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https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/American_River_College/HUM_301%3A_Introduction_to_Humanities_Textbook_(Collom)/08%3A_Freedom/8.01%3A_Freedom_of_the_Will/8.1.05%3A_The_Prisoners_Dilemma	8.1.5: The Prisoner’s Dilemma - - Last updated - Save as PDF The Prisoner’s Dilemma 37 The prisoner's dilemma is a standard example of a game analyzed in game theory that shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so. It was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher working at RAND in 1950. Albert W. Tucker formalized the game with prison sentence rewards and named it, "prisoner's dilemma" (Poundstone, 1992), presenting it as follows: Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of communicating with the other. The prosecutors lack sufficient evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They hope to get both sentenced to a year in prison on a lesser charge. Simultaneously, the prosecutors offer each prisoner a bargain. Each prisoner is given the opportunity either to: betray the other by testifying that the other committed the crime, or to cooperate with the other by remaining silent. The offer is: - If A and B each betray the other, each of them serves 2 years in prison - If A betrays B but B remains silent, A will be set free and B will serve 3 years in prison (and vice versa) - If A and B both remain silent, both of them will only serve 1 year in prison (on the lesser charge) It is implied that the prisoners will have no opportunity to reward or punish their partner other than the prison sentences they get, and that their decision will not affect their reputation in the future. Because betraying a partner offers a greater reward than cooperating with them, all purely rational self-interested prisoners would betray the other, and so the only possible outcome for two purely rational prisoners is for them to betray each other. The interesting part of this result is that pursuing individual reward logically leads both of the prisoners to betray, when they would get a better reward if they both kept silent. In reality, humans display a systemic bias towards cooperative behavior in this and similar games, much more so than predicted by simple models of "rational" self-interested action. A model based on a different kind of rationality, where people forecast how the game would be played if they formed coalitions and then maximized their forecasts, has been shown to make better predictions of the rate of cooperation in this and similar games, given only the payoffs of the game. An extended "iterated" version of the game also exists, where the classic game is played repeatedly between the same prisoners, and consequently, both prisoners continuously have an opportunity to penalize the other for previous decisions. If the number of times the game will be played is known to the players, then (by backward induction) two classically rational players will betray each other repeatedly, for the same reasons as the single-shot variant. In an infinite or unknown length game there is no fixed optimum strategy, and Prisoner's Dilemma tournaments have been held to compete and test algorithms. The prisoner's dilemma game can be used as a model for many real world situations involving cooperative behaviour. In casual usage, the label "prisoner's dilemma" may be applied to situations not strictly matching the formal criteria of the classic or iterative games: for instance, those in which two entities could gain important benefits from cooperating or suffer from the failure to do so, but find it merely difficult or expensive, not necessarily impossible, to coordinate their activities to achieve cooperation. Strategy for the prisoner's dilemma Both cannot communicate, they are separated in two individual rooms. The normal game is shown below: - Prisoner A stays silent ( cooperates ) & Prisoner B stays silent ( cooperates ): Each serves 1 year - Prisoner A stays silent ( cooperates ) & Prisoner B betrays ( defects ): Prisoner A gets 3 years & Prisoner B goes free - Prisoner A betrays ( defects ) & Prisoner B stays silent ( cooperates ): Prisoner A goes free & Prisoner B gets 3 years - Prisoner A betrays ( defects ) & Prisoner B betrays ( defects ): Each serves 2 years It is assumed that both understand the nature of the game, and that despite being members of the same gang, they have no loyalty to each other and will have no opportunity for retribution or reward outside the game. Regardless of what the other decides, each prisoner gets a higher reward by betraying the other ("defecting"). The reasoning involves an argument by dilemma: B will either cooperate or defect. If B cooperates, A should defect, because going free is better than serving 1 year. If B defects, A should also defect, because serving 2 years is better than serving 3. So either way, A should defect. Parallel reasoning will show that B should defect. Because defection always results in a better payoff than cooperation, regardless of the other player's choice, it is a dominant strategy. Mutual defection is the only strong Nash equilibrium in the game (i.e. the only outcome from which each player could only do worse by unilaterally changing strategy). The dilemma then is that mutual cooperation yields a better outcome than mutual defection but it is not the rational outcome because from a self-interested perspective, the choice to cooperate, at the individual level, is irrational. Real-life examples The prisoner setting may seem contrived, but there are in fact many examples in human interaction as well as interactions in nature that have the same payoff matrix. The prisoner's dilemma is therefore of interest to the social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology, as well as to the biological sciences such as ethology and evolutionary biology. Many natural processes have been abstracted into models in which living beings are engaged in endless games of prisoner's dilemma. This wide applicability of the PD gives the game its substantial importance. In environmental studies In environmental studies, the PD is evident in crises such as global climate-change. It is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb CO 2 emissions. The immediate benefit to an individual country to maintain current behavior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to all countries if behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in 2007. An important difference between climate-change politics and the prisoner's dilemma is uncertainty; the extent and pace at which pollution can change climate is not known. The dilemma faced by government is therefore different from the prisoner's dilemma in that the payoffs of cooperation are unknown. This difference suggests that states will cooperate much less than in a real iterated prisoner's dilemma, so that the probability of avoiding a possible climate catastrophe is much smaller than that suggested by a game-theoretical analysis of the situation using a real iterated prisoner's dilemma. Osang and Nandy provide a theoretical explanation with proofs for a regulation-driven win-win situation along the lines of Michael Porter's hypothesis, in which government regulation of competing firms is substantial. In animals Cooperative behavior of many animals can be understood as an example of the prisoner's dilemma. Often animals engage in long term partnerships, which can be more specifically modeled as iterated prisoner's dilemma. For example, guppies inspect predators cooperatively in groups, and they are thought to punish non-cooperative inspectors. Vampire bats are social animals that engage in reciprocal food exchange. Applying the payoffs from the prisoner's dilemma can help explain this behavior: - C/C: "Reward: I get blood on my unlucky nights, which saves me from starving. I have to give blood on my lucky nights, which doesn't cost me too much." - D/C: "Temptation: You save my life on my poor night. But then I get the added benefit of not having to pay the slight cost of feeding you on my good night." - C/D: "Sucker's Payoff: I pay the cost of saving your life on my good night. But on my bad night you don't feed me and I run a real risk of starving to death." - D/D: "Punishment: I don't have to pay the slight costs of feeding you on my good nights. But I run a real risk of starving on my poor nights." In psychology In addiction research / behavioral economics, George Ainslie points out that addiction can be cast as an intertemporal PD problem between the present and future selves of the addict. In this case, defecting means relapsing , and it is easy to see that not defecting both today and in the future is by far the best outcome. The case where one abstains today but relapses in the future is the worst outcome — in some sense the discipline and self-sacrifice involved in abstaining today have been "wasted" because the future relapse means that the addict is right back where he started and will have to start over (which is quite demoralizing, and makes starting over more difficult). Relapsing today and tomorrow is a slightly "better" outcome, because while the addict is still addicted, they haven't put the effort in to trying to stop. The final case, where one engages in the addictive behavior today while abstaining "tomorrow" will be familiar to anyone who has struggled with an addiction. The problem here is that (as in other PDs) there is an obvious benefit to defecting "today", but tomorrow one will face the same PD, and the same obvious benefit will be present then, ultimately leading to an endless string of defections. John Gottman in his research described in "the science of trust" defines good relationships as those where partners know not to enter the (D,D) cell or at least not to get dynamically stuck there in a loop. In economics Advertising is sometimes cited as a real-example of the prisoner’s dilemma. When cigarette advertising was legal in the United States, competing cigarette manufacturers had to decide how much money to spend on advertising. The effectiveness of Firm A’s advertising was partially determined by the advertising conducted by Firm B. Likewise, the profit derived from advertising for Firm B is affected by the advertising conducted by Firm A. If both Firm A and Firm B chose to advertise during a given period, then the advertising cancels out, receipts remain constant, and expenses increase due to the cost of advertising. Both firms would benefit from a reduction in advertising. However, should Firm B choose not to advertise, Firm A could benefit greatly by advertising. Nevertheless, the optimal amount of advertising by one firm depends on how much advertising the other undertakes. As the best strategy is dependent on what the other firm chooses there is no dominant strategy, which makes it slightly different from a prisoner's dilemma. The outcome is similar, though, in that both firms would be better off were they to advertise less than in the equilibrium. Sometimes cooperative behaviors do emerge in business situations. For instance, cigarette manufacturers endorsed the making of laws banning cigarette advertising, understanding that this would reduce costs and increase profits across the industry. [] This analysis is likely to be pertinent in many other business situations involving advertising. [] Without enforceable agreements, members of a cartel are also involved in a (multi-player) prisoner's dilemma. 'Cooperating' typically means keeping prices at a pre-agreed minimum level. 'Defecting' means selling under this minimum level, instantly taking business (and profits) from other cartel members. Anti-trust authorities want potential cartel members to mutually defect, ensuring the lowest possible prices for consumers. In sport Doping in sport has been cited as an example of a prisoner's dilemma. Two competing athletes have the option to use an illegal and/or dangerous drug to boost their performance. If neither athlete takes the drug, then neither gains an advantage. If only one does, then that athlete gains a significant advantage over their competitor, reduced by the legal and/or medical dangers of having taken the drug. If both athletes take the drug, however, the benefits cancel out and only the dangers remain, putting them both in a worse position than if neither had used doping. Multiplayer dilemmas Many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players. Although metaphorical, Hardin's tragedy of the commons may be viewed as an example of a multi-player generalization of the PD: Each villager makes a choice for personal gain or restraint. The collective reward for unanimous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs (representing the destruction of the "commons"). A commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing the dishes in a shared house. By not washing dishes an individual can gain by saving his time, but if that behavior is adopted by every resident the collective cost is no clean plates for anyone. The commons are not always exploited: William Poundstone, in a book about the prisoner's dilemma (see References below), describes a situation in New Zealand where newspaper boxes are left unlocked. It is possible for people to take a paper without paying ( defecting ) but very few do, feeling that if they do not pay then neither will others, destroying the system. Subsequent research by Elinor Ostrom, winner of the 2009 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, hypothesized that the tragedy of the commons is oversimplified, with the negative outcome influenced by outside influences. Without complicating pressures, groups communicate and manage the commons among themselves for their mutual benefit, enforcing social norms to preserve the resource and achieve the maximum good for the group, an example of effecting the best case outcome for PD. In international politics In international political theory, the Prisoner's Dilemma is often used to demonstrate the coherence of strategic realism, which holds that in international relations, all states (regardless of their internal policies or professed ideology), will act in their rational self-interest given international anarchy. A classic example is an arms race like the Cold War and similar conflicts. During the Cold War the opposing alliances of NATO and the Warsaw Pact both had the choice to arm or disarm. From each side's point of view, disarming whilst their opponent continued to arm would have led to military inferiority and possible annihilation. Conversely, arming whilst their opponent disarmed would have led to superiority. If both sides chose to arm, neither could afford to attack the other, but at the high cost of developing and maintaining a nuclear arsenal. If both sides chose to disarm, war would be avoided and there would be no costs. Although the 'best' overall outcome is for both sides to disarm, the rational course for both sides is to arm, and this is indeed what happened. Both sides poured enormous resources into military research and armament in a war of attrition for the next thirty years until the Soviet Union could not withstand the economic cost. The same logic could be applied in any similar scenario, be it economic or technological competition between sovereign states.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:24.798286	2021-06-15T23:27:19	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/American_River_College/HUM_301%3A_Introduction_to_Humanities_Textbook_(Collom)/08%3A_Freedom/8.01%3A_Freedom_of_the_Will/8.1.05%3A_The_Prisoners_Dilemma", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-104688", "title": "8.1.5: The Prisoner’s Dilemma", "author": "Noah Levin" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/American_River_College/HUM_301%3A_Introduction_to_Humanities_Textbook_(Collom)/08%3A_Freedom/8.01%3A_Freedom_of_the_Will/8.1.06%3A_The_Trial_of_Leopold_and_Loeb	8.1.6: The Trial of Leopold and Loeb - - Last updated - Save as PDF The Trial of Leopold and Loeb Closing Argument The State of Illinois v. Nathan Leopold & Richard Loeb Delivered by Clarence Darrow Chicago, Illinois, August 22, 1924 … I insist, Your Honor, that had this been the case of two boys of these defendants' age, unconnected with families of great wealth, there is not a state's attorney in Illinois who could not have consented at once to a plea of guilty and a punishment in the penitentiary for life. Not one. No lawyer could have justified any other attitude. No prosecution could have justified it. We are here with the lives of two boys imperiled, with the public aroused. For what? Because, unfortunately, the parents have money. Nothing else. I have heard in the last six weeks nothing but the cry for blood. I have heard from the office of the state's attorney only ugly hate. I have heard precedents quoted which would be a disgrace to a savage race. I have seen a court urged almost to the point of threats to hang two boys, in the face of science, in the face of philosophy, in the face of humanity, in the face of experience, in the face of all the better and more humane thought of the age. … We have said to the public and to this court that neither the parents, nor the friends, nor the attorneys would want these boys released. Unfortunate though it be, it is true, and those the closest to them know perfectly well that they should not be released, and that they should be permanently isolated from society. We are asking this court to save their lives, which is the least and the most that a judge can do. … Who were these two boys? And how did it happen? On a certain day they killed poor little Robert Franks. They were not to get $10,000; they were to get $5,000 if it worked; that is, $5,000 each. Neither one could get more than five, and either one was risking his; neck in the job. So each one of my clients was risking his neck for $5,000, if it had anything to do with it, which it did not. Did they need the money? Why at this very time, and a few months before, Dickie Loeb had $3,000 [in his] checking account in the bank. Your Honor, I would be ashamed to talk about this except that in all apparent seriousness they are asking to kill these two boys on the strength of this flimsy foolishness. At that time, Richard Loeb had a three-thousand-dollar checking account in the bank. He had three Liberty Bonds, one of which was past due, and the interest on each of them had not been collected for three years. And yet they would ask to hang him on the theory that he committed this murder because he needed money. How about Leopold? Leopold was in regular receipt of $125 a month; he had an automobile; paid nothing for board and clothes, and expenses; he got money whenever he wanted it, and he had arranged to go to Europe and had bought his ticket and was going to leave about the time he was arrested in this case. He passed his examination for the Harvard Law School, and was going to take a short trip to Europe before it was time for him to attend the fall term. His ticket had been bought, and his father was to give him $3,000 to make the trip. Your Honor, jurors sometimes make mistakes, and courts do, too. If on this evidence the court is to construe a motive out of this case, then I insist that a motive could be construed out of any set of circumstances and facts that might be imagined. The boys had been reared in luxury, they had never been denied anything; no want or desire left unsatisfied; no debts; no need of money; nothing. And yet they murdered a little boy, against whom they had nothing in the world, without malice, without reason, to get $5,000 each. All right. All right, Your Honor, if the court believes it, if anyone believes it, I can't help it. That is what this case rests on. It could not stand up a minute without motive. without it, it was the senseless act of immature and diseased children, as it was; a senseless act of children, wandering around in the dark and moved by some motion, that we still perhaps have not the knowledge or the insight into life to thoroughly understand. … We have sought to tell this court why he should not hang these boys. We have sought to tell this court, and to make this court believe, that they were diseased of mind, and that they were of tender age. However, before I discuss that, I ought to say another word in reference to the question of motive in this case. If there was no motive, except the senseless act of immature boys, then of course there is taken from this case all of the feeling of deep guilt upon the part of these defendants. There was neither cruelty to the deceased, beyond taking his life, nor was there any depth of guilt and depravity on the part of the defendants, for it was a truly motiveless act, without the slightest feeling of hatred or revenge, done by a couple of children for no sane reason. But, Your Honor, we have gone further than that, and we have sought to show you, as I think we have, the condition of these boys' minds. Of course it is not an easy task to find out the condition of another person's mind. Now, I was about to say that it needs no expert, it needs nothing but a bare recitation of these facts, and a fair consideration of them, to convince any human being that this was the act of diseased brains. But let's get to something stronger than that. Were these boys in their right minds? Here were two boys with good intellect, one eighteen and one nineteen. They had all the prospects that life could hold out for any of the young; one a graduate of Chicago and another of Ann Arbor; one who had passed his examination for the Harvard Law School and was about to take a trip in Europe, another who had passed at Ann Arbor, the youngest in his class, with $3,000 in the bank. Boys who never knew what it was to want a dollar; boys who could reach any position that was given to boys of that kind to reach; boys of distinguished and honorable families, families of wealth and position, with all the world before them. And they gave it all up for nothing, for nothing! They took a little companion of one of them, on a crowded street, and killed him, for nothing, and sacrificed everything that could be of value in human life upon the crazy scheme of a couple of immature lads. Now, Your Honor, you have been a boy; I have been a boy. And we have known other boys. The best way to understand somebody else is to put yourself in his place. Is it within the realm of your imagination that a boy who was right, with all the prospects of life before him, who could choose what he wanted, without the slightest reason in the world would lure a young companion to his death, and take his place in the shadow of the gallows? How insane they are I care not, whether medically or legally. They did not reason; they could not reason; they committed the most foolish, most unprovoked, most purposeless, most causeless act that any two boys ever committed, and they put themselves where the rope is dangling above their heads. There are not physicians enough in the world to convince any thoughtful, fair-minded man that these boys are right. Was their act one of deliberation, of intellect, or were they driven by some force such as Dr. White and Dr. Glueck and Dr. Healy have told this court? There are only two theories; one is that their diseased brains drove them to it; the other is the old theory of possession by devils, and my friend Marshall could have read you books on that, too, but it has been pretty well given up in Illinois. That they were intelligent, sane, sound, and reasoning is unthinkable. Let me call Your Honor's attention to another thing. Why did they kill little Bobby Franks? Not for money, not for spite; not for hate. They killed him as they might kill a spider or a fly, for the experience. They killed him because they were made that way. Because somewhere in the infinite processes that go to the making up of the boy or the man something slipped, and those unfortunate lads sit here hated, despised, outcasts, with the community shouting for their blood. Mr. Savage, with the immaturity of youth and inexperience, says that if we hang them there will be no more killing. This world has been one long slaughterhouse from the beginning until today, and killing goes on and on and on, and will forever. Why not read something, why not study something, why not think instead of blindly shouting for death? Kill them. Will that prevent other senseless boys or other vicious men or vicious women from killing? No! It will simply call upon every weak-minded person to do as they have done. I know how easy it is to I talk about mothers when you want to do something cruel. But I am thinking of the others, too. I know that any mother might be the mother of little Bobby Franks, who left his home and went to his school, and who never came back. I know that any mother might be the mother of Richard Loeb and Nathan Leopold, just the same. The trouble is this, that if she is the mother of a Nathan Leopold or of a Richard Loeb, she has to ask herself the question: "How come my children came to be what they are? From what ancestry did they get this strain? How far removed was the poison that destroyed their lives? Was I the bearer of the seed that brings them to death?" Any mother might be the mother of any of them. But these two are the victims. No one knows what will be the fate of the child he gets or the child she bears; the fate of the child is the last thing they consider. I am sorry for the fathers as well as the mothers, for the fathers who give their strength and their lives for educating and protecting and creating a fortune for the boys that they love; for the mothers who go down into the shadow of death for their children, who nourish them and care for them, and risk their lives, that they may live, who watch them with tenderness and fondness and longing, and who go down into dishonor and disgrace for the children that they love. All of these are helpless. We are all helpless. But when you are pitying the father and the mother of poor Bobby Franks, what about the fathers and mothers of these two unfortunate boys, and what about the, unfortunate boys themselves, and what about all the fathers and all the mothers and all the boys and all the girls who tread a dangerous maze in darkness from birth to death? Do you think you can cure the hatreds and the maladjustments of the world by hanging them? You simply show your ignorance and your hate when you say it. You may here and there cure hatred with love and understanding, but you can only add fuel to the flames by cruelty and hate. Your Honor, that no human being could have done what these boys did, excepting through the operation of a diseased brain. I do not propose to go through each step of the terrible deed, it would take too long. But I do want to call the attention of this court to some of the other acts of these two boys, in this distressing and weird homicide; acts which show conclusively that there could be no reason for their conduct. I want to come down now to the actions on the afternoon of the tragedy. Without any excuse, without the slightest motive, not moved by money, not moved by passion or hatred, by nothing except the vague wanderings of children, about four o'clock in the afternoon they started out to find somebody to kill. For nothing. They went over to the Harvard School. Dick's little brother was there, on the playground. Dick went there himself in open daylight, known by all of them; he had been a pupil there himself, the school was near his home, and he looked over the little boys. They first picked out a little boy named Levinson, and Dick trailed him around. Now, of course, that is a hard story. It is a story that shocks one. A boy bent on killing, not knowing where he would go or who he would get, but seeking some victim. Here is a little boy, but the circumstances are not opportune, and so he fails to get him. Dick abandons that lead; Dick and Nathan are in the car, and they see Bobby Franks on the street, and they call to him to get into the car. It is about five o'clock in the afternoon, in the long summer days, on a thickly settled street, built up with homes, the houses of their friends and their companions known to everybody, automobiles appearing and disappearing, and they take him in the car. If there had been a question of revenge, yes; if there had been a question of hate, where no one cares for his own fate, intent only on accomplishing his end, yes. But without any motive or any reason they picked up this little boy right in sight of their own homes, and surrounded by their neighbors. They hit him over the head with a chisel and killed him, and go on about their business, driving this car within half a block of Loeb's home, within the same distance of the Franks's home, drive it past the neighbors that they knew, in the open highway, in broad daylight. And still men will say that they have a bright intellect. I say again, whatever madness and hate and frenzy may do to the human mind, there is not a single person who reasons who can believe that one of these acts was the act of men, of brains that were not diseased. There is no other explanation for it. And had it not been for the wealth and the weirdness and the notoriety, they would have been sent to the psychopathic hospital for examination, and been taken care of, instead of the state demanding that this court take the last pound of flesh and the last drop of blood from two irresponsible lads. They pull the dead boy into the backseat, and wrap him in a blanket, and this funeral car starts on its route. If ever any death car went over the same route or the same kind of a route driven by sane people, I have never heard of it, and I fancy no one else has ever heard of it. This car is driven for twenty miles. The slightest accident, the slightest misfortune, a bit of curiosity, an arrest for speeding, anything would bring destruction. They go down the Midway, through the park, meeting hundreds of machines, in sight of thousands of eyes, with this dead boy. They go down a thickly populated street through South Chicago, and then for three miles take the longest street to go through this city; built solid with business, buildings, filled with automobiles backed upon the street, with streetcars on the track, with thousands of peering eyes; one boy driving and the other on the backseat, with the corpse of little Bobby Franks, the blood streaming from him, wetting everything in the car. And yet they tell me that this is sanity; they tell me that the brains of these boys are not diseased. Their conduct shows exactly what it was, and shows that this court has before him two young men who should be examined in a psychopathic hospital and treated kindly and with care. They get through South Chicago, and they take the regular automobile road down toward Hammond. They stop at the forks of the road, and leave little Bobby Franks, soaked with blood, in the machine, and get their dinner, and eat it without an emotion or a qualm. I repeat, you may search the annals of crime, and you can find no parallel. It is utterly at variance with every motive, and every act and every part of conduct that influences normal people in the commission of crime. There is not a sane thing in all of this from the beginning to the end. There was not a normal act in any of it, from its inception in a diseased brain, until today, when they sit here awaiting their doom. But we are told that they planned. Well, what does that mean? A maniac plans, an idiot plans, an animal plans; any brain that functions may plan. But their plans were the diseased plans of the diseased mind. Is there any man with an air of intellect and a decent regard for human life, and the slightest bit of heart that does not understand this situation? And still, Your Honor, on account of its weirdness and its strangeness, and its advertising, we are forced to fight. For what? Forced to plead to this court that two boys, one eighteen and the other nineteen, may be permitted to live in silence and solitude and disgrace and spend all their days in the penitentiary. Asking this court and the state's attorney to be merciful enough to let these two boys be locked up in a prison until they die.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:24.867032	2021-06-15T23:27:20	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/American_River_College/HUM_301%3A_Introduction_to_Humanities_Textbook_(Collom)/08%3A_Freedom/8.01%3A_Freedom_of_the_Will/8.1.06%3A_The_Trial_of_Leopold_and_Loeb", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-104688", "title": "8.1.6: The Trial of Leopold and Loeb", "author": "Noah Levin" }
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Scientific_Computing_Simulations_and_Modeling/Scientific_Computing_(Staab)/11%3A_Plotting_Data_and_Functions	11: Plotting Data and Functions Plotting is crucial to understanding functions and visualizing data. There are many ways to do some plots using various packages. Instead of covering details of multiple packages, we will cover the Plots package, which is overlay over many other plotting packages. However, as you read through this chapter, don’t think of this as a how-to guide for using a package, instead, think of the bigger picture of visualizing functions and data.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:31.789968	2021-05-11T18:22:22	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Scientific_Computing_Simulations_and_Modeling/Scientific_Computing_(Staab)/11%3A_Plotting_Data_and_Functions", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/math-53643", "title": "11: Plotting Data and Functions", "author": null }
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Scientific_Computing_Simulations_and_Modeling/Scientific_Computing_(Staab)/11%3A_Plotting_Data_and_Functions/11.1%3A_The_Plots_Package	11.1: The Plots Package This page is a draft and is under active development. There is a relatively simple, but powerful plotting package called Plots and don’t forget to download it as in Appendix XXX. The full documentation is at the Plots.jl website. Recall that once the package is added, enter The Plots package tries to unify the syntax for plotting anything. The basic command for plotting data or functions in 2D is the plot command, which attempts to plot any object that can be plotted. The next few examples shows this. Plotting Functions For plotting a function, simply call plot on the function: Note: if you are running this on your own computer, your plot may look a bit different than this one with different fonts. This is mainly due to using a different backend, which is explained below. If you want to specify the x-range, try: If we want to plot 2 or more functions on the same axes, pass in an array of functions like: We will also see below how to change other aspects of the plot including the legend, title, labels on the axes, etc. Exercise Plot the functions $ f(x) = e^{-x^2}, g(x)=\ln(x) $ on the interval $[-3,3]$	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:31.851279	2021-05-11T18:34:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Scientific_Computing_Simulations_and_Modeling/Scientific_Computing_(Staab)/11%3A_Plotting_Data_and_Functions/11.1%3A_The_Plots_Package", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/math-53643", "title": "11.1: The Plots Package", "author": "Peter Staab" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication	1: Introduction to Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. Successful students will be able to: About 70% of our days are spent communicating (Alberts, Martin, & Nakayama, 2016), either face-to-face or through mediated platforms, such as email or text message. Yet, we often overestimate how well others understand us and how well we understand others. The purpose of this text is to provide knowledge and skills to help minimize miscommunication in interactions and increase communication competence. Even though we have been communicating our entire life, there are always ways to improve and techniques we can learn to be more effective and accomplish our goals, in both personal and professional contexts. In this chapter, we will begin our journey into communication by becoming familiar with the communication process, addressing contextual considerations, exploring the principles of communication, and discussing communication competence.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.019134	2021-07-29T21:18:03	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "1: Introduction to Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.01%3A_Communication-_Definition_and_The_Communication_Process	1.1: Communication- Definition and The Communication Process selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define communication and discuss the components of the communication process. In this text, we define communication as symbol using and meaning making. Communicators exchange two types of symbols, verbal and/or nonverbal, and attach meaning to said symbols. For example, the meaning attached to the verbal symbol “hello” is a greeting. You can also convey this greeting by using a nonverbal symbol, such as a hand wave. However, it is important note that the meanings we attach to symbols can vary from person to person. For example, another communicator might instead interpret a hand wave as trying to get their attention. In order to better understand how verbal and nonverbal symbols are produced, interpreted, and coordinated in interactions, it is necessary to understand the components of the communication process. Communicators:Senders and receivers of messages in a communicative interaction. Because we are continuously sending and receiving verbal and/or nonverbal messages, we are simultaneously both a sender and receiver in interactions. For example, in a face-to-face interaction, the other communicator may be recounting an experience verbally with words and nonverbally with hand gestures, while we are sending our own nonverbal messages via eye contact, facial expressions, posture, etc. Encoding:The process of turning our thoughts, ideas, and feelings into verbal and/or nonverbal messages. Decoding:The process of interpreting and adding meaning to the verbal and/or nonverbal messages we receive. Symbol:A thing that represents or stands for something else. In communication, symbols can be verbal, such as words, or nonverbal, such as the ‘okay’ hand symbol. Message:Verbal and nonverbal symbols that represent thoughts, feelings, and ideas. Messages can be both intentional (conscious) and unintentional (unconscious). For example, we may intentionally smile at a friend but unintentionally fidget with our hands when nervous. Channel:The means through which the message is sent from one communicator to the other, such spoken words, a text message, or our hands to make a gesture. Feedback:The verbal and nonverbal messages sent by one communicator in response to the other communicator’s message(s). For example, if someone says a word we are unfamiliar with, we may frown in response or give them a confused look to let them know we do not understand. Noise:Noise is a type of interference in the communication process that results from the physical, relational, individual, and/or cultural context. Noise can occur in various places in the process, such as in the people, in the channel, in the message, and even outside the interaction. In any interpersonal interaction, there are at least two communicators and both communicators are generating and creating meaning by simultaneously sending and receiving messages . For example, in a face-to-face interaction, we may be telling a story about our horrible day and the other person may be listening. While we are telling our story, we are encoding our thoughts and feelings and considering which details to leave out and which ones to talk about. Think about the last time you recapped your experience at a social gathering for a friend and then again for a family member. Did you focus on different details with each person? That’s encoding. While telling the story, we may use both verbal and nonverbal symbols to create the content of our message. The channel we send our message through can be spoken words (for verbal symbols) or hand gestures (for nonverbal symbols). The other communicator, who is listening, decodes the message by interpreting and adding meaning to it. In addition, the listener is also simultaneously communicating messages back to us. This is called feedback . They may be nonverbally establishing eye contact (or not), yawning, or verbally interrupting or asking questions.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.089153	2021-07-29T21:18:04	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.01%3A_Communication-_Definition_and_The_Communication_Process", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "1.1: Communication- Definition and The Communication Process", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.03%3A_Principles_of_Communication	1.3: Principles of Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will be discussing how communication is used to meet needs; exists on multiple levels; is a transactional process; is situated; can be either face-to-face, mediated, or both; is continuous, intentional, and unintentional; and is irreversible. In addition to using communication to exchange messages and create shared meaning, we also use it to meet the various needs we have as human beings. Communication meets four needs: physical, instrumental, relational, and identity. Physical needs include needs that keep our bodies and minds functioning. Communication, which we most often associate with our brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and effects on our physical body and well-being. At the most basic level, communication can alert others that our physical needs are not being met. Human beings are social creatures, which makes communication important for our survival. Instrumental needs include needs that help us ‘get things done’ in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals. We all work towards short- and long-term goals every day. Fulfilling these goals is an ongoing communicative task, which means we spend much of our time communicating for instrumental needs. Some common instrumental needs include influencing others, getting information we need, or getting support (Burleson, Metts, & Kirch, 2000). Communication meets our relational needs because it is through communication that we begin, develop, maintain, and end relationships. In order to develop a relationship, we may use nonverbal communication to assess whether someone is interested in talking to us or not, then use verbal communication to strike up a conversation. Then, through the mutual process of self-disclosure, a relationship forms over time. Once formed, we need to maintain a relationship, so we use communication to express our continued liking of someone. We can verbally say things like “You’re such a great friend.” Finally, communication or the lack of it helps us end relationships. We may communicate our deteriorating commitment to a relationship by avoiding communication with someone, verbally criticizing him or her, or explicitly ending a relationship. From checking in with relational partners by text, social media, or face-to-face, to celebrating accomplishments, communication forms the building blocks of our relationships. Identity needs include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in particular ways. Our identity changes as we progress through life, but communication is the primary means of establishing our identity and fulfilling our identity needs. Communication allows us to present ourselves to others in particular ways. Just as many companies, celebrities, and politicians create a public image, we present different faces in different contexts. The influential scholar Erving Goffman compared self-presentation to a performance and suggested we all perform different roles in different contexts (Goffman, 1959). For example, you may perform the role of a parent when at home with your child, but the role of supervisor when at work. Communication operates on two distinct levels: there is a content dimension and a relational dimension. The content dimension is the meaning of the actual message itself, whereas the relational dimension expresses “how you feel about the other person: whether you like or dislike the other person, feel in control or subordinate, feel comfortable or anxious, and so on” (Adler, 2017, p. 18). For example, consider the difference between someone saying “I’m busy tonight” in an annoyed tone versus “Sorry babe, I’m busy tonight” in an apologetic tone. Both messages mean the same thing on the content dimension, but express different feelings on the relational dimension. There may be times when the content dimension is all that matters; likewise, there are other times where more importance is placed on the relational dimension (Adler & Proctor, 2017). Communication is also a transactional process, this means that: 1) Each communicator is simultaneously a sender and receiver of messages. 2) Meaning is co-created in the interaction by both communicators. 3) Communication is an ongoing process and previous interactions between communicators influence current interactions. And since communication is ongoing, 4) current interactions likewise will influence future interactions and will either affirm or modify perceptions of the other and the relationship (Alberts, Nakayama, & Martin, 2016). Communicative interactions can take place face-to-face using verbal symbols, such as words, and nonverbal symbols, such as gestures. They can also take place through a mediated platform, such as a smoke signal, email, or text message. Sometimes, it can even be a combination of face-to-face and mediated, such as when a speaker is presenting to an audience with a microphone. How the interaction takes place will affect how messages are produced, interpreted, and coordinated. All communication is situated, which means that communication occurs within a specific setting “that affects how the messages are produced, interpreted, and coordinated” (Verderber, MacGeorge, & Verderber, 2016, p. 16). Not only do the contextual factors mentioned in Section 2 influence communication, but communication is also situated historically, economically, socially, and politically. For example, some current political rhetoric surrounding Mexican immigrants paints them as criminals and rapists; this can affect how others perceive and communicate (or avoid communicating) with people that fall into this group. In all communicative interactions, we are continuously sending messages, whether they are verbal or nonverbal, and whether it is intentional (conscious), or unintentional (unconscious). Although communication may seem like a perceptible and deliberate process, we often send messages without conscious thought. In fact, there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Additionally, not all behavior is consciously encoded. For example, we might have had a rough night with little sleep, which us yawn more often than we normally would. We are not deliberately and consciously encoding the yawn, rather our body does it without forethought. However, our yawn may unintentionally communicate “boredom” to the other person in the interaction. In contrast, a we may consciously decide to communicate a particular message (encoding) to another person if their story has gone on a very long time and we have somewhere else to go. We may decide in our heads that we need a way out of the conversation and consider a yawn and a glance toward the door to be an effective way to hint that we have to leave. Once something is communicated, it is irreversible and cannot be un-communicated. While we “may try to qualify, negate, or somehow reduce the effects… once it has been sent and received, the message itself cannot be reversed” (DeVito, 2014, p. 25). Have you ever put your foot in your mouth and said something you wish you could take back? You may have even quickly said “I take it back,” but the impression created in the mind of the other cannot be erased. While we can apologize, there can still be consequences of the original message. This principle is also important to note in mediated-communication that takes place through platforms such as email or a text message, as your interactions can also be saved and shared with others.