive within a given environment and produce children. Since producing children is what contributes to the next generation, differences in an organism's chances of surviving and reproducing can determine whether or not that individual organism contributes to the next generation.
Throughout his book, Darwin compares what happens in nature to the simpler situation of human breeding of domestic animals. Humans select for larger fruit size, higher milk or wool production, less aggressive bulls, etc. and that selection is based on individual differences among individual animals or plants. Over time, our selection of certain traits can make that trait predominant in the animals we have domesticated. As Darwin summarizes it:
"No one supposes that all the individuals of the same species are cast in the very same mould. These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions."
In other words, in the same way that humans select for specific traits within the diversity of a population of domesticated plants or animals, natural selection will do the same thing in nature. This natural selection is little different than what humans do when they select particular traits to breed for in our show dogs, our cattle, our wheat plants, etc. The only difference is natural selection is not directed towards a specific goal the way human breeding of domesticated plants and animals is.
What is natural selection? Clearly a plant or animal that can withstand cold better than another, say one rabbit has a thicker coat of fur than another, it is more likely to survive a cold winter or in colder climates than a plant or animal less able to withstand cold. The thicker furred rabbit would be better adapted to the colder conditions, so would be more likely to survive and reproduce. But the thinner furred rabbit may do better in warmer conditions. That is natural selection. Individual traits that favor survival in a particular environment will improve the chances that the genes (to use modern terms) of that individual get passed on to the next generation. Animals that are poorly adapted die before they can produce many offspring, and hence their genes do not remain in the population. A trait that is bad for an individual's survival is unlikely to survive for many generations in a population. That is natural selection: the constraints the environment puts on populations of organisms, favoring the survival and reproduction of some individuals over other individuals.
Darwin came up with this after considering Malthus' theory of population growth. Malthus postulated that populations tend to expand exponentially (geometrically, meaning 2 become 4 become 16 become 256, etc.) while food production expands linearly (2 becomes 4, becomes 8, become 16, etc.). So, Malthus states that over time, populations will expand beyond their ability to find food and hence undergo periods of severe decline due to disease and starvation.
Darwin thought about this and realized that this process of rapid population growth and crash means that there is a selective pressure on a population that favors individuals that can survive the cycles of boom and bust. He recognized that several environmental factors would affect this including competition with other species and within a species. Hence, the basic Malthusian population dynamics would create a situation whereby each individual would be in constant competition with all other individuals of all other species in a given environment for survival. Or, as Darwin put it:
"If during the long course of ages and under varying conditions of life, organic beings vary at all in the several parts of their organization, and I think his cannot be disputed; if there be, owing to the high geometrical powers of increase [reproduction] of each species, at some age, season, or year, a severe struggle for life, and this certainly cannot be disputed; then, considering the infinite complexity of existence, causing an infinite diversity in structure, constitution, and habits, to be advantageous to them, I think it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variation ever had occurred useful to each being's own welfare, in the same way as so many variations have occurred useful to man. But if variations useful to any organic being do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterized will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life; and from the strong principle of inheritance they will tend to produce offspring similarly characterized. This principle of preservation, I have called, for the sake of brevity, Natural Selection."
Variation occurs, competition occurs, so variation that improves an individual's chances of surviving the competition is selected for and passed on to offspring.
There is another layer of selection that tends to get ignored when Darwin's theories are considered, and yet Darwin considered it just as important as natural selection. That layer is sexual selection. Natural selection is the selective pressure for certain traits over others due to the fierce competition for survival among all organisms in a given environment. Sexual selection is simply the tendency for certain traits to be favored by other members of a species in a mate. These often are NOT traits that are beneficial in natural selection and can sometimes seem bizarre. Selection by peahens for peacocks with particularly large and dazzling tail feathers is actually selecting for a tail structure that makes the peacock MORE vulnerable to being killed by predators. And yet, the fact that peahens favor it is still a selective pressure for a large and dazzling tail. Many such examples of sexual selection can be seen in nature, as well as in any pick up bar in any city on earth. If a trait, for whatever reason, is favored by the opposite sex, then individuals with that trait will be more likely to reproduce and so pass on the genes for that trait. It is the COMBINATION of natural and sexual selection, acting on individuals of a species that vary from one another, that drive evolution.
As a population changes, it may come to differ from other populations of the same species. This is a well-known phenomenon whereby multiple varieties can exist of the same species. Our domestic dog, cat, cattle, etc. breeds are examples of this. Such varieties can easily be crossed back together to lose their distinct characteristics, but the tendency to have those characteristics will remain. For example, crossing two breeds of dogs will give you a mutt, but that mutt will still have some of the genes of the pure breeds and it's offspring will show similarities to the pure breeds. Varieties occur in nature, often when different populations of a species are separated by a physical barrier: a river, lake, mountain, etc. Darwin spends a great deal of time outlining the observations concerning varieties and how most of those same observations could be applied to species as well. He showed how over time the differences between isolated varieties would increase, producing sub-species and, eventually, new species. This is the final part of Darwin's theory. Variation within a species, acted on by natural and sexual selection, lead to geographical divergences within a species into varieties, then sub-species and finally species. He discusses how the differences between varieties and species can be controversial, leading one scientist to declare two populations mere varieties of one species, and another scientist to declare them two separate species. He suggests that varieties and species are merely opposite ends of one process. I will discuss this in more detail below when I deal with more modern evidence supporting Darwin's theory.
Darwin argues that the way different species are distributed around the world and how they differ from each other is easily explainable by his theory of evolution, where different species branch off of a common progenitor species, as opposed to the then commonly believed theory that each species was separately and independently created. He spends many chapters simply showing how the observed distribution and structures of living things on earth today is more consistent with his theory than with the theory of independent creation of each and every species. For example:
"We have seen that the members of the same class [of organisms], independently of their habits of life, resemble each other in the general plan of their organization...What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?...
"Nothing can be more hopeless than to attempt to explain this similarity of pattern in members of the same class, by utility or by the doctrine of final causes...On the ordinary view of the independent creation of each being, we can only say that so it is;--that its has so pleased the Creator to construct each animal and plant.
The explanation is manifest on the theory of natural selection of successive slight modifications,--each modification bring profitable in some way to the modified form...In changes of this nature there will be little or no tendency to modify the original pattern or to transpose parts."
In other words, the similarity of the structure and pattern of the bones of human hands, horse legs, whale fins and bat wings doesn't make sense in terms of similarity of function, because these limbs are used for very different purposes. It seems rather sloppy of a Creator to use this same pattern for all these limb types if independent creation is believed. Independent creation would logically have each limb separately designed for its particular purpose and there is no reason for the identical pattern of bones, including cases where some bones are no longer useful but still remain as vestigial elements in the limb. However, evolution would say that they all have the same pattern because they all were formed from the limbs of a common ancestor by gradual changes over millions of years by natural selection. It is the most logical explanation for all such similarities in structure across classifications of organisms. Now that we understand genes and DNA, we find an even better fit between reality and Darwin's theory.
We now know that the origin of variation is mutation in the DNA. DNA is a molecule with, in essence, a 4-letter alphabet and "words" made up of 3 letters that tell the cell what amino acid goes where in a give protein. DNA also tells the cell under what conditions a protein should be turned on or off. Together, this is what determines what each individual organism looks like, can do and even, to a large degree, how it behaves.
Mutations occur from two sources. Both are, in essence, random. One source is the fact that the molecular machinery for replicating our DNA sometimes makes errors. Most of these errors are edited out. But sometimes the editing machinery fails and a real mutation occurs. The second source is from the environment: many chemicals (natural and artificial) as well as UV and hihger energy radiation cause mutations in our DNA. Again, often these mutations are repaired, but sometimes they slip through.
Mutations in DNA can be silent (have no effect), can alter the structure of a protein, or can alter the way a protein is turned on and off. When a change is made, it often impairs the function of the protein, but occasionally simply alters it in a neutral way or actually improves it. These mutations that lead to changes in the way a protein works or is regulated are the source of variations among individuals. Again, it is by and large a random process.
Natural selection gives the direction to evolution. Changes in a species due only to random mutations with no real selection is called genetic drift, and it can happen in isolated situations. But in general, species change due to natural and sexual selection, directing the changes towards an improved survival or reproductive potential. Changes that produce new varieties and new sub-species are observed all the time in domesticated animals, in nature and in the laboratory. It is the change that leads to the origin of NEW species that is harder to see, though I will show below that it is indeed observable.
The lack of precision that existed during Darwin's day in determining varieties from sub-species to species has been improved thanks to DNA. We can compare the DNA sequences of two groups and tell exactly how closely related they are. This comparison, on a smaller scale, is what we do when we do modern paternity tests or DNA fingerprinting in criminal cases. On a larger scale, this kind of analysis has shown that the wooly mammoth is very closely related to the modern Asian elephant. In essence, the Asian elephant and mammoth are sister species and both are close cousins to the African elephant. The same DNA analysis that can give us DNA fingerprinting can, with greater care, give us relationships among species including an estimate of how long it has been since those two species diverged. These kinds of relationships on the level of DNA are far harder to explain if each species was created independently than if modern species evolved from common ancestor species the way Darwin hypothesized.
So in the more than 100 years since Darwin published Origin of Species, scientific discoveries that Darwin could never have imagined have done nothing but bolster his theory of evolution. It is a theory that was tenuous, though carefully thought out and reasoned, at the time. Further observations at that time all fit well with Darwin's theory. Mendel's laws of genetics fit very well with Darwin's theory and could almost have been devised by Darwin himself since he had done some very similar experiments, but just hadn't done them as extensively as Mendel. Finally, the discovery and understanding of DNA and the entire field of molecular biology, something that Darwin could never have even imagined, fit perfectly into the theory of evolution and in many ways explain aspects of evolution that seemed mysterious to Darwin himself.
Now I wish to discuss some of the objections that have been made to Darwin's theory and show how more than 100 years of research have done nothing but bolster or minorly modify Darwin's theory.
Ever since Charles Darwin first published Origin of Species, many who see his theory as somehow detracting from religion have tried to tear it down. They have pretty much failed from the start and the more we have learned of biology, the more evolution has been supported, if occasionally modified. Interestingly, most objections to Darwin's original theory were recognized and brought up by Darwin himself in Origin of Species. Far from avoiding or denying potential problems, Darwin approached them head on, giving his hypotheses as to how the problems would be solved over time. In general, his hypotheses have proven quite correct.
There are three particular objections that are often brought up to try and discredit evolution. First there is the problem of the gradual evolution of complex organs, such as the eye. How can random variation acted on by natural selection produce an organ as intricate and complex as the eye? Second there is the problem of intermediate species. If evolution is a slow and gradual process, why do we never see the intermediate species, the "missing links" either alive or in the fossil record? These two problems can be called the Problems of Missing Intermediates and can be solved by, in essence, pointing out that a.) intermediates will be rare and rapidly replaced by improved versions, and b.) in reality, intermediates CAN be seen in both instances. I will address these momentarily.
The third problem is, to some degree, more philosophical than scientific. Some argue that it is nothing but a theory of "chance" whereby random events produce wonderful things like eyes and wings. Much like an infinite number of monkeys on typewriters banging out Shakespeare's plays, this sounds very unsatisfying and even impossible. Put in somewhat scientific terms one could say that it violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics that dictates that, in essence, order cannot arise out of disorder without substantial input of energy. Chance cannot bring about order.
This objection is completely based on a false assumption: that evolution involves chance alone. To quote Richard Dawkins from his introduction to the 2003 Everyman's Library edition of Darwin's Origin of Species and Voyage of the Beagle (Darwin):
The objection to Darwinism that it is a theory of "chance" is one of the most popular and most foolish of all. Mutation is indeed random, although only in the sense that it is not directed towards improvement. Natural selection is quintessentially the opposite of random. Any fool can see that random chance cannot put together living complexity. That is precisely why Darwinism is necessary. It is a preposterous irony that the statistical improbability of living organization is regularly advanced as though it counted against Darwinism, rather than in favor of it.
In other words, although mutation, the basis for variation, is indeed random to a large degree, that is only one part of Darwin's theory. The part that gives evolution its direction, if you want, is selection, both natural and sexual. There is no mere chance to evolution. It is directed by the pressures of the environment in which an organism lives. That is the very essence of Darwin's theory! Those who argue that it is a theory of mere chance have misunderstood the theory.
Now I want to address the first two objections I mentioned. How can something as complex as the eye be formed by small evolutionary changes and where are the intermediate forms of organs like the eye? And, why don't we see many intermediate species, either alive or in the fossil record, showing us the many gradations that take us from varieties within a species to separate species?
I will first address some things that apply to both. First off, the fossil record is not a complete record of evolution. Only a tiny fraction of all living organisms have become fossilized. Eons of the past in vast parts of the world have never survived in the fossil record. Conditions have to be just right for fossils to form. Even once formed, they can be destroyed by erosion and weathering. Finally, for us to ever see fossils they have to be exposed in just the right way at just the right time. Metaphorically, we are looking at a gigantic encyclopedia where most volumes are missing, the volumes we do have are missing pages, and the surviving pages are smudged. We cannot expect to have a complete fossil record wherein we can see every intermediate form through out evolution. Darwin himself went into this in great, almost excruciating, detail.
Another thing that Darwin himself points out about these objections is that imperfect intermediates are likely to be seen only in a small, isolated population for a short period of time. It is the MOST successful forms (either of organs or entire organisms) that compete the best and hence replace earlier, less successful intermediate forms. Intermediates IN GENERAL will be relatively rare and present for a short period of time on a geological scale compared with the more successful complete forms. So we are far more likely to only see the most successful forms of organs and organisms most of the time. As Darwin himself puts it:
When we see any structure highly perfected for any particular habit, as the wings of a bird for flight, we should bear in mind that animals displaying early transitional grades of the structure will seldom continue to exist to the present day, for they will have been supplanted by the very process of perfection through natural selection.
In some ways these points eliminate the problems of the missing intermediates. The intermediates will be very rare and the fossil record, by its very nature, will be incomplete. But that is unsatisfying. One wants to say, "Yeah, but why don't we see ANY intermediates?" Even if they are rare and short lived, why aren't any alive TODAY?
The answer is that some ARE alive today and we DO see them. These objections are not only refutable logically as above, but they plain aren't true! Intermediate organs were mentioned by Darwin himself, and intermediate species were observed even in the period immediately after Darwin published and more have been discovered since then.
Taking the question of the evolution of a complex structure like the eye, Darwin points out that in Arthropods (or Articulata as they were called in Darwin's time) such intermediate, imperfect eyes DO exist in living organisms. Again, from Darwin himself (Darwin):
In the Articulata we can commence a series with an optic nerve merely coated with pigment, and without any other mechanism; and from this low stage, numerous gradations of structure, branching off in two fundamentally different lines [two different kinds of complex Arthropod eyes], can be shown to exist, until we reach a moderately high stage of perfection. In certain crustaceans, for instance, there is a double cornea, the inner one divided into facets, within each of which there is a lens-shaped swelling. In other crustaceans the transparent cones which are coated by pigment, and which properly act only by excluding lateral pencils of light, are convex at their upper ends and must act by convergence; and at the lower ends there seems to be an imperfect vitreous substance.
In other words, you CAN see various stages of the evolution of the eye in living animals. From a simple pigmented optic nerve, through various simple structures, up to the full compound eye of the fly, all are seen within the same broad category of animals.
To discuss intermediates between full speciation, I have to go to other sources than Darwin himself. As early as 1863, Henry Walter Bates observed speciation in action. From Janet Browne's biography of Charles Darwin:
Bates gave an eyewitness account of the origin of species in nature. Two Amazonian butterflies, the black-and-crimson-spotted Heliconius melpomene and the Heliconius thelixope, if taken separately, were perfectly distinct species. Bates discovered four or five transitional forms living in particular geographical areas in between the two, each connected by a chain of gradations. The intermediate forms were not hybrids. They were geographical races, each on their way to becoming a separate species.
Other examples have been observed. One of the most striking and yet mundane are sea gulls. Gulls are an example of a phenomenon called a "ring species" where each neighboring population in a range of an organism can interbreed and represent mere varieties, but the opposite ends of the range have populations that cannot interbreed and are, by all definitions, separate species. From Carl Zimmer's companion book to the 2001 PBS series, Evolution:
In the North Sea, for instance, there is a species of bird known as the herring gull. It has a grey mantle and pink legs. If you move west through its range, you come across more herring gulls...which look essentially the same as the ones in the North Sea, except for a few minor differences in their coloring. But by the time you reach Canada, the differences become stark, and in Siberia, the gulls have a dark grey mantle and legs that are less pink than yellow. Yet despite these differences, they are still scientifically classified as the herring gull (although their common name is the vega gull). Keep moving through Asia and into Europe, and the gulls continue to get darker and more yellow-legged...all the way to the North Sea where your journey began. Here these gulls, known as the lesser black-backed gulls, live alongside the gray-mantled, pink-legged herring gulls.
Because the two groups of birds look so different and do not mate, they are treated as two separate species. Yet lesser black-backed gulls and herring gulls live at two ends of a continuous ring, inside of which all the birds can mate with their immediate neighbors. A ring species is exactly what you'd expect given the way mutations arise and spread.
Nothing could prove Darwin's hypothesis better than this! Here is speciation IN ACTION with two separate species side by side and a continuous series of gradations that can be followed that takes you from one to the other. Every step of the way is right there for us to see. Ring species like the gull are the most definitive proof of Darwin's theory you can get.
Theories are never "PROVEN" in a definitive sense. They are DISproven if contrary evidence is found. Sometimes a simple change in the theory can be made to accommodate the contrary evidence, preserving the basic theory in a modified form. Other times evidence so contrary is discovered that the entire theory has to be thrown out. If each new piece of evidence is in agreement with the theory, then that theory has support. Evolution has never been disproven. It has frequently been supported by more and more data. Arguably, some new data, such as mass extinctions from comet impacts, has required minor modifications of Darwin's theory, such as "punctuated equilibrium." But no major alterations to the basic design of "variation, selection, speciation" has been required. These foundations of Darwin's theory have ONLY been supported by the extraordinary advances in molecular biology (DNA and protein structure as the bases of variation), ecology (a better understanding of how natural selection and sexual selection work) and the discovery of more fossils and of phenomena like "ring species." The HUGE amount of new discoveries has only strengthened the more than 100-year old theory Darwin came up with. That is an astonishing robustness that has been matched by hardly any other theories in history. Newtonian physics can boast a longer period of dominance, from the 17th to 20th centuries when Einstein had to come up with some modifications. But not much else can boast as great a success as Darwinian evolution.
