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"abstract": "Three concepts: stochastic discount factors, multi-beta pricing and mean-variance efficiency, are at the core of modern empirical asset pricing. This chapter reviews these paradigms and the relations among them, concentrating on conditional asset-pricing models where lagged variables serve as instruments for publicly available information. The different paradigms are associated with different empirical methods. We review the variance bounds of Hansen and Jagannathan (1991) , concentrating on extensions for conditioning information. Hansen's (1982) Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) is briefly reviewed as an organizing principle. Then, cross-sectional regression approaches as developed by Fama and MacBeth (1973) are reviewed and used to interpret empirical factors, such as those advocated by Fama and French (1993, 1996) . Finally, we review the multivariate regression approach, popularized in the finance literature by Gibbons (1982) and others. A regression approach, with a beta pricing formulation, and a GMM approach with a stochastic discount factor formulation, may be considered competing paradigms for empirical work in asset pricing. This discussion clarifies the relations between the various approaches. Finally, we bring the models and methods together, with a review of the recent conditional performance evaluation literature, concentrating on mutual funds and pension funds.",
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"title": "Chapter 26 Environmental implications of non-environmental policies",
"abstract": "This chapter seeks to understand the linkages between non-environmental polices and the environment, with a particular focus on taxation and subsidies. In order to understand the quite complex literature on this subject, we draw on the theory of the second best and the theory of optimal taxation. The thrust of the chapter is that there are multiple objectives and interactions among the various policies employed to meet them. In retrospect, one can always \u2018do better\u2019 in, say, improving efficiency and environmental quality without worsening the income distribution. What is interesting is to understand what the environmental impacts of the non-environmental policies have been and what lessons one can learn about the formulation of similar policies in the future. That is the central purpose of the chapter. Section 2 examines subsidies in agriculture and transport, as well as policies relating to trade liberalization, privatization, and public infrastructure investment. Section 3 is devoted specifically to energy subsidies. It reviews the results of partial- and general-equilibrium studies on energy subsidies, including environmental impacts (in particular, carbon emissions). Section 4 presents a general-equilibrium model in which energy subsidies and other taxes in the economy are reduced in a revenue-neutral fashion. Two important general-equilibrium effects, the revenue-recycling effect and the tax-interaction effect, are introduced in this section. Sections 5 and 6 continue the discussion of revenue-neutral fiscal policy changes, focusing on the substitution of environmental taxes for other taxes, in particular taxes on labor. This is the \u201cdouble dividend\u201d debate. Section 5 presents the theory, while Section 6 presents empirical evidence for the European Union. The latter section focuses primarily on employment effects, not welfare effects (the \u201cemployment double dividend\u201d vs. \u201cgross welfare dividend\u201d). Section 7 summarizes the main points of the chapter.",
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"title": "Chapter 66 Production, Productivity, and Public Investment in East Asian Agriculture",
"abstract": "Since the 1950s, agricultural growth in East Asia (China, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan) has reduced rural poverty and created a strong base for economic development. To gain a better understanding of the nature of this growth, we examine the sources of change in agricultural production and total factor productivity (TFP) and decompose the measurements into reform-based time periods. We also review studies that link public investments to agricultural growth and poverty reduction. We find that formulating growth-inducing and poverty-reducing strategies requires policymakers to understand the relative returns of different types of investments. JEL classifications: Q12, Q14, Q18, O13, O47",
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"title": "Chapter 65 Farm Size",
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"title": "Chapter 64 Plantations Agriculture",
"abstract": "Large plantations producing tropical cash crops based on hired labor represent a sharp contrast with small family farms, popularly called peasants in developing economies. The family farm is an old institution that has existed since time immemorial, but the plantation is a new institution introduced by Western colonialism for extracting tropical cash crops for export to home countries. Large-scale operation of the plantation was necessary for internalizing gains from investment in infrastructure needed for opening vast tracts of unused lands. However, where the communities of indigenous smallholders had already been established, family farms proved to be equally or more efficient producers of tropical export crops using the family labor of low supervision costs, relative to plantations based on hired labor. This advantage of family farms rose as population density increased and rural infrastructure improved, whereas not only economic but also social drawbacks of the plantation system loomed. However, reforms aimed to break down plantations to the operation of smallholders by a government's coercive power could be disruptive and inefficient. A better approach might be to support the initiative of the private sector to reorganize the plantation system into a more decentralized system, such as the contract farming system in which an agribusiness enterprise manages the processing/marketing process and contracts with small growers on the assured supply of farm-produced raw materials. JFL classification : D23, O13, P42, N50, Q13",
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"title": "Chapter 63 Development Aid and Agriculture",
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"title": "Chapter 37 A synthesis of agricultural trade economics",
"abstract": "Government intervention in agricultural sectors in both developed and developing countries has resulted in huge distortions in international markets. We describe the types of policies used in the agricultural sector and summarize quantitative measures that suggest their importance. Agricultural trade economists have tried to measure these distortions, to explain their causes, and to recommend policy reform. The discipline has been primarily empirical, relying chiefly on econometric and synthetic models and to a lesser extent on historical analysis and case studies. A review of attempts to measure trade elasticities, exchange rate effects, and market power illustrates the empirical questions that agricultural trade economists have studied and their results. A summary of empirical political economy models shows how these have been used to explain the types and the levels of government intervention. We then use U.S. grain trade policy in the 1970s and 1980s to illustrate in more detail the kinds of policies that agricultural economists have studied, and their assessments of these policies. In a theoretical section we outline several important ideas that underpin the empirical work in the discipline: the theory of comparative advantage, the theory of the second best, and the Principle of Targeting. We review the theory of trade policy for a country large enough to alter its terms of trade, and assess its relevance to agricultural trade. We also discuss the extent to which uncertainty and missing insurance markets might justify trade policy. In a concluding section we comment on the contribution that agricultural economists have made to trade reform and the manner in which changes in markets are likely to cause a change in the focus of the discipline.",
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"title": "Chapter 35 Market failures and second-best analysis with a focus on nutrition, credit, and incomplete markets",
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],
"title": "Chapter 14. Risk Adjustment in Competitive Health Plan Markets",
"abstract": "In the 1990s many countries have chosen to use prospective payment arrangements for health plans (e.g., health insurers, sickness funds or HMOs) together with health plan competition, as a means of creating incentives to be cost conscious, while preserving quality, innovation and responsiveness to consumer preferences. Risk adjustment is an important mechanism for attenuating problems that threaten the effectiveness of this strategy for resource allocation in health care. Without adequate risk adjustment, competing health plans have incentives to avoid individuals with predictable losses and to select predictably profitable members. This selection and the resulting risk segmentation can have adverse effects in terms of access to care, quality of care and efficiency in the production of care. This chapter first provides a conceptual framework for thinking about risk adjustment. Second, it gives an overview of the progress developing risk adjustment models in recent years. Third, several forms of risk sharing are discussed, which can be used as a tool for reducing selection in case of imperfect risk adjustment. Fourth, an overview is given of the current practice of risk adjustment and risk sharing in 11 countries. Finally some directions for future research are discussed.",
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} | ['gnd:4130935-2', 'https://www.tib.eu/de/suchen/id/TIBKAT%3A1831638630'] | ['Gesundheitsökonomie'] |
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