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.194343	2021-07-29T21:18:06	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.03%3A_Principles_of_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "1.3: Principles of Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.04%3A_Communication_Competence	1.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF As stated in the introduction, the purpose of this text is to increase communication competence. Although the word ‘competent’ is somewhat subjective and the definition can vary from person to person, we conceptualize communication competence as being comprised of three interrelated components. In order to be a competent communicator, our communication needs to be effective, contextual, and reflective. In this section, we discuss each one of these components and how we can improve communication competence. Effective Communication Effective communication pertains to two things: achieving our goals and creating (or not creating) shared meaning in interactions. As communicators, we have a variety of goals in interactions, ranging from trivial to important. Goals may include things like passing time, entertainment, getting or giving information, persuading another person, etc. (Verderber, MacGeorge, & Verderber, 2016). Usually, it can be pretty easy to measure whether or not we have effectively achieved our goal(s). For example, let’s say our goal is to persuade our roommate to do the dishes. If they do the dishes, then we have achieved our goal. If they do not do the dishes, then we have not achieved our goal. Effective communication also includes creating shared meaning in interactions by encoding our messages in a way that will enable them to be easily understood by the other communicator. For example, we may use concrete phrases such as “the blue book on the counter” versus “that thing over there.” Although, sometimes we may purposely choose to use messages that are ambiguous. For example, if a friend were to ask us, “What do you think of this dress?” we may respond by saying “interesting” to avoid giving a direct answer. Because we are not always conscious of encoding and decoding, and because others can decode both our intentional and unintentional messages in a variety of ways (which we may not mean), in this text we will draw more attention to our cognitive processes in the interest of improving shared meaning and communication effectiveness. Contextual Communication Context and communication are inseparably intertwined. In order for our communication to be effective, it must take context into consideration. As previously mentioned, context plays an important role in how messages are produced, interpreted, and coordinated. Different contexts have different norms and rules for what is considered acceptable (or unacceptable) and appropriate (or inappropriate) behavior. In other words, norms and rules exists for what we should or can do, and what we shouldn’t or can’t do. A bar (physical context) has different norms and rules for communication than a classroom. The norms and rules for interacting with a stranger versus a close friend (relational context) are vastly different. Contexts overlap, so the norms and rules are dynamic, constantly shifting, and may be hard for us to discern at times. For example, it may be acceptable to kiss someone we are romantically involved with, but not a stranger (relational context). It may be acceptable to kiss we are dating at the park, but not in the workplace (physical context). And depending on our (co)culture (cultural context), it may not be considered acceptable to be affectionate with someone we are dating in any public place. Because communication contexts are intertwined, it is important for us to be aware of the ways contextual nuances influence and shape interactions. In addition, contexts are also embedded with ethics, or what is considered right or wrong in terms of actions and behaviors. Ethics exists on individual, co-cultural, and cultural levels. For example, we may be part of a religion (co-culture) that considers lying, regardless of the context, to be wrong. However, as an individual we may think it is okay to lie in certain situations, such as for safety reasons or to protect our privacy. As competent communicators, we must become adept at identifying contextual nuances and adapting our behavior to the context. We will cover the specifics of contextual influences throughout the book. Adding this knowledge to your understanding of interpersonal communication will help you make mindful choices that work for you and your relationships. Reflective Communication The final component of a communication competence is reflective communication, which means becoming more consciously aware and mindful. Being reflective means actively considering our own communication and analyzing the long and short-term effects of our behavior(s) on our identity, other people, and our relationships. Identity: Since communication meets identity needs, both verbal and nonverbal communication is used to manage our identity and present an image of ourselves based on how we want others to perceive us. Identity is contextual and fluid and can be communicated intentionally and unintentionally. For example, let’s say in a professional context we want others to perceive us as being confident and intelligent. We might intentionally communicate this nonverbally by looking at people in the eye and verbally by using big words. However, we may also unintentionally engage in behaviors that communicate a different identity to others than the one we what. For example, a brief interaction in the workplace in which we yell angrily at a colleague may cause those who witness this interaction to perceive us as being immature or difficult to work with. Because of this, it is important to analyze how even small interactions contribute to other’s perceptions of who they think we are. Others: Since interpersonal communication involves at least two people, the way we communicate impacts those around us, whether it be a stranger, friend, or partner. Even a brief encounter with store clerk could have the potential to impact that person positively or negatively. For example, if we were to give a grocery cashier a compliment by saying that we like their haircut, that might make them feel good. Likewise, if we were to insult them by saying their haircut is unflattering, it could have the opposite effect. While some may argue that people are ultimately accountable for their own feelings and should take responsibility for them, competent communicators engage in perspective-taking and are cognizant of the potential interpretations of messages and the effects of these messages on others. Relationships: Finally, the way we communicate can have both short-term and long-terms effects on our relationships, both personal and professional. Getting into a superficial argument in an intimate relationship may have the short-term effect that other person not talking to us for the rest of the day. However, if in that argument we said something extremely hurtful, even if we apologized later, that other person may never forget what we said, and it may come up over and over again and cause long-term issues in the relationship. In relationships, our immediate communication and how we communicate with others over periods of time can be key to building healthy and mutually satisfactory relationships or unhealthy relationships that eventually dissolve. Improving Communication Competence Three key things can help improve communication competence: knowledge , skills , and motivation . Knowledge We can improve our communication competence by learning communication concepts, principles, characteristics, and theories. This knowledge enables us to better understand ourselves and others. Specifically, knowledge of communication processes helps us develop self-awareness of our goals and abilities; investigate the whys behind the choices we make and the way we interact with others, consider how our experiences and expectations influence the meaning we assign to a given situation, event, person, comment, behavior, etc., and consider how others’ experiences and expectations influence the meaning they assign to situations, events, person, comments, behaviors, etc. Skills In addition to increasing our knowledge of communication, in this text we will learn concrete skills and techniques to improve communication effectiveness. Stewart (2012) uses the metaphor of inhaling and exhaling to describe the interpersonal communication process. Skills such as listening will fall under the inhaling category. We can consciously improve our inner cognitive processing by taking in information from others and the outside world. Skills such as assertiveness will fall under the exhale category as we consciously strategize about what messages we want to put out in the world, paying attention to how they might be perceived. The skills we learn can be thought of as ‘communication tools.’ Communication tools are a lot like carpenters’ tools. We all have different levels of skill ability and a different range of tool usage. Some of us may have fairly full toolbox of tools that we already are able to skillfully use, while others don’t. A skilled carpenter is able to purposefully select from a variety of different tools and use them skillfully to build, maintain and repair structures. A skilled communicator is able to purposefully select from a variety of different tools and use them skillfully to build, maintain and repair relationships. Note that both the carpenter and communicator are able to choose purposefully. Purposeful choices require a key cognitive skill—that of awareness. Improved awareness is the key to increasing any type of competence. Awareness involves being conscious of our own current strengths and limitations, bringing directed attention to the contextual knowledge we gain throughout through studying communication, and being mindful of our interpersonal communication goals. With such an awareness we can ultimately direct ourselves to make effective choices that benefit our lives. The skill of awareness can be developed, practiced, and improved. Our journey to improve awareness can begin with a better understanding of motivation. Motivation Finally, in order to increase our communication competence, we have to want to become a better communicator. It is not enough to learn knowledge and skills, we have to see a reason to apply them as well. Seeing this reason requires not only awareness but a certain type of mindset. This mindset requires a couple of considerations. First, it is helpful for us to realize that things such as our emotional intelligence and communication abilities are not fixed. Dweck (2007) reminds us that people who have a “growth” mindset (rather than a “fixed” mindset) believe they can learn, change, and grow. Neuroscience studies show that if we believe we can improve, motivation is likely to follow, as well as increased achievement. A similar concept is called locus of control. Your locus of control is the extent to which you believe you have power over the events in your life. Those people with an internal locus of control believe that success or failure is related to their own doing. Those with an external locus of control are less clear about their own role in the way their lives play out, and are more likely to chalk outcomes up to luck or chance. You can work to shape your internal locus in a way that affects your motivation. We don’t need to stay stuck in automatic scripts, routine patterns, and the same old outcomes. We are humans and thus have “agency,” which is the ability to act with free will. We have the capacity to exercise control over our own thought processes, emotions and behaviors, an understanding of which will likely increase our motivation to improve competence. Sometimes reflecting on who we are, how we communicate, and why we engage in certain behaviors can make us feel uncomfortable. Other times, because certain new skills may differ from how we normally communicate, they can seem disingenuous or feel awkward to use. We may also fear how the new communication patterns will be interpreted by others. However, learning knowledge and skills will enable us to better understand ourselves, others, and the world around us. We can maintain and increase our motivation by considering this potential and periodically reflecting on positive effects that result from improved communication. For example, by improving our communication we may increase our relationship satisfaction, become more successful in the workplace, and better accomplish our goals across a variety of contexts.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.264628	2021-07-29T21:18:07	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Communication/1.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "1.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication	Culture and communication are inseparably intertwined as “language and culture are the frameworks through which humans experience, communicate, and understand reality” (Vygostky, 1968, p.39). Culture influences our worldview, beliefs, and what we consider normal. However, as we all know from experience, many differences among cultures exist, which can often cause miscommunication and conflict. In this chapter, we will define culture and intercultural communication, explore eight ways in which cultural groups differ, discuss how a dialectical approach can be applied to intercultural communication, and address ways to improve communication competence. Learning Objectives - How do cultures differ? And how do those differences affect intercultural interactions? - How can we improve intercultural communication competence? And for what reasons? Successful students will be able to - identify the definitions of culture and intercultural communication - recognize 8 cultural variables - explain four aspects of a dialectical approach to intercultural communication - explain three aspects of intercultural competence Contributors and Attributions - Sections 2.1.1, 2.3.1-2.3.6, & 2.4.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0 - Sections: 2.2.1.2.8, & 2.4.1: English at Work; EFL, 2014-2017; “The materials are Open Educational Resources. As a learner or trainer, you may download, reproduce, customize and otherwise make use of the materials. You may also amend, edit or otherwise change all original text, provided that all original copyright notices remain intact and appear on all amended versions or reproductions thereof. You may distribute the materials by any means including electronic mail or on a storage device such as a CD for the purpose of education or training. However, the materials may not be sold, leased or loaned. Any other use of the materials not defined in this agreement is subject to (the copyright holders) written approval.” - Sections 2.0, 2.1.0, 2.1.2, 2.2.0, 2.4.0, & 2.4.2: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.338344	2021-07-29T21:18:08	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "2: Culture and Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.01%3A_Defining_Culture_and_Intercultural_Communication	2.1: Defining Culture and Intercultural Communication - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will define culture and explain what culture, co-culture, and intercultural communication is. Definition of Culture For the purposes of exploring the communicative aspects of culture, we will define culture as the ongoing negotiation of learned and patterned beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors among members of a group. Unpacking the definition, we can see that culture shouldn’t be conceptualized as stable and unchanging. Culture is “negotiated,” because it is dynamic, and cultural changes can be traced and analyzed to better understand why our society is the way it is. The definition also points out that culture is learned, which accounts for the importance of socializing institutions like family, school, peers, and the media. Culture is patterned in that there are recognizable widespread similarities among people within a cultural group. There is also deviation from and resistance to those patterns by individuals and subgroups within a culture, which is why cultural patterns change over time. Lastly, this definition acknowledges that culture influences our beliefs about what is true and false, our attitudes including our likes and dislikes, our values regarding what is right and wrong, and our behaviors. Culture is often invisible to us and we tend to take it for granted. As the saying goes, ‘fish don’t necessarily know they are in water because they are completely immersed in it.’ Our cultural environment is difficult to perceive until we are exposed to something different. Just as a fish out of water is suddenly aware of what it normally lives inside of, we gain awareness of our own culture when we are exposed to situations and people that are unfamiliar and different. Culture, Co-culture, and Intercultural Communication Intercultural communication occurs when people with different cultural and co-cultural groups interact with each other. Most people tend to think of intercultural communication in terms of communicating with someone from a different country. However, even within one geographic location, both a dominant culture and multiple co-cultural groups exist. The dominant culture is created by the group who is in power, runs the country, and makes laws and policies. The attitudes, beliefs, values, patterns of thinking, and communicative behaviors of the dominant group are the ones that have become normalized and are often viewed as ‘ideal’ or superior. For example, what is considered ‘proper’ English, acceptable hairstyles, and business attire have all been defined by the dominant group. Historically, in the U.S., this dominant group has been comprised of wealthy, white, heterosexual, Christian, males. However, other co-cultural groups exist based on race, gender, social class, sexual orientation, ableness, generation etc. Because of this, intercultural communication actually exists on a continuum. On the low end, we might be communicating with someone of the same race and social class, but they may be a different gender. On the high end, we may be communicating with someone who is from a completely different geographic location, gender, race, generation, etc. Culture and co-culture(s) influence our behaviors, values, beliefs, patterns of thinking, and perception of our environment. Cultural and co-cultural identities distinguish groups of people from one another. This is important because group differences are often what make us feel uncomfortable in interactions and can lead to miscommunication and conflict. Moreover, in all cultures, co-cultural membership based on factors like gender or race can work to either privilege or disadvantage members of that particular group. Being part of the dominant group generates certain privileges that members of the nondominant group do not get and create unequal power dynamics in our communicative interactions. However, by recognizing privilege and studying the common differences that exist across cultures in terms of beliefs, values, attitudes, and patterns of thinking, we can better reflect on our own culture and co-culture, view it through a different lens, and improve our intercultural communication competence.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.400363	2021-07-29T21:18:09	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.01%3A_Defining_Culture_and_Intercultural_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "2.1: Defining Culture and Intercultural Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.02%3A_Eight_Cultural_Variables	2.2: Eight Cultural Variables - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will address eight cultural variables: human nature, time, action, communication, space, power, individualism/collectivism, and competitiveness/cooperativeness. These major variables offer a simple frame of reference for examining culture and understanding its major characteristics. Human Nature Cultures may also hold one of three beliefs pertaining to human nature. The first is the belief that people are basically “good”. In these cultures, people will generally believe that you can put the right person in the right position and empower him/ her to perform. The second belief is that people are basically “bad.” These types of cultures put an emphasis on control and monitoring of people. The final belief is that people are a mixture of “good” and “bad.” In these cultures, people believe personal development is possible, and investment in training and professional development is highly desirable. Time A culture’s use of time can communicate differences more profoundly than words. Three orientations to time can be seen across cultures. The first is past-orientation, where high value is placed on continuance of traditions. In these cultures, changes and plans are judged according to their fit with history and customs. The second is present-orientation, which is a short-term orientation aimed at quick results. In these cultures, changes and plans are judged on fast pay-off. Finally, future-orientation includes a willingness to trade short-term gains for long-term results. In these cultures, changes and plans are judged on expected future benefit. In addition, we also see differences in terms of single-focused and multi-focused views of on how time is used and adhered to. Single-focused, also referred to monochronic, uses of time place high concentration on one task or issue and people are committed to schedules. Multiple-focused, or polychronic, uses of time emphasize on multiple tasks, with a priority on relationship building rather than on meeting deadlines. Action Cultures, like individuals, can be oriented towards activity or passivity. The first type is a doing culture, where value is placed on action, accomplishments, achieving personal goals and improving one’s standard of living. These cultures follow external standards of measurement and are motivated by promotions, raises, bonuses and recognition. Conversely, in being cultures, value is placed on working for the moment, release from stress, and experience rather than accomplishment. These cultures put emphasis on job satisfaction and are not motivated by promises of future rewards. Context and Formality There are two variables that exist across cultures- high-context/low-context and formal/informal- that deal more directly with the way we send messages back and forth when we interact. The first variable pertains to how much meaning is conveyed through the context surrounding verbal communication. In low-context cultures, information is given primarily in words and meaning is expressed explicitly. In other words, you are expected to say what you mean and mean what you say. Conversely in high-context cultures, information is transmitted not just in words but also through a variety of contexts, such as voice tone, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, speech patterns, use of silence, past interactions, status, common friends, etc. Members of high-context cultures might not say something directly as they may assume other group members will understand the indirect meaning. The second pertains to how important it is to formally or informally follow rules for self-presentation and for behavior in organizations and social situations. In formal-communication cultures, importance is given to following protocol and social customs. In informal-communication cultures, people feel more comfortable doing business in a more casual way without lots of rituals and ceremonies. Space Cultures also differ in regard to how they perceive and use physical spaces, specifically private and public space. In private-space cultures, personal space is valued, and clear borders and boundaries exist between one space and another. Ownership of space is important. Doors are to be closed, and knocking before entering is expected. In public-space cultures, the boundaries between personal and public spaces are weaker and more flexible. Space is shared rather than owned. Doors are to be kept open, and access is free. Power Distance The power variable pertains to how much the less powerful members of a society expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In high-power distance cultures, also referred to as hierarchy cultures, inequality is accepted. Structures are defined and differences in status are seen as normal. This type of culture satisfies a need for dependence and security. In professional settings, members of high-power distance cultures usually prefer groups where clear roles are assigned and there is a designated leader. In low-power distance cultures, also referred to as equality cultures, inequality is thought to be unsatisfactory. While it may be unavoidable, it is considered correct to minimize it through legal, political, and economic means. In professional settings, members of low-power distance cultures do not accept that a manager has a given right to greater power and all member can participate in decision making. Individualism and Collectivism Individualism and collectivism pertain to the extent to which countries elevate the role of the individual over the group. In individualistic cultures, the bonds between individual members are relatively loose. People are independent and expected to take care of themselves, or at most, the nuclear family. Guilt and fear of loss of self-respect are central to social control. The “I” predominates over the “We.” Individual identity is key, and speaking one’s mind is a sign of honesty. Individualist cultures emphasize individual expression and personal responsibility. In collectivist cultures, individual interests are placed second to group interests. Groups protect their members in exchange for loyalty and obedience. Social control is based on the fear of losing face and the possibility of shame. Identity is therefore based on the social network to which a person belongs. Harmony, rather than speaking one’s mind, is a key value. Laws and rights differ from group to group, and political power is held by interest groups. Competitiveness and Cooperativeness Competitiveness pertains to how much achievement and success dominate over caring for others and quality of life. In competitive cultures, achievement, assertiveness and competition are reinforced. In these cultures, social and gender roles also tend to be distinct. Men are expected to be assertive, tough, and driven by material success. Women, on the other hand, are expected to be modest, nurturing, and concerned mainly with the quality of life. When competitiveness is valued, the culture is predominantly materialistic, with an emphasis on assertiveness and acquisition of money, property, goods, etc. High value is placed on ambition, decisiveness, performance, speed and size. Cooperativeness characterizes cultures in which social and gender roles overlap. Everyone is expected to demonstrate modesty, nurturing, and a concern for the quality of life. Being sympathetic to one’s fellow human beings is important with an emphasis on relationships. High value is placed on consensus and intuition. In a competitive culture, people live to work. In a cooperative culture, people work to live.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.466539	2021-07-29T21:18:10	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.02%3A_Eight_Cultural_Variables", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "2.2: Eight Cultural Variables", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.03%3A_Culture_and_Communication-_A_Dialectical_Approach_and_Five_Dialectics	2.3: Culture and Communication- A Dialectical Approach and Five Dialectics - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will discuss what a dialectical approach entails and examine five dialectics to help us better understand the link between culture and communication: Cultural-Individual, Personal-Contextual, Differences-Similarities, Static-Dynamic, and Privileges/Disadvantages. A Dialectical Approach Communication across cultures and co-cultures is complicated, messy, and at times contradictory. Therefore, it is not always easy to conceptualize or study. Taking a dialectical approach allows us to capture the dynamism of intercultural communication. A dialectic is a relationship between two opposing concepts that constantly push and pull one another (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). To put it another way, thinking dialectically helps us realize that our experiences often occur in between two different phenomena. This perspective is especially useful for communication because—when we think dialectically—we think relationally. This means we look at the relationship between aspects of communication rather than viewing them in isolation. Intercultural communication occurs as a dynamic in-betweenness that, while connected to the individuals in an encounter, goes beyond the individuals, creating something unique. Holding a dialectical perspective may be challenging for some Westerners, as it asks us to hold two contradictory ideas simultaneously, which goes against much of what we are taught in our formal education. Thinking dialectically helps us see the complexity in culture and identity because it doesn’t allow for dichotomies. Dichotomies are dualistic ways of thinking that highlight opposites, reducing the ability to see gradations that exist in between concepts. Dichotomies such as good/evil, wrong/right, objective/subjective, male/female, in-group/out-group, black/white, and so on form the basis of much of our thoughts on ethics, culture, and general philosophy, but this isn’t the only way of thinking (Martin & Nakayama, 1999). Many Eastern cultures acknowledge that the world isn’t dualistic. Rather, they accept as part of their reality that things that seem opposite are actually interdependent and complement each other. A dialectical approach is useful in studying communication because it gets us out of our comfortable and familiar ways of thinking. Since so much of understanding culture and identity is understanding ourselves, having an unfamiliar lens through which to view culture can offer us insights that our familiar lenses will not. Also, as these dialectics will iterate, culture and communication are complex systems that intersect with and diverge from many contexts. A better understanding of all these dialectics helps us think more critically and communicate more competently in and with the world around us. Cultural-Individual Dialectic The cultural-individual dialectic captures the interplay between patterned behaviors learned from a cultural group and individual behaviors that may be variations on or counter to those of the larger culture. This dialectic is useful because it helps us account for exceptions to cultural norms. For example, the United States is said to be a low-context culture, which means that we value verbal communication as our primary, meaning-rich form of communication. Conversely, Japan is said to be a high-context culture, which means they often look for nonverbal clues like tone, silence, or what is not said for meaning. However, you can find people in the United States who intentionally put more meaning into how they say things rather than what they say, perhaps because they are not as comfortable speaking directly what’s on their mind. We often do this in situations where we may hurt someone’s feelings or damage a relationship. Does that mean we come from a high-context culture? Does the Japanese man who speaks more than is socially acceptable come from a low-context culture? The answer to both questions is no. Neither the behaviors of a small percentage of individuals nor occasional situational choices constitute a cultural pattern. Personal-Contextual Dialectic The personal-contextual dialectic highlights the connection between our personal patterns of and preferences for communicating and how various contexts influence the personal. In some cases, our communication patterns and preferences will stay the same across many contexts. In other cases, a context shift may lead us to alter our communication and adapt. For example, an American businessperson may prefer to communicate with their employees in an informal and laid-back manner. When they are promoted to manage a department in their company’s office in Malaysia, they may again prefer to communicate with their new Malaysian employees the same way they did with those in the United States. In the United States, the accepted norm is that communication in work contexts is more formal than in personal contexts. However, we also know that individual managers often adapt these expectations to suit their own personal tastes. This type of managerial discretion would likely not go over as well in Malaysia where there is a greater emphasis put on power distance (Hofstede, 1991). So, while the American manager may not know to adapt to the new context unless they have a high degree of intercultural communication competence, Malaysian managers would realize that this is an instance where the context likely influences communication more than personal preferences. Differences-Similarities Dialectic The differences-similarities dialectic allows us to examine how we are simultaneously similar to and different from others. It’s easy to fall into a view of intercultural communication as “other oriented” and set up dichotomies between “us” and “them.” When we over focus on differences, we can end up polarizing groups that actually have commonalities. When we over focus on similarities, we essentialize, or reduce/ overlook important variations within a group. This tendency is evident in most of the popular, and some of the academic, conversations regarding “gender differences.” The book Men Are from Mars and Women Are from Venus makes it seem like men and women aren’t even species that hail from the same planet. The media is quick to include a blurb from a research study indicating again how men and women are “wired” to communicate differently. However, gender is a social and cultural construction in which groups of people are categorized as either being a man or women. This essentializes and stereotypes people by focusing on the ways in which they are different, rather than similar, and ignores and silences those whose body, identity, and/or performance do not align with their assigned gender. Static-Dynamic Dialectic The static-dynamic dialectic suggests that culture and communication change over time yet often appear to be and are experienced as stable. Although it is true that our cultural beliefs and practices are rooted in the past, cultural categories that most of us assume to be stable, like race and gender, have changed dramatically in just the past fifty years. Some cultural values remain relatively consistent over time, which allows us to make some generalizations about a culture. For example, cultures have different orientations to time. The Chinese have a longer-term orientation to time than do Europeans (Lustig & Koester, 2006). This is evidenced in something that dates back as far as astrology. The Chinese zodiac is done annually (The Year of the Monkey, etc.), while European astrology was organized by month (Taurus, etc.). While this cultural orientation to time has been around for generations, as China becomes more Westernized in terms of technology, business, and commerce, it could also adopt some views on time that are more short term. Privileges-Disadvantages Dialectic The privileges-disadvantages dialectic captures the complex interrelation of unearned, systemic advantages and disadvantages that operate among our various co-cultural identities. As was discussed earlier, there exists both the dominant culture and co-cultures; our co-cultural groups have certain privileges and/or disadvantages. To understand this dialectic, we must view these identities through a lens of intersectionality, which asks us to acknowledge that we each have multiple cultural and co-cultural memberships that intersect with each other. Because our co-cultural memberships are complex, no one is completely privileged and no one is completely disadvantaged. For example, while we may think of a white, heterosexual man as being very privileged, they may also have a disability that leaves them without the able-bodied privilege that a Latina woman has. This is often a difficult dialectic for many to understand, because we are quick to point out exceptions that we think challenge this notion. For example, many people like to point out Oprah Winfrey as a powerful black woman. While she is definitely now quite privileged despite her disadvantaged identities, her trajectory isn’t the norm. When we view privilege and disadvantage at the cultural level, we cannot let individual exceptions distract from the systemic and institutionalized ways in which some people are disadvantaged while others are privileged. Group Privilege Depending on the co-culture you belong to, you may benefit from certain privileges or advantages. According to Peggy McIntosh, privilege is like an invisible knapsack of advantages that some people carry around. They are invisible because they are often not recognized, seen as normative (i.e., “that’s just the way things are”), seen as universal (i.e., “everyone has them”), or used unconsciously. Below is a list of some of the privileges McIntosh identifies associated with white skin color. Can you think of others that are associated with other positions of privilege (such as gender, sexual orientation, or ableness)? - When I am told about our national heritage or about “civilization,” I am shown that people of my color made it what it is. - Whether I use checks, credit cards, or cash, I can count on my skin color not to work against the appearance of financial reliability. - I can swear, or dress in second-hand clothes, or not answer letters without having people attribute these choices to the bad morals, the poverty, or the illiteracy of my race. - I can do well in a challenging situation without being called a credit to my race. - I am never asked to speak for all the people of my racial group. - I can remain oblivious of the language and customs of persons of color, who constitute the world’s majority, without feeling in my culture any penalty for such oblivion. - If a traffic cop pulls me over, I can be sure I haven’t been singled out because of my race. - I can take a job with an affirmative action employer without having coworkers on the job suspect that I got it because of race - I can choose blemish cover or bandages in “flesh” color that more or less match my skin. Full article: Peggy McIntosh’s “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.”	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.534212	2021-07-29T21:18:11	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.03%3A_Culture_and_Communication-_A_Dialectical_Approach_and_Five_Dialectics", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "2.3: Culture and Communication- A Dialectical Approach and Five Dialectics", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.04%3A_Communication_Competence	2.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we address how to improve intercultural communication competence, discuss the value of switching your communication code based on context, and reflect on intercultural relationships. Effective Communication: Intercultural Communication Competence Intercultural communication competence (ICC) pertains to your ability to appropriately and effectively communicate in cultural and co-cultural contexts. Below are five key guidelines for improving your ICC. - Observe the situation without making judgments. When communicating with other (co)cultures, our first judgment about ”those people” is often mistaken and/or based on stereotypes. Observing, non-judgmentally, can help us to understand others’ mindset and minimize biases and preconceptions. - Tolerate ambiguity. When communicating across (co)cultures, there are many situations that are ambiguous and make us feel uncomfortable. Patience and perseverance are very important qualities of the competent communicator. - Practice perception-flipping. All of us behave as we do because we believe our ways are valid and, often, superior. Before criticizing someone else’s behavior, we should try flipping our perception to see the other person’s point of view. In other words, put yourself in their shoes. - Reframe our questions. If we ask ourselves ”How can they be so rude?” or ”Why are they so insensitive?!” we are expressing a negative assumption about the other person. Reframing these questions to, ”What is the reason behind their behavior?” prevents us from getting trapped in our own assumptions and allows us to explore the other’s frame of reference without bias. - Cultivate motivation and view communication as an opportunity for personal growth and development. This is especially important for members of dominant groups who often have more power and privilege in situations. This power creates an imbalance and it is often the members of nondominant groups who are expected to conform and adapt to the behaviors of the dominant group. Regardless of our co-cultural groups and identities, we should all develop motivation to be more competent communicators. Contextual Communication: Communication Codes Remember that communication is contextual, and the cultural context is an important aspect of communicative interactions. Differences in culture and co-culture inform beliefs, values, attitudes, and thinking, and likewise inform behaviors and ‘norms’ in our communicative interactions. Because of this, it is important to understand that there are communication codes operating in any given interaction. A code is a socially constructed, historically transmitted, system of symbols, premises, rules, and meanings pertaining to communicative conduct (Covarrubias, 2002). In other words, a code is a set of rules associated with conduct, a guideline for what is acceptable (or not acceptable) in particular situations, and for what a person should (or should not) do. The purpose of a code is for members and individuals in a cultural/co-cultural group to communicate effectively so that they understand one another and behave in appropriate ways. Culture and co-culture inform the communicative system—or communication code—that is operating in a given interaction. Since one group may have a set of shared symbols that differs from another group, the groups may attribute different meanings to the codes. To be a competent communicator, we need to observe the cultural and co-cultural context to determine what codes should be employed to create shared meaning in an interaction. Reflective Communication: Intercultural Relationships Relationships are frequently formed between people with different cultural identities, and may include friends, romantic partners, family, and coworkers. These relationships have both benefits and challenges. For example, some of the benefits include increasing cultural knowledge, challenging previously held stereotypes, and learning new skills (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Intercultural relationships also present challenges, however. The dialectics discussed earlier affect our relationships. The similarities-differences dialectic in particular may present challenges to relationship formation (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). While differences between people’s cultural identities may be obvious, it takes some effort and reflection to uncover commonalities that can form the basis of a relationship. Perceived differences in general also create anxiety and uncertainty. Negative stereotypes may also hinder progress toward relational development, especially if the individuals are not open to adjusting their preexisting beliefs. However, by reflecting on similarities and differences, and understanding the values and dialectics mentioned in this chapter, tensions can begin to balance out, and uncertainty and anxiety can lessen. Ethnocentrism When engaging in intercultural communication, it is important to avoid ethnocentrism, which is the belief that your culture and your way of doing things is superior. When we do this, we view our position as normal and right and evaluate all other cultural systems against our own. Ethnocentrism shows up in small and large ways: the WWII Nazi’s elevation of the Aryan race and the corresponding killing of Jews, Gypsies, gays and lesbians, and other non-Aryan groups is one of the most horrific ethnocentric acts in history. However, ethnocentrism shows up in small and seemingly unconscious ways as well. In U.S. American culture, if you decided to serve dog meat as an appetizer at your cocktail party you would probable disgust your guests and the police might even arrest you because the consumption of dog meat is not culturally acceptable. However, in China “it is neither rare nor unusual” to consume dog meat (Wingfield-Hayes). In the Czech Republic, the traditional Christmas dinner is carp and potato salad. Imagine how your U.S. family might react if you told them you were serving carp and potato salad for Christmas. In the Czech Republic, it is a beautiful tradition, but in America, it might not receive a warm welcome. Our cultural background influences every aspect of our lives from the food we consume to which classroom curriculum is emphasized over others.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.600618	2021-07-29T21:18:11	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/02%3A_Culture_and_Communication/2.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "2.