And 2005 brought even more support for Darwin's theory. From the December 23rd issue of the journal Science:
BREAKTHROUGH OF THE YEAR:
Evolution in Action
Elizabeth Culotta and Elizabeth Pennisi
Amid this outpouring of results, 2005 stands out as a banner year for uncovering the intricacies of how evolution actually proceeds. Concrete genome data allowed researchers to start pinning down the molecular modifications that drive evolutionary change in organisms from viruses to primates. Painstaking field observations shed new light on how populations diverge to form new species--the mystery of mysteries that baffled Darwin himself. Ironically, also this year some segments of American society fought to dilute the teaching of even the basic facts of evolution. With all this in mind, Science has decided to put Darwin in the spotlight by saluting several dramatic discoveries, each of which reveals the laws of evolution in action...
Probing how species split
2005 was also a standout year for researchers studying the emergence of new species, or speciation. A new species can form when populations of an existing species begin to adapt in different ways and eventually stop interbreeding. It's easy to see how that can happen when populations wind up on opposite sides of oceans or mountain ranges, for example. But sometimes a single, contiguous population splits into two. Evolutionary theory predicts that this splitting begins when some individuals in a population stop mating with others, but empirical evidence has been scanty. This year field biologists recorded compelling examples of that process, some of which featured surprisingly rapid evolution in organisms' shape and behavior.
For example, birds called European blackcaps sharing breeding grounds in southern Germany and Austria are going their own ways--literally and f iguratively. Sightings over the decades have shown that ever more of these warblers migrate to northerly grounds in the winter rather than heading south. Isotopic data revealed that northerly migrants reach the common breeding ground earlier and mate with one another before southerly migrants arrive. This difference in timing may one day drive the two populations to become two species.
Two races of European corn borers sharing the same field may also be splitting up. The caterpillars have come to prefer different plants as they grow--one sticks to corn, and the other eats hops and mugwort--and they emit different pheromones, ensuring that they attract only their own kind.
Biologists have also predicted that these kinds of behavioral traits may keep incipient species separate even when geographically isolated populations somehow wind up back in the same place. Again, examples have been few. But this year, researchers found that simple differences in male wing color, plus rapid changes in the numbers of chromosomes, were enough to maintain separate identities in reunited species of butterflies, and that Hawaiian crickets needed only unique songs to stay separate. In each case, the number of species observed today suggests that these traits have also led to rapid speciation, at a rate previously seen only in African cichlids
This is just a sampling of the massive progress that has been made in one year alone, all completely in agreement or modifying in only minor ways Darwin's theory. For a more recent round up of supporting evidence for Darwin's theory, check out 12 Elegant Examples of Evolution from Wired magazine.
Ladies and gentleman, I think we have to recognize that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is one of the most brilliant and most insightful scientific theories in the history of our species and it is WAY past time for it to be considered controversial. New studies are bound to modify his theory from time to time, but Darwin's theory is something we should cherish as a deep understanding of how life works.
The theory of evolution has itself evolved since Darwin's time. Darwin was convinced that evolution happened only on very long time scales in very slow increments. He believed the evolution of new species as well as the extinction of species would be almost imperceptible events, needing immense time spans. What he didn't know was that evolution can get boosts, not of mutation rates, necessarily, but in the nature of competition, when mass extinctions occur due to meteor or comet impacts, supervolcanoes, or rapid climate change. Such occurrences can lead to extinctions within a very short period of time...within months or years, rather than millions of years. When that happens, the survivors face a greatly reduced population as well as a greatly altered environment, leading to rapid evolution of new species. This is called punctuated equilibrium and is a modern modification of Darwinian evolution. Some people find punctuated equilibrium hard to swallow, but we DO know that mass extinctions occur. We see it in the fossil record and we find the impact craters that correspond in time to some of those mass extinctions. Punctuated equilibrium fits these observations better than any other theory to date.
Browne, Janet; The Power of Place: Charles Darwin, the Origin and After, Knopf, 2002.
Darwin, Charles; Origin of Species and Voyage of the Beagle, Everyman's Library 2003 edition.
Zimmer, Carl; Evolution: the Triumph of an Idea, companion to the PBS series, Harper Collins, 2001. | <urn:uuid:e6534ee6-bb98-4e46-a057-24d39ce9ce8d> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://moleprogressive.blogspot.com/2009/02/happy-birthday-darwin-evolution-then.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959383 | 6,594 | 4.03125 | 4 |
|Technologies of Broad Benefit: Propulsion
Propulsion technologies provide the energy to get to Mars and conduct long-term studies.
Propulsion Innovations for the Mars Exploration Rover Mission:
The Opportunity rover sits inside the fairing of this Boeing Delta II heavy rocket, awaiting its launch and seven-month journey to Mars.
Modifying a rocket to "pack a major punch"
The second Mars Exploration Rover, Opportunity, was the first NASA mission lifted on what is referred
to as a Delta II "heavy" rocket. It is a more powerful vehicle that uses larger
strap-on solid rocket motors developed for the Delta III launch vehicle. The launch of the
MER-B spacecraft was the second use of a core Delta II "Heavy" launch vehicle and the first
use of a Delta II "Heavy" launch vehicle with an upper stage.
The use of this rocket for the Mars Exploration Rover mission helped pave the way for many future
space missions that will need a bit more energy to send them on their way beyond Earth. The
MESSENGER mission to Mercury, the seventh mission selected for NASA's Discovery Program, was launched
August 3rd, 2004, on a Delta II heavy. [More on the Mars Exploration Rover launch vehicle.]
The traditional Delta II rocket (used to lift Spirit) has been used to propel many NASA missions into space and has a history of more than 40 successful launches, but some spacecraft need more energy to propel them on their way to Mars and other planets.
Reasons for the Differences
Every 26 months, Earth, Mars and the Sun align for the most efficient, least energy-consuming path between Earth and Mars.
(For advanced details, see at the JPL website Basics of Space Flight: Launch.)
This image shows the position of Earth and Mars at both launch and arrival of each rover. The green line shows the spacecraft's trajectory.
The amount of energy it took to launch each of the two Mars Exploration Rovers was slightly different because the distances
between Earth, Mars and the Sun changed in between the two rover launch periods. (Spirit's launch period fell between
May 30 and June 16, 2003. Opportunity's launch period was roughly a month later, between June 25 and July 12, 2003.)
The launch period for Spirit used close to the minimum energy to get to Mars in the 2003 opportunity, while Opportunity
needed more energy to get to Mars. The two vehicles could not be launched at the same time due to restrictions at the
launch site and the availability of supporting teams.
Improving precision navigation
Missions sent to Mars often have to conduct "trajectory correction maneuvers" to keep the
spacecraft on course throughout its 460 million kilometer (286 million mile) voyage to Mars.
With these propellant burns, navigators can change the spacecraft's velocity, move it sideways
or turn it. Navigators for Spirit put the spacecraft so close to a bull's-eye with earlier maneuvers
that mission managers chose to skip the final two optional trajectory correction maneuvers for
adjusting course before arrival at Mars. Likewise for Opportunity, only three trajectory correction
maneuvers were required to achieve its "interplanetary hole in one," into a crater that revealed
the first bedrock seen up-close on Mars.
Technologies associated with these propulsion maneuvers often involve better ways of measuring
where the spacecraft is in space so that engineers can determine the appropriate burns needed to
tweak the spacecraft's trajectory.
Like Pathfinder, the Mars Exploration Rover cruise stage had a star scanner and sun sensor that
allowed the spacecraft to know where it was in space by analyzing the position of the sun and other
stars in relation to itself. The same precision method that guided NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft
to within one kilometer (0.6 miles) of its target in martian orbit, was applied to the Mars
Exploration Rover mission. Navigators used traditional tracking methods like measuring the
time and shift in radio signals sent from Earth to the spacecraft.
The two traditional tracking methods, ranging and Doppler, were complemented by a newer method
called "delta differential one-way range measurement." It adds information about the location
of the spacecraft in directions perpendicular to the line of sight. Pairs of antennas at Deep
Space Network sites on two different continents simultaneously received signals from the
spacecraft, then used the same antennas to observe natural radio waves from a known celestial
reference point, such as a quasar. Successful use of this triangulation method can shave several
kilometers or miles off the amount of uncertainty in delivering the rovers to their targeted
landing sites. Opportunity landed about 24 kilometers (about 15 miles) down range from the center
of the target landing area. Spirit made it to within 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) of its intended | <urn:uuid:31725263-28ee-42ef-a63c-7f1b8d91bb94> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://origin.mars5.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/bb_propulsion.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927186 | 993 | 3.75 | 4 |
The red supergiant star Betelgeuse is seen here in a new view from the Herschel Space Observatory, a European Space Agency mission with important NASA participation.
Betelgeuse (center) is surrounded by a clumpy envelope of material in its immediate vicinity. The arcs to the left are material ejected from the star as it evolved into a red supergiant, and were shaped by its bow shock interaction with the interstellar medium. A faint linear bar of dust is illuminated at left, and may represent a dusty filament connected to the local galactic magnetic field, or the edge of an interstellar cloud. If so, then Betelgeuse's motion across the sky implies that the arcs will hit the wall in 5,000 years time, with the star itself colliding with the wall 12,500 years later.
This image was taken by Herschel's Photodetecting Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS).
Herschel is a European Space Agency cornerstone mission, with science instruments provided by consortia of European institutes and with important participation by NASA. NASA's Herschel Project Office is based at JPL, which contributed mission-enabling technology for two of Herschel's three science instruments. The NASA Herschel Science Center, part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center at Caltech, supports the United States astronomical community. More information is online at: http://www.herschel.caltech.edu , http://www.nasa.gov/herschel, and http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Herschel/index.html. | <urn:uuid:da34bd21-c8e6-49a8-a428-2f68f8fbdb59> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA16680 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862515 | 330 | 3.984375 | 4 |
Waste Reduction Methods Can Adapt Climate Change Effects Scientifically
Waste accumulation is great problem in both urban and rural areas. The increased dependency of packaging food and drink items have been considered as the main culprit in the production of massive wastes in the nook and corners of the city and the villages. The proper scientific way of disposal is not practically carried out by the most organized urban communities itself. Then, the blame on villagers can be sometimes too harsh.
The recycling of waste products is the only and the most effective way of waste handling and minimisation. The products of organic waste can be reduced by burying it in the backyard vegetable small farms in the villages or it can be converted into compsot fertilisers. Another method of organic food waste reduction is to convert it into biogas. The producion of biogas in Indian villages, like in villages in the Kasaragod District in Kerala state, is an important step and the country benefited from such efforts. The villagers have started producing enough biogas and they could cook and light their lamps in the house using biogas. This has reduced the dependency on cooking gas from the retailers and also lead to income generation due to saving. More than 500 house holders in each village in different districts in Kerala have shown their faith in biogas production. The production of organic fertilisers from composting of food waste and other household wastes have increased the production of vegetables in the villages, which helped the farmers to stop the chemical fertilisers and reduced pollution from the washouts of the agricultural fields to the groundwater reservoirs.
While the production of biogas and organic fertilisers not only bring extra income, it keeps the environment clean and also minimise the effects of climate change by cleaner green energy production and creation of pollution free atmosphere and there by reducing the output of greenhouse gases. The reuse of waste supports the best methods of climate change adaptation principles which are highly scientific and natural which keeps the Earth out of increased rate of warming. Hence, this method of clean energy production at household levels should be praticed worldwide to keep the depleting energy resources preserved and thereby reduce the input of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. These mthods are the best practices for the adaptation of climate change effects. | <urn:uuid:173cae1b-5805-4f19-8151-0cd8bb626349> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://technorati.com/lifestyle/green/article/waste-reduction-methods-can-adapt-climate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937588 | 454 | 3.96875 | 4 |
Viewing stereoscopic pictures
In principle, viewing stereoscopic pictures is simple: two pictures are
displayed, one from the perspective of your right eye, one from the perspective
of your left eye. If we call these pictures R and L respectively, the trick
is to let your right eye see R, while your left eye sees L. This can be done
in two ways, illustrated below:
The figure below illustrates these two ways of viewing.
- Put the pictures, L and R, next to each other, L left and R right,
and let your left eye see L and your right eye see R by directing your eyes
at a point at far distance, yet focussing on L and R. This is called parallel
or distal viewing. This method has the advantage that it is not too difficult to
learn if the separation between the images is not very large. In practice, the
separation between L and R should not exceed ca. 6 cm. (being the distance
between your eyes), which means the
pictures themselves cannot be wider than that distance, which can be an
- Alternatively, put L and R next to each other, L to the right and R
to the left. Then, look at a point at close distance, closer than the pictures
are. This implies your will be looking cross eyed. Then focus at the pictures.
This form of viewing is called cross-eyed, or proximal. Some find it less easy
to learn, but after a bit of practice, this is a very convenient way of
viewing stereo pictures. Moreover, the distance between the pictures, and
therefore their size, does not play a role: even if the pictures have several
meters distance between them, you can still view them cross-eyed. | <urn:uuid:3b303670-d525-4274-ad63-312bd0ed4a88> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://verwerp.home.xs4all.nl/pictures/stereo/proxdist.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932843 | 374 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Stroke vs. Heart Attack
Difference Between Stroke and Heart Attack
Myocardial infarction or simply heart attack is a serious heart condition. The heart, which never ceases to work, is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. The cardiac muscles do this by contracting and relaxing rhythmically. But, like all other organs of the body, a person’s heart needs energy and oxygen to perform its functions. The left and right coronary arteries provide the heart with these supplies through the blood the passes through them.
When these coronary arteries are blocked by platelet deposits (plaque) or cholesterol, the blood supply going through them will consequently be less. Eventually the heart muscles become deprived of much needed oxygen and fatty acids, later on, die. Cardiac muscles, unlike the other muscles in the body, cannot be reproduced. Dead cardiac muscles become fiber tissue and when too much cardiac muscles die, its owner’s death is imminent. This event is what we call a heart attack.
Several factors can increase the risk of getting a heart attack; such as hypertension or high blood pressure and very high cholesterol levels. Diabetics who don’t keep careful watch of their condition are also at high risks of heart attack. You may also want to trace your family history and see if many of your ancestors and kin have experienced heart attacks because if they have, then there is also a strong possibility that you could get it, too.
Heart attack can cause an excruciating pain specifically on the left portion of the chest radiating to the left arm accompanied by profuse sweating. As these symptoms appear, the patient must be rushed to the hospital immediately. The patient may be given an Aspirin as a first aid measure before sending him/her to the hospital and some medications can be administered sublingually (under the tongue) to alleviate the condition.
Unlike heart attack, stroke is a condition that transpires in the brain. Death comes due to insufficient oxygen (ischemia) or hemorrhaging when blood vessels rupture, causing bleeding inside the victim’s brain. The tissues of the brain depend on glucose in order to function. Brain damage will likely occur without a constant glucose and oxygen supply. Brain cells, like cardiac muscles, cannot regenerate. The brain is responsible for several body functions including sensory, muscle movement, vision, speech, and others. The signs and symptoms may differ on which part of the brain has been damaged. Damage the brain’s left side will cause paralysis on the right side of the body and vice versa. Most people think that stroke means paralysis of the body alone, not knowing that the condition actually causes damage in the brain. In addition, bleeding can cause brain damage. And aspirin, which is known to prevent stroke in those at risk, is not administered immediately until the cause of stroke has been figured out. Sudden death occurs if the damage occurs in the part of the brain that directs the vital function such as respiration, or when the brain protrudes out of the skull cavity causing compression of the brain stem.
Important Points to Remember:
- Both stroke and heart attack are life threatening conditions and are more likely to happen to those with high blood pressure or hypertension.
- Ischemia or the blocking of blood supply can cause stroke and heart attack.
- Lowering cholesterol intake, not smoking and watching what you eat can greatly reduce the risks of stroke and heart attack.
- Stroke affects in the brain while a heart attack affects, as the name suggests, the heart.
- Aspirin may be used as first aid in case of a heart attack, but it’s not advisable in when it comes to stroke; unless there is no internal bleeding involved.
- Stroke usually causes muscle paralysis, but a heart attack can mean immediate death to the victim. | <urn:uuid:064bd9c5-b3aa-4da8-b3ed-dc152bc98f96> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://vspages.com/stroke-vs-heart-attack-4346/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936713 | 781 | 3.5 | 4 |
Prepared by Elisabeth Lindsay.
Records preservation is the act of protecting cultural and historical records from loss or decay, to preserve them for future generations. The aim of preservation is to minimize chemical and physical deterioration and prevent the loss of informational content. Many records fall into this category, including paper documents, photographs, film, tape -- virtually anything of cultural or historical value that can be lost, damaged, or broken. Besides time itself, light, temperature extremes, humidity, and storage methods may accelerate deterioration, which preservation techniques can help to alleviate.
While libraries and archives may enlist professional preservationists, for genealogists and family history researchers, preservation can be the simple act of storing documents and photographs in acid-free folders and boxes; scanning or otherwise digitizing documents, photos, films and tapes to preserve them in their current state; and then distributing copies to prevent loss in case of fire or natural disaster. Many online resources are available to guide researchers in preservation techniques, in addition to the many products and technologies to aid the process. You may also consult Genealogy Today for articles on preserving documents and photos. | <urn:uuid:a93fb975-8bf7-42dc-be97-5c755192cba6> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://wiki.genealogytoday.com/records_preservation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.896396 | 226 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Engineering Students' Parachute Prototype Designed to Bring Small Satellites Back to Earth
Miles above the surface of the Earth, it's getting a bit crowded. A photograph from space reveals millions and millions of pieces of former satellites and other "space junk" making lonely, endless orbits around the globe.
How do we keep this man-made material from negatively affecting future orbital activity? Part of the answer is in creating mechanisms to bring these objects down when their work in space is done.
A group of senior engineering students at Old Dominion University have spent their final undergraduate semester wrestling with this issue. And they hope one day that their prototype design for a "parachute" to make tiny satellites fall back down to Earth gets tested by being blasted into orbit.
"If you look at an accurate photo of Earth debris and orbiting satellites, it's like a big snow globe up there," said Juan Parducci, a senior in mechanical engineering from Alexandria, Va. "What we've tried to design is a passive de-orbiting system to bring a small satellite back to Earth within 25 years, after its mission has been completed."
It was one of the projects that students could sign up for in the senior capstone design course in ODU's Frank Batten College of Engineering and Technology. Parducci and two other senior mechanical engineering majors from Virginia - Kimberly Scheider from Fairfax and Todd Estep from Chesterfield - comprised the team working on the passive de-orbiting system under Bob Ash, Eminent Scholar and professor of aerospace engineering.
Their job was to create an apparatus that would cause a "CubeSat," a 10-centimeter-cubed satellite used commonly to complete small tasks in orbit, to return to Earth within 25 years after its mission has been completed. The challenge? "We couldn't add any mass, volume or power requirements to the device. And it needed to activate on its own," Scheider said.
The team stayed within these restrictions using a sublimation method, a process in which a solid turns directly into a gas. This occurs when the pressure and temperature combinations are right for the specific substance.
The students placed a small quantity of benzoic acid inside a balloon and performed tests in a vacuum chamber facility. Tests have shown that in orbit, the powder will turn into a gas, and that vapor pressure will cause the balloon onboard the CubeSat to inflate.
"The density of the thermosphere, the layer of the atmosphere in which most satellites are placed into orbit, is very low but sufficient enough to de-orbit a satellite in 25 years. As long as our 'parachute' - the balloon onboard the CubeSat - is sufficiently large, meeting the time requirement won't be a problem," Parducci said.
When this "parachute" is deployed, it will gradually cause the CubeSat to fall out of orbit.
Due to the popularity of the project, the trio ended up working with four more students on two other teams, who are tackling different aspects of the same project. One of the teams is focusing on the structural analysis of a nano-satellite during a launch environment, and how it can withstand the rigors of leaving the Earth's atmosphere. The other, a command and control group, is working on data transmission issues in order to manipulate a CubeSat while it is in space.
Nathan Schwinn from Norfolk and Gregory Lemmer from Centreville, Va., are working on the structures team, while Dylan Blackshear of Hampton and Trevor McCarthy of Stephens City, Va., are working on command and control. All four are mechanical engineering majors.
The ultimate hope is for the work of all seven students to be passed down to future capstone classes, and one day for the ODU creation to hitch a ride on a rocket, testing their concept in space.
For Parducci, who has an internship at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., this summer, and Scheider, who will do an internship at NASA Langley, seeing their work in space would be the ultimate manifestation of their hands-on experience.
"It's what we all want to do, and why we signed up for this project," Scheider said.
This article was posted on: April 26, 2012
Old Dominion University
Office of University Relations
Room 100 Koch Hall Norfolk, Virginia 23529-0018
Old Dominion University is an equal opportunity, affirmative action institution. | <urn:uuid:c846e80a-c58d-43a4-ba68-bb137cc3b091> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://ww2.odu.edu/ao/news/index.php?todo=details&todo=details&id=32015 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941942 | 913 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Sexuality has three stages: Desire is an interest in being sexual. Excitement is the state of arousal that sexual stimulation causes. And orgasm is sexual pleasure's peaking. A sexual disorder occurs when there's a problem in at least one of these stages.
Adapted from the Encyclopedia of Psychology
Understanding Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
- Answers to Your Questions For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation & Homosexuality
This pamphlet is designed to provide accurate information for those who want to better understand sexual orientation and the impact of prejudice and discrimination on those who identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual. El folleto es disponible en español.
- Answers to Your Questions About Transgender People, Gender Identity, and Gender Expression
Transgender is an umbrella term used to describe people whose gender identity (sense of themselves as male or female) or gender expression differs from that usually associated with their birth sex.
- Report of the APA Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation
California legislation cites APA report on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation
- Just the Facts about Sexual Orientation & Youth:
A Primer for Principals, Educators, & School Personnel
Just the Facts provides information and resources for principals, educators and school personnel who confront sensitive issues involving gay, lesbian and bisexual students.
- Answers to Your Questions About Same-Sex Marriage
Scientists have found that the psychological and social aspects of committed relationships between same-sex partners largely resemble those of heterosexual partnerships, that living in a state where same-sex marriage is outlawed can lead to chronic social stress and mental health problems, and that same-sex couples are as fit and capable parents as heterosexual couples.
- Sólo los hechos sobre la orientación sexual y la juventud: Una guía para directores de escuelas, educadores y personal escolar
Sólo los Hechos ofrece información y recursos para directores de escuelas, educadores y personal educativo que encuentren cuestiones delicadas relacionadas con estudiantes gays, lesbianas y bisexuales
Monitor on Psychology Articles
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- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns
The mission of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns Office is to advance psychology as a means of improving the health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people, as a means of increasing understanding of gender identity and sexual orientation as aspects of human diversity, and as a means of reducing stigma, prejudice, discrimination and violence toward LGBT people.
- Sexualization of Girls
The APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls found that the proliferation of sexualized images of girls and young women in advertising, merchandising and media is harmful to girls' self-image and healthy development. | <urn:uuid:6c12a6d7-3d7d-46ff-aa82-837c11bfe999> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.apa.org/topics/sexuality/index.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.840438 | 604 | 3.828125 | 4 |
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The use of therapeutic stories for children and young people facing emotional and developmental challenges
Story telling is such a natural part of our culture and school activity that stories can be used in a very natural way, helping the child feel less pathologised. This workshop will cover the theoretical basis of the use of the therapeutic story approach, including the relevant neuroscience, relationship with other therapies, case studies, examples and evidence base.
09:30 Registration/tea and coffee
10:00 Workshop starts
16:30 Workshop ends
In this approach, the stories are always about a third person and tend to lead to lower levels of stress and defensiveness than found in more direct, confrontational approaches. The approach provides a highly accessible but low risk alternative to other counselling and debriefing methods not only to the psychologist but to the children, teachers and parents they work with following traumatic events.
Theory and examples will be provided and there will be opportunity for delegates to bring cases they are working on and to write their own therapeutic stories.
Delegates will be asked to identify a current case where they would like to start using a therapeutic story and to bring any notes that may be helpful with them to the workshop.
Delegates will also find the following (not essential) reading helpful:
- Using Story Telling as a Therapeutic Tool with Children Margot Sunderland, Speechmark Publications (2000, reprinted 2004)
- The Therapeutic use of stories Ed Kedar Nath Dwivedi Routledge (1997)
- Helping children explore their emotional and social worlds through therapeutic stories Kathryn Anne Pomerantz, Educational and Child Psychology Vol 24, No 1 (2007).
Educational and child psychologists, Counselling psychologists and Clinical psychologists who work with children and young people.
Learning outcomes and objectives
- To understand the theoretical basis of the therapeutic story approach and use of metaphor
- To be able to identify cases that would benefit from this approach and apply the use of stories
- To be able to start to write stories for children and young people
- To know how to encourage children/young people to write their own stories
- To know how to evaluate the results of the use of this approach and develop one’s own evidence-based practice.
Facilitator: Michelle Mohammed CPsychol
Michelle has many years of experience as a psychologist, teacher and trainer. She specialises in the use of therapeutic stories and in thinking skills and cognitive development. She is the co-author of the Cognitive Abilities Profile and is currently writing a book about the use of therapeutic stories. Michelle is a highly experienced trainer, regularly providing courses for psychologists, teachers and teaching assistants.
Michelle has worked in various local authorities and charity settings with children over the last 20 years and uses the approaches she teaches in her own case-work. She also has evaluated approaches through action research in schools. Michelle also contributes to the doctoral training course for Educational Psychologists at the Institute of Education, London University.
- Non-Society members: £138 (£115 + VAT)
- Society members: £104 (£86.67 + VAT)
- DECP members: £78 (£65 +VAT)
- Concessions: £54 (£45 + VAT)
Persons eligible for concessionary rates are student members of the Society, graduate members registered under Rule 15.ii (studying in the UK and not subject to income tax), Rule 21 (retired) members, and members who are unemployed. For evidence of unemployment, we will require a copy of your job seekers allowance book.
How to book
Please note: online bookings will close 24 hours prior to the event. Please call +44 (0)116 2529512 for availability after this point.
To pay by cheque or request an invoice complete and return the registration form.
Please note that we are only able to accept invoice requests at least 6 weeks before the event date.
Tel: +44 (0)116 252 9925
Fax: +44 (0)116 227 1314 | <urn:uuid:f068ea94-802e-4476-9091-4e899969a3f8> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.bps.org.uk/events/use-therapeutic-stories-children-and-young-people-facing-emotional-and-developmental-challeng | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930634 | 852 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Public Health Ethics
Public health ethics involves a systematic process to clarify, prioritize and justify possible courses of public health action based on ethical principles, values and beliefs of stakeholders, and scientific and other information.
As the nation’s leading public health agency, CDC primarily takes a population-based approach to public health, targeting communities or populations in its activities. The problems that CDC addresses are often complex, involving multiple risk factors, multiple stakeholders, and many different perspectives on how to prevent or ameliorate health concerns and promote well-being.
CDC staff use a variety of scientific tools in their work -- epidemiology, behavioral and social science, communication science, laboratory science, and many others. Another critical tool for public health decision making and action is public health ethics. Public health ethics brings considerations, such as principles and values, to discussions of public health policies and actions.
CDC and Public Health Ethics
What is public health ethics?
Public health ethics can be subdivided into a field of study and a field of practice. As a field of study, public health ethics seeks to understand and clarify principles and values which guide public health actions. Principles and values provide a framework for decision making and a means of justifying decisions. Because public health actions are often undertaken by governments and are directed at the population level, the principles and values which guide public health can differ from those which guide actions in biology and clinical medicine (bioethics and medical ethics) which are more patient or individual-centered.
As a field of practice, public health ethics is the application of relevant principles and values to public health decision making. In applying an ethics framework, public health ethics inquiry carries out three core functions, namely 1) identifying and clarifying the ethical dilemma posed, 2) analyzing it in terms of alternative courses of action and their consequences, and 3) resolving the dilemma by deciding which course of action best incorporates and balances the guiding principles and values.
What are the goals and structure for public health ethics at CDC?
The primary goal of CDC’s public health ethics activities is to integrate the tools of ethical analysis into day-to-day operations across CDC. Two public health ethics committees provide leadership for this activity at CDC -- the CDC Public Health Ethics Committee (PHEC) and the Ethics Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee to the Director, CDC.
PHEC is responsible for building CDC’s public health ethics infrastructure, including fostering an environment and culture that supports and develops ethical practices, raising staff awareness of public health ethics, and providing tools for analyzing ethical issues. PHEC is also responsible for providing guidance for initiating and implementing public health ethics consultations and for educating CDC staff about public health ethics.
The external Ethics Subcommittee provides consultation and guidance to CDC on a broad range of public health ethics topics and issues; education and training; and advice on infrastructure and capacity building within the agency.
For more information on public health ethics at CDC:
- Page last reviewed: April 4, 2013
- Page last updated: January 4, 2011
- Content source: Office of the Associate Director for Science | <urn:uuid:c4538af6-9e29-47cd-8282-c18d1c3dc75d> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.cdc.gov/od/science/integrity/phethics/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92633 | 626 | 3.8125 | 4 |
By Drs. Sally Robinson and Keith Bly
Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in children in the United States, with more than 3 million cases each year and 55,000 hospitalizations of children under age 5 for dehydration resulting from the infection. Rotavirus infections occur most often during the winter months.
Almost all children contract the virus before age 5. Typically, the older the child the milder the infection, but even adults can contract the virus. A rotavirus infection is most dangerous for infants, because their smaller body weight makes them more susceptible to dehydration.
Signs of a rotavirus infection include fever, nausea and vomiting, followed by abdominal cramps and frequent, watery diarrhea. Symptoms can last from three to five days. The infection is highly contagious, and it is transferred through stool. A person is contagious before and after symptoms are present, and rotavirus can remain active for about four hours on human hands, 10 days on hard, dry surfaces, and weeks on wet areas.
Fever and vomiting usually end after two to three days, but the diarrhea can last up to nine days. Severe diarrhea can lead to dehydration. If a child becomes moderately or severely dehydrated, she may need to be treated professionally through intravenous fluids; older children with milder infections can be treated at home.
Your child’s doctor may want to take blood or stool samples to make sure the disease is a rotavirus infection and not a bacterial infection. Because antibiotics do not work against viral illnesses, your doctor will not prescribe an antibiotic.
There is no specific treatment for rotavirus, but to prevent dehydration your doctor may recommend an oral rehydration solution, especially if your child’s diarrhea lasts longer than a few days. Ask your doctor about what your child should eat or drink. Children with mild diarrhea who are not dehydrated should continue to eat normally, but should be given extra fluids to prevent dehydration. Keep in mind that sugary fruit juices and soft drinks can worsen diarrhea and should be avoided. Do not give your child over-the-counter medicines used to treat vomiting or diarrhea unless your doctor recommends them.
If your child has diarrhea it is important to watch for:
• Signs of dehydration. Symptoms include a decrease in urine, no tears when crying, high fever, dry mouth, weight loss, extreme thirst, listlessness and sunken eyes
• Blood in your child’s stool
• Fever over 102 degrees Fahrenheit
As with any illness, you can reduce your child’s risk of becoming infected by washing hands frequently, cleaning contaminated surfaces promptly and washing soiled clothing.
Dr. Sally Robinson is a pediatrician in the division of children’s special services at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. She teaches medical students about caring for children with chronic medical conditions. Dr. Keith Bly, an emergency physician, directs emergency care for children at UTMB.
Dr. Sally Robinson is a pediatrician in the division of children’s special services at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. She teaches medical students about caring for children with chronic medical conditions. Dr. Keith Bly is a hospitalist and assistant professor of pediatrics at UTMB.
The Your Health column is written by health and medical experts at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. The column focuses on topical health issues that we believe are of interest to your readers. It is e-mailed every Tuesday. If you have any questions about the column, or would like to suggest topics, please contact John Koloen, media relations specialist, at (409) 772-8790 or email [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:0b154ae4-c304-4fa7-bef5-7bdb9f64fca2> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.cephbase.utmb.edu/newsroom/article268.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941504 | 767 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Roman houses evolved from the thatched-roof huts of the original Roman civilizations to the sumptuous villas of the late Empire. We can trace the evolution of these houses through allusions in literature, and especially through archeological remains. Roman houses varied depending not only on the era in which they were built, but also on their location. As well as those built in Italy, there were Roman houses built in Greece, Africa, Britain, and many other places.
The main room in the house was the atrium, a windowless room with a space in the ceiling (the compluvium) through which rain fell into the impluvium, a hollow space in the floor. There were alcoves on either side of the atrium, called alae, in which wax busts of ancestors were kept. There were four types of atrium: Tuscan (in which the roof was supported by two pairs of beams that crossed each other at right angles, tetrastylon (in which four pillars supported the roof beams at the corners of the compluvium), displuviatum (in which the roof sloped to the out walls), and testudinatum. Later the atrium was reduced to being a reception room.
The tablinum, the master's office or study, was where the master kept his arca (a heavy chest, sometimes chained to the floor, containing money and valuables). There were other rooms used for business: sometimes house owners converted front rooms into shops.
Sometimes larger houses had an open court in front of the door, called a vesibulum, with an ornamental pavement from the door to the street. In small houses this term applied to the narrow space between the door and the inner edge of the sidewalk.
There were numerous terms for the door in Roman times. Ostium included both the doorway and the door. It was also applied to either of these, but fores and janua are more precise words for the door itself. Doors opened inward; outer doors were provided with bolts and bars. Locks and keys were heavy and clumsy. In some houses a doorman or janitor was kept on duty. Inside houses, curtains were preferred to doors. Sometimes mosaics adorned the threshold, reading salve (good heath), nihil intret mali (may no evil enter), or cave canem (beware of dog). Some windows were provided with shutters, which slid in a framework on the outer wall. If these were in two parts, so that they moved in opposite directions, they were said to be junctae (joined).
The peristylum was an open court at the rear of the tablinum, planted with flowers, trees, and shrubs. In upper class houses, the peristyle was the center of household life. The culina or kitchen was the most important of the rooms about the peristyle. The dining room (triclinium) was not always close to the kitchen because slaves made carrying food fast and easy. Roman houses generally had many cubicula - small, scantily furnished sleeping rooms. There were also cubicula diurna, used for rest in the daytime (nighttime bedrooms were called cubicula nocturna or dormitoria). In the houses of many educated Romans there was a library (bibliotheca), where papyrus rolls were kept in cases or cabinets around the walls. There were other rooms, in addition to these: the sacrarium (a room with a shrine), oeci (rooms for the entertainment of large groups, exedrae (rooms furnished with permanent seats, used for entertainments), solarium (a sun deck), and perhaps pantries, storerooms, and cellars.
Roman houses had various methods for heating. In severe winter weather, portable stoves (braziers made of metal for holding hot coals) were used. Wealthy people sometimes had furnaces with chimneys. The fire was under the house, and warm air circulated in tile pipes or in hollow walls and floors without coming directy into the rooms. This heating arrangement was called a hypocaust, and it was used by moth baths in Italy.
Water was brought to houses by aqueducts from the mountains, sometimes for a long distance. Often houses had a tank in the upper story. Not many rooms had plumbing - slaves carried water as needed. The Cloaca Maxima, Rome's great sewer said to have been build in the time of the kings, continued to serve Rome until early in the present century.