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others	3: The Perception Process and Perception of Others - - Last updated - - Save as PDF - Take a moment do a quick inventory of your senses: What do you see? Smell? Hear? Feel? Every second of every minute of every hour of every day, we are exposed to stimuli. Yet, what we choose to attend to and how we interpret it varies greatly from person to person. In this chapter, we will learn about the perception process and how we interpret a wide range of stimuli, from objects to people to behaviors. We will also address cultural and personality differences, and we will discuss how to improve communication competence. Learning Objectives - How does the perception process work? - How and why can we improve the role of perception in interpersonal communication? Successful students will be able to: - explain three parts of the perception process - describe how we form impressions of people and make attributions for behaviors - recognize ways that culture and personality may affect perception - demonstrate the skill of perception checking - explain the roles of context and reflection in improving perception Contributors and Attributions - Sections: 3.0, 3.4.2, 3.4.3: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0 - Sections: 3.1.1 – 3.1.3, 3.2.1.3.2, 3.4.1: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.675403	2021-07-29T21:18:12	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "3: The Perception Process and Perception of Others", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.01%3A_The_Perception_Process	3.1: The Perception Process - - Last updated - Save as PDF Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information. This process includes the perception of select stimuli that pass through our perceptual filters, are organized into our existing structures and patterns, and are then interpreted based on previous experiences. Although perception is a largely cognitive and psychological process, how we perceive the people and objects around has an effect on our communication. We respond differently to an object or person that we perceive favorably than we do to something we find unfavorable. In this section, we discuss how we filter through the mass amounts of incoming stimuli we receive, organize it, and make meaning from it. Selecting Information We take in information through our senses, but our perceptual field (the world around us) includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to process and make sense of it all. So, as information comes in through our senses, various factors influence what actually continues on through the perception process (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory information. We tend to pay attention to information that is salient. Salience is the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context. The thing attracting our attention can be abstract, like a concept, or concrete, like an object. The degree of salience depends on three factors: visual and aural stimulation, needs and interests, and expectations (Fiske & Tayor, 1991). - Visual and Aural Stimulation: It is probably not surprising to learn that visually and/or aurally stimulating things become salient in our perceptual field and get our attention. Stimuli can be attention-getting in a productive or distracting way. Creatures ranging from fish to hummingbirds are attracted to things like silver spinners on fishing poles or red and yellow bird feeders. Having our senses stimulated isn’t always a positive thing though. Think about the couple that won’t stop talking during the movie or the upstairs neighbor whose subwoofer shakes your ceiling at night. - Needs and Interests: We select and attend to information that meets our needs- whether a sign helps us find the nearest gas station, the sound of a ringtone helps us find our missing cell phone, or a speaker tells us how avoiding processed foods will improve our health. We also find salient information that interests us. Of course, many times, stimuli that meet our needs are also interesting, but it’s worth discussing these two items separately because sometimes we find things interesting that don’t necessarily meet our needs. I’m sure we’ve all gotten sucked into a television show or random project and paid attention to that at the expense of something that actually meets our needs like cleaning. In many cases we know what interests us and we automatically gravitate toward stimuli that match up with that. For example, as you filter through radio stations, you likely already have an idea of what kind of music interests you and will stop on a station playing something in that genre while skipping right past stations playing something you aren’t interested in. - Expectations: The relationship between salience and expectations is a little more complex. Basically, we can find both expected and unexpected things salient. While this may sound confusing, a couple examples should illustrate this point. If you are expecting a package to be delivered, you might pick up on the slightest noise of a truck engine or someone’s footsteps approaching your front door. Since we expect something to happen, we may be extra tuned in to clues that it is coming. In terms of the unexpected, if you have a shy and soft-spoken friend who you overhear raising the volume and pitch of his voice while talking to another friend, you may pick up on that and assume that something out of the ordinary is going on. For something unexpected to become salient, it has to reach a certain threshold of difference. If you walked into your regular class and there were one or two more students there than usual, you may not even notice. If you walked into your class and there was someone dressed up as a wizard, you would probably notice. Now that we know how we select stimuli, let’s turn our attention to how we organize the information we receive. Organizing Information Organizing is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns. Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference (Coren, 1980). - Proximity: In terms of proximity, we tend to think that things that are close together go together. For example, have you ever been waiting to be helped in a business and the clerk assumes that you and the person standing beside you are together? Even though you may have never met that other person in your life, the clerk used a basic perceptual organizing cue to group you together because you were standing in proximity to one another. - Similarity: We also group things together based on similarity. We tend to think similar-looking or similar-acting things belong together. For example, if you were out with a friend who was around the same height, had the same skin color, and same hair color, people might assume you are related. - Difference: We also organize information that we take in based on difference. In this case, we assume that the item that looks or acts different from the rest doesn’t belong with the group. For example, let’s say a group of five people were standing in line at the movies and four of the people were wearing casual jeans and t-shirts, and the fifth person a business suit. You might assume the person dressed in the suit was not in the same group as those dressed in jeans and t-shirts. We simplify information and look for patterns to help us more efficiently communicate and get through life. Simplification and categorizing based on patterns isn’t necessarily a bad thing. In fact, without this capability we would likely not have the ability to speak, read, or engage in other complex cognitive/behavioral functions. Our brain innately categorizes and files information and experiences away for later retrieval, and different parts of the brain are responsible for different sensory experiences. In short, it is natural for things to group together and looking for patterns helps us in many practical ways. However, it is important to note that the judgments we place on various patterns and categories are not natural; they are learned and culturally and contextually relative. For example, a famous study conducted by Liang-Hwang Chiu (1972), presented Chinese and U.S. American children with three objects- a chicken, cow, and grass- and asked them to group the two objects that went together. Most of the U.S. American children chose the chicken and cow, citing they were both animals. However, most of the Chinese children choose cow and grass, stating that cows eat grass. The reasons for this have been explained by differences in cultural backgrounds which cultivate different cognitive styles. White explains that “East Asians are typically oriented toward interdependence, harmony, and relatedness. Westerners are typically oriented toward independence. Interdependent persons think about objects in relation to context, whereas independent persons tend to focus on categories that share properties such as ‘animal-ness.’” (2011, para 5). Interpreting Information Although selecting and organizing incoming stimuli happens very quickly, and sometimes without much conscious thought, interpretation can be a much more deliberate and conscious step in the perception process. Interpretation is the third part of the perception process, in which we assign meaning to our experiences using mental structures known as schemata. Schemata are like databases of stored, related information that we use to interpret new experiences. We all have fairly complicated schemata that have developed over time as small units of information combine to make more meaningful complexes of information. We have an overall schema about education and how to interpret experiences with teachers and classmates. This schema started developing before we even went to preschool based on things that parents, peers, and the media told us about school. For example, you learned that certain symbols and objects and concepts like a calculator, notebook, recess, and grades are associated with being a student or school. As you progressed through your education, your schema adapted to the changing environment. How smooth or troubling schema reevaluation and revision is varies from situation to situation and person to person. For example, some students adapt their schema relatively easily as they move from elementary, to middle, to high school, and on to college and are faced with new expectations for behavior and academic engagement. Other students don’t adapt as easily, and holding onto their old schema creates problems as they try to interpret new information through old, incompatible schema. Schemata guide our interactions, providing a script for our behaviors. We know, in general, how to act and communicate in a waiting room, in a classroom, or on a first date. It’s important to be aware of schemata because our interpretations also affect our behavior towards others. For example, if you are doing a group project for class and you perceive a group member to be shy based on your schema of how shy people communicate, you may avoid giving him presentation responsibilities in your group project because you do not think shy people make good public speakers. Schemata are also used to interpret others’ behavior and form impressions about who they are as a person. To help this process along, we often solicit information from people to help us place them into a preexisting schema. In the United States and many other Western cultures, people’s identities are often closely tied to what they do for a living. When we introduce others, or ourselves, occupation is usually one of the first things we mention. Think about how your communication with someone might differ if he or she were introduced to you as an artist versus a doctor. We make similar interpretations based on where people are from, their age, their race, and other social and cultural factors. Schema is plural for schemataIn summary, we have schemata about individuals, groups, places, and things, and these schemata filter our perceptions before, during, and after interactions. As schemata are retrieved from memory, they are executed, like computer programs or apps on your smartphone, to help us interpret the world around us. Just like computer programs and apps must be regularly updated to improve their functioning, competent communicators update and adapt their schemata as they have new experience; being able to adapt our schemata is a sign of cognitive complexity, which is an important part of communication competence.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.820030	2021-07-29T21:18:13	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.01%3A_The_Perception_Process", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "3.1: The Perception Process", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.02%3A_Perceiving_Others	3.2: Perceiving Others - - Last updated - Save as PDF Now that we have an understanding of how we select, organize, and interpret the various stimuli we encounter every day, let’s apply these principles to how we perceive other people and their behaviors. In this section, we will address how we form impressions of other people and make attributions for their behavior(s). Impression Formation We form impressions of others based on physical appearance and our interactions with them. Have you ever heard the phrase ‘Don’t judge a book by its cover?’ When applied to people, it is meant to caution us against judging others based on physical appearance. However, forming impressions of people based on physical appearance is a natural thing that we do. Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Berger, 1975) states that our social worlds are ambiguous, and this ambiguity can make us feel anxious. To lessen this anxiety, we monitor our environments and make interpretations. So, based on things like skin color, gender, attractiveness, grooming, clothes, weight, etc. we make judgements and have stereotypes of other people that are positive, neutral, and negative. However, although this is a natural process, it is important to be aware of how our impressions will influence our communication with people. The Communication Competence section of this chapter discusses the importance of reflecting on our judgments and stereotypes and how they may shape interactions in problematic ways. In addition to making impressions based on physical appearance, we make impressions based off of behaviors we observe and our interactions with others. These impressions can be about their personality, likeability, attractiveness, and other characteristics. For example, if we meet someone for the first time and they are smiling and making eye contact with us, our impression may be that they are friendly. Although much of our impressions are personal, what forms them is sometimes based more on circumstances than personal characteristics. All the information we take in isn’t treated equally- the timing of information and the content of the messages we receive can influence our perception. For many people, first impressions matter and if we interpret the first information we receive from or about a person as positive, then a positive first impression will form and influence how we respond to that person as the interaction continues. Likewise, negative interpretations of information can lead us to form negative first impressions. For example, if you sit down at a restaurant and servers walk by for several minutes and no one greets you, then you will likely interpret that negatively and not have a good impression of your server when they finally show up. This may lead you to be short with the server, which may lead them to not be as attentive as they normally would. At this point, a series of negative interactions has set into motion a cycle that will be very difficult to reverse and make positive. Attributions In most interactions, we are constantly running an attribution script in our minds, which essentially tries to come up with explanations for what is happening. Why did my neighbor slam the door when they saw me walking down the hall? Why is my partner being extra nice to me today? Why did my officemate miss our project team meeting this morning? In general, we seek to attribute the cause of others’ behaviors to internal or external factors. Internal attributions connect the cause of behaviors to personal aspects such as personality traits. External attributions connect the cause of behaviors to situational factors. Attributions are important to consider because our reactions to others’ behaviors are strongly influenced by the explanations we reach. For example, imagine that Avery and Kennedy are dating. One day, Kennedy gets frustrated and raises their voice to Avery. Avery may find that behavior more offensive and even consider breaking up with Kennedy if they attribute the cause of the blow up to Kennedy’s personality. Conversely, Avery may be more forgiving if they attribute the cause of Kennedy’s behavior to situational factors beyond Kennedy’s control. If Avery makes an internal attribution, they may think, “Wow, this person is really a loose cannon. Who knows when they’ll will lose it again?” If Avery makes an external attribution, they may think, “Kennedy has been under a lot of pressure to meet deadlines at work and hasn’t been getting much sleep. Once this project is over, I’m sure they’ll be more relaxed.” This process of attribution is ongoing, and, as with many aspects of perception, we are sometimes aware of the attributions we make, and sometimes they are automatic and/or unconscious. Attribution has received much scholarly attention because it is in this part of the perception process that some of the most common perceptual errors or biases occur. One of the most common perceptual errors is the fundamental attribution error, which refers to our tendency to explain others’ behaviors using internal rather than external attributions (Sillars, 1980). For example, if you get a get a speeding ticket, you may attribute the cause of the ticket to the malevolence of the police officer, essentially saying you got a ticket because the officer was a mean/bad person, which is an internal attribution. You may be much less likely to acknowledge that the officer was just doing their job (an external attribution) and the ticket was a result of your decision to speed. Just as we tend to attribute others’ behaviors to internal rather than external causes, we do the same for ourselves, especially when our behaviors have led to something successful or positive. When our behaviors lead to failure or something negative, we tend to attribute the cause to external factors. For example, if a student gets a poor grade on a test, they may attribute their poor grade to their busy schedule or other external, situational factors rather than their lack of motivation, interest, or preparation (internal attributions). On the other hand, when a student gets a good grade on a paper, they will likely attribute that cause to their intelligence or hard work rather than an easy assignment or an “easy grading” professor. These psychological processes have implications for our communication because when we attribute causality to another person’s personality, we tend to have a stronger emotional reaction and tend to assume that this personality characteristic is stable, which may lead us to avoid communication with the person or to react negatively. Now that you are aware of these common errors, you can monitor them more actively and verify your attributions by checking your perceptions. Perception checking and other skills will be covered in the communication competence section.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.881001	2021-07-29T21:18:14	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.02%3A_Perceiving_Others", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "3.2: Perceiving Others", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.03%3A_Perception-_(Co)Culture_and_Personality	3.3: Perception- (Co)Culture and Personality - - Last updated - Save as PDF Our co-cultural identities and our personalities affect our perceptions. Sometimes we are conscious of these effects and sometimes we are not. In either case, we have a tendency to favor others who exhibit cultural or personality traits that match up with our own. Since knowing more about these forces can help us become more aware, in this section, we will explore how culture/co-culture and personality influence our perceptions. Culture and Co-culture As we mentioned in chapter 2, culture and co-culture(s) influence our behaviors, values, beliefs, patterns of thinking, and perception of our environment. Therefore, cultural and co-cultural membership based on nationality, race, gender, sexual orientation, class, ability, and age all affect the perceptions that we make. The schemata through which we interpret what we perceive are influenced these memberships and identities. As we are socialized, we internalize beliefs, attitudes, and values shared by others within the dominant culture and our co-cultural groups. Schemata held by members of a group may have similarities or vary greatly. Perception starts with information that comes in through our senses. How we perceive even basic sensory information is influenced by the dominant culture in which reside. For example, many U.S. Americans, regardless of co-cultural membership, spend considerable effort to mask natural body odor, which they typically find unpleasant, with soaps, sprays, and lotions. However, some other cultures would not find unpleasant or even notice what other cultures might consider “b.o.” Those same cultures may find a U.S. American’s “clean” (soapy, perfumed, deodorized) smell unpleasant. Aside from differences in reactions to basic information we take in through our senses, there is also variations in how we perceive more complicated constructs, like marriage, politics, and privacy. For example, some groups frown on unmarried couples living together, while others do not. As we’ve already learned, our brain processes information by putting it into categories and looking for predictability and patterns. The previous examples have covered how we do this with sensory information like smell and with more abstract concepts like marriage, but we also do this with people. When we categorize people, we generally view them as “like us” or “not like us.” This simple us/them split affects subsequent interaction, including impressions and attributions. For example, we tend to view people we perceive to be like us as more trustworthy, friendly, and honest than people we perceive to be not like us (Brewer, 1999). We are also more likely to use internal attribution to explain negative behavior of people we perceive to be different from us. If a person of a different race cuts another driver off in traffic, the driver is even more likely to attribute that action to the other driver’s internal qualities (thinking, for example, “He or she is inconsiderate and reckless!”) than they would someone of their own race. Having such inflexible categories can have negative consequences, and later we will discuss how forcing people into rigid categories leads to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Of course, race isn’t the only marker of difference that influences our perceptions, and the problem with our rough categorization of people into “like us” and “not like us” categories is that these differences aren’t really as easy to perceive as we think. We cannot always tell whether or not someone is culturally like us through visual cues. For some co-cultural identities, like sexual orientation and ability, our awareness of any differences may only come when the other person discloses their identity to us. You no doubt frequently hear people talking and writing about the “vast differences” between men and women. Whether it’s communication, athletic ability, or expressing emotions, people will line up to say that women are one way and men are the other way. While it is true that gender affects our perception, the reason for this difference stems more from social norms than genetic, physical, or psychological differences between men and women. We are socialized to perceive differences between men and women, which leads us to exaggerate and amplify what the differences actually are (McCornack, 2007). We basically see the stereotypes and differences we are told to see, which helps to create a reality in which gender differences are “obvious.” In addition, by placing groups into binaries (such as man/woman or heterosexual/homosexual), nonbinary experiences and perceptions are often silenced and ignored. In summary, various (co)cultural identities shape how we perceive others because beliefs, attitudes, and values of the groups to which we belong are incorporated into our schema. Our personalities also present interesting perceptual advantages and challenges that we will now discuss. Personality Our personalities greatly influence how we see ourselves in the world and how we perceive and interact with others. Personality refers to a person’s general way of thinking, feeling, and behaving based on underlying motivations and impulses (McCornack, 2007). These underlying motivations and impulses form our personality traits. Personality traits are “underlying,” but they are fairly enduring once a person reaches adulthood. That is not to say that people’s personalities do not change, but major changes in personality are not common unless they result from some form of trauma. Although personality scholars believe there are thousands of personalities, they all comprise some combination of the same few traits and appear to be representative of personalities across cultures. Much research has been done on personality traits, and the “Big Five” that are most commonly discussed are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness (McCrea, 2001). The Big Five Personality Traits - Extroversion/Introversion: Refers to a person’s interest in interacting with others and how they “recharge” their energy. Extroverts “recharge” through interactions with others, while introverts “recharge” by being alone. This may cause extroverts to be more social and introverts to be less social, however this is not always the case. While many tend to conflate introversion with being shy, introverts can also be social and/or outgoing. - Agreeableness: Refers to a person’s level of trustworthiness and friendliness. People with high agreeableness are cooperative and likable. People with low agreeableness are suspicious of others and sometimes aggressive, which makes it more difficult for people to find them pleasant to be around. - Conscientiousness: Refers to a person’s level of self-organization and motivation. People with high conscientiousness are methodical, motivated, and dependable. People with low conscientiousness are less focused, less careful, and less dependable. - Neuroticism: Refers to a person’s level of negative thoughts regarding himself or herself. People high in neuroticism are insecure and experience emotional distress and may be perceived as unstable. People low in neuroticism are more relaxed, have less emotional swings, and are perceived as more stable. - Openness: Refers to a person’s willingness to consider new ideas and perspectives. People high in openness are creative and are perceived as open minded. People low in openness are more rigid and set in their thinking and are perceived as “set in their ways.” Scholarship related to personality serves many purposes, and some of them tie directly to perception. We tend to focus on personality traits in others that we feel are important to our own personality. What we like in ourselves, we like in others, and what we dislike in ourselves, we dislike in others (McCornack, 2007). If you admire a person’s loyalty, then loyalty is probably a trait that you think you possess as well. If you work hard to be positive and motivated and suppress negative and unproductive urges within yourself, you will likely think harshly about what you’ve perceived as negative traits in someone else. After all, if you can suppress your negativity, why can’t they do the same? This way of thinking isn’t always accurate or logical, but it is common, and it impacts the way we communicate with one another. Personality Test If you are interested in how you rank in terms of personality traits, there are many online tests you can take. A Big Five test can be taken at the following website: http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive .)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:32.945287	2021-07-29T21:18:15	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.03%3A_Perception-_(Co)Culture_and_Personality", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "3.3: Perception- (Co)Culture and Personality", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.04%3A_Communication_Competence	3.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover the skill of perception checking, address contextual nuances that influence perception(s), and discuss the need for self-reflecting on our own perceptions. Effective Communication: Perception Checking The skill of perception checking is useful for managing our impressions. Perception checking is a strategy to help us monitor our reactions to and perceptions about people and communication. Perception Checking helps us slow down perception and communication processes and allows us to have more control over both. There are some internal and external strategies we can use to engage in perception checking. In terms of internal strategies, review the various influences on perception that we have learned about in this chapter and always be willing to ask yourself, “What is influencing the perceptions I am making right now?” Even being aware of what influences are acting on our perceptions makes us more aware of what is happening in the perception process. In terms of external strategies, we can use other people to help verify our perceptions. The cautionary adage “Things aren’t always as they appear” is useful when evaluating your own perceptions of another’s behavior. You can also share your interpretation(s) of that behavior with the other person in order to check the accuracy of your perceptions. Perception checking involves being able to describe what is happening in a given situation, provide multiple interpretations of events or behaviors, and ask yourself and others questions for clarification. Some of this process happens inside our heads, and some happens through interaction. Let’s take an interpersonal conflict as an example. Miguel and Edgardo are roommates. Miguel is in the living room playing a video game when they see Edgardo walk through the room with a suitcase and walk out the front door. Since Edgardo didn’t say or wave good-bye, Miguel has to make sense of this encounter, and perception checking can help with that. First, Miguel needs to try to describe (not evaluate yet) what just happened. This can be done by asking yourself, “What is going on?” In this case, Edgardo left without speaking or waving good-bye. Next, Miguel needs to think of some possible interpretations of what just happened. One interpretation could be that Edgardo is mad about something (at Miguel or someone else). Others could be that Edgardo was in a hurry and simply forgot or that they didn’t want to interrupt the video game. In this step of perception checking, it is good to be aware of the attributions you are making. You might try to determine if you are over attributing internal or external causes. Lastly, you will want to verify and clarify. So Miguel may want to call, text, or speak to Edgardo. During this step, it’s important to be aware of that the other person likely experienced the event differently than you. Even though Miguel has already been thinking about this incident, and is experiencing some conflict, Patrick may have no idea that their actions caused Miguel to worry. If Miguel texts and asks why Edgardo’s mad (which wouldn’t be a good idea because it’s expressed as an assumption) Edgardo may become defensive, which could escalate the conflict. Miguel could just describe the behavior (without judging Edgardo) and ask for clarification by saying, “When you left today you didn’t say bye or let me know where you were going. I just wanted to check to see if things are OK.” The steps of perception checking as described in the previous scenario are as follows: - Step 1: Describe the behavior or situation without evaluating or judging it (either internally or aloud). - Step 2: Think of some possible interpretations of the behavior, being aware of attributions and other influences on the perception process. - Step 3: Verify what happened and ask for clarification from the other person’s perspective. Also, be aware that the other person likely experienced the event differently than you. Contextual Communication: Contextual Nuances that Influence Perception Since all communication is contextual, we must be mindful of the role that context plays in our interpretations. As contextual factors change, so might our interpretations of a specific behavior. For example, the physical context (where the communicative interaction is physically taking place) could change the meaning we attribute to a behavior, such as fidgeting. If our partner was fidgeting while watching T.V. one night, we might interpret their behavior to mean they were nervous because they had something serious they want to discuss with us. However, if they were fidgeting at a party, we might think instead they were trying to avoid someone or feeling anxious about being around too many people. The relational context (the relationship we have with another), will also influence our perceptions. If our supervisor speaks to us in short, clipped sentences then we may think they are having a bad day or in a hurry. But if our best friend were to do the same, we might instead think are mad at us. Cultural and individual frames, such as our personalities and previous experiences, also play a key role in our interpretations and perceptions. When communicating with others and decoding/interpreting their messages and behaviors, we need to be cognizant of not just the physical and relational contexts, but also of cultural and individual nuances. Reflective Communication: Reflecting on Perceptions, Stereotypes, and Biases The final way to increase communication competence is to be self-reflective of our own perceptions. Specifically, it is important to reflect on how we perceive others and how these perceptions may be influenced by stereotypes and biases. Stereotypes are sets of beliefs that people have about a group of people, based on factors like race, ethnicity, gender, religion, age, ableness, physical appearance, speech, beliefs, etc. They serve to essentialize people based on group membership, rather than looking at individual and multiple facets of their identities. Stereotypes can make us biased and prejudiced towards a certain group, especially if we perceive them as being “not like us” or inferior in some way. When it comes to stereotypes, it is important to note that they can be negative, positive or neutral. For example, Mexicans have historically been stereotyped negatively as “lazy” whereas some Asians have been stereotyped positively as “smart” or “good at math.” While negative stereotypes devalue and often render people who fall into a particular group inferior or deficient, even positive stereotypes can be harmful in that they objectify people and place unfair expectations on them. Moreover, stereotypes surrounding our co-cultural group memberships and identities, such as those related to gender, can lead to double standards. Think about all the double standards between women and men. The interpretations of a behavior, such as being sexually active, and the words used to describe it are typically negative for women, whereas the words used to describe sexually active men are positive. For example, a female who has had multiple sexual partners may be called a ‘slut,’ ‘thot’ or a ‘ho’ whereas a male may be called a ‘pimp,’ ‘player’ or ‘stud.’ Double Standards When it comes to terms used to describe sexually active women and men, there is a double standard. Terms used to describe women are usually negative, while those used to describe men are positive to neutral. Here are some definitions of common slang terms, according to dictionary.com (2019): - “ THOT (that-hoe-over-there): Slang: Disparaging and Offensive. a woman considered to be sexually provocative or promiscuous; a slut or whore.” - “Slut: Disparaging and Offensive. a sexually promiscuous woman, or a woman who behaves or dresses in an overtly sexual way.” - “Stud: a virile or sexually active man.” Stereotypes can influence our interactions in both blatant and subtle ways, and often times we may not even realize our communication is influenced by stereotypes. We may even engage in a variety of unconscious macroaggressions in our everyday interactions without ever realizing it until they are pointed out to us. Microaggressions are verbal and nonverbal behaviors, intentional and unintentional, that communicate some sort of stereotype, bias, prejudice, and/or others another person based off of race, ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, ableness, and/or immigration status. For example, a woman walking down the street might unconsciously clutch her purse closer when she sees a large black man because of the prevalent stereotype of black males as ‘thugs.’ An Asian person may be complemented on their English or asked “Where are you really from?” (even if they were born in the U.S) reinforcing the stereotype that they are not ‘real’ Americans. While we may not be aware that we are enacting microaggressions or think they are harmless behaviors and questions, they can take a serious psychological toll on the people who receive them. Consider how Graciella might feel after being admitted to Harvard, only to have a classmate exclaim “That’s great! Affirmative action really helped you- you’re so lucky that you get to benefit from it!”, rather than attributing Graciella’s acceptance to intelligence and hard work. While most people like to think they are fair-minded and judge everyone equally, we all hold stereotypes and biases. Even though it can make us feel uncomfortable, guilty, or even ashamed to reflect on our own biases and stereotypes, it important to examine how they creep into our communication and affect our interactions with others.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.012909	2021-07-29T21:18:16	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/03%3A_The_Perception_Process_and_Perception_of_Others/3.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "3.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self	How does self-perception and identity shape communication, and vice-versa? Why is an understanding of identity and self-perception important for interpersonal communication competence? Successful students will be able to: explain three types of identities recognize six principles of identity describe how self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy shape our self-perception describe how family and media influence self-perception explain how self-perception, identity and communication are interrelated recognize how awareness of self-presentation, cultural context and self-fulfilling prophecy can help us build communication competence Ask yourself the following questions: “Who am I?” and “What defines me?” We may think these are easy questions to answer and that we have a good grasp on our identity and what comprises it. However, our identities are not inherent and fixed. Who we are and what defines us changes throughout our lives. In addition, the way we communicate with others and vice-versa creates, shapes, and reshapes our identity in significant ways. While some people may assert “This is just who I am” or “I was born this way,” our identities are actually formed through a variety of processes and interactions, and, as such, are dynamic and never fully complete. In this chapter, we will learn about various types of identities, address the principles of identity, examine factors that shape our self-perception, explore the relationship between identity and communication, and discuss how to improve communication competence. Sections 4.1.0–4.1.2, 4.3.0-4.4.2, & 4.6.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0 Sections 4.2.1-4.2.5: adapted from The Open University; OpenLearn; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Sections 4.0, 4.2.6, 4.5.0-4.5.1, 4.6.1, & 4.6.2: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.102526	2021-07-29T21:18:16	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4: Identity and Perception of Self", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.01%3A_Types_of_Identities	4.1: Types of Identities - - Last updated - Save as PDF Three related but distinct components of our self-perception are our personal and social identities (Spreckels, J. & Kotthoff, H., 2009), and our co-cultural identities. In this section, we will discuss personal, social, and co-cultural identities. Personal and Social Identities Personal identities include the components of self that are primarily intrapersonal and connected to our life experiences. For example, you may consider yourself a puzzle lover or identify as a fan of hip-hop music. Our social identities are the components of self that are derived from involvement in social groups with which we are interpersonally committed. Social identities differ from personal identities because they are externally organized through membership. For example, we may derive aspects of our social identity from our family or from a community of sports team fans. Our membership may be voluntary (such as being a member of a sports team) or involuntary (family). There are innumerous options for personal and social identities. While our personal identity choices express who we are, our social identities align us with particular groups. Through our social identities, we make statements about who we are and who we are not. Personal identities may change often as people have new experiences and develop new interests and hobbies. Social identities do not change as often because they take more time to develop, as you must become interpersonally invested. For example, if an interest in online video games leads someone to become a member of a MMORPG, or a massively multiplayer online role-playing game community, that personal identity has led to a social identity that is now interpersonal and more entrenched. Co-Cultural Identities As a reminder, culture is defined as a set of learned behaviors, values, beliefs, and patterns of thinking that we learn as we grow and develop. However, as we know from our own experiences and observations, there are many different sets of behaviors, values, beliefs, and patterns of thinking around us. Within any geographic location, both the dominant culture and various co-cultures exist. Devito (2014) defines the dominant culture as “the learned system of values, beliefs, attitudes, and ways of thinking held by the people who are in power in a society” (p. 73). However, co-cultures also “exist side by side with the dominant culture and are comprised of smaller numbers of less powerful people who hold common values, attitudes, beliefs, and orientations that differ from those of the dominant culture” (p 73). The co-cultures we belong to are based on factors like race, gender, and social class, and they form part of our identity. Our co-cultural identities are based on socially constructed categories that teach us a way of being, and include expectations for social behavior, ways of acting, and norms (Yep, G. A., 2002). The ways of being and the social expectations for behavior within co-cultural identities can and do change over time. For example, think of how ways of being and acting have changed for African Americans since the civil rights movement or norms of behavior for women today versus 50-years ago. These common ways of being and acting, and norms within a co-cultural identity group are expressed through communication. In order to be accepted as a member of a co-cultural group, members must be acculturated, essentially learning and using a code that other group members will be able to recognize. A code is a socially-constructed, historically transmitted system of rules, beliefs, and premises pertaining to communicative behavior. Basically, communication codes tell us how to behave and interact with others, and tell us what is considered ‘normal’ and acceptable behavior. We are acculturated into our various co-cultural identities and learn communication codes in obvious and less obvious ways. We may have a parent or friend tell us what it means to be a man or a woman. We may also unconsciously consume messages from popular culture that offer representations of gender. Because co-cultural identities are learned via communication, they are also socially constructed. Social constructionism is a view that argues the self is formed through our interactions with others and in relationship to social, cultural, and political contexts (Allen, 2011). The sub-sections below discuss how co-cultural identities such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and ability have been constructed in the United States, and how communication relates to those identities. Other important identities could be discussed, such as religion, generation, nationality, class, etc. Although they are not given their own subsection, consider how those identities may intersect with the identities discussed next. Race Would it surprise you to know that human beings, regardless of how they are racially classified, share 99.9 percent of their DNA? This finding by the Human Genome Project asserts that race is a social construct, not a biological one. The American Anthropological Association agrees, stating that race is the product of “historical and contemporary social, economic, educational, and political circumstances” (Allen, 2011). Therefore, we’ll define race as a socially constructed category based on differences in appearance that has been used to create hierarchies that privilege some and disadvantage others. Racial distinctions have been based largely on phenotypes, or physiological features such as skin color, hair texture, and body/facial features. Unfortunately, Western “scientists” used these differences as “proof” that native populations were less evolved than the Europeans, which helped justify colonial expansion, enslavement, genocide, and exploitation on massive scales (Allen, 2011). Even though there is a consensus among experts that race is social rather than biological, we can’t deny that race still has meaning in our society and affects people. Colorblindness? Think back to the previous chapter on perception and to our discussion of microaggressions. Race is one of the first things we notice about someone. Whether we are conscious of it or not, certain stereotypes and perceptions that are associated with skin color may manifest themselves, often unconsciously, in our communication. Perhaps you have heard or even made the assertion that “I don’t see race” and/or “I am colorblind”? Unless you truly can’t see color because of a physiological deficiency, this statement is incorrect. Usually, it is made because we feel uncomfortable talking about race or acknowledging its impact, as many of us have been told that in the U.S. we value equality and should judge others based on merit, not race. However, it is important to be critical and self-reflective of the ways in which skin color influences our communication with others. Gender When we first meet a newborn baby, we ask whether it’s a boy or a girl. This question illustrates the importance of gender in organizing our social lives and our interpersonal relationships. Many parents consciously or unconsciously “code” their newborns in gendered ways based on our society’s associations of pink clothing and accessories with girls and blue with boys. While it’s obvious to most people that colors aren’t gendered, they take on new meaning when we assign gendered characteristics of masculinity and femininity to them. Just like race, gender is a socially constructed category. You may have noticed that use of the word gender instead of sex. Sex is based on biological characteristics, including external genitalia, internal sex organs, chromosomes, and hormones (Wood, 2005). While the biological characteristics between men and women are obviously different, it’s the meaning we create and attach to those characteristics that makes them significant. The cultural differences in how that significance is ascribed are proof that “our way of doing things” is arbitrary. For example, cross-cultural research has found that boys and girls in most cultures show both aggressive and nurturing tendencies, but cultures vary in terms of how they encourage these characteristics between genders. In a group in Africa, young boys are responsible for taking care of babies and are encouraged to be nurturing (Wood, 2005). This example shows that although we think gender is a natural, normal, stable way of classifying things, it is actually not. Gender is an identity based on internalized cultural notions of masculinity and femininity that is constructed through communication and interaction. There are two important parts of this definition to unpack. First, we internalize notions of gender based on socializing institutions, which helps us form what we think it means to be male or female. For example, when you think of a man, what characteristics come to mind to describe him? What do men like to do? How does a man behave? Think of a female. What characteristics describe the normal female, what they like to do, and how do they behave? Socialization and internalization of societal norms for gender differences accounts for much more of our perceived differences than do innate or natural differences between genders. Gender norms may be explicitly stated—for example, a mother may say to her son, “Boys don’t play with dolls”—or they may be more implicit, with girls being encouraged to pursue historically feminine professions like teaching or nursing without others actually stating the expectation. Second, we attempt to construct that gendered identity through our interactions with others, which is our gender performance. If we identity as female and want others to perceive us as female, we will attempt to behave and communicate as we think a female is supposed to. For example, if you identity as female you may communicate this identity nonverbally by wearing dresses and make-up. Sexuality Although many people hold a view that a person’s sexuality should be kept private, this isn’t a reality for our society. One only needs to observe popular culture and media for a short time to see that sexuality permeates much of our public discourse. Sexuality relates to culture and identity in important ways that extend beyond sexual orientation, just as race is more than the color of one’s skin and gender is more than one’s biological and physiological manifestations of masculinity and femininity. Sexuality isn’t just physical; it is social in that we communicate with others about sexuality (Allen, 2011). Sexuality is also biological in that it connects to physiological functions that carry significant social and political meaning like puberty, menstruation, and pregnancy. Sexuality is at the center of political issues like abortion, sex education, and gay and lesbian rights. The most obvious way sexuality relates to identity is through sexual orientation. Sexual orientation refers to a person’s primary physical and emotional sexual attraction and activity. The terms we most often use to categorize sexual orientation are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual. Gays, lesbians, and bisexuals are sometimes referred to as sexual minorities. While the term sexual preference has been used previously, sexual orientation is more appropriate, since preference implies a simple choice. Although someone’s preference for a restaurant or actor may change frequently, sexuality is not as simple. Hidden Identities Certain identities, such as sexuality or mental health conditions, are not easily discernible to the eye. These can make these types of identities ‘hidden’ to the general population, unless the choice is made to disclose them. While these communities are often grouped together within one acronym, LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, and asexual- the + symbol stands for other sexualities, sexes, and genders that are not included in these letters), they are different. Gays and lesbians constitute the most visible of the groups and receive the most attention and funding. Transgender issues have received much more attention in recent years, but transgender identity connects to gender more than it does to sexuality, and a person who identifies as transgender may also be straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, etc. Last, queer is a reclaimed term often used to describe a group that is diverse in terms of identities, but usually takes a more activist and at times radical stance that critiques sexual categories. However, it should be noted that even though the term is considered ‘reclaimed’ by many, it was once used as a derogatory slur meant to oppress anyone who did not present as a typical ‘male’ or ‘female,’ and, as such, some may still think of it as being negative. As with other cultural identities, notions of sexuality have been socially constructed in different ways throughout human history. Ability There is resistance to classifying ability as a cultural identity, because we follow a medical model of disability that places disability as an individual and medical rather than social and cultural issue. While much of what distinguishes able-bodied and cognitively able from disabled is rooted in science, biology, and physiology, there are important sociocultural dimensions. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) defines an individual with a disability as “a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a person who has a history or record of such an impairment, or a person who is perceived by others as having such an impairment” (Allen, 2011). This definition is important because it notes the social aspect of disability, in that people’s life activities are limited, and the relational aspect of disability, in that the perception of a disability by others can lead someone to be classified as such. Ascribing an identity of disabled to a person can be problematic as this label carries social and cultural significance. People are tracked into various educational programs based on their physical and cognitive abilities, and there are many cases of people being mistakenly labeled disabled who were treated differently despite their protest of the ascribed label. Students who did not speak English as a first language are more likely to be placed in special education classes or put into a lower track. Ability, just as the other cultural identities discussed, has institutionalized privileges and disadvantages associated with it. Ableism is the system of beliefs and practices that produces a physical and mental standard that is projected as normal for a human being and labels deviations from it as abnormal, resulting in unequal treatment and access to resources. There is also a lot of stigma that surrounds mental conditions such as depression or anxiety, and some people falsely claim that these are “made up” or “not real” conditions. However, these conditions do exist and invalidating them can and has had serious emotional consequences for those who suffer from them. Unlike other cultural identities that are typically stable over a lifetime, ability fluctuates for most people. We have all experienced times when we are more or less able. Perhaps you broke your leg and had to use crutches or a wheelchair for a while. Whether you’ve experienced a short-term disability or not, the majority of us will become less physically and cognitively able as we get older.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.172262	2021-07-29T21:18:18	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.01%3A_Types_of_Identities", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.1: Types of Identities", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.02%3A_Principles_of_Identity	4.2: Principles of Identity selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will address the six principles of identity: how identities are plural, dynamic, have different and changing meanings, are contextual and intersectional, negotiated, and can be privileged, marginalized, silenced, or ignored Every person has a range of identities, according to how they see themselves (and how others see them) in terms of gender, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and so on. This means that seeing an individual in terms of one aspect of their identity – as a black person, for example, rather than as (say) a black working-class woman who is also a social worker, a mother and a school governor – is inevitably reductive and misleading. The identities people assume, and the relative importance they attach to them, change over time because of both personal change in their lives and change in the external world (for example, as a result of changing ideas about being differently abled). Consequently, identity should not be seen as something ‘fixed’ within people. Aspects of identity may have different meanings at different times in people’s lives, and the meanings that they attribute to aspects of their identity (for example, ethnicity) may be different from the meaning it has for others. For example, being black may be a source of pride for you, but the basis of someone else’s negative stereotyping. Different identities assume greater or less importance, and play different roles in different contexts and settings, and in interactions with different people. Different aspects of people’s identity may come to the fore in the workplace and in the home. For example, people might emphasize different aspects of themselves to different people (and different people may see different identities when they meet them). In constructing their identities, people can only draw on terms that are available in society at that time, which have meanings and associations attached. However, people may attribute different meanings and importance to those labels. This means people always negotiate their identities in the context of the different meanings attached to them. Taking this contextual view of identity- as a social process that people engage in, rather than as a fixed essence inside them- is not to deny that particular identities are extremely important for certain groups and individuals. Being a Sikh, or a woman, or gay, may feel like the most important and ‘deepest’ part of you. However, a contextual and social model of identity is useful because it makes it difficult to reduce people to any one aspect of their identity, or to use one particular social identity (such as gender, race, sexual orientation, etc) as a way of explaining every aspect of their behavior and needs. The various cultural and co-cultural groups we belong to may work to advantage or disadvantage us, and, as such, our identities can be privileged or marginalized. For example, the co-cultural identity of race may grant some people with lighter skin colors advantages/privileges over those with darker skin color. Those who do have darker skin color have historically been rendered lesser than/inferior, or ‘othered’ in our culture. This is highlighted by the use of the common terminology white and non-white, which situates white as the norm and others and marginalizes. In addition, because humans are often grouped into binary categories, identities that are non-binary get silenced or ignored. For example, humans are usually placed into categories such as man or woman, straight or gay/lesbian. This ignores identities that fall outside of these categories or do not fit neatly into them, such as people who identify as pan or omni sexual. Conversely, those who identify as a cisgender man or woman have always had their identities embraced, acknowledged, and rendered the norm. In addition, because our identities are plural and we are not just one thing or another, the intersectionality of our identities can work to both privilege and oppress us. For example, a white man who is of a lower economic status may experience privileges associated with skin color and maleness while simultaneously experiencing class oppression. It’s usually pretty easy to identify ways in which we feel we are oppressed or disadvantaged in some way, but a lot harder for most people to acknowledge ways in which they are privileged.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.244868	2021-07-29T21:18:18	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.02%3A_Principles_of_Identity", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.2: Principles of Identity", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.03%3A_Self-Perception	4.3: Self-Perception - - Last updated - Save as PDF Now that we have an understanding of identity, we will explore the concept of self-perception and the various factors that create our understanding of ourselves. Specifically, in this section, we will explain how self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy shape our self-perception. Self-Concept The overall idea of who a person thinks they are is called their self-concept. If I said, “Tell me who you are,” your answers would be clues as to how you see yourself. Each person has an overall self-concept that might be encapsulated in a short list of overarching characteristics that they find important. But each person’s self-concept is also influenced by context, meaning we think differently about ourselves depending on the situation we are in. In some situations, personal characteristics, such as our abilities, personality, and other distinguishing features, will best describe who we are. You might consider yourself laid back, traditional, funny, open minded, or driven, or you might label yourself a leader or a thrill seeker. In other situations, our self-concept may be tied to group or cultural membership. For example, you might consider yourself a member of the track team or a Southerner. Our self-concept is also formed through our interactions with others and their reactions to us. The concept of the looking glass self explains that we see ourselves reflected in other people’s reactions to us and then form our self-concept based on how we believe other people see us (Cooley, 1902). This reflective process of building our self-concept is based on what other people have actually said, such as “You’re a good listener,” and from how we interpret other people’s actions, (e.g., a friend coming to you for advice may suggest you have valuable suggestions to offer). These thoughts evoke emotional responses that feed into our self-concept. For example, you may think, “I’m glad that people can count on me to listen to their problems.” We also develop our self-concept through comparisons to other people. Social comparison theory states that we describe and evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to other people. Social comparisons are based on two dimensions: superiority/inferiority and similarity/difference (Hargie, 2011). In terms of superiority and inferiority, we evaluate characteristics like attractiveness, intelligence, athletic ability, and so on. For example, you may judge yourself to be more intelligent than your brother or less athletic than your best friend, and these judgments are incorporated into your self-concept. This process of comparison and evaluation isn’t necessarily a bad thing, but it can have negative consequences if our reference group isn’t appropriate. Reference groups are the groups we use for social comparison, and they typically change based on what we are evaluating. In terms of athletic ability, many people choose unreasonable reference groups with which to engage in social comparison. If a someone wants to get into better shape and starts an exercise routine, they may be discouraged by the difficulty keeping up with the aerobics instructor and judge themselves as inferior, which could negatively affect their self-concept. We also engage in social comparison based on similarity and difference. Since self-concept is context specific, similarity may be desirable in some situations and difference more desirable in others. Factors like age and personality may influence whether or not we want to fit in or stand out. Although we compare ourselves to others throughout our lives, adolescent and teen years usually bring new pressure to be similar to or different from particular reference groups. Think of all the cliques in high school and how people voluntarily and involuntarily broke off into groups based on popularity, interest, culture, or grade level. Some kids in your high school probably wanted to fit in with and be similar to other people in the marching band but be different from the football players. Conversely, athletes were probably more apt to compare themselves, in terms of similar athletic ability, to other athletes rather than kids in show choir. As with other aspects of perception, there are positive and negative consequences of social comparison. We generally want to know where we fall in terms of ability and performance as compared to others, but what people do with this information and how it affects self-concept varies. Not all people feel they need to be at the top of the list, but some won’t stop until they get the highest grade or set a new school record in a track-and-field event. Social comparison that isn’t reasoned can have negative effects and result in negative thoughts like “Look at how bad I did on that test. Man, I’m stupid!” These negative thoughts can lead to negative behaviors and may affect our self-esteem. Self-Esteem Self-esteem refers to the judgments and evaluations we make about our self-concept. While self-concept is a broad description of the self, self-esteem is a more specifically an evaluation of the self (Byrne, 1996). If I again prompted you to “Tell me who you are,” and then asked you to evaluate (label as good/bad, positive/negative, desirable/undesirable) each of the things you listed about yourself, I would get clues about your self-esteem. Like self-concept, self-esteem has general and specific elements. Generally, some people are more likely to evaluate themselves positively while others are more likely to evaluate themselves negatively (Brockner, 1988). More specifically, our self-esteem varies across our life span and across contexts. How we judge ourselves affects our communication and our behaviors, but not every negative or positive judgment carries the same weight. The negative evaluation of a trait that isn’t very important for our self-concept will likely not result in a loss of self-esteem. For example, if you were a person who doesn’t consider drawing abilities to be a big part of your self-concept, your self-esteem would not take a big hit if someone critiqued a picture you drew. However, if you considered yourself and artist and someone negatively commented on a picture you drew, your self-esteem would be impacted. Self-Efficacy Self-esteem isn’t the only factor that contributes to our self-concept; perceptions about our competence also play a role in developing our sense of self. Self-efficacy refers to the judgments people make about their ability to perform a task within a specific context (Bandura, 1997). Judgements about our self-efficacy influence our self-esteem, which influences our self-concept. The following example also illustrates these interconnections. Aki did a good job on their first college speech. During a meeting with their professor, Aki indicates that they are confident going into the next speech and thinks that they will do well. This skill-based assessment is an indication that Aki has a high level of self-efficacy related to public speaking. If Aki does well on the speech, the praise from classmates and professor will reinforce Aki’s self-efficacy and lead Aki to positively evaluate their speaking skills, which will contribute to Aki’s self-esteem. By the end of the class, Aki likely thinks that they are a good public speaker, which may then become an important part their self-concept. Throughout these points of connection, it’s important to remember that self-perception affects how we communicate, behave, and perceive other things. Aki’s increased feeling of self-efficacy may give them more confidence in delivering speeches, which will likely result in positive feedback that reinforces Aki’s self-perception. Over time, Aki may even start to think about changing their major to communication or pursuing career options that incorporate public speaking, which would further integrate being “a good public speaker” into Aki’s self-concept. You can hopefully see that these interconnections can create powerful positive or negative cycles. While some of this process is under our control, much of it is also shaped by the people in our lives. The verbal and nonverbal feedback we get from people affect our feelings of self-efficacy and our self-esteem. As we saw in Aki’s example, being given positive feedback can increase our self-efficacy, which may make us more likely to engage in a similar task in the future (Hargie, 2011). Obviously, negative feedback can lead to decreased self-efficacy and a declining interest in engaging with the activity again. In general, people adjust their expectations about their abilities based on feedback they get from others. Positive feedback tends to make people raise their expectations for themselves and negative feedback does the opposite, which ultimately affects behaviors and creates the cycle.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.308041	2021-07-29T21:18:19	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.03%3A_Self-Perception", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.3: Self-Perception", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.04%3A__Influences_on_Self-Perception	4.4: Influences on Self-Perception - - Last updated - Save as PDF Recall from our earlier discussion of self-concept that we develop a sense of who we are based on what is reflected back on us from other people. While interactions we have with individuals and groups are definitely important to consider, we must also note the other influences on our self-perception. In this section, we will examine how family and the media play a role in shaping who we think we are and how we feel about ourselves. Family Influences Various forces help socialize us into our respective social and cultural groups and play a powerful role in presenting us with options about who we can be. While we may like to think that our self-perception starts with a blank canvas, our perceptions are limited by our experiences and various cultural identities. Feedback that we get from significant others, which includes close family, can shape our self-perception and self-esteem in significant ways and lead to either positive or negative views of self (Hargie, 2011). For example, a parent who constantly criticizes their child about their weight or looks may cause the child to internalize a negative self-perception. On the other hand, a parent who praises their child will more likely have a child with a positive self-perception. However, it is important to note that too much praise can lead people to have a misguided sense of their abilities. Media Although most people recognize that media has an effect on others, people often mistakenly believe they are not personally influenced. However, the representations we see in the media do affect our self-perception. The vast majority of media images include idealized representations of attractiveness and physical abilities. Despite the fact that the images of people we see in glossy magazines and on T.V. shows are not typically what we see when we look at the people around us in a classroom, at work, or at the grocery store, many of us continue to hold ourselves to an unrealistic standard of beauty and attractiveness. Movies, magazines, and television shows are filled with beautiful people, and less attractive actors, when they are present in the media, are typically portrayed as the butt of jokes, villains, or only as background extras (Patzer, 2008). Aside from overall attractiveness, the media also offers narrow representations of acceptable body weight. Researchers have found that only 12 percent of prime-time characters are overweight, which is dramatically less than the national statistics for obesity among the actual US population (Patzer, 2008). In terms of self-concept, media representations offer us guidance on what is acceptable or unacceptable and valued or not valued in our society. Mediated messages, in general, reinforce cultural stereotypes related to race, gender, age, sexual orientation, ability, and class. People from historically marginalized groups must look much harder than those in the dominant groups to find positive representations of their identities in media. As a critical thinker, it is important to question media messages and to examine who is included and who is excluded. Advertising in particular encourages people to engage in social comparison, regularly communicating to us that we are inferior because we lack a certain product or that we need to change some aspect of our life to keep up with and be similar to others. For example, advertising targeted to women instills in them a fear of becoming old or unattractive, selling products to keep skin tight and clear, which will in turn will make them happy.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.365539	2021-07-29T21:18:20	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.04%3A__Influences_on_Self-Perception", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.4: Influences on Self-Perception", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.05%3A_Self-Perception_Identity_and_Communication	4.5: Self-Perception, Identity, and Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will discuss how our identity influences communication with ourselves and other people, and, in turn, how others communicate with us. A simple way to think of identity is that it is comprised of three main facets: who we think we are, who we want others to think we are, and who others think we are (Verderber, MacGeorge, & Verderber, 2016). The first facet, who we think we are, pertains to our self-perception, and this informs how we communicate with ourselves. For example, let’s say you think you are a smart individual. When you go to approach a difficult problem you might say to yourself “I’m smart- I can do this!” On the other hand, if you don’t think of yourself as very smart, when you go to approach a difficult problem you instead may say to yourself “Oh, this is too difficult. I’ll never get it, so it’s not worth trying.” The second facet, who we want others to think we are, influences our communication in that we use communication to try to get others to perceive us a particular way. For example, if you want others to think you are cool, you might communicate this nonverbally by dressing in particular style or buying certain brands and accessories. The final facet, who others think we are, influences the types of messages we receive from other people. For example, let’s say others don’t think you are very intelligent. This will likely cause them talk to you using small words or in a condescending matter (or not talk to you all.) In addition, identity and communication are mutually reinforcing. This means that messages we receive from others (who they think we are) influence who we think we are. For example, if others think we are intelligent and constantly tell us that we are smart, we will likely also think we are smart. This thinking about ourselves, in turn, is likely to influence how we communicate with others around us. For example, we may use big words or assert our expert opinions. One of the advantages to technology is that we can carefully craft and edit our online personas and the messages that are sent through mediated-communication channels. This means we have the power to shape how others perceive us. We may only post our best pictures on Facebook or tweet about exciting things we are doing so other perceive us positively. In addition, we can explore identities that we may not be able to explore in our face-to-face interactions. Online we can be anyone we want to be. For example, someone may craft an online persona and interact with others using a different gender identity, which can be much harder to achieve in face-to-face interactions.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.433236	2021-07-29T21:18:22	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.05%3A_Self-Perception_Identity_and_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.5: Self-Perception, Identity, and Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.06%3A_Communication_Competence	4.6: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will discuss self-presentation, ways in which identities are contextual, and the importance of reflecting on your self-concept. Effective Communication: Self-Presentation Consciously and competently engaging in self-presentation can have benefits because we can provide others with a more positive and accurate picture of who we are and in doing so better achieve our communication goals. People who are skilled at impression management are typically more engaging and confident, which allows others to pick up on more cues from which to form impressions (Human et al., 2012). There are two main types of self-presentation: prosocial and self-serving (Sosik, Avolio, & Jung, 2002). Prosocial self-presentation entails behaviors that present a person as a role model and make a person more likable and attractive. For example, a supervisor may call on her employees to uphold high standards for business ethics, model that behavior in her own actions, and compliment others when they exemplify those standards. Self-serving self-presentation entails behaviors that present a person as highly skilled, willing to challenge others, and someone not to be messed with. For example, a supervisor may publicly take credit for the accomplishments of others or publicly critique an employee who failed to meet a particular standard. In summary, prosocial strategies are aimed at benefiting others, while self-serving strategies benefit the self at the expense of others. In general, we strive to present a public image that matches up with our self-concept, but we can also use self-presentation strategies to enhance our self-concept (Hargie, 2011). When we present ourselves in order to evoke a positive evaluative response, we are engaging in self-enhancement. In the pursuit of self-enhancement, a person might try to be as appealing as possible in a particular area or with a particular person to gain feedback that will enhance one’s self-esteem. Self-enhancement can be productive and achieved competently, or it can be used inappropriately. Using self-enhancement behaviors just to gain the approval of others or out of self-centeredness may lead people to communicate in ways that are perceived as phony or overbearing and end up making an unfavorable impression (Sosik, Avolio, & Jung, 2002). Contextual Communication: Identity and Context We all have what is called our primary and secondary identities. Our primary identities are said to be consistent and are comprised of factors that we usually cannot change, such as ethnicity, race, and gender. While these identities are usually permanent, our awareness of them and the degree to which we acknowledge or align with them changes based on the context. For example, a woman may not really focus on this identity when in a room full of other women, but it may suddenly become salient when she is the only woman in a room full of men. Secondary identities, on the other hand, are more fluid, dependent, and dynamic. Factors that make up our secondary identities include occupation, relationship status, and the various roles we occupy. For example, you may be a student, office manager, janitor, mother, brother, wife, husband, single, etc. As with our primary identities, the salience of secondary identities also changes based on context. Right now, as you are reading this and when you are in the classroom, you are enacting your identity of student, learner, or scholar. However, once you leave the classroom you may switch to another identity, such as a parent. While you are still a student (and vice versa still a parent while in the classroom), this identity is placed on the ‘back burner’ and another comes to forefront. Based on the context, we should be flexible in what identity we enact and may need to shift or highlight one particular identity versus another. This, in turn, will influence your communication and interactions. For example, when you are a student in the classroom you may sit at your desk, answer questions when asked, and discuss communication-related topics. However, if you are a parent, when you get home you might instruct your child or chastise them for not doing their homework. Issues may occur if we do not adapt our identity to the situation. For example, we may enact a particular identity with a group of friends that manifests itself in dressing and speaking a particular way, but enacting this identity in the workplace could have negative repercussions. While it’s important to feel authentic and ‘true to ourselves’, it is also important to realize that who we are is dynamic and changes based on the context. In order to better meet your goals, consider communicating aspects of your identities that are appropriate to the context. Reflective Communication: Reflecting on your Identity As we learned earlier in this chapter, our self-concept and self-esteem influence how we communicate and interact with the world around us. Because of this, it is necessary to reflect on these aspects of our self-perception and how they influence our thoughts, actions, and relationships in both positive and negative ways. In particular, it is important to be aware of self-fulfilling prophecies. Self-fulfilling prophecies are thought and action patterns in which a person’s false belief triggers a behavior that makes the initial false belief actually or seemingly come true (Guyll et al., 2010). The concept of self-fulfilling prophecies was originally developed to be applied to social inequality and discrimination, but it has since been applied in many other contexts, including interpersonal communication. This research has found that some people are chronically insecure, meaning they are very concerned about being accepted by others but constantly feel that other people will dislike them. This can manifest in relational insecurity, which is based on feelings of inferiority resulting from social comparison with others perceived to be more secure and superior. Such people often end up reinforcing their belief that others will dislike them because of the behaviors triggered by their irrational belief. Take the following scenario as an example: An insecure person assumes that their date will not like them. During the date they don’t engage in much conversation, discloses negative information about themselves, and exhibits anxious behaviors. Because of these behaviors, their date forms a negative impression and suggests they not see each other again, reinforcing the original belief that the date wouldn’t like them. The example shows how a pattern of thinking can lead to a pattern of behavior that reinforces the thinking, and so on. Luckily, experimental research shows that self-affirmation techniques can be successfully used to intervene in such self-fulfilling prophecies. Thinking positive thoughts and focusing on personality strengths can stop this negative cycle of thinking and has been shown to have positive effects on academic performance, weight loss, and interpersonal relationships (Stinston et al., 2011).	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.493912	2021-07-29T21:18:22	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/04%3A_Identity_and_Perception_of_Self/4.06%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "4.6: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication	“Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words can never hurt me.” Most of us have heard these lyrics from the old children’s rhyme, yet assertions such as these are problematic because names and words have tremendous influence on our lives. Words are not just used to communicate content- but feelings, attitudes, judgments, values, and perspectives. In this chapter, we will explore the verbal symbols- words and language- that we use to communicate with others. Specifically, we will cover what verbal communication is, its characteristics and function, and how to improve verbal communication competence. Learning Objectives How is meaning conveyed through verbal messages? How can we improve communication competence with verbal strategies? Successful students will be able to: define verbal communication explain how meaning is conveyed through verbal messages describe the characteristics and functions of verbal communication apply strategies to improve message clarity analyze verbal messages and describe how meaning depends on the context (physical, relational, individual, and/or cultural) recognize the biases words can communicate and the power of words in communicative interactions Sections 5.0, 5.4.1, & 5.4.2: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0 Sections 5.1.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3, & 5.4.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0 Sections 5.2.1, 5.2.4, & 5.3.1.3.3: adapted from Survey of Communication Studies; 2018; CC BY SA 3.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.580635	2021-07-29T21:18:23	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "5: Verbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.01%3A_Defining_Verbal_Communication	5.1: Defining Verbal Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. Simply put, verbal communication consists of messages that are sent using words, both written and spoken. Nonverbal communication refers to communication that occurs through means other than words, such as body language, gestures, tone of voice, and silence. Because both verbal and nonverbal communication can be spoken and written, the two can often be confused. For example, let’s say we tell a friend a joke and they laugh in response. Is the laughter verbal or nonverbal communication? Since laughter is not a word, we would consider this vocal act as a form of nonverbal communication. Box 1 highlights the types of communication that fall into the various categories. Verbal versus Nonverbal Communication	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.646359	2021-07-29T21:18:24	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.01%3A_Defining_Verbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "5.1: Defining Verbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.02%3A_Characteristics_of_Verbal_Communication	5.2: Characteristics of Verbal Communication - - Last updated - Save as PDF In order to understand how we use verbal communication to create shared meaning in interactions, we first must become familiar with its characteristics. In this section, we will discuss how verbal messages are made of up of a system of symbols, are learned, are rule-governed, and have both denotative and connotative meanings. Verbal Messages are a System of Symbols Our language system is primarily made up of symbols. A symbol is something that stands in for or represents something else. Symbols can be communicated verbally (speaking the word hello), in writing (putting the letters H-E-L-L-O together), or nonverbally (waving your hand back and forth). In any case, the symbols we use stand in for something else, like a physical object or an idea; they do not actually correspond to the thing being referenced in any direct way. For example, there is nothing inherent about calling a cat a cat. Rather, English speakers have agreed that these symbols (words), whose components (letters) are used in a particular order each time, stand for both the actual object, as well as our interpretation of that object. This idea is illustrated by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richard’s triangle of meaning. The word “cat” is not the actual cat. Nor does it have any direct connection to an actual cat. Instead, it is a symbolic representation of our idea of a cat, as indicated by the line going from the word “cat” to the speaker’s idea of “cat” to the actual object. The verbal symbols that we use to communicate have three distinct qualities: they are arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract. Notice that the picture of the cat on the left side of the triangle more closely represents a real cat than the word “cat.” However, we do not use pictures as language, or verbal communication. Instead, we use words to represent our ideas. This example demonstrates our agreement that the word “cat” represents or stands for a real cat AND our idea of a cat. The symbols we use are arbitrary and have no direct relationship to the objects or ideas they represent. We generally consider communication successful when we reach agreement on the meanings of the symbols we use. Not only are symbols arbitrary, they are ambiguous- that is, they have several possible meanings. For example, when the word “cat” is uttered alone and without context, most people might envision a small, house cat. However, “cat” has other possible meanings. Lion? Nickname for Catherine? Cool person? Heavy construction machinery? Imagine your friend tells you they have an apple on their desk. Are they referring to a piece of fruit or their computer? If a friend says that a person they met is cool, do they mean that person is cold or awesome? The meanings of symbols change over time due to changes in social norms, values, and advances in technology. We are able to communicate because there are a finite number of possible meanings for our symbols, a range of meanings which the members of a given language system agree upon. Without an agreed-upon system of symbols, we could share relatively little meaning with one another. The verbal symbols we use are also abstract, meaning that, words are not material or physical. A certain level of abstraction is inherent in the fact that symbols can only represent objects and ideas. This abstraction allows us to use a phrase like “the public” in a broad way to mean all the people in the United States rather than having to distinguish among all the diverse groups that make up the U.S. population. Similarly, in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series, wizards and witches call the non-magical population on earth “muggles” rather than having to define all the separate cultures of muggles. Abstraction is helpful when you want to communicate complex concepts in a simple way. However, the more abstract the language, the greater potential there is for confusion. Saying “cat” is not as abstract as saying “animal,” but also will not necessarily bring an image of a much more specific white cat named “Calliope” to the mind of your listener, if that is your intention. Verbal Messages are Learned As we just learned, the relationship between the symbols that make up our language and their referents is arbitrary, which means they have no meaning until we assign it to them. In order to effectively use a language system, we have to learn, over time, which symbols go with which referents, since we can’t just tell by looking at the symbol. Like me, you probably learned what the word apple meant by looking at the letters A-P-P-L-E and a picture of an apple and having a teacher or caregiver help you sound out the letters until you said the whole word. Over time, we associated that combination of letters with an apple. Similarly, in a Spanish-speaking community, students assigned meaning to a different symbol for this fruity referent. The symbol is M-A-N-Z-A-N-A. Same referent, different symbol. Verbal Messages are Rule-Governed Verbal communication is rule-governed. We must follow agreed-upon rules to make sense of the symbols we share. Let’s take another look at our example of the word cat. What would happen if there were no rules for using the symbols (letters) that make up this word? If placing these symbols in a proper order was not important, then cta, tac, tca, act, or atc could all mean cat. Any language system has to have rules to make it learnable and usable. Grammar refers to the rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences. Someone would likely know what you mean by the question “Where’s the remote control?” But “The control remote where’s?” is likely to be unintelligible or at least confusing (Crystal, 2005). Knowing the rules of grammar is important in order to be able to write and speak to be understood. However, those rules are also open and flexible, allowing a person to make choices to determine meaning (Eco, 1976). In addition, the rules that guide our verbal messages can differ through different communication channels, such as academic papers, face-to-face interactions, text messages, or social media. When writing an academic paper, grammatical rules are important to follow, and spelling and punctuation play an important role in conveying meaning. For example, “Let’s eat Grandma” is different in meaning from “Let’s eat, Grandma.” However, when communicating through a text message, the rules are usually more relaxed, flexible, and dynamic; communicators will often use abbreviations, acronyms, and slang to convey meaning, and may forgo punctuation or use it strategically to modify word meaning. Verbal Messages Have Both Denotative and Connotative Meanings We attach meanings to words; meanings are not inherent in words themselves. As you’ve been reading, words (symbols) are arbitrary and attain meaning only when people give them meaning. While we can always look to a dictionary to find a standardized definition of a word, or its denotative meaning, meanings do not always follow standard, agreed-upon definitions when used in various contexts. For example, think of the word “sick”. The denotative definition of the word is ill or unwell. However, connotative meanings, the meanings we assign based on our experiences and beliefs, are quite varied. For example, take the word ‘hippie’, the denotative meaning or dictionary definition is “a usually young person who rejects the mores of established society (as by dressing unconventionally or favoring communal living) and advocates a nonviolent ethic” (Webster, 2019). However, what comes to mind when you think of the word hippie? Long hair? Tye-dye shirts? Drugs? This is the connotative meaning, the things you associate with that particular world. Connotative meanings can be positive, negative, and/or neutral and what WE associate with word may change over time and vary based on individual experiences. For example, a person who liked road trips as child may have a positive association with that phrase, while a person who disliked them may have a negative association.