Building materials in Rome varied greatly over time. Wood was commonly used for temporary structures. Permanent buildings were made of stone and unburned brick from early times. Walls of dressed stone were laid in regular courses. Tufa from Latium, was a dull color, but could be covered with fine white marble stucco to give it a brilliant finish. For ordinary houses, sun-dried bricks were largely used until the beginning of the first century BC. These were also covered with stucco. In classical time, cement was invented. Walls built of this durable, inexpensive material were called opus caementicium. Cement was also combined with crushed terra cotta to make a waterproof lining (opus Signinum) for cisterns. Although concerte walls were weatherproof, they were usually faced with stone or burned bricks. Walls of this type were called opus incertum (irregular work) if they were faced with stones with no regular size or shape, or opus reticulatum (network) if they were faced with uniform tufa stones. Bricks used for facing were triangular - no walls were built of brick alone.
The term for Roman floors was pavimentum - a name which originally referred to floors in small houses in which the ground in each room was smoothed, covered thickly with small pieces of stone, brick, tile or pottery, and pounded down solidly and smoothly with a heavy rammer. In better houses the floor was made of stone slabs fitted smoothly together. More elaborate houses had concrete floors, often with a mosaic surfaces. In the upper stories floors were made of wood, sometimes with a layer of concrete on top. Roman roofs varied, with some flat and some sloped. The earliest roof was a thatch of straw, later replaced by shingles and finally tiles.
Before the end of the Republic, the majority of the population lived in apartments called insulae (islands), a name originally applied to city blocks. These were sometimes six or seven stories high. Augustus limited their height to seventy feet; Nero, after the great fire in his reign, set a limit of sixty feet. Apartments were build poorly and cheaply and were often in danger of fire and collapse. The building was looked after by an insularius, a slave of the the owner. | <urn:uuid:e3467060-75c3-4f2c-85a4-4aaf6b32be69> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romel/html/romehouse.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988852 | 1,414 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Although iron is classified as a trace mineral, it’s essential for overall health. Many of the body’s functions rely on iron and if you get too little, your body can’t function properly. On the flip side, getting too much can also be detrimental to your health.
There are two main types of iron; heme and non-heme. Heme iron is the type found in meat, poultry and fish. Non-heme, on the other hand, can be found in both plant and animal sources. The biggest difference between the two types is how well the body absorbs them. Heme iron is much more easily absorbed by the body than non-heme iron, yet most of our dietary supply comes from non-heme sources. Enriched breads and cereals, lentils, legumes, dark leafy greens, and some dried fruits are foods rich in this type of iron. Although the iron found in these foods is typically harder to absorb, your can improve your body’s absorption rate by pairing your non-heme-rich food sources with a food high in heme iron, vitamin C, citric or lactic acid, and certain sugars.
Most of the body’s iron is found within two proteins: hemoglobin and myoglobin. Hemoglobin is found in the body’s red blood cells while myoglobin is found in the muscle cells. In both, iron helps accept, carry, and release oxygen to the cells of the body. In addition, iron keeps your immune system strong and helps your body produce energy.
Currently, the recommended dietary intake of iron is 8 milligrams per day for men of all ages and women 51 years of age or older. For women 19 to 50 years old, the current recommendation is 18 milligrams per day. For optimum health, it’s important for individuals to get this amount of iron daily. Not getting enough can result in a wide array of problems with iron-deficiency anemia being one of the most common.
Iron-deficiency anemia is a condition where the iron stores of the body are severely depleted and the red blood cells can’t carry enough oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Essentially, this is an advanced stage of iron depletion. Not eating enough iron-rich foods, not absorbing iron properly, or experiencing excessive blood loss can all ultimately result in this condition.
Signs and symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia often include extreme tiredness, weakness, headaches, depression, brittle nails, hair loss, paling of the skin, tongue swelling, decreased ability to fight off infections and poor resistance to cold temperatures.
People who donate blood regularly, suffer excessive blood loss, use medications that interfere with iron absorption, or are pregnant or lactating may be at a higher risk for both iron-deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia. Children, the elderly, and individuals who do not eat meat may also be at higher risk.
Just as it is important to get enough iron, making sure you don’t consume too much is also vital to optimum health. Iron poisoning, or the ingestion of too much iron over a short period of time, often results from ingesting too many iron-containing supplements. This can cause nausea, vomiting, damage to the lining of the intestinal tract, shock, liver failure, and even death in children.
In addition, chronic ingestion of iron at high levels can result in a condition called hamochromatosis which often leads to other serious health conditions such as diabetes, liver damage, and discoloration of the skin. A tolerable upper intake level has been set for healthy adults at 45 milligrams per day and its important for individuals to not go over this amount. At times, a health care provider may prescribe more than this amount for an individual who is suffering from iron-deficiency anemia. Individuals looking to take to take an iron supplement should first speak with their healthcare provider before doing so. Most healthy individuals should be able to meet their daily iron needs through diet alone.
A Few Iron Fun Facts
- Cooking with iron cookware will add iron to your food!
- Spinach and chocolate may decrease iron absorption because of their oxalate content. These compounds bind the iron and keep it from being absorbed by the digestive tract.
September 1st, 2011 | <urn:uuid:69d46bea-094d-4c37-a182-7baafabc1a0d> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.dietsinreview.com/diet_column/09/mineral-basics-your-complete-guide-to-iron/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944568 | 896 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Like most animals, waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans) select mates for the purpose of reproducing. However, the types of waterfowl pair bonds formed vary considerably among species. Some species pair for life, whereas others invest a lot of time forming new pair bonds each year. Only about 44 percent of waterfowl species — all of which are geese and swans — form life-long pair bonds with the same mate (monogamy). Other waterfowl — mostly ducks — form new bonds each year by finding a new mate.
Canada geese and swans are monogamous and pairs mate for life. They do not form bonds until they are at least two years of age — more commonly three or four. Therefore, geese do not nest and lay eggs until their second year or later; swans typically do not begin laying until their fourth year.
Male geese play a significant role in raising young, including vigilance over and defense of females while they are incubating and brood rearing. If one of the pair dies, the other will eventually re-pair, but this may interfere with or prevent the surviving mate from breeding for that year. Divorce has also been noted in geese, in which pairs will separate. Divorce has been seen in pairs that were unsuccessful in their nesting attempt or in laying and hatching eggs.
Long-term pair bonds are generally observed among species of waterfowl that have large bodies, live longer because of lower annual mortality, exhibit low annual production of young, have slow-maturing young, exhibit high return rates to breeding and wintering sites, and depend on limited food resources on the breeding grounds. These characteristics are typical of geese and swans.
Waterfowl Project Manager
Photo of Canada Geese courtesy of John White | <urn:uuid:e3e718aa-4b52-44e7-afea-c77e848af929> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.dnr.state.md.us/mydnr/askanexpert/mate_for_life.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950571 | 372 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Moment of inertia
Moment of inertia is rotational inertia, i.e., moment of inertia is to rotational motion as mass is to linear motion. Rotational versions of Newton's Second Law, momentum, and the formula for kinetic energy use this value (with torque, angular velocity and angular acceleration replacing force, velocity and acceleration, respectively). The moment of inertia for an object depends on its shape and distribution of mass within that shape: the more the mass is on the outside with respect to the axis of rotation, the larger the moment of inertia. For a given mass M and radius r, in order of increasing moment of inertia we have a solid sphere, a solid cylinder, a hollow sphere and a hollow cylinder, namely cMr2, with c=2/5, 1/2, 2/3 and 1, respectively. The general form of the moment of inertia involves an integral.
The moment of inertia is often represented by the letter I.
For an bunch of infinitely small particles with mass , and distance from one particular axis, the moment of inertia for that bunch of particles around that axis will be:
is defined by the spatial density distribution &rho. | <urn:uuid:c2a1268a-15e1-41bd-b9f9-d821f40abdd5> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.encyclopedia4u.com/m/moment-of-inertia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899183 | 241 | 4.1875 | 4 |
1770-1774: Increased tension between the British and the Colonies leads to violence, governmental action and revolutionary prose.
- March 5
- The Boston Massacre leads to the death of five colonists
- Boston had been living with British troops for close to two years before the sound of gunfire was heard. Ostensibly there at the request of Governor Bernard and Boston's customs commissioners to quell colonial lawlessness, the soldiers found they had very little to do. To the chagrin of the governor and commissioners, no danger materialized from which the soldiers might rescue them. Neither Governor Bernard nor his replacement, Thomas Hutchinson, could find justification for declaring martial law. With Boston still under their control, city magistrates invoked dusty ordinances and antiquated bylaws to harass the troops, and citizens flung taunts at them as they passed. A terrible hostility hung in the air between the soldiers and the colonists as members of each group walked down the streets, going about the business of living in dangerously close proximity.
The details of the afternoon on which the antagonism flared into real conflict are obscure. It was a freezing day in March when a noisy crowd of troublemakers gathered in front of the Boston Custom House, and began throwing snowballs and stones at the British sentry, who summoned help. A small contingent under Captain Thomas Preston responded, and for a few moments, the little band of redcoats stood together tightly on the steps, tensely facing the mob. In the building behind them, some of the commissioners responsible for bringing troops to America peered uneasily out of the windows.
What happened next is not quite clear. Some said that the mob began daring the soldiers to "Fire! Fire!" Others thought that the first part of Captain Preston's order to "Hold your fire!" got lost in the shouting. A British soldier, who later claimed he had heard the order to fire, shot into the crowd. The mob surged forward, and the panicked British began shooting at unarmed people. Five colonists were killed, and six more were wounded.
Those who were in the mob that day were not heroes, but mischief-makers. On the other hand, the British soldiers were professionals, and should not have panicked. Samuel Adams made the most of the tragic incident, using it as propaganda to hasten the war for independence. His cousin, however, was compelled by conscience to ensure that the eight British men received a fair trial. Braving a ferocious tide of public sentiment that blamed the redcoats for what was already being called "the Boston Massacre," John Adams-one of the ablest lawyers in the colonies-volunteered to defend the soldiers in court. Six were found not guilty and two others were convicted of manslaughter, rather than murder.
Governor Hutchinson acceeded to colonial demands that the troops be removed from the town, and for the next three years, only one regiment remained in Massachusetts, on an island in Boston Harbor. The Board of Commissioners continued unchecked
- April 12
- All provisions of the Townshend Act are repealed, except for the duty on tea.
- A committee of inquiry appointed by the town of Boston and headed by James Bowdoin (1726-1790), a merchant and politician in the community, prepared "A Military Combination: a Report of a Committee of the Town of Boston." This report attributed the Boston Massacre to tensions arising between the colonists and the British as a result of the various acts of Parliament taxing America unfairly. It also appealed to the British Bill of Rights, according to which it is against the law to raise and keep a standing army in a time of peace, and blamed the British Board of Commissioners, whose job was to oversee trade in the colonies, for quartering troops in America "in direct violation of an act of Parliament."
- June 9
- An angry colonial mob burns the British ship Gaspee, off the coast of Rhode Island.
- The Gaspee, a customs schooner, was stationed in Rhode Island for the purpose of enforcing the Navigation Acts and other imperial commercial regulations. She ran aground on June 9, a few miles south of Providence. Late that night, several boatloads of townsmen boarded her, wounding her commander in the process. The crew was conducted ashore, and the ship burned right down to the water's edge.
In a letter sent to the Earl of Hillsborough, Governor Joseph Wanton explained that the citizens of Rhode Island were incensed by British interference in colonial trade. Several small freight vessels conducting trade within the colony had been detained, on slight pretext, by British officers, affecting stores and prices for Rhode Island inhabitants.
One British soldier afterward testified that as many as 150 men participated in the burning of the Gaspee. Although a $500 reward was offered for information leading to the arrest of guilty parties, the commission appointed to investigate the affair could not find sufficient evidence for a single arrest, to the embarrassment of the British ministry.
- June 13
- Thomas Hutchinson, royal governor of Massachusetts, announces that he will henceforth be paid by the crown, instead of by the colonists; Massachusetts judges follow suit in September
- This declaration did not represent the first clash between Massachusetts' governor and her House of Representatives. In 1769, armed with a royal instruction, Hutchinson had transferred the meeting place of Massachusett's General Court to Cambridge, hoping to remove the court from the influence of the more radical patriots in Boston, the court's lawful place of meeting. In 1770, Hutchinson further angered colonists when, again acting with royal sanction, he replaced the garrison of colonial troops at Castle William with British soldiers, and relinquished the small fort, located on an island in Boston Harbor, to British control.
But it was his pronouncement in the summer of 1772 that aroused the greatest protest. Henceforth the imperial government, and not the colonists, would hold the means of accountability intrinsic to control of the salaries of Massachusetts governor and judges. To the colonists it was clear: it was the plan of the imperial government to remove both the executive and judiciary branches of the colony out from under the influence of the legislative branch (which contained the representatives of the people), and into the pocket of the crown.
- November 2
- The first Committee of Correspondence is formed in Boston, and produces Samuel Adams’ bold assertion of the “Rights of the Colonists,” and Dr. Joseph Warren’s “List of Infringements and Violations of Rights.”
- Colonial response to Governor Hutchinson's declaration was swift, and not surprisingly, it was led by patriot Samuel Adams. At a Boston town meeting on November 2, 1772, at Adam's suggestion, a standing Committee of Correspondence was appointed for the purpose of writing a declaration of colonial grievances and an assertion of their rights. Adams' "Rights of the Colonists" and Dr. Joseph Warren's "List of Infringements and Violations of Rights" were transmitted to other Massachusetts towns, and soon more Committees of Correspondence sprang up. With each new committee came new declarations, invariably denying the authority of Parliament over the colonies.
The system of committees would later spread throughout the colonies during the inquiry into the burning of the British schooner Gaspee, due to colonial concerns that the commission investigating the incident was empowered to remove suspects to Britain for trial.
The committees resembled the Sons of Liberty, first organized in 1765, which had arisen in response to the Stamp Act Crisis. But whereas the Sons of Liberty had been extralegal, the committees would operate under the sanction of town meetings. With the Committees of Correspondence, the organized political machinery for revolution was being assembled.
- January 6
- Massachusetts’ Governor Hutchinson argues the supremacy of Parliament before the General Court.
- Dismayed at the daring refutations of Parliament's authority springing up in his colony, Governor Hutchinson undertook a speech to the General Court, in which he argued that because sovereignty cannot be divided, Parliament's authority in the colonies could not be shared with the state legislatures. There were but two alternatives: either Parliament was supreme, or the colonies were independent entities.
Hutchinson's strategy backfired; his listeners favored the latter alternative. The House of Representatives issued a reply to his speech, prepared in part by John Adams, making the most explicit and comprehensive claim to exemption from parliamentary authority that had yet been seen. Now not only the Committees of Correspondence had taken a stand against Parliamentary control, but Hutchinson had provoked the colonial legislature into adopting the same public stance.
Massachusetts had led the way with breathtaking boldness. It would be months before another declaration of this kind would be elicited from any of the other colonies.
- May 10
- With the passage of the Tea Act, the East India Company is granted a virtual monopoly on the tea trade in the colonies.
- Parliament passed the Tea Act to enable the East India Company, which was in financial straits and on the verge of bankruptcy, to sell a portion of its huge surplus of tea in America at prices that undersold all other merchants. It was not intended to punish the colonies but to help the East India Company. This did not matter much to the colonists, who regarded the Tea Act as a clever way for Parliament to impose its will upon the merchants in the colonies. If Parliament could grant a monopoly to a particular company for the colonial market on tea, why could it not do the same with other commodities, to the detriment of colonial merchants?
- December 16
- A group of men dressed as Mohawk Indians and led by Samuel Adams dump 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor, an incident known as the Boston Tea Party.
- On November 27, 1773, the Dartmouth, carrying a cargo of tea, sailed into Boston Harbor. Boston patriots refused to allow the ship to land and pay the duty imposed by the Tea Act. Governor Hutchinson was equally determined that the Dartmouth should not leave without paying the duty. For twenty days the ship simply floated in the harbor.
All over the colonies protests were raised regarding the Tea Act. One of the most significant was "The Association and Resolves," adopted by the New York Sons of Liberty on December 15, 1773. This document decried the Tea Act as a "diabolic project of enslaving America." Furthermore, it argued that Act was simply another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonists without their consent, and that if Parliament did indeed have the authority of taxation without representation, then no one's property was secure.
On December 16, the impasse in Boston Harbor was broken. According to law, the Dartmouth became subject to seizure for failure to pay duties, in which case the tea should have been unloaded and sold. In order to prevent this, Samuel Adams led some 200 men, dressed as Mohawk Indians, on board the Dartmouth and two other vessels. An estimated crowd of 8,000 people watched from the shore as the patriots deposited 342 chests of tea, representing about ﾣ9,000, onto the bottom of Boston Harbor.
Similar events occurred in other colonies during the next year. Sometimes the tea was destroyed; at other times, it was merely prevented from landing. In one case in Charleston, the tea was stored and later sold to raise funds for the Revolutionary government during the War for Independence. At any rate, following the example of the Boston Tea Party, the Tea Act was nullified in practice.
- March 31-June 2
- The British Parliament passes the five Coercive Acts in order to punish Massachusetts for the Tea Party and regain control of the colony.
- The failure of the commission investigating the Gaspee incident made clear the unlikelihood of finding and punishing the parties directly responsible for the Boston Tea Party. Parliament opted instead for blanket punitive measures against the entire colony.
The Boston Port Act closed the port of Boston beginning June 1, 1774, until the East India Company was reimbursed for the tea destroyed by the Tea Party. The Administration of Justice Act authorized the Massachusetts governor to send any official or soldier accused of a capital crime committed in the line of duty, and who could not expect a fair trial in Massachusetts, to Britain or to another colony. The Massachusetts Government Act changed the Charter of Massachusetts to require that the Council be appointed by the King rather than elected by the House of Representatives. It also decreed that town meetings could not be held without the prior written approval of the governor. The Quebec Act extended Canada's southern border to the land west of the Appalachians and north of the Ohio River. An enlarged version of the Quartering Act provided that even homes occupied by colonists were subject to that law.