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.709606	2021-07-29T21:18:25	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.02%3A_Characteristics_of_Verbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "5.2: Characteristics of Verbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.03%3A_Functions_of_Verbal_Communication	5.3: Functions of Verbal Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. Since our existence is intimately tied to the communication we use, in this section we will address how verbal communication serves many functions in our daily lives. Specifically, we use verbal communication to define reality, organize, and think. We use verbal communication to define everything from ideas, emotions, experiences, thoughts, objects, and people (Blumer). Think about how you define yourself. You may define yourself as a student, employee, son/daughter, parent, advocate, etc. You might also define yourself as moral, ethical, a night-owl, or a procrastinator. Verbal communication is how we label and define what we experience in our lives. These definitions are not only descriptive, but evaluative. Imagine you are at the beach with a few of your friends. The day starts out sunny and beautiful, but the tides quickly turn when rain clouds appeared overhead. Because of the unexpected rain, you define the day as disappointing and ugly. Suddenly, your friend comments, “What are you talking about, man? Today is beautiful!” Instead of focusing on the weather, he might be referring to the fact that he was having a good day by spending quality time with his buddies on the beach, rain or shine. This statement reflects that we have choices for how we use verbal communication to define our realities and the way you use language shapes your attitude about the world around you. Consider the number of things you experience with your primary senses every day. It is impossible to comprehend everything we encounter. We use verbal communication to organize seemingly random events into understandable categories to make sense of our experiences. For example, we all organize the people in our lives into categories. We label these people with terms like friends, acquaintances, romantic partners, family, peers, colleagues, and strangers. We highlight certain qualities, traits, or scripts to organize outwardly haphazard events into meaningful categories to establish meaning for the world we live in. Without verbal communication, we would not function as thinking beings. The ability to reason and communicate is what distinguishes humans from other animals. In the 2011 Scientific American article “How Language Shapes Thought,” author Lera Boroditsky claims that people “rely on language even when doing simple things like distinguishing patches of color, counting dots on a screen or orienting in a small room…” In addition, with language, we are able to reflect on the past, consider the present, and ponder the future. We develop our memories using language. Try recalling your first conscious memories. Chances are, your first conscious memories formed around the time you started using verbal communication.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.777847	2021-07-29T21:18:26	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.03%3A_Functions_of_Verbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "5.3: Functions of Verbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.04%3A_Communication_Competence	5.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover techniques for sending more effective verbal messages, address contextual nuances surrounding the meaning of verbal messages, and discuss the importance of reflecting on our own verbal messages. Effective Communication: Improving Verbal Message Clarity In order to increase shared meaning in interactions, it’s important to focus on message clarity. The level of clarity we need to provide in a communicative interaction can vary based on context, who we are talking to, and our communication goal. The language and words we use can range from abstract to concrete. Abstract language covers a broader range of objects, events, and phenomenon without providing much detail, whereas concrete language refers to specific objects, events, and phenomenon that can be observed. For example, ‘fruit’ is abstract as it can refer to a wide range of different fruits, from an apple to an orange. On the other hand, ‘Granny Smith apple’ would be concrete in that it refers to a specific type and color of fruit. The abstraction ladder illustrates how objects, events, phenomenon, and ideas can be described on a scale ranging from abstract to concrete. The bottom rung of the ladder refers to something specific/concrete, and as you move up the ladder the phrasing gets more abstract. When language is more abstract, it leaves more room interpretation; this likewise increases the chances of a miscommunication or shared meaning not be achieved. However, abstracting is beneficial in certain instances as it enables us to communicate more efficiently without using dozens of words to refer to one particular idea or concept. For example, if your partner stopped by the grocery store, picked up the dry cleaning, and dropped off the mail, we might simply say “thanks for doing the errands” versus noting every specific thing. When producing and interpreting abstract messages, context is key to expressing and discerning what one means and creating shared meaning. While certain situations lend themselves to abstract messages, others lend themselves to more concrete messages. Concrete messages can be useful when it is important that the message be understood, such as when we are interacting with children who are still developing the meaning of certain words and concepts, in professional contexts, or through text and/or email. Parents sometimes expect kids to “behave” before giving kids a concrete sense of what that actually looks or sounds like to them (e.g., “sit still and don’t talk during the movie”). Professionally, using concrete language is helpful when giving feedback designed to improve performance, when addressing complaints, and/or making requests. How many of us have received feedback such as “good job” or “needs improvement?” What that means might be very clear to the feedback giver, but those phrases could have many possible interpretations in the mind of the recipient. A better form of feedback might look like “The evidence you gave clearly supported your claims” or “Work to provide evidence that clearly supports your claims.” Additionally, when it comes to text or email, don’t just assume the other knows what you are talking about and be as concrete and specific as possible. Texting “You’re ignoring me” is not as clear as saying “I haven’t heard from you in two days.” The more abstract the words, the more possibility there is for misunderstanding. However, it’s important to note that sometimes we may intentionally use abstract language, depending on our communication goal. Vague and unclear language may be used as a way to avoid hurting another’s feelings, alluding to something we don’t want to say directly, hinting, or avoiding certain topics. For example, we may use the term “interesting” to describe a friend’s outfit when we really think it’s garish so as not to hurt their feelings. Contextual Communication: Nuances in Verbal Meanings Rules for communication guide our behaviors and interactions in a particular context and as the context changes, so do the rules and norms. When it comes to our verbal communication, what is considered ‘appropriate’ language and word choice will vary based on contextual nuances. For example, think of the types of words choices you might make when you are hanging out with your friends versus when you are in an interview. Would you speak to a small child differently and select different words than when you are speaking to an adult. In addition, since language is ambiguous and can have multiple denotative and connotative meanings, we must rely on the context not only to determine what words to use, but how to decode the messages of others. For example, the word “mouse” can mean either a computer mouse or a rodent. If someone said the word mouse in a computer lab (physical context), it would likely mean the former, where as if they said it in a pet store, it would likely mean the latter. Cultural context and your co-cultures (the various groups you may belong to based on race, ethnicity, gender identity, generation, etc) also play a key role in meaning making. For example, generations often have differences in what a particular word might mean. The word cool might be used by a younger generation to refer to awesome, where as an older generation might use it to refer to the temperature. So if you were to tell your grandmother something was cool, you may intend it to mean awesome, but she may be think it means cold. Because words can hold different meanings for different people and vary in what is considered acceptable and accepted, context and should always be kept in mind. As competent communicators, we should strive to use vocabulary the listener understands and only use slang in situations where it is considered acceptable and accepted. For example, we might use slang terms with our friends, but should probably avoid them in professional situations. Word Choice Think of the words “bowel movements,” “poop,” “crap,” and “shit.” While all of these words have essentially the same denotative meaning, people make choices based on context and audience regarding which word they feel comfortable using. . Reflective Communication: Understanding Biases in Language Bias has a way of creeping into our daily language use, often without our awareness. Culturally biased language can make reference to one or more cultural identities, including race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and ability. Much biased language is based on stereotypes and myths, both culturally and individually, that influence the words we use. Bias is both intentional and unintentional; sometimes we don’t even realize our words communicate a particular bias, and we have no intention of offending others. However, because others may decode a message differently from what we intend, as competent communicators, we must be aware of how others may interpret (or misinterpret) our words, what biases we may be intentionally or unintentionally communicating, and how our word choice can affect others. While it is unlikely that we will ever completely eliminate bias from our verbal communication or never offend anyone, it is important to be aware and reflective of our communication. Below focuses on five types of biases inherent in language people use: race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and ableness. Race People sometimes use euphemisms for race that illustrate bias because the terms are usually implicitly compared to the dominant group (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). For example, referring to a person as “urban” or a neighborhood as “inner city” can be an accurate descriptor, but when such words are used as a substitute for racial identity, they illustrate cultural biases that equate certain races with cities and poverty. Using adjectives like articulate or well-dressed in statements like “My black coworker is articulate” reinforces negative stereotypes even though these words are typically viewed as positive. Terms like nonwhite set up whiteness as the norm, which implies that white people are the norm against which all other races should be compared. Biased language also reduces the diversity within certain racial groups—for example, referring to anyone who looks like they are of Asian descent as Chinese or everyone who “looks” Latino/a as Mexicans. Some people with racial identities other than white, including people who are multiracial, use the label person/people of color to indicate solidarity among groups, but it is likely that they still prefer a more specific label when referring to an individual or referencing a specific racial group. Gender Language has a tendency to exaggerate perceived and stereotypical differences between men and women. For example, the use of the term opposite sex presumes that men and women are opposites. One key to avoiding gendered bias in language is to avoid the generic use of he or she when referring to something relevant to males and females. Instead, you can informally use a gender-neutral pronoun like they or their or you (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). Other words reflect the general masculine bias present in English. The following word pairs show the gender-biased term followed by an unbiased term: waitress / server, chairman / chair or chairperson, mankind / people, cameraman / camera operator, mailman / postal worker, sportsmanship / fair play. Common language practices also tend to infantilize women but not men, when, for example, women are referred to as chicks, girls, or babes. Since there is no linguistic equivalent that indicates the marital status of men before their name, using Ms. instead of Miss or Mrs. helps reduce bias. Age Language that includes age bias can be directed toward older or younger people. Descriptions of younger people often presume recklessness or inexperience, while those of older people presume frailty or disconnection. The term elderly generally refers to people over sixty-five, but it has connotations of weakness, which isn’t accurate because there are plenty of people over sixty-five who are stronger and more athletic than people in their twenties and thirties. Even though it’s a generic phrase, older people doesn’t really have negative implications, whereas referring to people over the age of eighteen as boys or girls isn’t typically viewed as appropriate. Sexual Orientation Discussions of sexual orientation range from everyday conversations to contentious political and personal debates. The negative stereotypes that have been associated with homosexuality, including deviance, mental illness, and criminal behavior, continue to influence our language use (American Psychological Association, 2012). Terminology related to gay, lesbian, and bisexual people can be confusing, so let’s spend some time to raise our awareness about preferred labels. First, sexual orientation is the term preferred to sexual preference. Preference suggests a voluntary choice, as in someone has a preference for cheddar or American cheese, which doesn’t reflect the experience of most GLB people or research findings that show sexuality is more complex. Most people also prefer the labels gay, lesbian, or bisexual to homosexual, which is clinical and doesn’t so much refer to an identity as a sex act. Language regarding romantic relationships contains bias when heterosexuality is assumed. For example, asking a female if she has a boyfriend or a male if he has a girlfriend. Comments comparing GLB people to “normal” people, although possibly intended to be positive, reinforces the stereotype that GLB people are abnormal. Don’t presume you can identify a person’s sexual orientation by looking at them or talking to them. Don’t assume that GLB people will “come out” to you. Given that many GLB people have faced and continue to face regular discrimination, they may be cautious about disclosing their identities. However, using gender neutral terminology like partner and avoiding other biased language mentioned previously may create a climate in which a GLB person feels comfortable disclosing his or her sexual orientation identity. Conversely, the casual use of phrases like “that’s gay” to mean “that’s stupid” may create an environment in which GLB people do not feel comfortable. Ability People who are differently-abled or have disabilities make up a diverse group that has increasingly come to be viewed as a cultural identity group. People without disabilities are often referred to as able-bodied. As with sexual orientation, comparing people with disabilities to “normal” people implies that there is an agreed-on definition of what “normal” is and that people with disabilities are “abnormal.” People who fall into the category may prefer the word differently abled or prefer disability to the word handicap. It’s also important to keep in mind that just because someone is disabled doesn’t mean they are also handicapped. The environment around them rather than their disability often handicaps people with disabilities (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). Ignoring the environment as the source of a handicap and placing it on the person fits into a pattern of reducing people with disabilities to their disability—for example, calling someone a paraplegic instead of a person with paraplegia. In many cases, as with sexual orientation, race, age, and gender, verbally marking a person as different isn’t relevant. Language used in conjunction with disabilities also tends to portray people as victims of their disability and paint pictures of their lives as gloomy, dreadful, or painful. Such descriptors are often generalizations or completely inaccurate. Politically Correct? Since the terms and language we use in reference to people or groups has the power to reveal biases within our culture and ourselves, these messages may have a negative impact over time on the person or group of people who hear them, especially when derogatory terms related to gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, etc. are used. Reflecting on and addressing biases in words and using them in a respectful, ethical manner so as not to offend others is important part of being a competent communicator and should not be conflated with the pejorative term ‘political correctness.’ Misuse and the negative connotation of this term has created ill-feelings around respectful and ethical communication. However, holding empathy towards others and being aware of and sensitive to their reactions is not a bad thing, it should actually be something we all strive for in our interactions. Addressing biases means being reflective of our communication, taking responsibility for what we say, holding others accountable for they say, and modifying the language we use. This can be hard at first, as it can make us feel uncomfortable, guilty, or even defensive. It is natural to try to shift the blame to others, tell them they are being ‘too sensitive,’ that we didn’t intend something a particular way, or that they need to ‘toughen’ up. However, a competent communicator is one who can reflect on their (and others’) biases and holds themselves accountable for the effects of their messages on other, whether intentional or unintentional. Throughout history, words have had the power to motivate, elevate, transform, ridicule, and silence. Words have been used to incite violence against others. Some people have very strong reactions to words and phrases, leading them to hurt others or even themselves. Words have been used to incite violence against groups of people and cause others to take their own lives. Words are not just words; words matter.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.850209	2021-07-29T21:18:27	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/05%3A_Verbal_Communication/5.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "5.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication	Scholars suggest that up to 60-90% of the meaning we get from communicative interactions comes to us nonverbally (DeVito, 2014; Verderber, MacGeorge, & Verderber, 2016). Whether it’s facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, vocal characteristics, or clothing, we use nonverbal communication to send messages to others, and others interpret both our intentional and unintentional nonverbal messages. In this chapter, we will cover what nonverbal communication is and the nonverbal communication channels we use to communicate information. Specifically, we will explain what nonverbal communication is and its functions, types, and principles. Last, we will discuss strategies for improving and reflecting on your own nonverbal communication competence. Learning Objectives How is meaning conveyed through nonverbal messages? What influences the way nonverbal messages are perceived? How can we improve our encoding and decoding of nonverbal messages? Successful students will be able to: define nonverbal communication. recognize functions and types of nonverbal communication. explain principles of nonverbal communication. describe ways to improve encoding and decoding of nonverbal messages. explain the roles of context and reflection in improving nonverbal communication Sections 6.0, 6.1.0, 6.1.1, 6.2.0, 6.2.6, 6.3.0, 6.4.0 – 6.4.2, 6.4.5, & 6.5.0: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0 Sections 6.2.3, 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.4, 6.4.4, 6.5.1 & 6.5.2: adapted from Survey of Communication Studies; 2018; CC BY SA 3.0 Sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, & 6.4.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:33.940000	2021-07-29T21:18:28	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6: Nonverbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.01%3A_Defining_Nonverbal_Communication	6.1: Defining Nonverbal Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define what nonverbal communication is. Nonverbal communication consists of meaning that is conveyed through behaviors, sounds, spatial use, and artifacts such as clothing and accessories. While nonverbal messages may substitute for verbal messages, they often work together to help aid in understanding and create shared meaning by enhancing, modifying, or contradicting an accompanying verbal message. For example, take the word ‘yes’. We may nod our head up and down to substitute for saying it verbally. However, we can also simultaneously nod and verbally say ‘yes’ to emphasize the message or modify it by changing our tone of voice to convey an excited or begrudging yes. Finally, we may unintentionally contradict our verbal message by subtly shaking our head no while we say it.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.079970	2021-07-29T21:18:29	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.01%3A_Defining_Nonverbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6.1: Defining Nonverbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.02%3A_Functions_of_Nonverbal_Communication	6.2: Functions of Nonverbal Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will address six important functions that our nonverbal communication serves in interactions: we use it to convey meaning and provide information, regulate interactions, express our identities, indicate relational standing, communicate emotions, and express status and power. We use nonverbal communication to complement, substitute for, modify, or contradict verbal messages. We can use nonverbal communication to complement the accompanying verbal message. Obvious examples include a head-nod or a head-shake to complement the verbal messages of “yes” or “no.” If a friend tells us that they recently received a promotion and a pay raise, we can show our enthusiasm in a number of verbal and nonverbal ways. We can exclaim, “Wow, that’s great! I’m so happy for you!” while at the same time using our nonverbal communication to complement what we are saying by smiling and hugging them. We can also use nonverbal communication to substitute for a verbal message. If someone asks you a question, instead of a verbal reply “yes”, you may choose to simply nod your head without the accompanying verbal message. When we replace verbal communication with nonverbal communication, we use nonverbal behaviors that are easily recognized by others such as a wave, head-nod, or head-shake. While nonverbal communication can complement verbal communication, we also use it to modify the meaning of verbal communication by emphasizing certain parts of the verbal message. For instance, you may be upset with a family member and state, “I’m very angry with you.” To accent this statement nonverbally you might say it, “I’m VERY angry with you,” placing your emphasis on the word “very” to demonstrate the magnitude of your anger. In this example, it is your tone of voice (called paralanguage) that serves as the nonverbal communication accenting the message Finally, our nonverbal messages can contradict our verbal message. Imagine that you are greeting a friend in passing and say, “How are you?” They might say, “Fine” but have a sad tone to their voice. In this example, their nonverbal behaviors go against their verbal response and sends a mixed message to you. Research suggests that when verbal and nonverbal messages contradict one another, receivers often place greater value on the nonverbal communication as the more accurate message (Argyle, Alkema & Gilmour). Generally, it is pretty easy for us to enter, maintain, and exit our interactions with others nonverbally. Rarely, if ever, would we approach a person and say, “I’m going to start a conversation with you now. Okay, let’s begin.” Instead, we might make eye contact, move closer to the person, or face the person directly, which are all nonverbal behaviors that indicate our desire to interact. Likewise, we do not generally end conversations by stating, “I’m done talking to you now” unless there is a breakdown in the communication process. We are generally proficient enacting nonverbal communication such as looking at our watch, looking in the direction we wish to go, or being silent to indicate an impending end in the conversation. However, there are times where someone may not pick up on the nonverbal cues and we have to explicitly state something verbally instead. Nonverbal communication expresses who we are. Our identities are conveyed nonverbally through the way we set up our living and working spaces, the clothes we wear, the way we carry ourselves, and the way we talk. Our physical bodies even give others impressions about who we are. We have control over some aspects of our nonverbal communication in terms of how we communicate our identities. For example, the way we carry and present ourselves through posture, eye contact, and tone of voice can be altered to present ourselves as warm or distant depending on the context. Aside from our physical body, artifacts, which are the objects and possessions that surround us, also communicate our identities. Examples of artifacts include our clothes, jewelry, and space decorations. Take a few moments today to observe the nonverbal communication of people you see in public areas. What can you determine about their relational standing from their nonverbal communication? For example, romantic partners tend to stand close to one another and touch one another frequently. On the other hand, acquaintances generally maintain greater distances and touch less than romantic partners. Those who hold higher social status often use more space when they interact with others. We make many inferences about relational standing based on the nonverbal communication of those with whom we interact and observe. Imagine seeing a couple talking to each other across a small table. They both have faces that look upset, red eyes from crying, closed body positions, leaning into each other, and are whispering emphatically. Upon seeing this, would you think they were having a “breakup conversation”? It is important to note, however, that nonverbals don’t always mean what we think they mean. Later on, we will cover the ambiguity of nonverbal communication. While we can certainly tell people how we feel, we more frequently use nonverbal communication to express our emotions. Conversely, we tend to interpret emotions by examining nonverbal communication. For example, it is probably easy to tell by their nonverbal communication that a friend may be feeling sad. Not only may they be less talkative but their shoulders may be slumped and they may not smile. One study suggests that it is important to use and interpret nonverbal communication for emotional expression as it leads to relational attachment and satisfaction (Schachner, Shaver, & Mikulincer). For example, if you acknowledge that your friend is sad, ask what is wrong, and try to help them this can heighten or increase intimacy. However, if a friend is visibly upset and you choose to ignore them, they may perceive that you don’t care about their feelings and become dissatisfied with the relationship. Nonverbal communication can be used to express social status in a variety of ways. (Verderber, MacGeorge, & Verderber, 2016). Nonverbal communication can be used to express social status in a variety of ways, such as by dressing or speaking a particular way. For example, think of how a high-level manager may convey status to employees. They may choose to wear a formal suit or speak with an authoritative tone. Likewise, employees may also use their nonverbals to show respect to their managers, as by making eye contact and listening to what they have to say. are also associated with power, while others are associated with powerlessness or vulnerability. For example, standing up tall and taking up a lot of space shows dominance, while hunched shoulders, folding your body inward to take up as little space as possible, and touching your neck indicate the opposite. Recent research has even demonstrated that forming expansive “power poses” with our bodies can actually increase emotional feelings of power, which may be helpful to us prior to job interviews and other anxiety-provoking situations (Cuddy, Schultz and Fosse, 2017).	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.157927	2021-07-29T21:18:30	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.02%3A_Functions_of_Nonverbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6.2: Functions of Nonverbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.03%3A_Types_of_Nonverbal_Communication	6.3: Types of Nonverbal Communication - - Last updated - Save as PDF As you’ll recall from chapter one, a channel is the means through which the message is sent from one communicator to the other. The channels used for communication coincide with our senses of sound, sight, smell, taste, and touch. While verbal messages can only travel via the sensory routes of sound (spoken words) or sight (written words), nonverbal communication can take place through all five of our senses. In this section, we will describe the various types of non-verbal communication, which we break into four distinct categories to aid in comprehension: body language, paralanguage, space and time use, and personal and environmental presentation. Body Language Body language refers to nonverbal communication that is expressed through the use of gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, facial expressions, and touch. Gestures There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators (Andersen, 1999). Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings. Many of us subconsciously click pens, shake our legs, or engage in other adaptors during classes, meetings, or while waiting as a way to do something with our excess energy. Use of object adaptors can also signal boredom as people play with the straw in their drink or peel the label off a bottle of beer. Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. A hitchhiker’s raised thumb, the “OK” sign with thumb and index finger connected in a circle with the other three fingers sticking up, and the raised middle finger are all examples of emblems that have an agreed-upon meaning or meanings within a specific culture. Later in the chapter, you will see how different those agree-upon meanings can be among different cultures. Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously than emblems. Head Movements and Posture Head movements and posture are grouped together because they are often both used to acknowledge others and communicate interest or attentiveness. For example, a head up typically indicates an engaged or neutral attitude, a head tilt indicates interest and is an innate submission gesture that exposes the neck and subconsciously makes people feel more trusting of us, and a head down signals a negative or aggressive attitude (Pease & Pease, 2004). One interesting standing posture involves putting our hands on our hips, and is a nonverbal cue that we use subconsciously to make us look bigger and show assertiveness. Eye Contact We also communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. Eye contact serves several communicative functions: regulating interaction, monitoring interaction, conveying information, or establishing interpersonal connections. In terms of regulating communication, we use eye contact to signal to others that we are ready to speak or to indicate that we are finishing up. Eye contact is also used to monitor interaction by taking in feedback and other nonverbal cues. A communicator can use eye contact to determine if others are engaged, confused, or bored and then adapt their message accordingly. Our eyes also send information to others. Making eye contact with others also communicates that we are paying attention and are interested in what another person is saying. Eye contact can also be used to intimidate others. Staring at another person in some contexts could communicate intimidation, while in other contexts it could communicate flirtation. Facial Expressions Our faces are the most expressive part of our bodies. Facial expressions communicate a range of emotions and can be used to infer personality traits and make judgments about others. Facial expressions can communicate that someone is tired, excited, angry, confused, frustrated, sad, confident, smug, shy, or bored. A few basic facial expressions are recognizable by humans all over the world; research has supported the universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust. The first four are especially identifiable across cultures (Andersen, 1999). Although facial expressions are typically viewed as innate and several are universally recognizable, they are not always connected to an emotional or internal biological stimulus; they can actually serve a more social purpose. For example, most of the smiles we produce are primarily made for others and are not just an involuntary reflection of an internal emotional state (Andersen, 1999). Haptics Haptics refers to the study of communication by touch. Touch is necessary for human social development, and it can be welcoming, threatening, or persuasive. There are several types of touch, including functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, and love- intimacy (Heslin & Apler, 1983). At the functional-professional level, touch is related to a goal or part of a routine professional interaction, which makes it less threatening and more expected. For example, we let barbers, hairstylists, doctors, nurses, tattoo artists, and security screeners touch us in ways that would otherwise be seen as intimate or inappropriate if not in a professional context. At the social-polite level, socially sanctioned touching behaviors help initiate interactions and show that others are included and respected. A handshake, a pat on the arm, and a pat on the shoulder are examples of social-polite touching. At the friendship-warmth level, touch is more important and more ambiguous than at the social-polite level. At this level, touch interactions are important because they serve a relational maintenance purpose and communicate closeness, liking, care, and concern. At the love- intimacy level, touch is more personal and is typically only exchanged between significant others, such as best friends, close family members, and romantic partners. Touching faces, holding hands, and frontal embraces are examples of touch at this level. Paralanguage & Silence Paralanguage, often referred to as vocalics, refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a message such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999). Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational flow, and communicate the intensity of a message. We also learn that greetings have a rising emphasis and farewells have falling emphasis. Of course, no one ever tells us these things explicitly; we learn them through observation and practice. We do not pick up on some more subtle and/or complex patterns of paralanguage involving pitch until we are older. Children, for example, have a difficult time perceiving sarcasm, which is usually conveyed through paralinguistic characteristics like pitch and tone rather than the actual words being spoken. Paralanguage provides important context for the verbal content of a message. For example, volume helps communicate intensity. A louder voice is usually thought of as more intense, although a soft voice combined with a certain tone and facial expression can be just as intense. Our tone of voice can be controlled somewhat with pitch, volume, and emphasis, but each voice has a distinct quality known as a vocal signature. Voices vary in terms of resonance, pitch, and tone, and some voices are more pleasing than others. In addition, the use of silence serves as a type of nonverbal communication when we do not use words or utterances to convey meanings. Have you ever experienced the “silent treatment” from someone? What meanings did you take from that person’s silence? Silence is powerful because the person using silence may be refusing to engage in communication with you. Silence can also be used strategically in conversations, such as silent pause for emphasis or a long period of silence in response to another’s message. Others may use silence as a form of resistance. For example, silent protests or ‘days of silence’ are often used to show disapproval or bring awareness to a particular issue. It’s important to be aware that silence has a variety of interpretations and misinterpretations. For example, we may interpret another’s silence as intentional, even when it wasn’t. Or some people may remain silent to convey disagreement with something, however, others may interpret that silence as agreement. Space, Territory, and Time Other types of nonverbal communication types are: the way we use space around us, the territories we claim, and how we use time. Spatial Use Spatial use, also called proxemics, refers to the study of how space and distance influence communication. In general, space influences how people communicate and behave. Smaller spaces with a higher density of people often lead to breaches of our personal space bubbles. Unexpected breaches of personal space can lead to negative reactions, especially if we feel someone has violated our space voluntarily, meaning that a crowding situation didn’t force them into our space. We all have varying definitions of what our “personal space” is, and these definitions are contextual and depend on the situation and the relationship. Although our bubbles are invisible, people are socialized into the norms of personal space within their cultural group. Scholars have identified four zones for U.S. Americans, which are public, social, personal, and intimate distance (Hall, 1968). The zones are more elliptical than circular, taking up more space in our front, where our line of sight is, than at our side or back where we can’t monitor what people are doing. Even within a particular zone, interactions may differ depending on whether someone is in the outer or inner part of the zone. Territoriality In addition to various notions of personal space, we claim spaces as our own, such as a gang territory, a neighborhood claimed by a particular salesperson, your usual desk in the classroom, or the seat you’ve marked to save while getting concessions at a sporting event. Territoriality is an innate drive to take up and defend spaces. There are three main divisions for territory: primary, secondary, and public (Hargie, 2011). Sometimes our claim to a space is official. These spaces are known as our primary territories because they are marked or understood to be exclusively ours and under our control. A person’s house, yard, room, desk, side of the bed, or shelf in the medicine cabinet could be considered primary territories. Secondary territories don’t belong to us and aren’t exclusively under our control. However, they are associated with us, which may lead us to assume that the space will be open and available to us when we need it without us taking any further steps to reserve it. This happens in classrooms regularly. Students often sit in the same desk or at least same general area as they did on the first day of class. The expectation of this being “our space” could lead to a negative interpretation of the classmate you find sitting there one morning. Public territories are open to all people. People are allowed to mark public territory and use it for a limited period of time. This space is often up for grabs, though, which makes public space difficult to manage for some people, and can lead to conflict. To avoid this type of situation, people use a variety of objects that are typically recognized by others as nonverbal cues that mark a place as temporarily reserved—for example, jackets, bags, papers, or a drink. Time Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be classified into several different categories, including personal, physical, and cultural time (Andersen, 1999). Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. The way we experience time varies based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors. Think about how quickly time passes when you are interested in and therefore engaged in something. Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons. Physical time, especially seasons, can affect our mood and psychological states. Some people experience seasonal affective disorder that leads them to experience emotional distress and anxiety during the changes of seasons, primarily from warm and bright to dark and cold (summer to fall and winter). Cultural time refers to how a large group of people view time. Polychronic people do not view time as a linear progression that needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance. Polychronic people keep more flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at once. Monochronic people tend to schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time. A polychronic or monochronic orientation to time influences our social realities and how we interact with others. Additionally, the way we use time depends in some ways on our status. For example, doctors can make their patients wait for extended periods of time. Executives and celebrities may run consistently behind schedule, making others wait for them. Promptness and the amount of time that is socially acceptable for lateness and waiting varies among individuals and contexts. Personal and Environmental Presentation Personal Presentation involves two components: our physical characteristics and the artifacts with which we adorn and surround ourselves with. Physical characteristics include body shape, height, weight, attractiveness, and other physical features of our bodies. We do not have as much control over how these nonverbal cues are encoded as we do with many other aspects of nonverbal communication. However, these characteristics play a large role in initial impression formation even though we know we “shouldn’t judge a book by its cover.” Although ideals of attractiveness vary among cultures and individuals, research consistently indicates that people who are deemed attractive based on physical characteristics have distinct advantages in many aspects of life. While there are physical characteristics about ourselves that we cannot change, we do have control over our clothing choices, grooming behaviors, such as hair style, and the artifacts with which we adorn ourselves, such as clothes and accessories. Have you ever tried to consciously change your “look?” Changes in hairstyle and clothes can impact how you are perceived by others. In addition to artifacts such as clothes and hairstyles, other political, social, and cultural symbols send messages to others about who we are, such as piercings and tattoos. Jewelry can also send messages with varying degrees of direct meaning. A ring on the “ring finger” of a person’s left hand typically indicates that they are married or in an otherwise committed relationship. Expensive watches can serve as symbols that distinguish a CEO from an entry-level employee. People also adorn their clothes, body, or belongings with religious or cultural symbols, like a cross to indicate a person’s Christian faith or a rainbow flag to indicate that a person is gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, queer, or an ally to one or more of those groups. In addition, we can use artifacts in the spaces we occupy, such as our home, office, or bedroom, to communicate about ourselves. The books that we display on our coffee table, the magazines a doctor keeps in his or her waiting room, or the placement of fresh flowers in a foyer all convey meaning to others. For example, imagine a bedroom that has the wall painted pink, a ruffle bedspread, and dolls displayed on the self. What do these items say about the person who occupies that room? What age would you think they are? Gender? What types of activities might you think the occupant likes by the various toys on display? In summary, whether we know it or not, our physical characteristics and the artifacts that surround us communicate much about us.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.234585	2021-07-29T21:18:30	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.03%3A_Types_of_Nonverbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6.3: Types of Nonverbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.04%3A_Principles_of_Nonverbal_Communication	6.4: Principles of Nonverbal Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will address the five principles of nonverbal communication: our nonverbal communication is continuous, multichanneled, conscious/intentional and unconscious/unintentional, ambiguous, and can occur both face-to-face and through mediated platforms. In face-to-face interactions, nonverbal communication is continuous, ongoing, and in constant motion. While we can stop talking to end verbal communication, we can’t turn off nonverbal communication. Our posture, eye contact (or lack of eye contact), facial expressions, and physical appearance are always communicating something about us, whether intentional or unintentional. A nonverbal message is rarely sent through just one channel in isolation, rather it accompanies multiple channels and occurs in clusters. For example, squinted eyes might be accompanied with a furrowed brow and/of a pursing of the lips. Because of this, we need to be aware of the entire cluster when decoding a particular message and look for nonverbal congruence. Nonverbal congruence is the consistency among the cluster of nonverbals we are observing, which influences our understanding of what message is being conveyed. For example, someone crossing their arms usually has a negative interpretation. However, since nonverbal communication is multichanneled, this particular body language should not be read in isolation; instead, other nonverbal cues should be considered. If someone is standing with their arms crossed and their eyebrows are furrowed, you might assume they are angry or upset based on nonverbal congruence. However, if someone has their arms crossed but they are smiling, then they likely are not angry. Nonverbal communication is both conscious and unconscious, which means we use it both intentionally and unintentionally. Conscious communication means that we think about our communication before we communicate. Unconscious communication means that we do not think about every message we communicate. For example, when something funny happens, you probably do not think, “Okay, I’m going to smile and laugh right now.” Instead, you react unconsciously, displaying your emotions through nonverbal behaviors. Nonverbal communication can occur as unconscious reactions to situations. However, at times, we certainly make conscious choices to use or withhold nonverbal communication to share meaning. Angry drivers use many conscious nonverbal expressions to communicate to other drivers, and in a job interview you are making conscious decisions about your wardrobe, posture, and eye contact. While the symbolic and abstract nature of verbal language can often lead to misunderstandings, nonverbal communication is even more ambiguous. As with verbal communication, most of our nonverbal signals can be linked to multiple meanings, but unlike words, many nonverbal signals do not have any one specific meaning. If you’ve ever had someone wink at you and didn’t know why, you’ve probably experienced this uncertainty. Did they wink to express their affection for you, their pleasure with something you just did, or because you share some inside knowledge or joke? Just as we look at context clues in a sentence or paragraph to derive meaning from a particular word, we can look for context clues in various sources of information like the physical environment, other nonverbal signals, or verbal communication to make sense of a particular nonverbal cue. Unlike verbal communication, however, nonverbal communication doesn’t have explicit rules of grammar that bring structure, order, and agreed on patterns of usage. Instead, we implicitly learn norms of nonverbal communication, which leads to greater variance. In general, we exhibit more idiosyncrasies in our usage of nonverbal communication than we do with verbal communication, which also increases the ambiguity of nonverbal communication. When most people think of nonverbal communication, they think of behaviors and actions directly connected to the body, such as gestures and facial expressions. And when most people think of the type of communication that takes place through mediated platforms, like text messaging and social media posts, they usually think of it as verbal communication. However, technology has changed and reshaped our conceptualization and definitions of what communication is and looks like in a variety of contexts. Scholars have equated communication such as text messages to ‘fingered speech’ (McWhorter, 2013) and these types of communication have transcended past our traditional definitions as they exhibit characteristics of both verbal and nonverbal communication simultaneously. Due to the dynamic and ambiguous nature of this type of communication, we may use a variety of strategies to emphasize, substitute for, modify, and/or contradict the accompanying verbal message, which aligns with the definition of nonverbal communication. For example, facial expressions, gestures, and movement can be relayed through emojis, emoticons, and gifs. We can change, modify, and contradict the meaning of verbal messages through punctuation, the spelling of a word, and word elongation. Consider how the following message sent through a text message might be interpreted a variety of different ways based on these strategies: On the decoding end, mediated messages can present more opportunities for misunderstanding than do face-to-face messages. This form of communication is not only light on nonverbal information, but it lacks opportunity for immediate feedback that may help to clarify intentions in order to achieve shared meaning. Have you ever heard someone talk about the need for a “sarcasm font?” Visuals can help, but the pitch and tone of intended sarcasm is difficult to convey through technology. Additionally, consider how lack of response to a text message can easily be misunderstood. We all have different norms and expectations for reply time. Consider how someone who checks their phone every few minutes might unintentionally misunderstand a less timely reply (a lengthy silence) from another person who only checks their phone every few hours.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.306297	2021-07-29T21:18:31	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.04%3A_Principles_of_Nonverbal_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6.4: Principles of Nonverbal Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.05%3A_Communication_Competence	6.5: Communication Competence selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will cover techniques for sending more effective nonverbal messages, address cultural and co-cultural nuances surrounding nonverbal symbols, and discuss the importance of nonverbal behaviors in our relationships. While it is important to recognize that we send nonverbal signals through multiple channels simultaneously, we can also increase our nonverbal communication competence by becoming more aware of how it operates in specific channels. Although no one can truly offer you a rulebook on how to effectively send every type of nonverbal signal, there are some guidelines you can follow to help you become more effective at consciously encoding nonverbal signals that are meant to be intentional. As with other aspects of communication, norms for nonverbal communication vary from country to country and from co-culture to co-culture within a particular country. We’ve already learned that some nonverbal communication behaviors appear to be somewhat innate because they are universally recognized. Smiling is a universal nonverbal behavior, however, the triggers that lead a person to smile vary from culture to culture. In addition, the smile may not always equate to happiness. The expansion of media, particularly from the United States and other Western countries around the world, is leading to more nonverbal similarities among cultures, but the biggest cultural differences in nonverbal communication occur within the categories of gestures, eye contact, touch, volume, personal space, and time (Pease & Pease, 2004). If you’ll recall from our discussion on gestures, emblems are gestures that correspond to a word and an agreed-upon meaning. However, the meaning attached to emblems and gestures vary from culture to culture. For example, the “thumbs up” gesture can mean the number “one” in mainland Europe, but it also means “up yours” in Greece (when thrust forward) and is recognized as a signal for hitchhiking or “good,” “good job / way to go,” or “OK” in many other cultures. So using a particular gesture to communicate in another country might actually end up causing a conflict. In the U.S., much importance is placed on making eye contact and it is often equated with confidence, interest, and honesty. Eye contact aversion, however, could be seen as a sign that the other person is being deceptive, is bored, or is being rude. However, in some cultures, avoiding eye contact is considered a sign of respect. Some Native American nations teach that people should avoid eye contact with elders, teachers, and other people with status. This can create issues when others view lack of eye contact as a sign of disrespect, lack of engagement, or lower intelligence. Contact cultures are cultural groups in which people stand closer together, engage in more eye contact, touch more frequently, and speak more loudly. The volume at which we speak is influenced by specific contexts and is more generally influenced by our culture. In European countries like France, England, Sweden, and Germany, it is not uncommon to find restaurants that have small tables very close together. In many cases, two people dining together may be sitting at a table that is actually touching the table of another pair of diners. Most U.S. Americans would consider this a violation of personal space, and Europeans often perceive U.S. Americans to be rude in such contexts because they do not control the volume of their conversations more. Since personal space is usually more plentiful in the U. S., Americans are used to speaking at a level that is considered loud to many cultures that are used to less personal space. The United States and many northern and western European countries have a monochronic orientation to time, meaning time is seen as a commodity that can be budgeted, saved, spent, and wasted. Events are to be scheduled in advance and have set beginning and ending times. Countries like Spain and Mexico have a polychronic orientation to time. Appointments may be scheduled at overlapping times, making an “orderly” schedule impossible. People may also miss appointments or deadlines without offering an apology, which would be considered very rude by a person with a monochronic orientation to time. People from cultures with a monochronic orientation to time are frustrated when people from polychromic cultures cancel appointments or close businesses for family obligations. Conversely, people from polychromic cultures feel that US Americans, for example, follow their schedules at the expense of personal relationships (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). On a global scale, we see many variations in nonverbal communication across cultures. However, even within one geographic location, there are also variations based on co-cultural factors such as race, gender, social class, etc. As an example of gender variation, it’s obvious that males and females tend to have differences in physical appearances in regards to dress, grooming, and artifacts. But even the ways males and females walk and sit can be vastly different. Males tend to take up much more space than females, particular in public spaces. The phenomenon of ‘manspreading’ on subways is one that has gained a lot of recent attention. In addition to co-cultural nuances, nonverbal encoding and decoding of messages is further complicated by other contextual nuances such as the physical context and relational context. For example, if you are in a bar, someone making prolonged eye contact could be interpreted as romantic interest. However, someone making prolonged eye contact in a prison could be a sign of aggression. The relationship between two people can also influence the interpretation. Consider the differences between making prolonged eye contact with your sibling versus a romantic partner. Always keep in mind that nonverbal communication is ambiguous and just as you must consider nonverbal congruence for the channels, you must also pay attention to contextual nuances as all these things work together to generate meaning. Cross-cultural Awareness Quiz: You can take a cross-cultural awareness quiz to learn some more interesting cultural variations in gestures at the following link: https://www.funtrivia.com/playquiz/quiz31230423c0d88.html . As we already discussed, nonverbal communication is important part of expressing identities. However, another central—if not primary—function of nonverbal communication is the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. As a competent communicator, it is important to reflect on nonverbal communication and recognize the role it plays in our various relationships. People who are skilled at consciously encoding nonverbal messages have various interpersonal advantages, including being more popular, having larger social networks consisting of both acquaintances and close friends, and being less likely to be lonely or socially anxious (Riggio, 1992). Nonverbal communication increases our expressivity, and people generally find attractive and want to pay more attention to things that are expressive. This increases our chances of initiating interpersonal relationships. Nonverbal communication also helps maintain relationships once they have moved beyond the initial stages by helping us communicate emotions, and seek and provide social and emotional support. In terms of communicating emotions, competent communicators know when it is appropriate to express emotions and when more self-regulation is needed. Expressing the need for support is also an important part of relational maintenance. People who lack nonverbal encoding skills may send unclear or subtle cues requesting support that are not picked up on by others, which can lead to increased feelings of loneliness. Skilled encoders of nonverbal messages, on the other hand, are able to appropriately communicate the need for support in recognizable ways. When it comes to decoding, always keep in mind the that our nonverbal messages are ambiguous and there is no set universal meaning. As such, it is important to be tentative when decoding messages and not ‘jump to conclusions’ in order to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings or hurt feelings. It is common to misinterpret the emotional expression of others, even when we are close to them, or to think an emotional expression is tied to something we did. For example, we may think our partner’s lack of responsiveness and irritable mood means they are upset with us, when they might have just had a stressful day at work and feel tired. When unsure about what another is expressing, you can use the skill of perception checking covered in Chapter 3 to aid in the clarity of your interpretations and avoid potentially harmful misunderstandings.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.390047	2021-07-29T21:18:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/06%3A_Nonverbal_Communication/6.05%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "6.5: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening	In this section, we will explain the importance of listening. The Importance of Listening If you were to break up the various types of communication you use throughout your day, listening would make up about 42 – 60 percent. Problematically, many people engage in passive versus active listening, which can cause miscommunication and have a negative effect on relationships. Listening is an important skill to cultivate, both personally and professionally. In this chapter, we will explain the importance of listening, the stages of the listening process, listening styles, some common listening barriers, and ways to improve our listening skills. Learning Objectives How does the listening process work? What are some of the challenges to effective listening? How can we improve our listening, and why might it be important to do so? Successful students will be able to: explain the importance of listening differentiate between five stages of the listening process identify four listening styles describe six barriers to effective listening demonstrate ways to improve listening in all stages of the process recognize contextual influences on listening recognize the value of reflection on listening and relationships Sections 7.0: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0 Sections 7.1.1 – 7.5.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.476564	2021-07-29T21:18:33	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7: Listening", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.01%3A_The_Importance_of_Listening	7.1: The Importance of Listening selected template will load here This action is not available. Listening is the learned process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages. We begin to engage in the listening process from infancy, long before we engage in any recognizable verbal or nonverbal communication. In general, listening helps us achieve all the communication goals (physical, instrumental, relational, and identity) that we learned about in Chapter 1. Listening is also important in academic, professional, and personal contexts. In terms of academics, students with high scores for listening ability have greater academic achievement. Listening skills are highly sought after by potential employers, consistently ranking in the top ten in national surveys (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2010). Listening also has implications for our personal lives and relationships. We shouldn’t underestimate the power of listening to make someone else feel better and to open our perceptual field to new sources of information. Listening can also help us expand our self and social awareness by learning from other people’s experiences and by helping us take on different perspectives.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.541385	2021-07-29T21:18:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.01%3A_The_Importance_of_Listening", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7.1: The Importance of Listening", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.02%3A_The_Stages_of_the_Listening_Process	7.2: The Stages of the Listening Process selected template will load here This action is not available. Listening is a process and as such it doesn’t unfold in a linear, step-by-step fashion with a defined start and finish. Listening in action is a fast, complex process, with many overlapping components. However, in order to aid in your understanding of listening, we will break the process into five stages and cover each stage in this section: receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding. Before we can engage other steps in the listening process, we must take in stimuli through our senses. In any given communication encounter, it is likely that we will return to the receiving stage many times as we process incoming feedback and new messages. We primarily take in information needed for listening through auditory and visual channels. Although we don’t often think about visual cues as a part of listening, they influence how we interpret messages. For example, seeing a person’s face when we hear their voice allows us to take in nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and eye contact. Chapter 3, The Perception Process and Perception of Others, discussed some of the ways in which incoming stimuli are filtered. These perceptual filters also play a role in listening. Some stimuli never make it in, some are filtered into subconsciousness, and others are filtered into various levels of consciousness based on their salience. Salience is the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context. We tend to find salient those things that are visually or audibly stimulating and those that meet our needs or interests. Think about how it’s much easier to listen to a lecture on a subject that you find very interesting. It is important to consider noise as a factor that influences how we receive messages. Some noise interferes primarily with hearing, which is the physical process of receiving stimuli through internal and external components of the ears and eyes, and some interferes with listening, which is the cognitive process of processing the stimuli taken in during hearing. While hearing leads to listening, they are not the same thing. Noise resulting from the physical context, such as other people talking, the sounds of traffic, and music interfere with the physiological aspects of hearing. Noise resulting from the individual context like stress and anger interfere primarily with the cognitive processes of listening. During the interpreting stage of listening, we combine the visual and auditory information we receive and try to make meaning out of that information using schemata. The interpreting stage engages cognitive and relational processing as we take in informational, contextual, and relational cues and try to connect them in meaningful ways to previous experiences. It is through the interpreting stage that we may begin to understand the stimuli we have received. When we understand something, we are able to attach meaning by connecting information to previous experiences. If we have difficulty interpreting information, meaning we don’t have previous experience or information in our existing schemata to make sense of it, then it is difficult to transfer the information into our long-term memory for later recall. In situations where understanding the information we receive isn’t important or isn’t a goal, this stage may be fairly short or even skipped. After all, we can move something to our long-term memory by repetition and then later recall it without ever having understood it. Our ability to recall information is dependent on some of the physiological limits of how memory works. Overall, our memories are known to be fallible. We forget about half of what we hear immediately after hearing it, recall 35 percent after eight hours, and recall 20 percent after a day (Hargie, 2011). Our memory consists of multiple “storage units,” including sensory storage, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory (Hargie, 2011). Our sensory storage is very large in terms of capacity but limited in terms of length of storage. We can hold large amounts of unsorted visual information but only for about a tenth of a second. By comparison, we can hold large amounts of unsorted auditory information for longer—up to four seconds. As stimuli are organized and interpreted, they make their way to short-term memory where they either expire and are forgotten or are transferred to long-term memory. Short-term memory is a mental storage capability that can retain stimuli for twenty seconds to one minute. Long-term memory is a mental storage capability to which stimuli in short-term memory can be transferred if they are connected to existing schema and in which information can be stored indefinitely (Hargie, 2011). Working memory is a temporarily accessed memory storage space that is activated during times of high cognitive demand. When using working memory, we can temporarily store information and process and use it at the same time. When we evaluate something, we make judgments about its credibility, completeness, and worth. In terms of credibility, we try to determine the degree to which we believe a speaker’s statements are correct and/or true. In terms of completeness, we try to “read between the lines” and evaluate the message in relation to what we know about the topic or situation being discussed. We evaluate the worth of a message by making a value judgment about whether we think the message or idea is good/bad, right/wrong, or desirable/undesirable. All these aspects of evaluating require critical thinking skills, which we aren’t born with but must develop over time through our own personal and intellectual development. One danger within the evaluation stage of listening is to focus your evaluative lenses more on the communicator than the message. This can quickly become a barrier to effective listening if we begin to prejudge a communicator based on their identity or characteristics rather than on the content of their message. Responding entails sending verbal and nonverbal messages that indicate attentiveness and understanding or a lack thereof. From our earlier discussion of the communication model, you may be able to connect this part of the listening process to feedback. Back-channel cues are the verbal and nonverbal signals we send while someone is talking and can consist of verbal cues like “uh-huh,” “oh,” and “right,” and/or nonverbal cues like direct eye contact, head nods, and leaning forward. Backchannel cues are generally a form of positive feedback that indicates others are actively listening. People also send cues intentionally and unintentionally that indicate they aren’t listening. If another person is looking away, fidgeting, texting, or turned away, we will likely interpret those responses negatively. Paraphrasing, which we will discuss in the Communication Competence section of this chapter, is a responding behavior that can also show that you understand what was communicated.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.623011	2021-07-29T21:18:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.02%3A_The_Stages_of_the_Listening_Process", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7.2: The Stages of the Listening Process", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.03%3A_Listening_Styles	7.3: Listening Styles selected template will load here This action is not available. Research finds that 40 percent of people have more than one preferred listening style, and that they choose a style based on the listening situation (Bodie & Villaume, 2003). Other research finds that people often still revert back to a single preferred style in times of emotional or cognitive stress, even if they know a different style of listening would be better (Worthington, 2003). In this section, we will cover the four types of listening styles: people-oriented, action-oriented, content-oriented, and time-oriented. (Image: Robin Higgens , Pixabay License ) People-oriented listeners are concerned about the emotional states of others and listen with the purpose of offering support in interpersonal relationships. People-oriented listeners can be characterized as “supporters” who are caring and understanding. These listeners are sought out because they are known as people who will “lend an ear.” They may or may not be valued for the advice they give, but what people often want is a good listener. This type of listening may be especially valuable in interpersonal communication involving emotional exchanges, as a person-oriented listener can create a space where people can make themselves vulnerable without fear of being cut off or judged. Action-oriented listeners focus on what action needs to take place in regards to a received message and try to formulate an organized way to initiate that action. These listeners are frustrated by disorganization, because it detracts from the possibility of actually doing something. Action-oriented listeners are problem solvers. This style of listening can be very effective when a task needs to be completed under time, budgetary, or other logistical constraints. One research study found that people prefer an action-oriented style of listening in professional contexts (Imhof, 2004). In other situations, such as interpersonal communication, action-oriented listening may be frustrating to the speaker as it comes off as the listener trying to “fix” or “solve” the other persons problems when all the speaker wants is someone to understand and/or validate what they are saying. Content-oriented listeners like to listen to complex information and evaluate the content of a message, often from multiple perspectives, before drawing conclusions. These listeners can be thought of as “learners,” and they also ask questions to solicit more information to fill out their understanding of an issue. Content-oriented listeners often enjoy high perceived credibility because of their thorough, balanced, and objective approach to engaging with information. Time-oriented listeners are more concerned about time limits and timelines than they are with the content or senders of a message. These listeners tend to actually verbalize the time constraints under which they are operating. For example, a time-oriented supervisor may say the following to an employee who has just entered his office and asked to talk: “Sure, I can talk, but I only have about five minutes.” These listeners may also exhibit nonverbal cues that indicate time and/or attention shortages, such as looking at a clock, phone, avoiding eye contact, or nonverbally trying to close down an interaction. Time-oriented listeners are also more likely to interrupt others, which may make them seem insensitive to emotional/personal needs. People often get action-oriented and time-oriented listeners confused. Action-oriented listeners would be happy to get to a conclusion or decision quickly if they perceive that they are acting on well-organized and accurate information. They would, however, not mind taking longer to reach a conclusion when dealing with a complex topic, and they would delay making a decision if the information presented to them didn’t meet their standards of organization.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.693591	2021-07-29T21:18:36	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.03%3A_Listening_Styles", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7.3: Listening Styles", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.04%3A_Barriers_to_Listening	7.4: Barriers to Listening - - Last updated - Save as PDF Barriers to effective listening are present at every stage of the listening process (Hargie, 2011). In this section, we will explore how environmental and physical factors, cognitive and personal factors, prejudices, and bad listening practices present barriers to effective listening. Environmental and Physical Barriers to Listening ( Image: © Joe Decie/ joedecie.com , printed with permission for use in I.C.A.T.) Environmental factors linked to the physical context, such as lighting, temperature, and furniture, affect our ability to listen. A room that is too dark can make us sleepy, just as a room that is too warm or cool can raise awareness of our physical discomfort to a point that it is distracting. Some seating arrangements facilitate listening, while others separate people. In general, listening is easier when listeners can make direct eye contact with and are in close physical proximity to a speaker. The ability to effectively see and hear a person increases people’s confidence in their abilities to receive and process information. Eye contact and physical proximity can still be affected by noise. Environmental noises such as a whirring air conditioner, barking dogs, or a ringing fire alarm can obviously interfere with listening despite direct lines of sight and well-placed furniture. Cognitive and Personal Barriers to Listening Physiological noise linked to the individual context, can also interfere with our ability to process incoming information. This is considered a physical barrier to effective listening because it emanates from our physical body. Physiological noise is noise stemming from a physical illness or injury. Another type of noise that is part of the individual context, psychological noise, bridges physical and cognitive barriers to effective listening. Psychological noise, or noise stemming from our psychological states including moods and level of arousal, can facilitate or impede listening. Any mood or state of arousal, positive or negative, that is too far above or below our regular baseline creates a barrier to message reception and processing. The generally positive emotional state of being in love can be just as much of a barrier as feeling hatred. Cognitive limits and personal concerns can interfere with our ability to listen. Whether you call it multitasking, daydreaming, glazing over, or drifting off, we all cognitively process other things while receiving messages. If you think of your listening mind as a wall of ten televisions, you may notice that in some situations five of the ten televisions are tuned into one channel. If that one channel is a lecture being given by your professor, then you are exerting about half of your cognitive processing abilities on one message. In another situation, all ten televisions may be on different channels. Personal concerns are often the focus of competing thoughts that can take us away from listening and challenge our ability to concentrate on others’ messages. Two common barriers to concentration are self-centeredness and lack of motivation (Brownell, 1993). For example, when our self-consciousness is raised, we may be too busy thinking about how we look, how we’re sitting, or what others think of us to be attentive to an incoming message. Additionally, we are often challenged when presented with messages that we do not find personally relevant. In general, we employ selective attention, which refers to our tendency to pay attention to the messages that benefit us in some way and filter others out. Bad Messages and/or Speakers Bad messages also present a barrier to effective listening. Sometimes our trouble listening originates in the sender. In terms of message construction, poorly structured messages or messages that are too vague, too jargon filled, or too simple can present listening difficulties. In terms of speakers’ delivery, verbal fillers, monotone voices, distracting movements, or a disheveled appearance can inhibit our ability to cognitively process a message (Hargie, 2011). Listening also becomes difficult when a speaker tries to present too much information. Prejudice Unfortunately, some of our default ways of processing information and perceiving others lead us to rigid ways of thinking. When we engage in prejudiced listening, we are usually trying to preserve our ways of thinking and avoid being convinced of something different. This type of prejudice is a barrier to effective listening, because when we prejudge a person based on their identity or ideas, we usually stop listening in an active and/or ethical way. We exhibit prejudice in our listening in several ways, some of which are more obvious than others. For example, we may claim to be in a hurry and only selectively address the parts of a message that we agree with or that aren’t controversial. We can also operate from a state of denial where we avoid a subject or person altogether so that our views are not challenged. Prejudices that are based on a person’s identity, such as race, age, occupation, or appearance, may lead us to assume that we know what they will say, essentially closing down the listening process. Bad Listening Practices (Image: © Cathy Thorne/ www.everydaypeoplecartoons.com ;printed with permission for use in I.C.A.T.) The previously discussed barriers to effective listening may be difficult to overcome because they are at least partially beyond our control. Physical barriers, cognitive limitations, and perceptual biases exist within all of us, and it is more realistic to believe that we can become more conscious of and lessen them than it is to believe that we can eliminate them altogether. Other “bad listening” practices may be habitual, but they are easier to address with some concerted effort. These bad listening practices include interrupting, distorted listening, and pseudo-listening. - Interrupting: Conversations unfold as a series of turns and turn taking is negotiated through a complex set of verbal and nonverbal signals that are consciously and subconsciously received. In this sense, conversational turn taking has been likened to a dance where communicators try to avoid stepping on each other’s toes. One of the most frequent glitches in the turn-taking process is interruption, but not all interruptions are considered “bad listening.” Sometimes interruptions are more like overlapping statements that show support (e.g., “I think so, too.”) or excitement about the conversation (e.g., “That’s so cool!”). Back-channel cues like “uh-huh” also overlap with a speaker’s message. We may also interrupt out of necessity if we’re engaged in a task with the other person and need to offer directions (e.g., “Turn left here.”), instructions (e.g., “Will you whisk the eggs?”), or warnings (e.g., “Look out behind you!”). All these interruptions are not typically thought of as evidence of bad listening unless they become distracting for the speaker or are unnecessary. - Distorted Listening: Distorted listening occurs in many ways. Sometimes we just get the order of information wrong, which can have relatively little negative effects if we are casually recounting a story, annoying effects if we forget the order of turns (left, right, left or right, left, right?) in our driving directions, or very negative effects if we recount the events of a crime out of order, which leads to faulty testimony at a criminal trial. Rationalization is another form of distorted listening through which we adapt, edit, or skew incoming information to fit our existing schemata. We may, for example, reattribute the cause of something to better suit our own beliefs. If a professor is explaining to a student why he earned a “D” on his final paper, the student could reattribute the cause from “I didn’t follow the paper guidelines” to “this professor is an unfair grader.” Sometimes we actually change the words we hear to make them better fit what we are thinking. This can easily happen if we join a conversation late, overhear part of a conversation, or are being a lazy listener and miss important setup and context. - Response Preparation: Response preparation refers to our tendency to rehearse what we are going to say next while a speaker is still talking. Rehearsal of what we will say once a speaker’s turn is over is an important part of the listening process that takes place between the recalling and evaluation and/or the evaluation and responding stage. Rehearsal becomes problematic when response preparation begins as someone is receiving a message and hasn’t had time to engage in interpretation or recall. In this sense, we are listening with the goal of responding instead of with the goal of understanding, which can lead us to miss important information that could influence our response. - Pseudo-listening: Pseudo-listening is behaving as if you’re paying attention to a speaker when you’re actually not (McCornack, 2007). Outwardly visible signals of attentiveness are an important part of the listening process, but when they are just an “act,” the pseudo-listener is engaging in bad listening behaviors. They are not actually going through the stages of the listening process and will likely not be able to recall the speaker’s message or offer a competent and relevant response. Although it is a bad listening practice, we all understandably engage in pseudo-listening from time to time. If a friend needs to talk but you’re really tired or experiencing some other barrier to effective listening, it may be worth engaging in pseudo-listening as a relational maintenance strategy, especially if the friend just needs a sounding board and isn’t expecting advice or guidance. We may also pseudo-listen to a romantic partner or grandfather’s story for the fifteenth time to prevent hurting their feelings.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.760906	2021-07-29T21:18:37	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.04%3A_Barriers_to_Listening", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7.4: Barriers to Listening", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.05%3A_Communication_Competence	7.5: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover techniques for better listening, address cultural and co-co-cultural influences on our listening, and discuss the importance of listening in our relationships. Effective Communication: Paraphrasing One way to help you become a more effective listener is to paraphrase what the other person is saying. When you paraphrase information, you rephrase the message into your own words. Paraphrasing is a useful communication skill for a variety of reasons. It helps verify your understanding of the speaker’s message which aids in creating shared meaning, forces you to actively listen to others, and likewise demonstrates that you are listening. We can paraphrase in three different ways: by rephrasing and reflecting back the content/denotative meaning of the message, the feelings behind the message, or both. To paraphrase you need to: - Listen to what the speaker is saying - Pay attention to the speaker’s nonverbal cues and the emotion(s) you think they are conveying - Determine what both the verbal and nonverbal message(s) mean to you - Rephrase the meaning verbal and/or nonverbal message in your own words Lead ins to start a paraphrase - It sounds like… - It seems like… - My interpretation of… - So what you’re saying… - Are you saying… - So you think that… - What I’m hearing is… Avoid stating your paraphrase like a fact or putting words in the speaker’s mouth. Instead, use a questioning tone of voice and a lead-in statement. For example, you might say the following to start off a paraphrased response: “What I heard you say was…” or “It seems like you’re saying…” You can also ask clarifying questions to get more information. It is often a good idea to pair a paraphrase with a question to keep a conversation flowing. For example, you might pose the following paraphrase and question pair: “It seems like you believe you were treated unfairly. Is that right?” Or you might ask a standalone question like “What did your boss do that made you think he was ‘playing favorites?’” Make sure to paraphrase and/or ask questions after a person’s turn is over, because interrupting can also be interpreted as a sign of not listening. Paraphrasing is also a good tool to use in computer-mediated communication, especially since miscommunication can occur due to a lack of nonverbal and other contextual cues. Paraphrasing Example: \| Other’s Message: “So I’ve been working hard on revising my English paper. I spent an entire week working on it and thought the changes I made really improved my explanations. Well, yesterday I stopped by and got the paper back from my professor, they told me they didn’t really see much of an improvement from the original version.” \| \|\| \| Content Paraphrase \| Feelings Paraphrase \| Combination Paraphrase \| \| “So it sounds like thought you had provided more depth and detail to your explanations, but your professor didn’t notice?” \| “You seem really frustrated that your professor didn’t notice the changes you made?” \| “So your professor told you that they didn’t notice the work you had done? No wonder you sound so frustrated!” \| Contextual Communication: Cultural and Co-cultural Influence on Listening Understanding some contextual variations in listening can help us become more competent communicators. In particular, contextual nuances due to culture and co-culture can influence the importance placed on listening and how people listen. - Listening and Culture: Some cultures place more importance on listening than other cultures. In general, collectivistic cultures tend to value listening more than individualistic cultures that are more speaker oriented. The value placed on verbal and nonverbal meaning also varies by culture and influences how we communicate and listen. A low-context communication style is one in which much of the meaning generated within an interaction comes from verbal communication rather than nonverbal or contextual cues. Conversely, much of the meaning generated by a high-context communication style comes from nonverbal and contextual cues (Lustig & Koester, 2006). For example, U.S. Americans of European descent generally use a low-context communication style, while people in East Asian and Latin American cultures use a high-context communication style. Contextual communication styles affect listening in many ways. Cultures with a high-context orientation generally use less verbal communication and value silence as a form of communication, which requires listeners to pay close attention to nonverbal signals and consider contextual influences on a message. Cultures with a low-context orientation must use more verbal communication and provide explicit details, since listeners aren’t expected to derive meaning from the context. Note that people from low-context cultures may feel frustrated by the ambiguity of speakers from high-context cultures, while speakers from high-context cultures may feel overwhelmed or even insulted by the level of detail used by low-context communicators. - Listening and Co-culture: Much of the research on listening focuses on co-cultural identities based on gender, and this research has produced mixed results. As we’ve already learned, much of the research on gender differences and communication has been influenced by gender stereotypes and falsely connected to biological differences. More recent research has found that people communicate in ways that conform to gender stereotypes in some situations and not in others, which shows that our communication is more influenced by societal expectations than by innate or gendered “hard-wiring.” For example, through socialization, men are generally discouraged from expressing emotions in public. A woman sharing an emotional experience with a man may perceive the man’s lack of emotional reaction as a sign of inattentiveness, especially if he typically shows more emotion during private interactions. The man, however, may be listening but withholding nonverbal expressiveness because of social norms. He may not realize that withholding those expressions could be seen as a lack of empathetic or active listening. Reflective Communication: Listening and Relationships It’s important to reflect on how you listen to others as it plays a central role in maintaining our relationships (Nelson-Jones, 2006), can influence relationship satisfaction, and impacts self-esteem. Listening to others provides a psychological reward, through the simple act of recognition that helps maintain our relationships. Listening to our relational partners and being listened to in return is part of the give-and-take of any interpersonal relationship. Our thoughts and experiences “back up” inside of us and getting them out helps us maintain a positive balance (Nelson, Jones, 2006). Something as routine and seemingly pointless as listening to our romantic partner debrief the events of their day or our roommate recount their weekend back home shows that we are taking an interest in their lives and are willing to put our own needs and concerns aside for a moment to attend to their needs. Listening also plays an important role in conflict. A lack of listening can often create or intensify conflict while effective listening helps us resolve it. Listening has relational implications throughout our lives, too. Parents who engage in competent listening behaviors with their children from a very young age make their children feel worthwhile and appreciated, which affects their development in terms of personality and character (Nichols, 1995). A lack of listening leads to feelings of loneliness, which results in lower self-esteem and higher degrees of anxiety. In fact, by the age of four or five years old, the empathy and recognition shown by the presence or lack of listening has molded children’s personalities in noticeable ways (Nichols, 1995). Children who have been listened to grow up expecting that others will be available and receptive to them. These children are therefore more likely to interact confidently with teachers, parents, and peers in ways that help develop communication competence that will be built on throughout their lives. Children who have not been listened to may come to expect that others will not want to listen to them, which leads to a lack of opportunities to practice, develop, and hone foundational communication skills.