In addition, Governor Hutchinson was replaced with General Gage, commander in chief of all British forces in North America.
With these measures, the British ministry hoped to bring a swift halt to Massachusetts' resistance to British authority and, by isolating and making an example of one colony, to halt the general subversive spirit elsewhere. In fact, however, the Coercive Acts had quite the opposite effect. Many Americans believed that the Acts were far too harsh a punishment for the Boston Tea Party, and concluded that they could be understood only as a part of a plan to enslave all the colonies.
- Several important publications appear in print, advancing the colonists’ argument against Parliamentary authority; these include Wilson’s
- The great issue of contention between the two sides was the nature and extent of Parliament's authority over the colonies, and during August of 1774, a flurry of arguments concerning Parliamentary jurisdiction appeared in print.
On the 17th, James Wilson's "Considerations on the Authority of Parliament" appeared, though it was written much earlier, in 1768. Wilson was an attorney of Scottish and Irish descent who had migrated to the colonies only recently, in 1765. In his pamphlet, he systematically argued that the colonists were not bound by any act of Parliament, not merely those concerning taxation. He stated that the authority of all legislation depended upon representation. Because the colonists were not represented in Parliament, that body had no authority over them. Wilson's conclusion was that the colonists owed their allegiance only to the King.
Thomas Jefferson made a similar argument in a pamphlet entitled "A Summary View of the Rights of British America." He too believed that the various acts of Parliament passed over the previous years showed a "deliberate and systematical plan of reducing us to slavery." Although Jefferson agreed with Wilson's argument that the colonies were united only by their common allegiance to King George, he went farther than Wilson in boldly stating that the King himself was guilty of "wanton" exercise of power. Jefferson composed a long list of charges against the King, which would later form the basis for the list of "abuses and usurpations" contained in the Declaration of Independence. He further argued that kings are not the "proprietors" of the people, but rather, the servants of the people. Should King George not cease from his oppressive treatment of the colonists, Jefferson warned, they would have no choice but to separate themselves from British rule.
As early as January of 1774, John Adams' Novanglus letters had been foreshadowing the arguments of James Wilsonand Thomas Jefferson in saying that the colonies were under the control of the King, and not of parliament.
Ebenezer Baldwin, who had been a student and then a tutor at Yale College, and pastor of the First Congregational Church in Danbury, Connecticut, delivered a sermon entitled "A Settled and Fix'd Plan for Enslaving the Colonies," on August 31, 1774. In it, he went beyond the concern over taxation without representation, and claimed to have discerned in the policies and acts of the British government its intention of bringing the colonies "under an arbitrary government." The British, he argued, would accomplish this with the consent of the colonies by giving "places or pensions" to "the children or friends, or dependents of the members of parliament," thereby advancing Britain's interest in maintaining and strengthening British rule over the colonies.
- September 5
- All the colonies except Georgia meet in the First Continental Congress
- Instead of isolating Massachusetts, the Coercive Acts served to unite all of the colonies. When the Massachusetts' House of Representatives called for a meeting in Philadelphia in September, 1774, only one colony did not respond. Delegates to the Congress included some of the most radical thinkers of the day, patriots who eagerly fed upon the ideas of James Wilson and Thomas Jefferson. These men included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee from Virginia, and Christopher Gadsden from South Carolina.
Not all Americans, however, favored a radical approach. There were many who believed that Parliament had justly punished Massachusetts for the Tea Party. Some-those who feared armed conflict with Britain-urged compliance with the laws and edicts of the British government. Others sought a compromise that would pacify relations between the Americans and British. One such man was Joseph Galloway (1731-1803), a Philadelphia attorney who urged the search for a compromise that would prevent the permanent separation of the colonies from Great Britain in a long letter, dated August 10, 1774, to a friend and member of Parliament, Richard Jackson. Galloway embodied his ideas in a "Plan of Union," which he presented to the First Continental Congress. His plan proposed that the colonies should retain control over their internal affairs; but that a branch of the British legislature should be established in America to control those affairs that affected America generally. It was narrowly rejected by a vote of 6-5.
- September 11
- King George III commits Britain to a policy of intractable opposition to colonial claims.
- The King wrote to his prime minister Lord North that "The dye is now cast. . . . the colonies must either submit or triumph." Both houses of Parliament overwhelmingly supported the king's determination to maintain "the supreme authority of this legislature [parliament] over all the dominions of my crown."
- September 17
- The Continental Congress passes the Suffolk Resolves.
- Having rejected Joseph Galloway's "Plan of Union," Congress chose instead to endorse the Suffolk Resolves, which had their origins in a Suffolk County, Massachusetts convention. These resolves declared the Coercive Acts unconstitutional and favored economic sanctions against Great Britain. They also urged the citizens of Massachusetts to form a new government to administer the colony for as long as the Coercive Acts remained in effect, and exhorted the colonists to arm themselves and chose officers for a colonial militia. Although entirely different in spirit than Galloway's proposal, the Suffolk Resolves were nevertheless not radical enough for some delegates, and represented a moderate course of action.
- October 14-20
- The Continental Congress approves the Declaration and Resolves
- The Continental Congress' Declaration and Resolves proclaimed that the colonists were possessed of rights founded upon "the immutable laws of nature, the principles of the English constitution, and the several charters or compacts." The Declaration further stated that the colonies could not be represented in the British Parliament and were entitled to "the exclusive power of legislation" for themselves, but would "cheerfully consent" to Parliamentary regulation of trade "from the necessity of the case."
The Declaration and Resolves, like the Suffolk Resolves, were adopted only after lengthy and heated debate. Samuel Adams recalled the debates, years later, in his Autobiography: ". . . The two points which we labored most were: 1. Whether we should recur to the law of nature, as well as to the British constitution, and our American charters and grants. Mr. Galloway and Mr. Duane were for excluding the law of nature. I was very strenuous for retaining and insisting on it, as a resource to which we might be driven by Parliament much sooner than we were aware. 2. The other great question was, what authority we should concede to Parliament. . . . "
- October 20
- The Continental Congress advocates a boycott of British goods.
- The Continental Congress formed an association, "under the sacred ties of virtue, honour, and love of our country," to implement a "non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement" among the colonies. Under the terms of this association, each county or town would have a Committee of Safety "to the end, that all . . . foes to the rights of British America may be publicly known, and universally contemned as the enemies of American liberty."
- October 26
- The Continental Congress adjourns.
- Upon its adjournment, the First Continental Congress agreed that another Congress would meet in Philadelphia in May 1775, should the colonists' grievances not be redressed. John Dickinson stated that now "Great Britain must relax, or inevitably involve herself in a civil war." | <urn:uuid:3eb64242-6865-42b4-83c3-cbca45d62597> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.founding.com/timeline/pageid.2461/default.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970949 | 4,265 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Water is an essential natural resource that shapes regional landscapes and is vital for ecosystem functioning and human well-being. At the same time, water is a resource under considerable pressure. Alterations in the hydrologic regime due to global climatic, demographic and economic changes have serious consequences for people and the environment.
A water cycle under stress
Human overuse of water resources, primarily for agriculture, and diffuse contamination of freshwater from urban regions and from agriculture are stressing the water resources in the terrestrial water cycle. As a consequence, the ecological functions of water bodies, soils and groundwater (e.g. filtration, natural decomposition of pollutants, buffer capacity) in the water cycle are hampered.
What constitutes water management?
Functions of water resources management are very complex tasks and may involve many different activities conducted by many different players. The following components constitute water resources management (Adapted from CapNet Training Manual: IWRM for RBO, June 2008):
Allocating water to major water users and uses, maintaining minimum levels for social and environmental use while addressing equity and development needs of society.
River basin planning
Preparing and regularly updating the Basin Plan incorporating stakeholder views on development and management priorities for the basin.
Implementing stakeholder participation as a basis for decision making that takes into account the best interests of society and the environment in the development and use of water resources in the basin.
Managing pollution using polluter pays principles and appropriate incentives to reduce most important pollution problems and minimize environmental and social impact.
Implementing effective monitoring systems that provide essential management information and identifying and responding to infringements of laws, regulations and permits.
Economic and financial management
Applying economic and financial tools for investment, cost recovery and behavior change to support the goals of equitable access and sustainable benefits to society form water use.
Providing essential data necessary to make informed and transparent decisions and development and sustainable management of water resources in the basin. | <urn:uuid:7a06b7a8-4dc3-4dff-b70d-7c5cf716f4fa> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.gwp.org/en/The-Challenge/Water-resources-management/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899991 | 398 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Four forts and other earthwork fortifications guarded the harbour of Charleston, South Carolina. Built after the War of 1812 and still unfinished in 1861, Fort Sumter guarded the mouth of the harbour. The five sided structure was made of brick and built on an island in the middle of the harbour mouth. East of Fort Sumter, across the bay on Sullivan's Island, lay Fort Moultrie. The original Fort Moultrie was made of palmetto logs and was the source of South Carolina's "Palmetto State" motto, but that had long been replaced by a brick fortress. Fort Johnson was west of Sumter, on James Island. It was more a barracks than a fort, though it did have an artillery fieldwork installation. Castle Pinckney was built on a shoal near the marshy island of Shutes Folly, not far from Charleston, proper. Castle Pinckney, was a wide, round brick fortress that looked more like a medieval castle tower than a 19th century fort, hence its name (it was named after the Revolutionary War hero Cotesworth Pinckney). An incomplete earthwork battery was built on Morris Island.
After South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860, militia forces moved to take over the Charleston fortifications. U.S. Army Major Robert Anderson commanded the garrison at Fort Moultrie — two companies of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment, 85 men in total. He decided that Fort Moultrie was indefensible, and secretly moved his garrison to the better protected Fort Sumter on December 26. On December 27 the sergeant commanding the Castle Pinckney garrison surrendered the fort to the South Carolina militia and joined Anderson at Fort Sumter. Castle Pinckney was the first federal installation seized by a state government during the crisis. South Carolina quickly took over Castle Pinckney, Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, and the Morris Island battery.
In early January the Buchanan administration sent the civilian ship Star of the West to resupply the Fort Sumter garrison. On board the ship were 250 troops to reinforce the fort. The mission was a secret, but the South Carolina militia had been warned. The story was published in newspapers and confirmed by southern sympathizers still in the northern government, Jacob Thompson of Mississippi (Buchanan's Secretary of the Interior) and Senator Louis Wigfall of Texas. On January 9, 1861 cadets from Military College of South Carolina — known as The Citadel — fired on the Star of the West from the Morris Island battery. The ship was forced to retire without dropping off its provisions. The incident provoked an angry response from the North.
Further South, in Florida, lay several forts guarding the mouth of Pensacola's harbour from an approach by way of the Gulf of Mexico. The brick fort was built off shore, on Santa Rosa Island. Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer was in charge of the garrison at Fort Barrancas. He determined that Fort Barrancas and nearby Fort McRee were too vulnerable from a landward force. This analysis was reinforced around midnight of January 8, when the garrison repelled a group of men trying to take the fort. (Some historians consider these the first shots fired in the Civil War.) Slemmer destroyed 20,000 pounds of gunpowder at Fort McRee, spiked the guns at Fort Barrancas, and pulled his men into the dilapidated Fort Pickens, which hadn't been occupied since the Mexican American War.
Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens were now effectively under siege.
Mississippi passed its own ordinance of secession on January 9, the same day as the Star of the West incident. Mississippi was followed by Florida on January 10, Alabama on January 11, Georgia on January 19, Louisiana on January 26, and Texas on February 1. As each state seceded they seized strategic federal government assets.
Although none of the other ordinances achieved a unanimous vote like South Carolina, the average vote in favour of secession was 80%. Only Texas submitted the ordinance for ratification by the voters of the state, but it is fair to say the state conventions reflected the opinion of voters in those jurisdictions.
Most secessionists assumed that the seceded states would form some sort of united front. Some advocated uniting in order to present an ultimatum to the Union: enforce the Fugitive Slave Law, protect slavery in the territories as defined by the Missouri Compromise, and maintain slavery in Washington, D.C., and then the seceded states would rejoin the Union. Since it was unlikely the Republicans would agree to this — and Southerners wouldn't trust the Republicans anyway — there was little chance of this proposal succeeding. Other secessionists tried to convince the South to stay in the Union until Lincoln did something "overt" against slavery or the South. These men, too, were swept aside by the wave of secession.
Once again, the North underestimated the popularity of secession. In Alabama 39% of the delegates to the secession convention voted against secession. In Georgia 30% of the delegates voted against secession. The North assumed that a "silent majority" of unionists existed in the South, that they were just overshadowed by the the louder secessionists. However this misconstrued the motives of those voting against secession, as many of these men simply opposed unilateral secession. The majority of "opponents to secession" were in favour of a cooperative Southern union, either to give the North an ultimatum, wait for an "overt act", or to secede all at once as a single block.
Southerners did not believe secession would result in a bloody conflict. A popular phrase at the time suggested that all the blood spilled in the conflict would fit "in a thimble". This was a case of the South underestimating the North's determination to preserve the Union. The first signs of this determination came from out-going president James Buchanan. Buchanan would do little in his last few months in office, but he would give a speech to Congress on December 3, 1860 strongly denying the right of a state to secede.
The North feared that Southern secession would lead to the complete break up of the Union. Northern newspapers took up this theme. Some Northerners suggested partitioning the country into three or four regions, and the West forming its own republic. Influential leaders in New York City suggested turning it into an independent "free town" so that its businessmen could continue to deal with the South. Southern secession could eventually, and quickly, end in the destruction of the United States of America, confirming what many in Europe suspected, that a republic "for the people" and "by the people" could not survive.
Late in the legislative session, Republican Congressman Thomas Corwin of Ohio proposed a constitutional amendment which would prohibit Congress from amending the Constitution in a way that would allow the Federal government to "abolish or interfere" with any state's "domestic institutions". In other words, the amendment would have prevented the passing of a Constitutional amendment abolishing slavery. This amendment had a clause that said the amendment itself could not be amended. If passed, it would create an "entrenched clause" within the U.S. Constitution, making it the only part of the Constitution that could never be altered. Not even the Bill of Rights had this level of protection.
Corwin's legislation, later called the Corwin Amendment, was essentially identical to a Senate proposal introduced by William Seward. It came up for vote in the House of Representatives on February 28, 1861. By this point the members representing the seven seceded states had left the House, leaving the Republicans with a clear majority. In order for a constitutional amendment to pass to the states for ratification, it has to pass by a two-thirds majority in both the House and the Senate. The amendment narrowly squeaked through the House by a vote of 133–65 (132 votes were needed). It passed the Senate on March 2 in an even closer vote: 24–12 (where 24 votes were needed).
The point at which the Corwin Amendment could make a difference had probably passed. The seceded states had by that point banded together under a government of their own, known as the Confederate States of America.
The Morrill Tariff was named after Representative Justin Morill of Vermont, the tariff's sponsor. He wrote the tariff with input from Pennsylvania economist Henry C. Carey. The tariff replaced some of the tariffs in the 1857 Tariff Act, and specifically protected the steel industry, which resided almost entirely in the North. The tariff's rates were even higher than the Tariff of 1828 that triggered the Nullification Crisis.
The Morrill Tariff Act passed the House on May 10, 1860 in a vote split largely along regional lines. All but 15 Northern representatives voted for the tariff. One Southern and six representatives from border states also voted for it. It was introduced in the Senate, but Senator Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter of Virginia used parliamentary tactics to stall it until after the election. It was brought up for a vote on February 14, 1861. With the senators from the seceded states gone, the tariff passed the vote. President Buchanan signed it into law as one of his last official acts.
The Morrill Tariff was despised by the South, but it did not loom large in the minds of secessionists. Influential Southern politician Alexander Stephens mentioned the tariff in his Cornerstone speech, which gave Georgia's reasons for leaving the Union. However, the "cornerstone" he talked about was slavery. He personally voted against secession in the secession convention, and downplayed the role of the tariff to the convention. In the South, the tariff served as proof that they were right about what would happen if they stayed in the Union.
The seven seceded states sent delegates to the Convention of Seceding States. The convention met on February 4 in Montgomery, Alabama. The first order of business was to elect Howell Cobb of Georgia as the Convention President. By February 8 the convention had adopted a provisional constitution forming the Confederate States of America.
The Confederate Constitution borrowed heavily from the United States Constitution, but the permanent constitution — adopted a month later — differed from the U.S. Constitution in several significant ways. It enshrined the institute of slavery, though it did make it illegal to import slaves from abroad (a measure designed to mollify Great Britain). The president was restricted to a single six-year term. The president received a line-item veto on appropriations. The constitution permitted a national tariff for revenue but not for the protection of domestic industries. The Confederate government could not allocate funds for internal improvements. Confederate officials serving within a state could be impeached either by the state's legislature or the Confederate Congress. Cabinet officers could be granted a non-voting seat in Congress, though this was never acted upon. Finally, only two-thirds of the states were needed to amend the constitution (the U.S. Constitution required three-quarters).
On February 9 the convention selected the Confederacy's provisional president. Alexander Stephens, Howell Cobb, and Robert Toombs, all from Georgia, actively sought the presidency, but it was a reluctant Jefferson Davis of Mississippi who was chosen. Davis preferred to be Secretary of War, but Virginia's pro-secession senators, James Mason and Robert Hunter, favoured Davis, so Davis was chosen. Alexander Stephens was chosen as the provisional Vice President. Davis was inaugurated on February 18. (Davis was officially elected president of the Confederacy on November 6, 1861 and inaugurated on February 22, 1862, more than a year after his inauguration as provisional president.)
Jefferson Davis was born on June 3 in either 1807 or 1808; there was some dispute as to the actual year by the members of his family, though Davis took the year as 1808. Like Abraham Lincoln, he was born on a farm in Kentucky. After that, the resemblance ends. Jeff Davis was the youngest of 10 children born to Samuel Emory Davis and Jane Davis. His father and uncles served in the Continental Army during the Revolution. Three of his older brothers served in the War of 1812, two under Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans. His family moved to St. Mary Parish in Louisiana in 1811 and Wilkinson County, Mississippi in 1813. He began his education in a log cabin school near his home in 1813, but two years later he attended a Catholic school — though he was a Protestant — near Springfield, Kentucky. He attended Jefferson College in Washington, Mississippi and Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky before entering the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1824.
Davis' West Point career was somewhat spotty. He and five others were caught visiting Benny Havens, a local public house, and charged with leaving the post without permission and for drinking "intoxicating spirits". He put on an admirable defense, but the Court Martial didn't buy it. He was sentenced to dismissal, but the court recommended the remission of the sentence due to his previous good record. This didn't stop Davis from visiting the tavern. One time he threw himself down a hill to avoid being seen at Benny Havens by officers, and earned a one month stay in the hospital for his trouble. Another time he was the ringleader of a drunken party that saw several cadets dismissed. In spite of the trouble, Davis graduated in 1828, 23rd out of a class of 33, with the brevet rank of 2nd Lieutenant. One class ahead of Davis was Leonidas Polk, who would become the Episcopal Bishop of Louisiana and a Civil War lieutenant general. One class behind Davis were two men who would later achieve the highest rank, of full general, in the Confederacy: Joe Johnston and Robert E. Lee.
Davis' first assignment was with the First Infantry Regiment, stationed at Fort Crawford, Wisconsin. His commander was Colonel Zachary Taylor, who would later become the 12th president of the United States. In 1829 he supervised the cutting of timbers on the banks of the Red Cedar River for logs to enlarge the fort. Davis was later assigned to Fort Winnebago, but while supervising the construction of a sawmill and on the Yellow River he contracted pneumonia and had to return to Fort Crawford. His first actual military experience came during the Black Hawk War in 1832. He took part in the capture of Blackhawk himself and escorted him to Jefferson Barracks. Davis' kindness apparently left a favourable impression on Blackhawk. In 1833 Davis transferred to the newly formed First Dragoons, receiving the rank of 1st Lieutenant and acting as first adjutant of the regiment.
Jeff Davis had fallen in love with Zachary Taylor's daughter, Sarah Knox Taylor. Her father did not approve of Davis, so Davis resigned his commission. He married Sarah on June 17, 1835 at the home of his aunt in Louisville, Kentucky. The marriage was short lived. They both contracted malaria three months later. Sarah died in the home of Davis' sister in Louisiana. After he recuperated, Davis sailed to Havana, Cuba then to New York City. In 1836 he retired to the Brierfield Plantation in western Mississippi. While an advocate of slavery, Davis was apparently a fair and benevolent slave owner by the standards of the time. For the next few years he ran his cotton plantation and studied political science.
His first foray into politics was an unsuccessful bid for the Mississippi House of Representatives in 1843. The next year he travelled Mississippi campaigning for James Polk for president and George Dallas for vice president in the 1844 election. Davis ran again for the U.S. House of Representatives that same year and won, taking office in 1845 for a two-year term. He married the socially prominent Varina Howell on February 26, 1845.
In what would become a pattern for the rest of his political life, Davis did not serve a complete term in the House. The Mexican-American War began in 1846. He resigned from the House in June and raised the Mississippi Rifles regiment, becoming their Colonel. He distinguished himself in combat, participating in the Siege of Monterrey and the Battle of Buena Vista, where he was wounded. Zachary Taylor, his commanding officer, supposedly said of Davis service, "My daughter, sir, was a better judge of men than I." James Polk offered Davis the rank of brigadier general and the command of a brigade of militia, but Davis turned him down, stating that the states, and not the federal government, had the right to assign militia officers.
Mississippi recognized Davis as a war hero by giving him the U.S. Senate seat that was vacant upon the death of Senator Jesse Speight. He took the seat on December 5, 1847 and was elected by the Mississippi legislature to serve the remainder of the term in January, 1848. When the term expired in 1850 he was once again elected senator. He served less than a year. He resigned in September 1851 to campaign for Mississippi governor because of his opposition to the Compromise of 1850. He lost to Henry Stuart Foote by 999 votes. Davis once more found himself out of politics. He was involved in a states rights convention in Jackson, Mississippi in 1852 and campaigned for presidential candidate Franklin Pierce and his running mate, William King, later that year. After Pierce won, Pierce made Davis his Secretary of War.
Pierce served a single term, losing the Democratic party nomination in the 1856 election to James Buchanan. Jefferson Davis ran for the U.S. senate seat for Mississippi in 1856 and won. He spent the summer of 1858 in Portland, Maine. On July 4, 1858 he delivered an anti-secessionist speech on a ship near Boston. He gave a similar speech on October 11 at Faneuil Hall in Boston. On February 2, 1860 he submitted six resolutions to the senate as a compromise against secession. One of the resolutions called for the preservation of slavery within the South.
In meetings with the Mississippi delegates he argued against secession, but he backed down when the majority of delegates opposed him. Mississippi passed an ordinance of secession on January 9, 1861. Jefferson Davis announced the secession of Mississippi on the senate floor on January 12. He gave a farewell address and resigned from the senate. On January 16 he was given the rank of major general of Mississippi volunteers and made commander of all Mississippi troops. His name came up as a compromise candidate for the president of the Confederacy. Davis, who did not travel to the Montgomery convention, was chosen to be the first — and as it would turn out, the only — president of the Confederate States of America. He reluctantly accepted. He left Brierfield on February 11, 1861 on a train tour that would eventually take him to Montgomery, the Confederacy's capitol, on February 16.
The same day Jefferson Davis left Mississippi for Montgomery, Abraham Lincoln left Springfield, Illinois to the cheers of well wishers. He had packed his trunk himself, bound it with a piece of string, and labelled it simply, "A. Lincoln, White House, Washington, D.C." The first day out, he was accompanied by his oldest son Robert. His wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, and their other two sons would join him the following day. The train would take a circuitous route to Washington covering 1,905 miles. It first headed for Indianapolis, Indiana and Cincinnati, Ohio. Throngs greeted him wherever he went, and politicians of all stripes wanted to meet the next president of the United States. As an example, Lincoln and his family were treated to a lavish ball at the Governor's mansion in Columbus, Ohio.
The train travelled through Cleveland, into Pennsylvania and on into New York state, taking Lincoln to Albany, New York City, New Jersey, and back into Pennsylvania. On February 18, the day Jefferson Davis was inaugurated, Major General David E. Twiggs voluntarily surrendered his entire command — about 20% of the U.S. army, which guarded the border with Mexico — to the secessionist government in Texas. As a response, Lincoln declared in a speech that he would preserve the Union. (Twiggs would defect to the Confederacy the next day. He was dismissed from the U.S. Army for treason. He would be given a major general commission in the Confederate army and command of the Department of Louisiana. His age — he was seventy-one years old — caused him to resign on October 11, 1861. He would die of die of pneumonia in Augusta, Georgia on July 15, 1862.)
The famous detective Allan Pinkerton was guarding the president-elect. Pinkerton's agents uncovered a plot to assassinate Lincoln at the stop in Baltimore, a city with strong secessionist leanings. After Lincoln gave a speech to the Pennsylvania legislature in Harrisburg, he and his advisors met to discuss the threat. Pinkerton recommended that Lincoln travel straight from Harrisburg to Washington. Lincoln hesitated. He didn't want to appear cowardly, even if the threat was real. He had been carefully cultivating an image of strength and confidence. Sneaking into Washington would diminish, or even destroy, that image. Eventually Lincoln took Pinkerton's advice. That night he left his hotel in Harrisburg, exchanging his stovepipe hat for a less conspicuous felt hat and with a long coat thrown over his shoulders to conceal his height. He boarded a special train headed for Philadelphia. In Philadelphia, he boarded a train for Baltimore with only Pinkerton and a bodyguard accompanying him. They stayed in a sleeper car Pinkerton had reserved for an "invalid passenger". Once in Baltimore he switched to Camden train station across town unobserved, and then got on the train for Washington. The train quietly rolled into Washington early the next morning. The press had a field day with his surreptitious arrival, going so far as to suggest Lincoln had donned a Scottish bonnet, a kilt, and a military cloak as a disguise. Even some of his supporters openly criticized Lincoln and Pinkerton. It would later turn out that there was a plan afoot to murder Lincoln, but Lincoln always thought sneaking into Washington was the worst decision of his presidency.
Although the appointments had to be confirmed by the Senate after his inauguration, Lincoln had begun to form his cabinet less than a month after the election. William Henry Seward was made Secretary of State. Salmon Portland Chase was appointed Secretary of the Treasury. Seward almost gave up the position when Chase was brought in, but Lincoln convinced the two to work with each other. Edward Bates was tapped to be the Attorney General, thus Lincoln shocked his opponents by asking all three rivals for the presidential nomination to join his team, all of whom thought they were better suited for the presidency. Simon Cameron had also been a nominee for the Republican Party presidential ticket, but he threw his support behind Lincoln at the National Convention. He was made Secretary of War. Caleb Blood Smith had worked hard to secure the presidential nomination for Lincoln, for which he was given the position of Secretary of the Interior. Montgomery Blair, the man who represented Dred Scott before the Supreme Court, was appointed Postmaster-General. Gideon Welles of Connecticut, a strong supporter of Lincoln, was made Secretary of the Navy. Lincoln had also asked Stephen Douglas to join his cabinet, but Douglas declined citing poor health.
Before his inauguration, Lincoln showed his inaugural address to his friend Francis Blair, Sr., a Maryland unionist. Blair liked it, thinking it echoed the sentiment of Andrew Jackson when he stared down South Carolina during the Nullification Crisis. William Seward, however, thought it was too provocative, too war like. He thought if Lincoln gave the speech as written he would drive Maryland and Virginia to secede. In particular, Seward was worried about the closing paragraph. Although earlier in the speech Lincoln promised that there was no need for violence or bloodshed, he finished with, "In your hands, my dissatisfied countrymen, and not in mine is the momentous issue of civil war... With you, and not with me, is the solemn question of 'Shall it be peace, or a sword?'" Dozens of changes were made to the speech. Lincoln incorporated most of Seward's wording. He did not like the phrasing of the closing remarks, but he absorbed Seward's sentiment in words of his own.
Lincoln's inauguration was March 4. His inaugural address ignored the Republican Party platform, instead focusing on unity. He stated his belief that the Union was perpetual, that it predated even the Constitution, and being perpetual it could not be broken up without mutual consent. He did imply that the Fugitive Slave Act would be enforced, as it fell within the realm of the service/labour clause of the Constitution (Article IV, Sec 2). As to the question of invading the South, he said, "The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the Government and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere." This was a theme Lincoln had been expounding during his train trip to Washington. To further aid the cause of unity, he came out in favour of the Corwin Amendment. "[H]olding such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express and irrevocable." He closed his address with the now famous conciliatory words:
I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.
The full version of Lincoln's First Inaugural Address can be found on the Avalon Project web site of the Yale Law School at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/lincoln1.htm.
Not surprisingly, even though "the better angels of our nature" replaced "peace or a sword", Southern newspapers declared Lincoln's speech to be provocative. It did nothing to reverse secession, though for the moment the border states remained in the Union.
In spite of passing Congress and receiving the blessing of Abraham Lincoln, the Corwin Amendment was not passed. The amendment was ratified by the Ohio General Assembly on May 13, 1861. The Maryland General Assembly ratified it on January 10, 1862. Other states considered it for ratification, but there it was either rejected or died in committee. Since it was not ratified by three-quarters of the states, it was never made into a constitutional amendment.
Lincoln first heard the full extent of Fort Sumter's predicament from a report by Maj. Anderson on March 5. Anderson warned that there were only enough supplies for six weeks, and only if the men went on half rations. After that, the fort would have no choice but to surrender to the Confederate militia. Anderson also warned that it would take 20,000 men to hold the fort. This number shocked Lincoln. The entire U.S. Army, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, only numbered, 16,000 men. It seemed unlikely that Fort Sumter could hold out, yet Lincoln could not simply pull the garrison. It would be disastrous, politically, to just hand over federal assets to the the Confederates.
The president did not make any hasty decisions. Beside the work required by a president, Lincoln was inundated from morning to evening with personal visitors. Many of these were supporters who had been promised concessions or work in response to helping Lincoln gain the presidency. He did not even mention Fort Sumter to his cabinet during their meeting of March 6. (Technically his cabinet was not official, for none of the men yet been approved by the Senate.) It was not until March 9 that the cabinet met to primarily discuss the Sumter situation.
Perhaps Lincoln had been thinking about a letter he received before his inauguration from Orville H. Browning, an old friend of his. Browning said in the letter, "In any conflict... between the government and the seceding States, it is very important that the traitors shall be the aggressors, and that they be kept constantly and palpably in the wrong. The first attempt... to furnish supplies or reinforcements to Sumter will induce aggression by South Carolina, and then the government will stand justified, before the entire country, in repelling that aggression, and retaking the forts." Lincoln did not seek out a conflict. For one thing, the border states, including Virginia, were still within the Union. He could not afford to just give up the forts — Sumter, or Fort Pickens at Pensacola, Florida — without trying to provision them, either.
The location of Fort Pickens and the nature of the bay at Pensacola — let alone the fact that it was in the Florida panhandle and not on the Atlantic coast — meant that the Confederates could not put as large a force against Fort Pickens. The "problem child" was Fort Sumter, but Fort Pickens also needed to be supplied. Buchanan had ordered a ship, the Brooklyn, with supplies and an extra 200 men to land at Fort Pickens. The captain of the ship was warned by the Confederates that he would be fired upon if he tried to land. Not wanting to start a war, the captain made an informal truce with the Confederates. They would not fire and he would not land the men. On March 11, Lincoln ordered the men to be landed at Fort Pickens. It would be weeks before he learned that his order had not been carried out.
The head of the army was General Winfield Scott, a hero of the Mexican War who had served in the army since the War of 1812. Scott suggested that it would take a naval force of 5,000 men along with the 20,000 soldiers to provision and reinforce Fort Sumter. Captain Gustavus Vasa Fox had another idea. He knew the Charleston fortifications. He had a plan for provisioning Sumter from the sea, ferrying supplies and men to the fort by way of New York City tug boats. Fox had approached the Buchanan administration with his plan, but it was ignored. Lincoln took it seriously.
In a March 15 meeting, the cabinet was split over the supplying of Fort Sumter. Seward, Welles, Cameron, and Smith — the Secretaries of State, the Navy, War, and the Interior, respectively — all recommended that Sumter should not be supplied. Chase was worried, but thought it should be reinforced. Blair was firmly of the opinion that the fort had to be reinforced in order to send a message of strength to the South. Lincoln did not make a decision. Instead, he sent Fox to Charleston with a message for Anderson about a potential pull out, but in actuality Fox was to determine the feasibility of supplying Sumter. Lincoln also sent Stephen A. Hurlbut, a friend from Illinois who had been born in Charleston, to gauge the mood of the people there.
When Fox returned, he was more convinced then ever that the Union could reinforce Sumter. Bad news greeted Lincoln on March 27 in the form of a report from Stephen Hurlbut. Hurlbut said that it was too late for a surrender of Sumter to affect the opinions of the people of South Carolina. In fact, the South Carolinians would fire on any ships that tried to land at Fort Sumter, even if they knew for a fact that the ship only carried supplies and had no reinforcements.
On March 28 the president learned from Winfield Scott that Scott's home state of Virginia was on the verge of secession. The only thing that might avert Virginia joining the Confederacy would be the surrender of Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens.
Lincoln did not sleep that night. He knew that he could start a war with his decision. The next day the cabinet meeting began at noon, though before the meeting Lincoln asked Fox for a list of available ships, suggesting that he had already reached a decision. Cameron was absent. Seward remained convinced that Sumter should be surrendered, but he recommended holding onto Fort Pickens "at all cost". Seward argued that they could hand over the provocative Fort Sumter while still maintaining the federal presence at the more distant Fort Pickens. Welles had changed his mind, and Chase had solidified his stance; both thought Sumter should be reinforced. Blair went so far as to say he'd resign if Lincoln followed Scott's advice and surrendered Sumter and Pickens.
Seward had a good reason to disagree with the others. He firmly believed that if they evacuated Sumter he could negotiate an end to the crisis with the Confederates. He had been in touch with a group of commissioners sent to Washington by the Confederacy. Lincoln had refused to deal with the commissioners directly, so Seward had to deal with by way of Justice John Campbell, an Alabamian who remained on the Supreme Court. Seward was of the belief that he controlled the cabinet and the president. He was also under the mistaken belief, from the comments made by the commissioners, that surrendering Fort Sumter would pave the way to a peaceful resolution to the crisis, even though this flew in the face of what Hurlbut and Scott had said. Seward had given his personal promise that Fort Sumter would be evacuated within five days, a date which had already passed by the time of the March 29 cabinet meeting.
The president gave the cabinet his decision: Fort Sumter would be reinforced. He ordered Welles, Cameron and Gustavus Fox to put together an expedition, which would sail out of New York on April 6. The decision stunned Seward, who thought after the March 15 cabinet meeting that Lincoln would do as Seward desired. Seward tried to get Lincoln to reverse himself over the next week, but Lincoln would not be dissuaded from his course. Seward went so far as to suggest that France, Britain, the British forces in Canada, and other foreign governments explain their meddling with the United States, and if they could not do so adequately then Lincoln should declare war on them. Perhaps a war with another nation would bring the country together. Lincoln simply dismissed this preposterous idea.
Seward worked on a new tactic. He had Captain Montgomery C. Meigs, an army engineer in charge of the work being done on the Capitol dome, to work up a plan for reinforcing Fort Pickens. Seward believed that if he could reinforce Pickens before Fox's expedition arrived at Sumter, Lincoln would follow Seward's plan. Meigs gave Lincoln the report on April 1, and Lincoln approved it. In Lincoln's mind, the Fort Pickens expedition was in conjunction, not to the exclusion, of the Fort Sumter expedition. Unfortunately, Seward convinced Lincoln of a need for secrecy. Meigs' expedition would be largely an army one. Due to interservice rivalry, and — as Seward put it — a fear of disloyalty running through the navy, the Meigs expedition would be conducted without the knowledge of the Department of the Navy. The Powhatan was ordered prepared under the command of Lieutenant David Dixon Porter as a part of the Fort Pickens expedition. Welles and Fox needed the Powhatan for the expedition to Fort Sumter. In the early, confusing days of his presidency, Lincoln was in the habit of signing papers from Seward without reading them. The president inadvertently assigned the ship to both expeditions.