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.833764	2021-07-29T21:18:38	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/07%3A_Listening/7.05%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "7.5: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships	8: Interpersonal Relationships - - Last updated - - Save as PDF - The English Poet, John Donne, once stated “No man is an island (Donne, 1964),” which is an apt statement when applied to communication, as interacting with others is an important (and inevitable) part of our existence. In our lives, we will be a part of thousands of relationships, both in personal and professional contexts, ranging from superficial to intimate. While it takes between 90 seconds and 4 minutes for someone to decide if they like another person (BBC, 2014), developing and maintaining relationships is more complicated and time consuming. In this chapter, we will cover four stages of relationships, from beginning to end, and provide communication theories that address the how, why, and who of relationship formation. We will also provide strategies for repairing relationships, discuss the contextual nuances of self-disclosure, and reflect on ways to manage tensions that arise in our relationships. Learning Objectives - What is the nature of the different types and stages of interpersonal relationships, and why are they important? - How can we work to maintain interpersonal relationships in increase satisfaction? Successful students will be able to: - define interpersonal relationship - identify characteristics of interpersonal relationships - describe four stages of intimate relationships - recognize and differentiate between various communication theories that help to explain relational stages - identify relational dialectic maintenance strategies - recognize contextual influences on self-disclosure - recognize the influence of technology use on relational satisfaction Contributors and Attributions - Sections 8.0 – 8.2.1, 8.2.1.2 – 8.2.2.1, 8.3.2, & 8.3.3: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0 - Sections 8.2.2.3, 8.2.4.2, 8.2.4.3, & 8.2.4.5: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0 - Sections 8.2.2.2 & 8.3.1: adapted from Survey of Communication Studies; 2018; CC BY SA 3.0 - Sections 8.2.1.1, 8.2.2.4, 8.2.4.1, & 8.2.4.4: adapted from Wikipedia; CC BY SA 4.0	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.910546	2021-07-29T21:18:38	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "8: Interpersonal Relationships", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.01%3A_Definition_and_Characteristics_of_Relationships	8.1: Definition and Characteristics of Relationships selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define what a relationship is and describe three important characteristics. (Image: © Cathy Thorne/ www.everydaypeoplecartoons.com ; printed with permission for use in I.C.A.T.) A relationship can be defined as the expectations that two people have for each other based on their previous pattern of interactions (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008). Throughout our lives, we will be involved in a variety of relationships ranging from superficial to intimate. Intimate relationships involve physical and/or emotional intimacy and are characterized by friendship, trust, and love (platonic or romantic). Intimate relationships can include friendships, romantic relationships, and/or familial relationships. In addition to ranging from intimate to superficial, relationships can be characterized as impersonal or personal, voluntary or involuntary, and platonic or romantic (Verderber & Verderber, 2013). When describing relationships, it is important to note that relationships are dynamic, and that these characterizations can and do change. For example, we might initially be in an involuntary relationship with someone because we were paired up to work on a project, but then find out we share similar interests and form a voluntary friendship after the project ends. Or two people may start off as platonic and then become involved in a romantic relationship (or vice versa).	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:34.980158	2021-07-29T21:18:39	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.01%3A_Definition_and_Characteristics_of_Relationships", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "8.1: Definition and Characteristics of Relationships", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.02%3A_Stages_of_Relationships	8.2: Stages of Relationships - - Last updated - Save as PDF In intimate relationships, such as friendships and romantic relationships, communication is key, as it is through communication that we begin, develop, maintain, and dissolve relationships. In this section, we will describe four stages of intimate relationships and present communication theories that help us better understand our communicative interactions during these stages. Beginning Stage In order to form a relationship with another person, we first must come into contact with them, whether it be face-to-face or through a mediated platform, such as a social networking site, dating site, or an app. In the beginning stage of the relationships, we interact with the other person to increase our knowledge about them and decide if we want to continue forming the relationship. During this stage, two communication theories can help us understand why we form relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory and Attraction Theory. Uncertainty Reduction Theory Uncertainty Reduction Theory, also known as Initial Interaction Theory, can help us better understand the communicative behaviors involved in first interactions. The theory posits that, when interacting, people need information about the other party in order to reduce their uncertainty. Uncertainty is a sense of “not knowing” that people find to be unpleasant and seek to reduce through interpersonal communication. The theory identifies two types of uncertainty: cognitive and behavioral. Cognitive uncertainty pertains to the level of uncertainty associated with our thoughts (beliefs and attitudes) of each other in the situation.[4] Behavioral uncertainty is related to people’s actions and whether or not they fit our expectations for what we consider to be “normal” or not. Behavior that is outside of acceptable norms may increase uncertainty and reduce the chances for future interaction. There are three types of strategies people may use to seek information about someone: passive (observing from afar), active (indirectly seeking information about the other), and interactive (seeking a direct exchange with the other). In gaining this information people are better able to predict the other’s behavior and resulting actions, all of which are crucial in the development of any relationship. The initial interaction of strangers can also be broken down into individual stages—the entry stage (when people engage in behavioral norms), the personal stage (when people tend to explore the other’s beliefs, attitudes, morals, etc.), and the exit stage Attraction Theory Attraction Theory posits that three factors influence our attraction to others: their similarity to us, their proximity, and their interpersonal attractiveness (Alberts, Nakayama, & Martin, 2016). - Similarity: Have you ever heard the phrase ‘birds of a feather flock together’? Similarity is often an important determinant in whether or not we find someone else attractive. Research has shown that people are more strongly attracted to others who are similar in physical appearance, beliefs, attitudes, and who share similar co-cultural identities and backgrounds. Conversely, differences in these categories can lead to dislike or avoidance of others (Berkowitz, 1974; Singh & Ho, 2000; Bryne, London, & Reeves, 1968). - Proximity: Proximity, how geographically and physically close we are to another person, also plays a role in relationship formation (Alberts, Nakayama, & Martin, 2016). In order to form a relationship with someone, we first have to come into contact with them. Historically, it was difficult to meet others outside of our geographical area. However, technology has transformed how we meet and carry out relationships since we are no longer constrained by geographic barriers. From social networking sites to mobile apps, we now have the ability to connect with anyone, anytime, anywhere. Mediated platforms have become a way to connect to others to start both romantic and platonic relationships because it is easier to connect with those who share similar interests and have similar relationship goals (such as hooking up, long-term relationship, non-monogamous relationship, etc). Still, when it comes to relationships, such as friendships, proximity is still one of the biggest determinants. Generally speaking, we are more likely to form relationships with people we actually meet face-to-face through, for example, being in the same class or working at the same place. - Interpersonal Attractiveness: We communicate more with people we are attracted to (McCroskey & McCain, 1974, p. 261). Interpersonal attractiveness encompasses three components: physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and task attractiveness (MrCroskey, McCrowskey, & Richmond, 2006). Physical attractiveness is the degree to which we find another person’s physical features to be pleasing. Social attractiveness encompasses characteristics such as friendliness, charisma, and warmth; whereas task attractiveness pertains to attraction based on another’s abilities, skills, and/or talents. (Alberts, Nakayama, & Martin, 2016, p. 192). Developing Stage The next stage of relationships is the development stage during which our communication and interactions with the other person increases. To help us better understand this stage, four communication theories explain the who, why, and how of relationship development, as well as some differences between face-to-face and mediated-communication relationship development. The theories are: Interpersonal Needs Theory, Social Exchange Theory, Social Penetration Theory, and Hyperpersonal Communication Theory. Interpersonal Needs Theory Interpersonal Needs Theory posits that we are likely to develop relationships with other people if they meet one or more of three basic interpersonal need. These three need operate on a continuum and are influenced by context (Schutz, W., 1966). - Affection: People have a need for affection and appreciation. This need can be fulfilled through family, friendships, and romantic relationships. and Some people may crave many intimate relationships while other may choose to limit them. - Control: The need for control pertains to our ability to influence people, events, and their environments. Just like with affection, some people crave less control of people, events, and their environments while others crave more. For example, in a friendship, one person may want to be the one who always decides where to hang out and the other may be okay with that. However, the need for control can also vary by individual levels of motivation and context. For example, in a friendship we may place less importance on who calls the shots, while in the workplace we may seek greater influence on others and events. - Belonging: Finally, people desire to be around other people. Similar to our other two needs, the need for belonging exists on a continuum, can vary between individuals and is based on context. Some people may limit their interactions or choose smaller groups while others may crave more frequent interactions and attention. Social Penetration Theory A key to understanding Social Penetration Theory is to first understand self-disclosure. Self-disclosure is the process of revealing information about yourself to others that is not readily known by them, and it plays a key role in the formation of relationships. As we get to know someone we engage in a reciprocal process of self-disclosure. The amount of self-disclosure changes in breadth and depth as the relationship develops. Depth pertains to how personal the information is where as breath refers to the range of topics that are discussed. Degrees of self-disclosure range from relatively safe (revealing your hobbies or musical preferences) to more personal topics (illuminating fears, dreams for the future, or fantasies). Typically, as relationships deepen and trust is established, self-disclosure increases in both breadth and depth. We tend to disclose facts about ourselves first (I am a Biology major), then move towards opinions (I feel the war is wrong), and finally disclose feelings (I’m sad that you said that). An important aspect of self-disclosure is the rule of reciprocity. This rule states that self-disclosure between two people works best in a back and forth fashion. When you tell someone something personal, you probably expect them to do the same. When one person reveals more than another, there can be an imbalance in the relationship because the one who self discloses more may feel vulnerable as a result of sharing more personal information. Social Exchange Theory Social Exchange Theory essentially entails a weighing of the costs and rewards in a given relationship (Harvey & Wenzel, 2006). Rewards are outcomes that we get from a relationship that benefit us in some way, such as companionship and/or social support. Costs can range from granting favors to providing emotional support. When we do not receive the outcomes or rewards that we think we deserve, then we may negatively evaluate the relationship, or at least a given exchange or moment in the relationship, and view ourselves as being under-benefited, which could lead to the eventual termination of the relationship. In an equitable relationship, costs and rewards are balanced, which usually leads to a positive evaluation of the relationship and satisfaction. Ultimately, relationships are more likely to succeed when there is satisfaction and commitment, meaning that we are pleased in a relationship intrinsically or by the rewards we receive. Hyperpersonal Communication Theory Hyperpersonal Communication Theory examines how mediated-communication enables communicative advantages and how this can lead to intense, overly intimate, and idealized relationships. People who meet online have a better opportunity to make a favorable impression on the other. This is because we can decide which information we would like to share about ourselves by controlling our self-presentations online (O’Sullivan, 2002), giving us the power to disclose only our ‘good’ traits. According to Walther, we have the ability to present ourselves in highly strategic and highly positive ways. The asynchronous nature of mediated-communication also allows us to think about texts or emails before sending them. Further, prior to sending messages, we can rewrite them for clarity, sense, and relevancy. Online asynchronous experiences allow for “optimal and desirable” communication, ensuring that the messages are of high quality. Additionally, because mediated communication enables us to selectively present ourselves, the exchange lacks ‘contrary cues,’. In face-to-face interactions, we would pay attention to not just what the person says, but also what they do. For example, the other person interacting rudely with a server over dinner would influence our overall impression of that person. However, we don’t necessarily get to see how a person acts with others and the world around them in mediated-communication relationships, which can lead to an idealized view of that other person that may not live up to reality. Maintaining Stage The next stage of relationships is the maintaining stage where the relationship is in a prolonged or continued state of relatively mutual satisfaction for both parties. During this stage, Relational Dialectics Theory can help us better understand how relationships are sustained. Relational Dialectics One way we can better understand our personal relationships is by understanding the notion of relational dialectics. Baxter (1988) describes three relational dialectics that are constantly at play in interpersonal relationships: autonomy-connection, novelty-predictability, and openness-closedness. Essentially, they are a continuum of needs for each participant in a relationship that must be negotiated by those involved. - Autonomy-Connection: refers to our need to have close connection with others as well as our need to have our own space and identity. We may miss our romantic partner when they are away but simultaneously enjoy and cherish that alone time. When you first enter a romantic relationship, you probably want to be around the other person as much as possible. As the relationship grows, you likely begin to desire fulfilling your need for autonomy, or alone time. In every relationship, each person must balance how much time to spend with the other, versus how much time to spend alone. - Novelty-Predictability: is the idea that we desire predictability as well as spontaneity in our relationships. In every relationship, we take comfort in a certain level of routine as a way of knowing what we can count on the other person in the relationship. Such predictability provides a sense of comfort and security. However, it requires balance with novelty to avoid boredom. An example of balance might be friends who get together every Saturday for brunch, but make a commitment to always try new restaurants each week. - Openness-Closedness: refers to the desire to be open and honest with others while at the same time not wanting to reveal everything about yourself to someone else. One’s desire for privacy does not mean they are shutting out others. It is a normal human need. We tend to disclose the most personal information to those with whom we have the closest relationships. However, even these people do not know everything about us. As the old saying goes, “We all have skeletons in our closet,” and that’s okay. It’s important to note that these dialectics are dynamic and that our needs change over time. At times, we may even hold what appear to be contradictory needs. Relationship dissatisfaction is caused when our needs are not being met in a relationship, or when the other person falls on the opposite end of the continuum. For example, if you fall higher on the autonomy end of the continuum and your romantic partner falls higher on the connection end, you may end up feeling smothered or think that the other person is ‘clingy.’ Conversely, the other person may feel like you never want to spend time with them and thus are not as interested in the relationship as they are. Because negative feelings and miscommunication can arise as a result of dialectical imbalances, managing dialectics in a relationship is key. In the Communication Competence section of this chapter, we will discuss some techniques for how to better manage dialectics in relationships to increase relationship satisfaction. Deteriorating Stage In the deteriorating stage, relationships start to decline and may eventually be terminated. Typically, in this stage, people may start to avoid the other person, decrease communication with them, or engage in increased conflict (Verderber & Verderber, 2013). During this stage, Knapp’s Stages of Relational Interaction can help us better understand how relationships deteriorate and/or terminate. While the theory covers both stages of coming together and stages of coming apart, we only focus here on the latter: Differentiating, Circumscribing, Stagnating, Avoiding, and Terminating. Differentiating Differentiating is a process of disengaging or uncoupling; differences between the relationship partners are emphasized, and what was thought to be similar begins to disintegrate. Instead of working together, partners quickly begin to become more individualistic in their attitudes. Conflict is a common form of communication during this stage and oftentimes it acts as a way to test how much the other can tolerate something that may threaten the relationship. Circumscribing To circumscribe means to draw a line around something or put a boundary around it (Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2011). So when someone circumscribes, communication decreases and certain areas or subjects become restricted as individuals verbally close themselves off from each other. They may say things like “I don’t want to talk about that anymore” or “You mind your business and I’ll mind mine.” Stagnating When a relationship has stagnated, it has come to a standstill, as individuals basically wait for the relationship to end. Outward communication may be avoided, but internal communication may be frequent. The relational conflict flaw of mindreading takes place as a person’s internal thoughts lead them to avoid communication. For example, a person may think, “There’s no need to bring this up again, because I know exactly how he’ll react!” This stage can be prolonged in some relationships, and some people may linger here because they don’t know how to end the relationship, want to avoid potential pain from termination, or may still hope to rekindle the spark that started the relationship. Avoiding In this stage, as the name implies, when people engage in avoidance, they try to physically avoid each other. For example, you may decide not to go to a specific social gathering when you know that other person will be there. However, when actual physical avoidance cannot take place, people will simply avoid each other while they’re together and treat the other as if they don’t exist. When avoiding, the individuals in the relationship become separate from one another physically, emotionally, and mentally. When there is communication, it is often marked by antagonism or unfriendliness (“I just don’t want to see or talk to you”). [4] In addition to not spending time with one another, they both begin to avoid the other person’s needs and start to focus solely on themselves. Terminating The terminating of a relationship can occur shortly after a relationship begins or after twenty-year relational history has been established. Termination can result from outside circumstances such as geographic separation or internal factors such as changing values or personalities that lead to a weakening of the bond. Termination exchanges involve some typical communicative elements and may begin with a summary message that recaps the relationship and provides a reason for the termination (e.g., “We’ve had some ups and downs over our three years together, but I’m getting ready to go to college, and I want to be free to explore who I am.”). The summary message may be followed by a distance message that further communicates the relational drift that has occurred (e.g., “We’ve really grown apart over the past year”), which may be followed by a disassociation message that prepares people to be apart by projecting what happens after the relationship ends (e.g., “I know you’ll do fine without me. You can use this time to explore your options and figure out if you want to go to college too or not.”). Finally, there is often a message regarding the possibility for future communication in the relationship (e.g., “I think it would be best if we don’t see each other for the first few months, but text me if you want to.”) (Knapp & Vangelisti, 2009). However, people also often engage in negative termination strategies such as yelling, blaming the other person, or ghosting, which is “the practice of suddenly ending all contact with a person without explanation (Dictionary.com).”	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.061872	2021-07-29T21:18:40	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.02%3A_Stages_of_Relationships", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "8.2: Stages of Relationships", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.03%3A_Communication_Competence	8.3: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover techniques for managing relational dialectics, address contextual nuances surrounding self-disclosure, and discuss the importance of reflecting on how technology impacts others and our relationships Effective Communication: Managing Relational Dialectics (Image: Spaynton , CC BY-SA 4.0) In section 8.2.3.1, we discussed the three dialectics that influence relationship dynamics: autonomy-connection, novelty-predictability, and openness-closedness. Understanding that these three dialectical tensions are at play in all relationships is a first step in understanding how our relationships work. Since the way we communicate our needs (or don’t communicate them) and respond to the needs of others can have both a short and long-term impact on our relationships, we need to learn how to manage dialectics to enhance relationship satisfaction. Depending on the relational context (the nature of the relationship between two people), couples, friends, or family members may have different strategies for managing these tensions in an attempt to meet the needs of each person. Baxter (1988) identifies four ways we can handle dialectical tensions. - Neutralize: The first option is to neutralize the extremes of the dialectical tensions. Here, individuals compromise, creating a solution where neither person’s need (such as novelty or predictability) is fully satisfied. Individual needs may be different and never fully realized. For example, if one person seeks a great deal of autonomy, and the other person in the relationship seeks a great deal of connection, neutralization would not make it possible for either person to have their desires met. Instead, each person might feel like they are not getting quite enough of their particular need met. - Separation: The second option is separation. This is when someone favors one end of the dialectical continuum and ignores the other, or alternates between the extremes . For example, a couple in a long-distance relationship in which each person works in a different city may decide to live apart during the week (autonomy) and be together on the weekends (connection). In this sense, they are alternating between the extremes by being completely alone during the week, yet completely together on the weekends. - Segmentation: When people decide to divide their lives into spheres they are practicing segmentation. For example, your extended family may be very close and choose to spend religious holidays together. However, members of your extended family might reserve other special days such as birthdays for celebrating with friends. This approach divides needs according to the different segments of your life. - Reframing: The final option for dealing with these tensions is a creative technique called reframing. This strategy requires creativity not only in managing the tensions, but also in understanding how they work in the relationship. For example, the two ends of the dialectic are not viewed as opposing or contradictory at all. Instead, they are understood as supporting the other need, as well as the relationship itself. A couple who does not live together, for example, may agree to spend two nights of the week alone or with friends as a sign of their autonomy. The time spent alone or with others may be viewed less as a compromise and more as an opportunity to develop themselves and their own interests so that they are better able to share themselves with their partner and enhance their connection. Relational dialectics are a natural part of our relationships, and there is no one right way to understand and manage dialectical tensions since every relationship is unique. However, to always satisfy one need and ignore the other may be a sign of trouble in the relationship (Baxter, 1988). Therefore it is important to reflect on both our dialectics needs and that of the other and to remember that we have a lot of choice, freedom, and creativity in how we work them out with our relational partners. It is also important to remember that dialectical tensions are negotiated differently in each relationship. The ways we manage dialectical tensions contributes greatly to the communication climate in relationships. Contextual Communication: Self-Disclosure and Context While the mutual disclosure of information can bring people together and strengthen a relationship, inappropriately disclosing information—either to the wrong person, at the wrong place, or at the wrong time—can have negative effects. Below we discuss some contextual nuances to keep in mind when disclosing (or not disclosing) to others. - Physical Context: The physical context in which an interaction takes places can influence the types of disclosure. A quiet coffee shop or the privacy of a home may facilitate disclosure while crowded, public places may not. Disclosing sensitive information in the wrong place can have negative results. For example, disclosing to your long-time romantic partner in a public place (such as a dinner party) that you cheated on them may not go over so well. However, other times you may elect to disclosure in a public place, such as when you fear a violent reaction. Physical context can also encompass virtual spaces, such as social networking sites. Some sites, such as Facebook or Twitter encourage the disclosing of private and personal information. However, if using a social networking site like LinkedIn, you should keep your disclosures professional. When disclosing in online platforms, also keep in mind that what you disclose can never be reversed and may be shared with others. - Relational Context: The relational context, or the relationship between two people, is important to consider when deciding what we should or should not disclose. Generally speaking, personal and private matters are appropriate to discuss in ongoing intimate personal relationships, such as friendships and romantic relationships. However, if you are in a professional relationship, such as those that take place in the workplace, you should typically avoid disclosing overly personal information (unless you are also in an intimate relationship with that individual). When in professional contexts, avoid discussing overly personal information and/or asking others to disclose overly personal information about themselves. When choosing to disclose information to another, consider both the potential positive and negative effects of said disclosure. If you are in an intimate personal relationship, disclosure can enhance the relationship and bring people closer. However, when you disclose information to another, it can potentially have negative repercussions if that person shares your private information, thoughts, or feelings with others. For example, if you disclose to a coworker that you dislike another coworker, they may tell that person, which could in turn cause unwanted workplace conflict. - Individual Context: Individual context and internal motivations will also influence self-disclosure. Some people may disclose more information than others or do so more quickly while others may take more time or be more hesitant. Some people may be motivated to get something off their chest or be seeking advice, support, or validation. However, others may feel vulnerable in disclosing information or fear of a negative reaction and/or rejection. Our past experiences may also influence how much we disclose and who we disclose to. For example, if you have had negative experiences in the past with friends sharing your private information with others, you may be more hesitant to disclose in the future. - Cultural/Co-Cultural Context: Cultural rules and norms exist for disclosure in terms of the privacy and openness surrounding particular topics and what is considered acceptable to disclose (or not), depending on other contextual nuances such as physical location and/or the type of relationship. For example, some cultures value directness and openness while others value privacy. Co-cultural factors also influence disclosures. In particular, gender differences for males and females exist in terms of topics considered okay to talk about and amount of disclosure. Females are typically socialized to disclose more than males, especially when it comes to topics such as feelings and emotions. Reflective Communication: Technology and Relationships Technology has vastly reshaped how we form relationships and communicate with others, whether it be strangers, friends, family, or romantic partners. Reflecting on how we use technology is important, as it may affect others and contribute to relationship satisfaction (or dissatisfaction). - Others: Technology enables anonymity and provides a screen for us to ‘hide’ behind, which can be both good and bad. One advantage is that we may be able to say and communicate things to others that we might not otherwise be able to in face-to-face interactions because of anxiety, fear, and/or vulnerability. However, the disadvantage is that when we can’t see the other person immediately in front of us, we may have less empathy and may say things that we would never say face-to-face. Anonymity can make people less accountable and responsible for their actions. Bullying and flaming (verbally attacking others) are common online and can have adverse effects on others. Taken to the extreme, cyber-bullying has even impacted others to the point where they have attempted suicide or taken their own lives. So, while technology may empower us in some ways, we should keep in mind the famous quote “With great power comes great responsibility.” - Relationships: Finally, technology can both positively and negatively affect the satisfaction of relationships during the beginning, developing, and maintaining stages. As an advantage, we can use technology to begin, develop, and maintain relationships with those who are not in our geographic location. This is beneficial for families, friendships, and romantic relationships where people are separated by distance. For example, if you are in a romantic relationship with a member of the military who gets stationed for three months overseas, you can stay in contact and still maintain a level of closeness that may have been more difficult to achieve in the past. Even little text messages asking about someone’s day or saying “I love you” can help increase overall relationship satisfaction by letting others know we are thinking of them. However, if used too much in relationships, technology may have a negative impact. It’s common to go out to restaurant or bar and observe couples or groups staring at their phone screens versus interacting with each other. Over time, these types of behaviors may lead to people not feeling as close in a relationship and/or relationship deterioration. In addition, the things we post online may impact a relationship. For example, let’s say you told a friend you were staying in for the night but then ended up going to a party. While at the party another friend takes and posts a photo of you on Facebook. When your other friend sees this, it may result in hurt feelings and/or a fight.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.131763	2021-07-29T21:18:41	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/08%3A_Interpersonal_Relationships/8.03%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "8.3: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions	9: Emotions selected template will load here This action is not available. Have you ever been at a movie and let out a bellowing laugh and snort only to realize no one else is laughing? Have you ever gotten uncomfortable when someone cries in class or in a public place? Emotions are clearly personal because they often project what we’re feeling on the inside to those around us, whether we want it to show or not. Emotions are also interpersonal in that another person’s show of emotion usually triggers a reaction from us—perhaps support if the person is a close friend or awkwardness if the person is a stranger. Emotions are central to any interpersonal relationship, and it’s important to know what causes and influences emotions so we can better understand and express our own emotions and better respond to others when they display emotions. In this chapter, we will discuss the dimensions of emotions, perspectives on emotions, and ways to more effectively understand, express, and respond to emotions. We will also explore some contextual considerations, and reflect on the impact of our own emotional expression. Successful students will be able to:	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.205886	2021-07-29T21:18:42	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "9: Emotions", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.01%3A_Communication_Competence	9.1: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover techniques for understanding, expressing, and validating emotions, address contextual nuances surrounding emotional expression, and discuss ways in which our emotional expressions affect us and our relationships with others. Effective Communication: Understanding, Expressing, and Validating Emotions The notion of emotional intelligence emerged in the early 1990s and has received much attention in academic scholarship, business, education, and the popular press. Emotional intelligence “involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action” (Salovey, Woolery, & Mayer, 2001). As the definition of emotional intelligence states, we must then use the results of that cognitive process to guide our thoughts and actions. Just as we are likely to engage in emotion-sharing following an emotional event, we are also likely to be on the receiving end of that sharing. In order to better achieve your communication goals, it’s important to cultivate emotional intelligence. In the following subsections, we will provide strategies that will enable you to better understand and express your own emotions, as well as respond to the emotions of others Understanding Emotions Before we can communicate our emotions to others, we first need to understand what we are feeling and why we are feeling that way. Here are some suggestions we can use to better understand our emotions: Accept your feelings. Before we can do anything else, we have to recognize and accept that we are going to have a wide range of feelings throughout our lives, and that there is nothing wrong with this. At their outset, feelings are not right or wrong; they just exist. When we feel something, we need not be angry or worried. Instead, we can think, “I am feeling this way, and that is acceptable.” Recognize how the body is reacting to your feelings. Feelings are driven by emotions, which are controlled by our brain. We need to take note of our physiological responses when we feel something as this will help us to better cultivate emotional intelligence. For example, we might sweat when we feel scared, our face might become warm when we are embarrassed, and our heart might race when we are angry. Keying into our bodily responses will help us recognize feelings as they come.[1] Understand the basic emotions and learn the vocabulary of feelings. There are eight basic human emotions: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, anticipation, trust, and joy. It is important that we develop an emotional vocabulary as it can be hard to understand and likewise express what we are feeling when we do not have the words to do so. Consider consulting an emotional vocabulary chart, such as the one provided in section 9.1.1, to get a sense of the wide variety of things we might be feeling. Attending to a wide range of possible labels for emotion actually lends nuance and richness to our understanding of the feelings we experience in a given situation (Lindquist, MacCormack, & Shablack, 2015). Using nuanced labels can also influence the way our emotions are perceived by others when we communicate them. Ask yourself what you are feeling and why you are feeling a certain way. Cognitive psychologists assert that our feelings are caused by our thoughts or beliefs. It’s not often we examine and bring attention to these beliefs. Doing so can help us better understand ourselves, and later generate more productive expressions of feeling. Here is a series of questions we can ask ourselves to get at the root of what we are feeling: What am I feeling? Why am I feeling this way? If the feeling is in response to another’s behavior(s)- how do I interpret that behavior and/or why does it bother me? For example, What? “I feel like I am going to cry. Why? Because I am mad at my boss. Why? Because he offended me. Why? Because he does not respect me.” We need to keep going with the series of “why” questions until we reach the bottom-line thoughts that underlie our feelings.[4] Look for irrational or distorted thoughts. Before expressing your emotions to others, and in the interest of better managing negative emotions, you might consider examining them for rationality. Doing so will help you put another rung in your ladder of emotional intelligence. Psychologist Albert Ellis identified a number of dysfunctional beliefs people hold that can lead to unnecessary suffering. Therapists all over the world help their patients identify and work with these beliefs to decrease distress. Among these are the following: • “I must have the approval of others in order to feel good.” • “Other people must behave the way I want them to.” • “Life should be easy and free of suffering.” Ellis posited that these thoughts are unrealistic and can lead to struggle, making us feel “stuck.” With awareness, though, the thoughts can–over time—be replaced with more rational beliefs that lead to healthy functioning. Ask yourself if your negative emotions fit with any of these irrational beliefs. If so, try to reframe the beliefs and repeat them to yourself frequently. Such a practice can help you process and own your emotions before you blame them on others, which could end up having an unintentional but negative (and sometimes even irreversible) effect on your relationships. Expressing Emotions: (Image: © Cathy Thorne/ www.everydaypeoplecartoons.com ; printed with permission for use in Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.)) Understanding our emotions is a key component of emotional intelligence. However, it is also important to know how to effectively communicate those emotions with others. Effectively communicating our emotions has two parts: planning and expressing: PLANNING Identify what emotion(s) you want to communicate. In some situations, we may be feeling several different emotions. Communicating a certain emotion could have either a positive or negative effect on the relationship, so it’s helpful to put some forethought into which ones you want to share. Take some time to consider what you type of conversation you want to have, and what you might hope to get out of it. For example, if your partner has recently been spending time with another person, we may feel resentment and anger, but we might also feel lonely and jealous. In this situation, you could choose to express any of the emotions you feel. However, each will probably take you in a different conversational direction. Disclosing anger might evoke defensiveness. Disclosing jealousy might be perceived as insecurity. Disclosing loneliness might open you up to vulnerability. Remember, referring to an emotional vocabulary chart might help you see a range of options you haven’t considered. Whatever you decide, be honest and know that conversations about emotions are often difficult but can also ultimately lead to greater relational outcomes. Understand why you want to communicate the emotion(s). Before we express our emotions, it’s a good idea to think about our communication goal. In other words, consider what you hope will happen as a result of your expression. Communication goals for expressing emotions may include venting, validation, affirmation, seeking support, etc. Or we may want a specific result from communicating that emotion. For example, if we feel hurt that a friend has been canceling plans with us and we may want to express this so that they don’t continue to do so. When seeking a specific result, we need to make sure to take the time to identify our preferred solution beforehand. Think about where, when, and how you want to communicate your emotions. This is an important part of how our expression will be interpreted by the other person, and could affect how they will react and respond. Consider the physical location of your expression Would it be best in a crowded bar? A park? A family dinner? Additionally, consider the timing of the disclosure. If we are feeling hurt that our romantic partner did not get us a birthday card, we may not want to express this immediately after they come home from a stressful day at work or right before an important meeting. We also need to consider the intensity of our own emotions in choosing appropriate timing. Confronting someone when feeling rage is probably not a good idea. Take time to calm down, breathe, and examine underlying thoughts before we express ourselves. The old saying “never go to bed angry” is out of touch with emotional intelligence. Sometimes sleeping off anger and letting time reduce the intensity of negative emotions is exactly what’s needed before we say something we might regret. Finally, we need to consider how we are going to express our emotions, as in whether it would be best as a face-to-face interaction or via a mediated communication platform, such as text messaging. EXPRESSING Take ownership of your feelings and use “I” language. Using “I” language describes our own feelings and reactions, and acknowledges ownership of them. Compare this to “you” messages, which negatively evaluate the other person’s behavior and places the blame on them. Consider the difference between “I feel worried when I don’t hear right back from you” vs. “You always ignore me!” Beware of starting off with an “I” statement and switching over to a “you” message, as this negates the purpose of using “I” language in the first place. For example, “I feel like you are neglecting me” is not really an “I” message expressing your own emotional reaction. It is, instead, a negative evaluation of another’s behavior. “You” statements such as “you make me feel…” places the blame for your feelings on the other and is likely to cause defensiveness. Instead, rephrase statements to so that they convey your own feelings, as in “I feel lonely when we don’t hang out together” or “I feel anxious because decisions aren’t being made.” Often times, people do not mean to intentionally cause us to experience a negative emotion with their actions, so it is likely to be more effective if we take responsibility for how we are decoding and interpreting the actions of others. Describe the emotion(s), what behavior caused the emotion(s), and the ‘why’ of the emotion(s): - The emotion(s): Explicitly state the emotion(s) you are experiencing. The more specific we can be, the more likely the other will understand what we are feeling. Here, it is important to have a rich and nuanced emotional vocabulary to better understand and express these emotions to others as emotions can be mild, moderate, or intense. For example, consider the difference between the terms sad, melancholy, and despondent. - The behavior: Just as it is important to be able to describe the specific emotion, it is likewise important to describe the specific behavior(s) that triggered that emotion. For example, if our roommate leaves dirty dishes on the kitchen counter we may feel annoyed. When describing the behavior, we should state only what we’ve observed, objectively and specifically, and not in an evaluative or accusatory manner. “Leaving dirty dishes in the kitchen” is an appropriate way to describe behavior, whereas “acting like a jerk” is an evaluation of that behavior, and not very conducive to productive interactions. Instead we could say “I feel annoyed when dirty dishes are left in the kitchen” versus “I feel annoyed when you act like a jerk.” The latter statement also contains a “you” statement versus an “I” statement. - The why: Finally, it’s useful if we include a why in our “I” statement. Consider expressing a reason for why the behavior bothers us and leads to our particular emotional reaction? The why offers an explanation, interpretation, effect, or consequence of the behavior. One example might be “I feel annoyed when dirty dishes are left around the kitchen because it attracts cockroaches.” When describing the why, attempt to avoid “you” language. For example, saying “I feel sad when our plans are broken because you are neglecting me” still inserts that problematic “you,” which suggests blame and could lead to defensiveness. Instead, consider something like “I feel sad when our plans are broken because I want to spend more time together.” “You” can easily creep into all three parts of an “I” message, and can be tricky to avoid at first, so you may want to mentally rehearse or even write down what you plan to say. Also, it is a good idea to repeat the statement back to yourself and think about how you might respond if someone said they exact same thing to you in a similar situation. If it would cause you to react negatively or defensively, revise your statement. You might find that, in some situations, avoiding “you” may not be productive. At times, it might be useful to share the thoughts we attach to another person’s behavior. We can share our perspective by using a phrase such as “I took it to mean…” In this case, “you” might show up in your interpretation. However, you can reduce the potential for defensiveness by using language that reflects tentativeness and ownership. An example of this is “I’m confused about the dishes being left because it seems out of the norm for you, and I’m wondering if there’s some sort of message in this.” Another example might be “I get frustrated when the dishes are left on the counter because I remember talking about this before and I feel like I’m not being heard.” We will learn more about language and actions that contribute to and reduce defensiveness in the next chapter, Chapter 10: Communication Climate. Respect the other’s emotional reaction and boundaries. When we share our emotions with others, expect them to likewise have an emotional reaction to what we disclose. Sometimes people may behave defensively, or become angry, or upset. While “I” messages are useful in helping reduce these negative reactions, it doesn’t always eliminate them. The other person may also experience emotions such as concern, confusion, uncertainty, etc., and may not know how to convey what they are feeling or how to respond. While we may have had the time and forethought to analyze our emotions and plan out what to say, others may not have had this opportunity, and may need some additional time to process the message. In situations like this, it is best to be patient and work to keep your own emotional reactions in check. In addition, listening to and responding to the emotions of others can make some people extremely uncomfortable, so it’s necessary to respect their emotional boundaries. Responding to Emotions (Image: © Cathy Thorne/ www.everydaypeoplecartoons.com ; printed with permission for use in Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.)) Another aspect of emotional intelligence is being able to appropriately respond to another’s emotions, in a way that offers support. One way we can offer emotional support when someone is experiencing a negative emotion (such sadness or anger) is to validate the emotion. Validating the emotions of others is useful because people experience relief when their emotions are recognized and understood by others. In the section below, we cover some guidelines for validating another person’s emotions: DO Engage in a people-oriented listening style. In Chapter 7: Listening, we discussed the various listening styles: people-oriented, action-oriented, content-oriented, and time-oriented. A competent communicator changes style based on the context. As such, a people-oriented style that focuses on the speaker’s feelings—versus an action-oriented style that focuses on problem-solving—would likely be more helpful. Normalize and validate their reaction. We can normalize and validate a person’s feelings by indicating that it is okay and understandable to feel a particular way. For example, we can say something like, “I think most people in that situation would feel that way.” This shows that we think their reactions are reasonable and acknowledges the person’s right to be experiencing their emotions. Try some of the following:[7] “It’s okay to be squeamish about your flu shot. Nobody likes those.” “Of course you’re worried about asking your boss for a promotion. This sort of thing is scary for everyone.” “You’ve been dealing with a lot of stress lately- no wonder you don’t feel like going out today.” Help them elaborate on their feelings. After someone has expressed themselves, we can help them elaborate a bit about what they’re feeling and why. Paraphrases are useful in these situations. For example, we could say something like, “I imagine you’re feeling pretty hurt?” Doing so will show the person their feelings matter to us and that we are trying to understand them, as well as helping them further explore and understand their own emotions.