Lincoln sent word to Maj. Anderson on April 4 that a relief force was on its way. Anderson was ordered to hold out. On April 5, Commander Samuel Mercer — commander of the Powhatan — received orders with regard to Fort Sumter. If the boats from the supply ships could land at Fort Sumter, Mercer was to return the Powhatan to New York. If the boats were interfered with, he was to use the Powhatan "to open the way". He was to be off the coast of Charleston by the 11th of April.
On April 6, Lincoln found a way to make the mission to Fort Sumter "peaceful". He wrote a letter to Cameron, instructing him to pass the letter on to the governor of South Carolina. The letter warned of the expedition to Fort Sumter. Lincoln did not want the South Carolinians to misconstrue the nature of the mission. Unfortunately, this meant that South Carolina would soon know about the ships heading to Fort Sumter and would have time to react.
The Powhatan was in the Brooklyn Naval Yard on April 5. Earlier in the day Welles ordered the Naval Yard to hold the Powhatan in order to prepare it for the Sumter expedition. Meigs and Porter telegraphed Seward, saying that Welles' order to hold the ship was adversely affecting their preparations for the Pickens expedition. Seward decided that he now had to explain his mission to Welles. He met Welles at 11 p.m. at the Willard Hotel and told him about the Powhatan's secret mission to Fort Pickens under Porter's command. Welles said this was impossible, as the Powhatan was "the flagship" of the Sumter expedition, under Mercer. They went to see the president around midnight. The contradictory orders soon became apparent. Welles was surprised to see Lincoln accept full responsibility for the mistake. Lincoln had Seward telegraph orders to hand the Powhatan over to the Sumter expedition.
The next day, on the 6th, Captain Mercer received his orders to set sail for Fort Sumter. Before the Powhatan could leave, Meigs and Porter boarded her with signed orders from the president. The three men discussed the orders and all three decided that Lincoln's signed order was the "imperative". Mercer handed command over to Porter, and Porter took her out, headed for Fort Pickens. The ship set sail at 2:45 p.m. At 3:00 p.m., Captain Andrew Foote, the commander of the naval yard, finally received Seward's telegram handing the Powhatan back over to the Sumter expedition. The telegram was simply signed, "Seward".
The Powhatan was met by a fast steamer with the telegram from Seward. However, Porter saw that it was signed by Seward and not Lincoln. He refused to honour the orders, insisting that a cabinet member could not override orders from the president. He pointed out that if the Atlantic, the ship carrying the troops for the Fort Pickens expedition, departed on time and Porter failed to carry out his orders, the entire expedition was in jeopardy. Without orders from Lincoln to the contrary, he would continue with his original orders from Lincoln. The Powhatan continued to sail for Florida.
The same day the Powhatan set sail Lincoln received two pieces of disturbing news. He had ordered the relief force at Fort Pickens to land. The orders had come through Winfield Scott. The captain of the ship felt he could not land the troops, and provoke a war, without orders from the Secretary of the Navy. Only now did Lincoln learn that the original garrison was still in place without reinforcements. The second piece of bad news was from Major Anderson. The Sumter garrison had only a few days provisions remaining. Anderson also thought any attempt to reinforce Sumter would precipitate a conflict. A schooner, the Shannon, was running ice from Boston to Savannah when it mistakenly entered Charleston harbour. It was fired on. The schooner thought they wanted to see his flag, so he ran up the Stars and Stripes, only to be fired on again and hit. The ship went back out to sea, but it was obvious that any ship entering the harbour was in danger.
On April 7 Lincoln sent naval Lieutenant John L. Worden to Pensacola. Worden carried fresh orders, from Lincoln, for Captain Henry A. Adams. Adams was to reinforce Fort Pickens, immediately.
Having been forewarned of the relief force, the Confederate government ordered Brigadier General Pierre Gustav Toutant Beauregard, in command of Confederate forces in Charleston, to open fire on Fort Sumter before the Powhatan and her sister ships could reinforce the fort. Since South Carolina's secession, the Confederate forces in Charleston harbour had been increased to more than 8,800 men, grossly outnumbering Major Anderson's small force.
Beauregard had been warned by the Confederate government to be on the lookout for a relief force for Fort Sumter as early as April 2, when Seward's assurances had not panned out. He received Lincoln's warning of a provisioning expedition on the 8th and informed the Confederate government. The next day Beauregard was told to stop Anderson's mail. He was to isolate the fort. This was also the day the Sumter expedition finally pulled out of New York harbour.
Northern newspapers started writing about the Sumter relief expedition on April 10. It is possible that the information had been leaked by the Lincoln administration to drum up support. Also on the 10th, Jefferson Davis ordered Beauregard to "demand at once" the evacuation of Fort Sumter. Davis assumed that the supply ships would reinforce Sumter by force. This was the fleet's original intention, but without the Powhatan the fleet did not have a reasonable chance of running past the forts. Beauregard replied that he would order the evacuation at noon the next day.
Beauregard sent three aides to Fort Sumter at 2:00 p.m. on the 11th. He told Anderson that he must evacuate the fort. Beauregard's message is repeated below:
Sir: The government of the Confederate States has hitherto foreborne from any hostile demonstrations against Fort Sumter, in hope that the government of the United States, with a view to the amicable adjustment of all questions between the two governments, and to avert the calamities of war, would voluntarily evacuate it.
There was reason at one time to believe that such would be the course pursued by the government of the United States, and under that impression my government has refrained from making any demand for the surrender of the fort. But the Confederate States can no longer delay assuming actual possession of a fortification commanding the entrance of one of their harbors and necessary to its defense and security.
I am ordered by the government of the Confederate States to demand the evacuation of Fort Sumter. My aides, Colonel Chestnut and Captain Lee, are authorized to make such demand of you. All proper facilities will be afforded for the removal of yourself and command, together with company arms and property, and all private property, to any post in the United States which you may select. The flag which you have upheld so long and with so much fortitude, under the most trying circumstances, may be saluted by you on taking it down. Colonel Chestnut and Captain Lee will, for a reasonable time, await your answer.
Anderson answered with a brief message that said he could not leave the fort:
General: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your communication demanding the evacuation of this fort, and to say, in reply thereto, that it is a demand with which I regret that my sense of honor, and of my obligations to my government, prevent my compliance. Thanking you for the fair, manly and courteous terms proposed, and for the high compliment paid me.
Anderson also, verbally and unofficially, stated that they would be starved out in a few days. Beauregard telegraphed Anderson's reply to Montgomery. They replied by giving Beauregard authority to "reduce the fort". Beauregard sent four more aides to Fort Sumter at 1:00 a.m. on April 12 asking Anderson to fix a time and date for his evacuation and for a promise not to fire on the Confederates in the intervening time. Anderson replied that he would evacuate by noon on the 15th, provided he did not receive orders or supplies. He also promised not to fire unless fired upon. The aides considered Anderson's reply before telling him, at 3:20 a.m., that Confederate forces would fire on Fort Sumter within an hour. They departed the fort at 3:30 a.m. for Fort Johnson.
At 4:30 a.m., a signal mortar at Fort Johnson fired a shot over Fort Sumter, indicating the start of the bombardment. Virginia secessionist Edward Ruffin — who had gone to South Carolina in the hopes of provoking a war, and thus drive Virginia to the Confederacy — reported that he was given the honour of firing this first shot. Some historians dispute his claim as there is no corroborating evidence. It's likely that his shot was one of the first, if not the first. The Charleston harbour batteries began firing.
About two hours later, Major Anderson gave his second in command Captain Abner Doubleday, the man who some have erroneously credited with inventing baseball, the order to fire back. Doubleday fired the Union's first shot of the war.
Most of Fox's fleet finally arrived at the rendezvous point ten miles from the harbour that morning. The Baltic, the Harriet Lane and the Pawnee, were present, but still missing were the Pocahontas and the Powhatan. Even without the Powhatan and the tug boats, Fox ordered the ships to head for the fort. As he got to the harbour he saw that the fort was already under attack. He ordered his ships to leave the harbour. They agreed to wait until the next morning for the Powhatan, unaware that the ship would not arrive.
The assault continued for thirty-four hours. Portions of the fort caught fire and crumbled. Only 10 of the fort's 60 guns faced the Charleston batteries, so Anderson was unable to reply effectively. The damage in the fort was devastating. At 1:00 p.m. the flagstaff fell. Beauregard took this to mean that the fort had surrendered. He ceased fire and sent aides to the fort. The flagstaff was soon raised again, but quickly the colours were replaced with a white flag. Fox considered making a run to the fort, but the firing ceased and the surrender flag was raised before any ship could move. At 2:00 p.m. the Pocahontas arrived, too late to affect the outcome. Surrender negotiations were completed at 8:00 p.m. with the Pocahontas involved in the evacuation of the garrison.
Though there were a few minor injuries, there were no deaths or major wounds resulting from the bombardment. At noon on April 14, Major Anderson ordered a 100 gun salute as the colours were lowered. On the 50th firing the gun exploded. One man was killed, and five others were wounded. One of the wounded men would die in a Charleston hospital four days later. These were the first casualties of the American Civil War.
Anderson took the folded flag under his arm and boarded the Pocahontas with his men. As they left the fort, the Confederates in the shore batteries stood at attention with their hats removed. The Union men were transferred to the Baltic, which set sail for New York. They would arrive to a hero's welcome on April 18. Out of deference to the Union garrison, Beauregard waited until the garrison had pulled out before occupying the fort.
On April 8 the Confederate commission to Washington was formally told that the United States government refused to recognize them. The commission relayed the information to the Confederate government in Montgomery. The Confederate government responded by ordering Brigadier General Braxton Bragg, in charge of Confederate forces at Pensacola, to prevent Fort Pickens' reinforcement "at all hazards".
Lieutenant Worden arrived in Pensacola on the morning of April 11. He informed Braxton Bragg of his presence. Bragg allowed Worden to communicate with Captain Adams onboard the Sabine, provided that Worden did not violate the truce that was in effect by trying to reinforce the fort. Worden headed to Captain Adams with his orders without making any promises to Bragg.
Worden met Adams at noon on the 12th and gave the captain his orders. The timing was opportune for Worden, for Bragg received an order that day to intercept Worden and prevent him from reaching Adams. Bragg's order had arrived too late.
Late that night, Adams sent army Captain Vogdes and his troops, along with a contingent of marines, to Fort Pickens by small boat. The reinforcement went unchallenged. Alarm guns sounded from the fort, informing Bragg that the fort had been reinforced. Later that day (April 13) Bragg relayed the news to the Confederate government. "Re-enforcements thrown into Fort Pickens last night by small boats from the outside. The movement could not even be seen from our side..."
Meigs and the Atlantic arrived at Fort Pickens on the evening of April 16, reinforcing the fort for a second time. The ship had been delayed by bad weather and the securing of federal positions in Key West. They offloaded their troops, bringing the total number of men to 1,100 and supplying the fort with six months of provisions. The Powhatan showed up early on the morning of the 17th. She was delayed by bad weather and boiler problems.
David Dixon Porter disguised the Powhatan to look like a British steamer, flying British colours. He intended to run the gauntlet into Pensacola harbour. Colonel Harvey Brown, commander of Meig's reinforcements, recognized the Powhatan as it sailed for the harbour and sent Meigs to stop it. Now that the fort had been reinforced, the last thing Meigs needed was for Porter to antagonize the Confederates and start a battle. They sent up signals for the Powhatan to stop, but Porter ignored them. Meigs was forced to slip a boat in front of the harbour to stop Porter. Meigs later wrote, "I stopped this gallant officer, bent on a desperate deed of self-sacrifice and devotion to his country."
Fort Pickens would remain in Union hands throughout the war.
Lincoln met with his cabinet on April 14, after he received the news of Sumter's surrender. He asked for 75,000 men for the "the militia of the several States of the Union." The cabinet agreed. Lincoln made the proclamation the next day. Lincoln could only call for troops on an emergency basis, which restricted their call up to only 90 days, after which they had to be disbanded unless Congress approved them for a longer period. There was a loophole in the law: if Congress wasn't in session the 90 day period would not begin until after the session began. Lincoln had the opening of the session delayed until July 4, giving him five and half months before the troops would be disbanded.
Patriotism exploded in the North with the firing on Fort Sumter. Northern politicians framed the attack on Fort Sumter as an armed insurrection by a rebellious minority. If left unchecked the South would forever separate from the United States, with the possible partitioning of the Northern states. Thus in the North the rebellion became a conflict for the preservation of the Union itself.
Many expected that an armed conflict would push the border states, particularly Virginia, to declare themselves on the side of the Confederacy. On April 17 Virginia held a secessionist convention. The initial vote was 88–55 for secession. A second vote was 103–46 in favour of Virginia joining the Confederacy.
In Montgomery on April 17, Jefferson Davis invited applications for letters of marque and reprisal. These would permit privateers to hunt United States merchant ships. In response, on the 19th of April Lincoln declared privateering would be treated as piracy. He also declared a blockade on Southern ports from South Carolina to Texas. The Supreme Court later considered this proclamation to be the legal start of the American Civil War.
It should be noted that Lincoln made a mistake ordering a "blockade" of the ports. In international naval law, a nation could only blockade the port of another nation. The proper declaration for a country wishing to restrict access to its own ports would have been for Lincoln to close the Southern ports. Some considered this action to be a de facto recognition of the Confederacy as a separate country.
Three more states would join the Confederacy before the end of May. Arkansas seceded on May 6, Tennessee on May 7, and North Carolina on May 20. The final two states to make up the Confederacy, Missouri and Kentucky, would secede from the Union on October 31 and November 20, 1861, respectively.
The American Civil War would last more than four years and result in the death of over 600,000 Americans, more than all other American-involved wars — from the American Revolution to the war in Iraq — combined.
On September 22, 1862 Lincoln announced his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. All slaves in the Southern states not occupied by the Union or part of the Union on January 1, 1863 would be declared free. If Southerners wanted to retain their slaves they had to rejoin the Union before the end of 1862. After that date, any Confederate territory captured by the North would result in the freedom of any slaves in that territory. The proclamation did not free the slaves in Northern territory or in Southern territory already captured by the Union. Lincoln was giving the Confederacy an ultimatum. If they wanted to return to the pre-war status quo with regard to slavery, they had to cease hostilities by January 1, 1863.
This sounded like another compromise, like the ones he considered before his inauguration, but in fact Lincoln didn't expect the Confederacy to quit fighting. Instead, he made the war something other than a war to preserve the Union; he had made the end of slavery a Union goal for the war. The proclamation was primarily geared to prevent Britain and France from entering the war on the Confederate side. Both of those nations opposed slavery, but both desired the resources — particularly cotton — offered by the Confederacy. Britain was considering intervening on behalf of the Confederacy in 1862, and very well might have intervened had the Confederacy succeeded in invading the north that year. The Union "victory" at Antietam delayed Britain's decision. The Emancipation Proclamation made it impossible for Britain to support the Confederacy without also supporting a slave state, as it became clear that a Union victory would end slavery. Thus, it was almost two years into the war before abolition of slavery became a war aim of the Union.
It is clear that if it had not been for slavery, the war would never have been fought. After the Dred Scott decision it looked like Lincoln was right with his "house divided" speech; the country would become all one thing or all the other, it would become a slave nation or a free nation. Nothing short of a constitutional amendment could have reversed the Supreme Court's decision. Attempts before the war to codify a compromise solution failed. The seceded states formed their own constitution legalizing slavery. With his Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln guaranteed that the country could not return to a "house divided". Either the country would split apart, or the resulting nation would be well down the road to freeing the slaves.
Lincoln did not live to see the end result of his policies. He was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865 (the shooting was on the 14th; Lincoln actually died the next day). The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which outlawed slavery, was ratified on December 6, 1865. It was proclaimed on December 18, 1865, completing a process that should have been dealt with when the Constitution was originally written. Offenses against the amendment were still being prosecuted in 1947, and discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, or national origin was not outlawed in the United States until the Civil Rights Act of 1964. But it was the American Civil War that resolved the issue and set the country on the course toward equality and the "all men are created equal" promise of the Constitution.
This essay takes the position that the central cause of the American Civil War was slavery. This is the majority view of mainstream historians, but it is not the only view.
For a discussion of these other views, see the Columbia American History Online web site "point-counterpoint" page on the cause of the American Civil War. This site is run by Columbia University. The address of the page is http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14002.html. | <urn:uuid:b4c3334b-6ea7-43ad-8ea6-7dcd925b87fc> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.hyperbear.com/acw/essays/acw-essays-cause-4.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979446 | 11,681 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Three Categories of Content Standards
Marzano and Kendall (1996) identify three categories of content standards:
procedural, declarative, and contextual:
- Procedural standards are based on "procedural knowledge,
the skills and processes important to a given content area" (p. 12).
Examples of procedural standards are: "performing long division, setting
up an experiment, [and] editing an essay" (p. 12).
- Declarative standards are based on "declarative knowledge,
[which] can be thought of as 'information' and usually involves component
parts. For example, knowledge of the concept of 'democracy' includes understanding
that decisions are made by the people, each person has a single vote, votes
are weighted equally, and so on" (p. 12). Examples of declarative standards
include: "understanding the concept of a numerator, knowing what an amoeba
is, [and] knowing the conventions of punctuation" (p. 12).
- Contextual standards are based on contextual knowledge--"knowledge
in context, information, and/or skills that have particular meaning because
of the conditions that form part of their description" (p. 12). Examples
of contextual knowledge include: "modeling numbers using number line,
classifying organisms, [and] using appropriate tone and style for a selected
audience" (p. 12). They add:
"Like the declarative/procedural distinction, this contextual knowledge
is basic; a 'piece' that cannot be further reduced without loss of important
information. For example, modeling numbers using a number line involves
a procedural part (the process of modeling) and a declarative part (the
concept of numbers). However, the two combined are greater than the sum
of the individual parts. The combination represents a basic unit of knowledge
important to the domain of mathematics. The process of modeling in this
context has specific characteristics that it does not have in other contexts,
and the characteristics of numbers that are highlighted in the modeling
process are probably not highlighted quite so specifically in any other
environment." (p. 12)
Copyright © North Central Regional Educational
Laboratory. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright information. | <urn:uuid:01da0f9d-8309-4171-a2ac-a9267c934c4c> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/currclum/cu3lk8.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904296 | 477 | 3.796875 | 4 |
A CANADIAN scientist has found that killer whales 'speak' a number of different 'dialects' and 'languages'. Differences between the dialects can be as small as those that distinguish regional dialects of the English language, or as large as those between Japanese and English.
The finding puts the whales in an elite club among mammals, along with humans, some primates and harbour seals. The sounds produced by other mammals are determined genetically.
John Ford, curator of marine mammals at the Vancouver Public Aquarium, has been studying the way killer whales communicate for a decade. He says that killer whale dialects are made of the whistles and calls the animals use when communicating underwater. They are quite distinct from the high-energy, sonar-like 'clicks' that the whales emit when navigating by 'echolocation'.
Killer whales are the largest member of the dolphin family. They probably acquired their 'killer' reputation because they have been known ...
To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content. | <urn:uuid:7b2e8e5c-eedd-4fd2-9af2-073339e8ec18> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12517072.900-science-killer-whales-communicate-in-distinct-dialects.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965977 | 224 | 3.515625 | 4 |
In the southeast corner of Canyonlands, spires of Cedar Mesa Sandstone rise hundreds of feet above a network of canyons and grasslands know as "The Needles." Over 200 million years ago, this area was a dune field on the eastern edge of a shallow sea that stretched all the way to what is now California. Wind-blown sand formed the white bands in the Cedar Mesa Sandstone. Periodically, floods from mountains near present-day Grand Junction, Colorado would inundate the sand with red sediment to create the red bands.
About 20 million years ago, long after these layers were deposited, movements in the Earth's crust caused the entire Canyonlands region to rise. This changed the local environment from one where sediment is deposited, to one in which it's eroded away. Water eats away at sandstone by attacking the cement holding the sand grains together. It acts even faster on areas of weakness such as fractures and cracks. Two events combined to cause extensive surface fractures in the Needles.
The Monument Uplift
The Monument Uplift is a "local" uplift that begins around the Needles and trends slightly southwest all the way to Monument Valley. This uplift caused the Cedar Mesa Sandstone around the Needles to crack as it bent upward, forming a series of fractures (called "joints" by geologists) trending from east to west.
The Paradox Formation
A thick layer of salt called the Paradox Formation is the second cause of fracturing in the Needles. Buried thousands of feet below the Cedar Mesa Sandstone, the salt is flowing slowly toward the Colorado River and dragging the overlying layers with it. As the surface layers stretch in a direction opposite the Monument Uplift, another series of fractures formed trending north to south.
In the Needles, these two opposing series of joints formed square blocks of rock. As water erodes the joints, these squares have been slowly sculpted into the magnificent pillars and spires that form the Needles District of Canyonlands.
Did You Know?
The highest recently recorded flow in Cataract Canyon is 114,900 cfs in 1984. However, scientists dating driftwood piles estimate that in 1884, the river may have reached 225,000 cfs. More... | <urn:uuid:b806b5a9-5b10-47ba-afd9-3009e8b5cfdc> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.nps.gov/cany/naturescience/needles.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943938 | 462 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Most European nations have parliamentary systems of government in which executive authority is vested in cabinets responsible to parliaments. The cabinet''s head, and the leader of the majority in parliament, is the prime minister, who is the actual chief executive officer of the nation. In most of these governments the president serves as a titular, or ceremonial, head of state (except for the constitutional monarchies—Spain, the United Kingdom, Sweden and Norway—where this role is performed by the king or queen). Various methods of selecting presidents have been adopted. In Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia the president is directly elected; Germany and Italy utilize an electoral college; while the presidents is appointed by the parliament in Greece.
Direct presidential elections, 1990-2009. Click icon to view data | <urn:uuid:35efa6fa-099b-4f7e-9f3d-8d0e1e41fbfe> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/election_types/presidential_elections.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884221 | 175 | 3.625 | 4 |
The Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada
was the lower house of the bicameral structure of provincial government in Lower Canada
. The legislative assembly was created by the Constitutional Act of 1791
. The lower house consisted of elected legislative councillors who created bills to be passed up to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada
, whose members were appointed.
The lower house was dissolved on March 27 1838 following the Lower Canada Rebellion and Lower Canada was administered by an appointed Special Council. With the Act of Union in 1840, a new lower chamber, the Legislative Assembly of Canada, was created for both Upper and Lower Canada which existed until 1867, when the Legislative Assembly of Quebec was created.
List of Parliaments
See Old Parliament Building (Quebec) | <urn:uuid:e25be5ab-d3ef-48b6-8948-7fcd15667877> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.reference.com/browse/Legislative_Assembly_of_Lower_Canada | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973543 | 153 | 3.5 | 4 |
Shmoop's (Natural) Resources for Teachers
I have standards, sure. But I'm not common. (And my core could use some work, too.) So what are common core standards?
The Common Core Standards are educational standards that help schools prepare their students for college and beyond.
With the help of nuclear physicists and elves, Shmoop translates into normal human English the true meaning of each of these standards, and helps you apply them effectively to your lessons.
Unless you live in a state where the Common Core is naught | <urn:uuid:ae71ff57-4fb0-48cc-be28-e2abaa88a436> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.shmoop.com/common-core-standards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950059 | 111 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Current cholera outbreaks in Haiti and Pakistan emphasise the importance of a seemingly simple task: counting. How many people have suffered and died from cholera in these countries? Based on these numbers public health officials make decisions about how best to use limited resources to fight these outbreaks. In the case of cholera, this could be to introduce a cholera vaccine which costs as little as $3.70 per person, providing clean drinking water or filtration systems since cholera is typically transmitted through consuming contaminated water and food.
The official statistics for these emerging outbreaks report the number of confirmed cases. A case is confirmed when the bacterium that causes cholera is isolated from a patient showing cholera symptoms. This means a sample from that individual needs to be collected, this sample needs to be sent to a lab, and the lab needs to analyse the sample for this particular bacterium. There are a lot of steps in this process that could slow down the collection of a sample in the first place. Therefore confirmed cases are a lower limit for the number of actual cases and is therefore an undercounting of the actual number of cases.
One approach to solving this problem is to make sure that everybody who is showing cholera symptoms has a sample taken and analysed by a lab. Unfortunately there are just not enough public health officials nor laboratories to handle every sample that this would generate.
An alternative approach is to understand the under-reporting bias by sampling the population. The idea is to randomly choose a relatively small number of individuals and determine how many of these individuals have cholera and how many of these cases have been confirmed through the traditional route. The ratio of cholera cases to confirmed cases then allows an estimation of the total population who have cholera. One estimate of this ratio is 4:1 which would make the number of cholera cases greater than 30,000.
Now that cholera has reached Haiti's over-crowded capital of Port-au-Prince, the need for effective public health response is even more pressing. But public health officials cannot do their job properly unless they have accurate data concerning the number of people affected. | <urn:uuid:0e4a3b75-c8f9-4ba0-8a34-7b90dd7780de> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.significancemagazine.org/details/webexclusive/876959/Cholera-in-Haiti---how-many-cases.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957782 | 444 | 3.609375 | 4 |
|By Kevin Devlin
Veteran’s Day is a celebration to honor America’s veterans for their patriotism love of country, and willingness to serve and sacrifice for the common good.”
At 11 a.m. on Veteran’s Day, a combined color guard representing all the branches of our military, will execute a “Present Arms” at the “Tomb of the Unknowns” at the Arlington National Cemetery. A presidential wreath will then be placed at the Tomb and taps will be played to honor those who served and for those who died for their country.
Veteran’s Day honors all of the living, as well as the dead, who served their country in wartime and during peace.
And so, how did this national holiday begin?
In 1918, on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month, the world rejoiced and celebrated. World War I or the “Great War” as it was called back then had ended. Thirty-five countries were involved in this war from 1914 to 1918 and America fought oversees from 1917 to 1918. After four years of bitter fighting and bloodshed, an armistice was signed signifying the end of hostilities in the “The war to end all wars.” People danced and laughed in the streets, blew horns and rang bells. They thought there would never be another war of such magnitude. How could there be? It was so horrific, so much death, so much heartache and so much chaos and destruction.
To pay homage to those who served their country, President Woodrow Wilson designated November 11, 1919, as a holiday and named it “Armistice Day.” In 1921, the body of an “Unknown Soldier” his name “Known but to God” was brought from a cemetery in France to the states and buried in the “Tomb of the Unknown Soldier” at the Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.
In 1926, Congress adopted “a resolution directing the president to issue an annual proclamation calling on the observance of Armistice Day.” Then, on May 13, 1938,
Congress passed new legislation making November 11 a legal Federal holiday.
World War I was not to be the war to end all wars, but only the beginning of more bloodshed and wars in the modern era. The twentieth century would indeed show no mercy for mankind, as war upon war, death upon death, became the order of the day. It would seem that war was the natural order of interaction between nations, and peace just an aberration, an interlude, waiting to be set aside again due to failed diplomacy.
In 1939, Hitler’s armored divisions swept across the plains of Poland and for a brief period of time, Europe was plunged into darkness under the tyrannical yoke of the Nazi warlord. And on the other side of the world, the Japanese war machine was also causing havoc and turning the Pacific and Asian world upside down. In 1945, World War II ended. The world had suffered devastation, grief, and death never before recorded in the annals of history. Fifty-five million soldiers and civilians died in this war. Then, in the early fifties, came the Korean War-ridiculously referred to as a police action.
With these monumental events came outright dismay and skepticism, burying the notion of celebrating Armistice Day. In 1954, President Eisenhower signed a bill that changed the name of this holiday to Veteran’s Day, a day in which to honor all servicemen and women who served in all of America’s wars. This would later include the Vietnam War and the wars in the Middle East. And, writing another chapter in Middle Eastern affairs, we are now embroiled in “Wars Against Terrorism” in Afghanistan and Iraq that has given birth to yet another generation of veterans.
In 1968, the country passed the Monday Holiday Law that established the fourth Monday in October as the new date for the observance of Veteran’s Day. But many in the nation felt that this was unpatriotic and wanted to keep the holiday on the date originally intended. As a result, in 1975, new legislation was enacted which went into effect in 1978, making the holiday fall on the exact date.
This Veteran’s Day, give thanks to those living and to those now dead, who served their country in war and in peace so that we could all live in a democratic society. Take time and reflect about those countless young men and women, who unselfishly and heroically sacrificed their lives for us, so that we could enjoy life. Enjoying life, something they could not do, because they were called upon to sacrifice theirs for others, as well as to preserve freedom.
At 11 a.m., continue the tradition observed by millions of Americans throughout the decades. Remain silent for two minutes and prayer for those, living and dead, who served their country and protected our way of life.
It is a solemn time to honor and say, “Thank you” to those veterans who served their country.
They undoubtedly deserve our respect, our admiration, and our gratitude for all time. | <urn:uuid:8307d55f-9118-44b2-9dfe-ce4cfafbd146> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.southbostononline.com/articles/sports/2006/11-09-06HonoringVeteransDay.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970039 | 1,073 | 3.84375 | 4 |
Aurangzeb, Akbar, and the Communalization of History
In Indian history, the syncretistic and communalist viewpoints have conventionally been represented, to take one case in point, by offering a contrast between the lives of the two emperors under whom the Mughal Empire was at its zenith, Akbar (reigned 1556-1605) and Aurangzeb (reigned 1658-1707). Akbar is often adduced as an example of the tolerant ruler, whose policies demonstrate that though he himself was a Muslim, the state was not Islamic. Some have even pointed to him as a 'secular' ruler, when scarcely any monarch in Europe was such, and his advocacy of a new faith, the Din-i-ilahi, which combined elements from various religions, exemplifies the ecumenism with which he is associated. "He looked upon all religions alike", writes Tara Chand, "and regarded it his duty to make no difference between his subjects on the basis of religion. He threw upon the highest appointments to non-Muslims." Though it is admitted that he may have forged political and military alliances with Hindu rulers from considerations of expediency, other historians allude to more enduring signs of his real commitment to religious harmony and interest in different faiths, such as his marriage to Rajput women, his scholarly interest in epics such as the Ramayana, and his zeal in promoting Hindu learning. Historians point to Akbar's elimination of the jizya (poll-tax) usually levied on non-Muslims and his assumption of final authority on religious questions on which there might have been conflict of opinion among Muslim theologians, thereby undermining the authority of the ulama (Muslim clergy). Describing Akbar's success as "astonishing", Jawaharlal Nehru gave it as his opinion, in a work that places him among the ranks of historians, that Akbar "created a sense of oneness among the diverse elements of north and central India."
The commonplace view of Aurangzeb, on the other hand, is that he repudiated Akbar's policies of religious toleration, and by alienating Hindus he undermined the very empire whose tremendous expansion he masterminded. Nehru maintained that Aurangzeb had "put the clock back", undoing what his predecessors had achieved by working against the "genius of the nation" and ignoring the common culture that had been forged among the different elements of the Indian population. "When Aurangzeb began to oppose this movement [of synthesis] and suppress it and to function more as a Moslem than an Indian ruler," Nehru argued, "the Mughal Empire began to break up." But where Nehru saw Aurangzeb as a "bigot and an austere puritan" whose policies were instrumental in creating unease and dissent, and Tara Chand deplored his "misdirected efforts" which caused "irreparable damage" to the "great edifice of the empire", many Indian historians have been inclined to take a much harsher view of Aurangzeb's conduct. In this they were to follow the lead supplied by Jadunath Sarkar, whose 1928 biography of Aurangzeb in four volumes bequeathed the view of Aurangzeb that still predominates in the popular imagination. Sarkar suggested that Aurangzeb intended nothing less than to establish an Islamic state in India, an objective that could not be fulfilled without "the conversion of the entire population to Islam and the extinction of every form of dissent"; and to render this scenario more complete, he proposed that the jizya (poll-tax) on non-Muslims, which Aurangzeb had re-instituted in 1679, was aimed at forcibly converting Hindus to Islam, though he was unable to marshal evidence to substantiate this view.
If Aurangzeb was so ferocious a communalist, why is it, some historians have asked, that the number of Hindus employed in positions of eminence under Aurangzeb's reign rose from 24.5% in the time of his father Shah Jahan to 33% in the fourth decade of his own rule? They suggest, moreover, that Aurangzeb did not indiscriminately destroy Hindu temples, as he is commonly believed to have done so, and that he directed the destruction of temples only when faced with insurgency. This was almost certainly the case with the Keshava Rai temple in the Mathura region, where the Jats rose in rebellion; and yet even this policy of reprisal may have been modified, as Hindu temples in the Deccan were seldom destroyed. The image of Aurangzeb as an idol-breaker may not withstand scrutiny, since there is evidence to show that, like his predecessors, he continued to confer land grants (jagirs) upon Hindu temples, such as the Someshwar Nath Mahadev temple in Allahabad, Jangum Badi Shiva temple in Banaras, Umanand temple in Gauhati, and numerous others. On the other hand, one might argue, if Akbar was so dedicated to the principle of religious harmony, why is it that none of the Mughal princesses were ever allowed to marry into Rajput households? And while he may have propagated a new syncretistic faith, how was it received by ordinary Muslims? Moreover, do not both the supporters of Akbar and critics of Aurangzeb presume that relations between Hindus and Muslims are to be inferred by studying the lives of rulers, or at best members of the ruling class? What, in any case, is really conceded when it is admitted that Akbar was tolerant towards other faiths to the same extent that Aurangzeb was only solicitous of the welfare of his Muslim subjects? As the historian Harbans Mukhia has argued, "Once one accepts that the liberal religious policy of Akbar was only the reflection of his own liberal outlook, the conclusion becomes inescapable, for instance, that the fanatic religious policy of Aurangzeb flowed from his fanatic disposition." If Aurangzeb sought to convert members of important Hindu families to Islam, all the more to ensure the preservation of his empire, why should that serve as a basis for the presumption that a wholesale conversion of Hindus was a matter of state policy? By what method of transference is it possible to construe that conflicts among the ruling elite are conflicts at the broader social level? In the debate over the nature of the Indian past, then, particularly with respect to Hindu-Muslim relations, Akbar and Aurangzeb were to become, as they still are, iconic figures.
Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement, 4 vols (New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Publications Division, 1961-72), 1:111-12.
Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (Calcutta: Signet Press, 1946; reprint ed., Delhi: Oxford University Press/Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 1981), p. 270.
Ibid., p. 265, 271; Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement, 1:112.
J. Sarkar, History of Aurangzeb, 4 vols. (Calcutta, 1928), 3:249-50, cited by Satish Chandra, "Reassessing Aurangzeb", Seminar, no. 364: Mythifying History (December 1989), p. 35.
This paragraph draws upon M. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1968), pp. 30-32; Chandra, "Reassessing Aurangzeb", pp. 35-38; and B. N. Pandey's comments in Parliamentary Debates, Rajya Sabha, Vol. 102 (29 July 1977), col. 127. See also Sita Ram Goel, "Some historical questions", Indian Express (16 April 1989), p. 8.
Harbans Mukhia, "Medieval Indian History and the Communal Approach", in Romila Thapar, Harbans Mukhia, and Bipan Chandra, Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1969), p. 29.
Back to Mughals | <urn:uuid:55128839-aa75-4188-a0f3-f3444da3d7a3> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697681504/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094801-00041-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96823 | 1,703 | 3.65625 | 4 |
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