[5] Acknowledge personal history. We can also help by acknowledging how the person’s history affects their emotions. This can be especially helpful if someone is worried they’re being irrational or unreasonable. While the person may be reacting in a way that seems over-the-top, we can help them understand they’re still allowed to feel their feelings. Try things like the following:[8] “Given how Pat treated you, I totally understand why you’d want to take a break from dating. That’s a lot to recover from.” “After that wreck you were in last week, I can see why you’d be hesitant to get back behind the wheel.” Help the person re-frame/re-appraise the situation. After validating someone’s emotions, it can be useful to help them re-frame or re-appraise the situation. When we do this, we provide information or observations that they may have missed, and we can offer another perspective or opinion. This encourages the speaker to try to see the situation in a different light. For example, if a friend is upset because their romantic partner has been spending less time with them and they are worried the other is losing interest in the relationship, we may offer an observation that their partner may just be busier than normal due to the promotion they just received. AVOID Avoid correcting someone’s thoughts or telling them how to feel. Avoid the tendency to attempt to correct someone’s thoughts or feelings, especially when they are upset. If someone is being irrational, we may be inclined to try to talk them out of it. However, this can come off as negating the person’s feelings, as in the example, “That’s not something that’s worth getting angry about.” In addition, telling someone to “calm down” may imply they are being irrational, may invalidate their feelings, and/or may come off as you trying to tell them how to feel. Also, it’s okay to disagree with someone, and we can acknowledge emotions and feelings without directly agreeing with someone’s message or behavior. Instead, we can say something like, “I understand why that would make you angry.” Avoid giving unsolicited advice. Many times, when people tell us about a problem, they just want to be heard. Before you say something like “just ignore them” or “look on the bright side,” stop and listen more closely to what they are saying, and focus on sympathizing first. Listening is an important first step to helping others. After listening and acknowledging feelings we can ask if and/or how we can help. Sometimes it can be unclear whether or not someone wants our help or advice, so we can simply ask “Are you coming to me for advice, or would you just like to vent?” Avoid blaming. Blaming someone for their feelings, especially when they’re very upset, may come off as suggesting their feelings are not valid. You may want to avoid responses such as these:[11] “Whining about it isn’t going to make it any better. Man up and deal with it.” “You’re overreacting.” “So you decided to be mad at your best friend. How’s that working for you?” “Well, maybe he wouldn’t have treated you that way if you hadn’t been wearing such a short skirt.” Avoid trying to “hoover” their feelings. Hoovering means vacuuming up any unpleasant feelings and pretending they aren’t there.[12] Examples include:[13]”Oh, it’s not so bad.” “It’s not a big deal.” “Let’s stay positive.” “Just toughen up.” “Look on the bright side.” Avoid trying to fix their feelings. Sometimes we may try to help our loved ones stop hurting simply because we don’t want them to be upset. While well-intended, it usually doesn’t help them feel better long-term, and they may feel like it is their fault for still being unhappy after our efforts.[14] Instead, we can help by listening to the whole story and validating their feelings along the way. Then, we can ask how we can help or offer to brainstorm solutions. If helping them brainstorm, we should be conscious that we aren’t telling them what to do. We can also phrase things to show that we are speaking for ourselves or from our own experience. We can do this by beginning our statements with phrases like, “For me,” “In my experience,” and “Personally.” For example, “In my experience, it’s best to let go of someone who doesn’t want to be in my life. I’d rather spend time with the people who matter, like you.” Contextual Communication: Emotional Rules and Norms are influenced by the Context Whether you are expressing your emotions or trying to understand and respond to the emotions of others, emotions, like all communication, are contextual. Physical context can play a key role in what type of emotion is appropriate to display. For example, it may be okay to cry at a funeral, but not in the workplace. The relationship we have with another person can also shape what should or shouldn’t be expressed. You probably should not share private emotions with a complete stranger while waiting in line at the grocery store and instead reserve those for people with whom you are close. Individuals also have different personalities and life experiences, so they vary in terms of what emotions they are comfortable expressing and how they interpret the behaviors of others. While all contexts are important, two in particular shape the expression of emotions in significant ways: culture and co-culture Culture While our shared evolutionary past dictates some universal similarities in emotions, emotional triggers and norms for displaying emotions vary widely. Certain emotional scripts that we follow are culturally situated and affect our day to day interactions. Display rules are cultural norms that influence emotional expression. Display rules influence who can express emotions, which emotions can be expressed, where they can be expressed, and how intense the expressions can be. In individualistic cultures, where personal experience and self-determination are values built into cultural practices and communication, expressing emotions is viewed as a personal right. In collectivistic cultures, emotions are viewed as more interactional and less individual, which ties them into social context rather than into an individual right to free expression. An expression of emotion reflects on the family and cultural group rather than only on the individual. Therefore, emotional displays are more controlled, because maintaining group harmony and relationships is a primary cultural value, which is very different from the more individualistic notion of having the right to get something off your chest. Cultural norms can also dictate which types of emotions can be expressed. In individualistic cultures, especially in the United States, there is a cultural expectation that people will exhibit positive emotions. People seek out happy situations and communicate positive emotions even when they do not necessarily feel positive emotions. Being positive implicitly communicates that you have achieved your personal goals, have a comfortable life, and have a healthy inner self (Mesquita & Albert, 2007). This cultural predisposition to express positive emotions is not universal. The people who live on the Pacific islands of Ifaluk do not encourage the expression of happiness, because they believe it will lead people to neglect their duties (Mesquita & Albert, 2007). Co-Culture While emotional display rules exist for larger cultural groups, they can also vary based on co-cultural factors, like gender identity. In the U.S. many norms have been socially constructed for emotional expression based on whether you present yourself as a man or woman. It is a common misconception that males do not (or should not) feel emotions and that females are ‘overly emotional.’ Biological sex has no influence on our ability to experience a particular emotion. Gender is socially constructed, so our emotional expressions are based on the gendered scripts and norms we are given to follow. “Boys don’t cry” is one obvious example. Girls are likewise encouraged to express positive emotions by constantly being told things such as “you should smile more” or “you would look prettier if you smiled.” In addition, the way an emotional expression is perceived by others is influenced by our gender identity. For example, if a female is not overly emotionally expressive they may be perceived as cold, or if they express anger they may be labeled a ‘bitch.’ Conversely, men may be called weak if they cry or ‘pussy-whipped’ if they express too much love and devotion in a relationship. Emotions such as jealousy may be romanticized and interpreted as ‘caring’ or ‘protective’ when exhibited by men, but may be construed as ‘clingy’ or ‘insecure’ for women. Reflective Communication: Emotions Can Affect Us, Others, and Our Relationships Emotional competence entails thinking about the potential effects of particular emotional expressions. Specifically, what we choose to express (or not to) may affect our own emotional well-being, the perception others may have of us, and our relationships with others. How Emotions Affect Us Expressing emotions can have important effects on our well-being, depending on how and with whom we share our emotions. Emotions convey information about our needs; negative emotions can signal that a need has not been met and positive emotions can signal that it has been meet. In some contexts, conveying this information can have a negative impact. For example, a person may choose to ignore or exploit our needs after we’ve disclosed an emotion.[30] Researchers note that there are numerous important benefits to expressing emotions selectively. In the case of distress, expression can help us take control of our emotions and facilitate meaning-making to help better reappraise our situation. For instance, emotional expression through writing can help us better understand our feelings, and subsequently regulate our emotions or adjust our actions.[31] In addition, sharing our emotions with others can cause relief and inner satisfaction. While expressing emotions has implications for how we feel, emotional expression can also influence how others see us, both positively and negatively. Individuals who inappropriately express emotions like anger or jealousy may be perceived as irrational. Individuals who express negative emotions, in particular, may also appear less likeable as a result.[33] How Our Emotions Affect Others: We should also be aware that our expressions of emotion are infectious due to emotional contagion, or the spreading of emotion from one person to another (Hargie, 2011). Think about a time when someone around you got the giggles and you couldn’t help but laugh along with them, even if you didn’t know what was funny. While those experiences can be uplifting, the other side of emotional contagion can be unpleasant. For example, if someone constantly interjects depressing comments into the happy dialogue, it can change the mood of the conversation. We’ve probably all worked with someone or had that family member who can’t seem to say anything positive, and this can cause frustration and annoyance. How Emotions Affect Relationships Emotional expression has implications for our relationships as well. Our social bonds are enhanced through emotion sharing because the support we receive from our relational partners increases our sense of closeness and interdependence. When someone responds to our emotional expressions with empathy and validation, our relationship with that person can improve. Additionally, emotional expression to someone else can be viewed as a form of disclosure and sign of trust with that person, thus promoting intimacy. Greater expression of emotions or willingness to express negative emotions, such as anxiety or fear, promotes the formation of more relationships, greater intimacy in those relationships, and more support from others.[30][33] Conversely, lack of sharing, lack of empathy, and invalidation of emotions can cause relationship dissatisfaction and even deterioration. Sharing our emotions may also be a necessary part of effective problem-solving and conflict management, a topic that will be covered in Chapter 11: Interpersonal Conflict.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.293080	2021-07-29T21:18:45	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.01%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "9.1: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.02%3A_Defining_Emotions	9.2: Defining Emotions selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define emotions and explain the difference between two different types of emotions: primary and secondary. Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and/or communicative reactions to stimuli that are cognitively processed and experienced as emotional (Planlap, Fitness, & Fehr, 2006). Emotions are often internally experienced through physiological changes such as increased heart rate, a tense stomach, or a cold chill. These physiological reactions may not be noticeable by others and are therefore intrapersonal unless we exhibit some change in behavior that clues others into our internal state or we verbally or nonverbally communicate our internal state. Sometimes our behavior is voluntary—we ignore someone, which may indicate we are angry with them—or involuntary—we fidget or avoid eye contact while talking because we are nervous. When we communicate our emotions, we call attention to ourselves and provide information to others that may inform how they should react. For example, when someone we care about displays behaviors associated with sadness, we are likely to know that we need to provide support (Planlap, Fitness, & Fehr, 2006). We learn, through socialization, how to read and display emotions, although some people are undoubtedly better at reading emotions than others. However, as with most aspects of communication, we can all learn to become more competent with increased knowledge and by learning the difference between our primary and secondary emotions. Since these emotions require more processing, they are more easily influenced by thoughts and can be managed, which means we can become more competent communicators by becoming more aware of how we experience and express secondary emotions. Although there is more cultural variation in the meaning and expression of secondary emotions, they are still universal in that they are experienced by all cultures. It’s hard to imagine what our lives would be like without emotions, and in fact many scientists believe we wouldn’t be here without them.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.454426	2021-07-29T21:18:43	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.02%3A_Defining_Emotions", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "9.2: Defining Emotions", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.03%3A_Perspective_on_Emotions	9.3: Perspective on Emotions - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will discuss the evolutionary function of emotions and how they are affected by social and cultural norms. Perspectives on Emotions How did you learn to express your emotions? Like many aspects of communication and interaction, you likely never received any formal instruction on expressing emotions. Instead, we learn through observation, trial and error, and through occasional explicit guidance (e.g., “boys don’t cry” or “smile when you meet someone”). To better understand how and why we express our emotions, we’ll discuss the evolutionary function of emotions and how they are affected by social and cultural norms. The fact that human beings were able to group together and create interpersonal bonds was a key element in the continuation and success of our species, and the ability to express emotions played a role in this success (Planlap, Fitness, & Fehr, 2006). For example, unlike other species, most of us are able to control our anger, and have the capacity for empathy. Emotional regulation can help manage conflict, and empathy allows us to share the emotional state of someone else, which increases an interpersonal bond. These capacities were important as early human society grew increasingly complex and people needed to cope as they lived with more and more people. A dependable and nurturing caregiver helps establish a secure attachment style that will influence emotions and views of relationships in later life. Attachment theory ties into the evolutionary perspective because researchers claim that it is in our nature, as newborns, to create social bonds with our primary caretaker (Planlap, Fitness, & Fehr, 2006). This drive for attachment became innate through the process of evolution because early humans who were more successful at attachment were more likely to survive and reproduce—repeating the cycle. Attachment theory proposes that people develop one of the following three attachment styles as a result of interactions with early caretakers: secure, avoidant, or anxious attachment (Feeney, Noller, & Roverts, 2000). It is worth noting that much of the research on attachment theory has been based on some societal norms that are shifting. For example, although women for much of human history have played the primary caregiver role, men are increasingly taking on more caregiver responsibilities. Additionally, although the following examples presume that a newborn’s primary caregivers are his or her parents, it is also possible that extended family, foster parents, or others may play that role. Individuals with a secure attachment style report that their relationship with their parents is warm, and that their parents also have a positive and caring relationship with each other. People with this attachment style are generally comfortable with intimacy, feel like they can depend on others when needed, and have few self-doubts. As a result, they are generally more effective at managing their emotions, and they are less likely to experience intense negative emotions in response to a negative stimulus like breaking up with a romantic partner. People with the avoidant attachment style report discomfort with closeness and a reluctance to depend on others. They quickly develop feelings of love for others, but those feelings lose intensity just as fast. As a result, people with this attachment style do not view love as long lasting or enduring and have a general fear of intimacy because of this. This attachment style might develop due to a lack of bonding with a primary caregiver. People with the anxious attachment style report a desire for closeness but anxieties about being abandoned. They regularly experience self-doubts and may blame their lack of love on others’ unwillingness to commit rather than their own anxiety about being left. They are emotionally volatile and more likely to experience intense negative emotions such as anxiety and anger. This attachment style might develop because primary caregivers were not dependable or were inconsistent—alternating between caring or nurturing and neglecting or harming. This process of attachment leads us to experience some of our first intense emotions, such as love, trust, joy, anxiety, or anger, and we learn to associate those emotions with closely bonded relationships (Planlap, Fitness, & Fehr, 2006). For example, the child who develops a secure attachment style and associates feelings of love and trust with forming interpersonal bonds will likely experience similar emotions as an adult entering into a romantic partnership. Conversely, a child who develops an anxious attachment style and associates feelings of anxiety and mistrust with forming interpersonal bonds will likely experience similar emotions in romantic relationships later in life. In short, our lifelong emotional tendencies are influenced by whether we form loving and secure bonds or unpredictable and insecure ones, which inevitably affects our relationships. Of course, later in life, we have more control over and conscious thoughts about this process. Although it seems obvious that developing a secure attachment style is the ideal scenario, it is also inevitable that not every child will have the same opportunity to do so. But while we do not have control over the style we develop as babies, we can exercise more control over our emotions and relationships as adults if we take the time to develop self-awareness and communication competence.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.513228	2021-07-29T21:18:44	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/09%3A_Emotions/9.03%3A_Perspective_on_Emotions", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "9.3: Perspective on Emotions", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate	10: Communication Climate selected template will load here This action is not available. Do you feel organized or chaotic in a small workspace? Are you more productive when the sun is shining than when it’s gray and cloudy outside? Just as factors like physical space and the weather impact us, communication climate can influence our interpersonal interactions. In this chapter, we will define and explore the basic principles of communication climate. Then, we will lay out some strategies for identifying, achieving and responding to communication climate. Lastly, we will explore how context influences perceptions of climate, and address reasons communication climate is important in interpersonal relationships and in society. Successful students will be able to:	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.587078	2021-07-29T21:18:46	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "10: Communication Climate", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.01%3A_Defining_Communication_Climate	10.1: Defining Communication Climate selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define what communication climate is. Communication climate is the “overall feeling or emotional mood between people” (Wood, 2018). For example, you may prefer hanging out with one of your friends because they make you laugh and dread hanging out with another because they constantly criticize you. The first friend may create a positive, or warm climate, whereas the other friend may create a negative, or cold climate. The communication climate is created because of other people and the type of communication that takes place during an interaction. You probably have relationships or interpersonal interactions that feel cloudy, stormy, calm, sunny, warm, or cold. Throughout this chapter, we will focus on the latter two as an overarching analogy for understanding communication climate and look at how the emotional “temperature” of relationships or interactions is affected by behaviors that are often perceived (and felt) as “warm” and “cold.” For example, messages that convey respect and acceptance tend to feel warm and those that convey hostility and judgment tend to feel cold. Warm behaviors tend to meet human social needs, and cold behaviors do not. The knowledge we gain in this chapter will help us better understand why some relationships and interactions feel warmer than others. Understanding climate also helps us communicate more purposefully in order to better meet our interpersonal goals.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.652710	2021-07-29T21:18:47	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.01%3A_Defining_Communication_Climate", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "10.1: Defining Communication Climate", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.02%3A_Principles_of_Communication_Climate	10.2: Principles of Communication Climate - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section we will discuss the five principles of communication climate: messages contain relational subtexts that can be felt; climate is conveyed through words, action, and non-action; climate is perceived; climate is determined by social and relational needs; and relational messages are multi-leveled. Messages contain relational subtexts that can be felt In addition to generating and perceiving meaning in communicative interactions, we also subtly (and sometimes not so subtly) convey and perceive the way we feel about each other. As we discussed in Chapter 1: Introduction to Communication, almost all messages operate on two levels: content and relational. As a reminder, the content is the substance of what’s being communicated (the what of the message). The relational dimension isn’t the actual thing being discussed and instead can reveal something about the relational dynamic existing between you and the other person (the who of the message). We can think of it as a kind of subtext, an underlying (or hidden) message that says something about how the parties feel toward one another. For example, when deciding on a TV program, your partner might politely suggest, “I’d like to watch this show, how about you?” The content of the message is about what they want to watch. The relational subtext is subtle but suggests your partner values your input and wants to share decision-making control. The climate of this interaction is likely to be neutral or warm. However, consider how the relational subtext changes if your partners insists (with a raised voice and a glare): “We are WATCHING THIS SHOW tonight!” The content is still about what they want to watch. But what is the subtext now? In addition to what your partner wants to watch, they seem to be sending a relational message of dominance, control and potential disrespect for your needs and wants. You might be hearing an additional message of “I don’t care about you,” which is likely to feel cold, eliciting a negative emotional reaction such as defensiveness or sadness. Climate is conveyed through words, action, and non-action Relational subtexts can be conveyed through direct words and actions. A student making a complaint to an instructor can be worded with respect, as in “Would you have a few minutes after class to discuss my grade?” or without, as in “I can’t believe you gave me such a crappy grade, and we need to talk about it right after class!” We can often find more of the relational meaning in the accompanying and more indirect nonverbals—in the way something is said or done. For example, two of your coworkers might use the exact same words to make a request of you, but the tone, emphasis, and facial expression will change the relational meaning, which influences the way you feel. The words “can you get this done by Friday” will convey different levels of respect and control depending upon the nonverbal emphasis, tone, and facial expressions paired with the verbal message. For example, the request can be made in a questioning tone versus a frustrated or condescending one. Additionally, a relational subtext might also be perceived by what is NOT said or done. For example, one coworker adds a “thanks” or a “please” and the other doesn’t. Or, one coworker shows up to your birthday coffee meetup and the other doesn’t. What do these non-actions suggest to you about the other person’s feelings or attitude towards you? Consider for a moment some past messages (and non-messages) that felt warm or cold to you. Climate is perceived Relational meanings are not inherent in the messages themselves. They are not literal, and they are not facts. The subtext of any communicative message is in the eye of the beholder. The relational meaning can be received in ways that were unintentional. Additionally, like content messages, relational messages can be influenced by what we attend to and by our expectations (as discussed in Chapter 3: The Perception Process and Perception of Others). They also stand out more if they contrast with what you normally expect or prefer. You might interpret your partner’s insistence on watching a certain show to mean they are bossy. However, your partner might have perceived you to be the bossy one and is attempting to regain loss of decision control. Control could be exerted because doing so is the accepted relational dynamic between you, or it could be a frustrated reaction to a frequent loss of decision control, which they want to regain. Here, it needs to be noted that the relational message someone hears at any given time is a perception and doesn’t necessarily mean the message received was the message intended. Meanings will depend on who is delivering it and in what context. Cultural and co-cultural context will also impact the way a message is interpreted, which we will discuss later in the Communication Competence section of this chapter. In addition, later in this chapter we will discuss metacommunication, a way to address climate and relational subtexts in interactions in order to clarify intent and increase shared meaning. Climate is determined by social and relational needs While relational messages can potentially show up in dozens of different communicative forms, they generally fall into categories that align with specific types of human social needs that vary from person to person and situation to situation. In addition to physical needs, such as food and water, human beings have social and relational needs that can have negative consequences if ignored. Negative consequences can range from frustrating work days to actual death (in cases of infants not getting human touch and attention and the elderly who suffer in isolation). Scholars categorize social needs in many different ways. Recall the discussion of Interpersonal Needs Theory from Chapter 8: Interpersonal Relationships, which explained that we are more likely to develop relationships with people who meet one or more of three basic interpersonal needs: affection, control, and belonging. We want to be liked or loved. We want to be able to influence others and our own environments (at least somewhat). We want to feel included. Each need exists on a continuum from low to high, with some people needing only a little of one and more of another. The level of need also varies by context, with some situations calling for more affection (e.g., romantic relationships) and others calling for less (e.g., workplace). Another framework for categorizing needs comes from a nonviolent communication approach used by mediators, negotiators, therapists, and businesses across the world. This approach focuses on compassion and collaboration and categorizes human needs with more detail and scope. For example, categories include freedom, connection, community, play, integrity, honesty, peace, and the needs to matter and be understood. When people from all cultures and all walks of life all over the world are asked “Do you need these to thrive?” the answer—with small nuances—is always “yes” (Sofer, 2018). During interactions, we detect on some level whether the person with whom we are communicating is meeting a particular need, such as the need for respect. We may not really be aware, on a conscious level, of why we feel cold toward a coworker. But, it is likely that the coworker’s jokes, eyerolls, and criticisms toward you feel like a relational message of inferiority or disrespect. In this case, your unmet need for dignity, competence, respect or belonging may be contributing to your cold reaction toward this person. When other people’s messages don’t meet our needs in whole or in part, we tend to have an emotionally cold reaction. When messages do meet our needs, we tend to feel warm. Consider how needs may be met (or not met) in when you are in a disagreement of opinion with someone else. For example, needs may be met if we feel heard by the other and not met if we feel disrespected when we present our opinion. In a different example, consider all the different ways you could request that someone turn the music down. You could do both of these things with undertones (relational subtexts) of superiority, anger, dominance, ridicule, coldness, distance, etc. Or you could do them with warmth, equality, playfulness, shared control, respect, trust, etc. Relational messages are multi-leveled On one level, we want to feel that our social needs are met and we hope that others in our lives will meet them through their communication, at least in part. On another level, though, we are concerned with how we are perceived; the self-image we convey to others is important to us. We want it to be apparent to others that we belong, matter, are respected, understood, competent, and in control of ourselves. Some messages carry relational subtexts that harm or threaten our self-image, while others confirm and validate it. To help better understand this second level of relational subtexts, let’s discuss the concept of “face needs.” Face refers to our self-image when communicating with others (Ting-Toomey, 2005; Brown and Levinson, 1987; Lim and Bowers, 1991). It does not refer to our physical face, but more of an unsaid portrayal of the image that we want to project to others, and sometimes even to ourselves. Most of us are probably unaware of the fact that we are frequently negotiating this face as we interact with others. However, on some level, whether we are aware of it or not, many of our social needs relate to the way we want to be perceived by others. Specifically, we not only want to feel included in particular groups, we also want to be seen as someone who belongs. We want to feel capable and competent, but we also want others to think we are capable and competent. We want to experience a certain level of autonomy, but we also want to be seen as free from the imposition of others. Communication subtexts such as disrespect tend to threaten our face needs, while other behaviors such as the right amount of recognition support them. Once again, we can apply the temperature analogy here. When we perceive our “face” to be threatened, we may feel cold. When our face needs are honored, we may feel warm. Effective communication sometimes requires a delicate dance that involves addressing, maintaining, and restoring our own face and that of others simultaneously. Because both our own needs and the needs of others play an important role in communication climate, throughout the rest of this chapter we will utilize the following three general categories when we refer to social needs that can be addressed through communication: - Need for Connection: belonging, inclusion, acceptance, warmth, kindness - Need for Freedom: autonomy, control, freedom from imposition by others, space, privacy - Need for Meaning: competence, capability, dignity, worthiness, respect, to matter, to be understood	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.715904	2021-07-29T21:18:48	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.02%3A_Principles_of_Communication_Climate", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "10.2: Principles of Communication Climate", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.03%3A_Frameworks_for_Identifying_Types_of_Climate_Messages	10.3: Frameworks for Identifying Types of Climate Messages selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will examine two frameworks for understanding and identifying relational messages that contribute to communication climate: confirming versus disconfirming messages and supportive versus defensive messages. Many of the common behaviors that can lead to a cold climate are performed in an automatic state of mind, without forethought or strategy. Exploring these types of messages in pairs helps us be better able to mindfully recognize warm climate alternatives that might be better received. Confirming messages convey another person’s value and worthwhile disconfirming messages may suggest someone is devalued and unimportant. Obviously, most of us like to receive warm confirming messages because they foster emotional safety as well as personal and relational growth. However, it is likely that many of the messages you receive and give are somewhere between the two extremes. Let’s look at three specific types of confirming and disconfirming messages. Consider how each may meet or not meet our social needs. Another useful framework for understanding communication climate can be found in the six defensive and supportive behavior pairs proposed by psychologist Jack Gibb in 1965, adapted here with some pairs re-named for clarity. These six behaviors are, on the one hand, likely to generate an emotional climate of defensiveness (cold) and are, on the other, likely generate a supportive climate (warm). In the box below, we define and give examples of each of the six pairs: evaluation/description, manipulation/straightforwardness, control/collaboration, indifference/empathy, superiority/equality, certainty/flexibility. In addition, we propose some possibilities for how climate might be perceived by the recipients of such behavior and why it might be perceived that way.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.787025	2021-07-29T21:18:48	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.03%3A_Frameworks_for_Identifying_Types_of_Climate_Messages", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "10.3: Frameworks for Identifying Types of Climate Messages", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.04%3A_Communication_Competence	10.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover cognitive and behavioral skills to help us more effectively create the communication climate we want to experience, contextual nuances in interpersonal needs, and discuss the importance mindfulness and awareness. Effective Communication: Cognitive and Behavioral Skills Cognitive skills involve thinking about others and behavioral skills involve actionable things we can actually say and do. Specifically, we will cover three skills for more effective climate messages: empathy, quadruple thinking, and metacommunication. Empathy You may have heard empathy defined as the ability to (metaphorically) “put yourself in someone else’s shoes,” to feel what another may be feeling. This description is technically accurate on one level, but empathy is actually more complex. Our human capacity for empathy has three levels: cognitive, affective, and compassionate. The first is cognitive and involves more thinking than feeling. A more appropriate metaphor for this level is “putting on someone else’s perception glasses,” to attempt to view a situation in the way someone else might view it. It requires thinking about someone else’s thinking, considering factors that make up someone’s unique perceptual schema, and trying to view a situation through that lens. For example, employees don’t always view things the way managers do. A good manager can see through employee glasses and anticipate how workplace actions, decisions, and/or messages may be interpreted. The second level is affective, or emotional, and involves attempting to feel the emotions of others. The “shoes” metaphor fits best for this level. Attempting to truly feel what other humans feel requires envisioning exactly what they might be going through in their lives. Doing so effectively might even require “taking off your own shoes.” For example, to empathize with a complaining customer, we can temporarily put our own needs aside, and really picture what it would feel like to be the customer experiencing the problem situation. Your own need might be to take care of the complaint quickly so you can go to lunch. Yet, if it were you in the problem situation, you would likely want someone to be warm, attentive, and supportive, and take the time needed to solve the problem. This level of empathy is often confused with sympathy, something with which you are probably already very familiar. The two are related but are not the same. Feeling sympathy means feeling bad for or sorry about something another person might be going through, but understanding and feeling it from your own perspective, through your own perception glasses, and in your own shoes. We all recognize that losing a pet is likely to be devastating for someone. We therefore feel sympathy for our friend because their dog died. However, feeling empathy requires making an effort to see the situation through their glasses and shoes. What this means is that we consider how they may see and feel the situation differently from us. For instance, we may have experienced many pet losses and even human losses in your life, so yet another pet loss may not feel that significant to us. But, if this is your friend’s first significant loss, they may likely feel more devastation than we would. We can respond more appropriately and with more warmth by letting go of our own perspective and attempting to see and feel the situation as they might. Another way to distinguish between sympathy and empathy is by seeing sympathy as “feeling for…” (as in feeling sorry for or feeling compassion for another person) and empathy as “feeling with…” as in actually feeling the emotions of another person. The third level of empathy is the compassionate concern for the well-being of our fellow humans (Goleman, 2006). Feeling empathy at this level motivates us to act compassionately in the interest of others. Examples may include dropping off a casserole for a grieving friend, taking some of your coworker’s calls when they are especially busy or stressed, or organizing a neighborhood clean-up. With this level of empathy, we sense what people need and feel compelled to help. Most of us are usually able to empathize at this level with people who are important to us. Strategies for building empathy: While empathy comes more naturally for some people than others, it is a skill that can be developed (Goleman, 2006) with a greater awareness of and attention to the perception process. Remember that perception is unique to each person. We all interpret and judge the world through our own set of perception glasses that are framed by factors such as upbringing, family background, ethnicity, age, attitude, knowledge of person and situation, past experiences, amount of exposure to others, social roles, etc. Below addresses specific ways to build our empathy muscles. The strategies fall into two categories: adding information to the rims of our perception glasses and bringing attention to the perception process itself. Add more information to our perception glasses. In order to add more information to our perception glasses, we need to find out what we can about a situation or person with whom we are seeking to understanding and empathize. We can do this by: - Taking in information: When we observe, listen, question, perception check, paraphrase, pay attention to nonverbals and feelings, we take information in rather than putting information out (e.g., listening more and talking less). - Broaden or narrow our perspective: Sometimes we feel stuck, allowing one interaction with one person to become all-consuming. If we remember how big the world is and how many people are dealing with similar situations right now, we gain perspective that helps us see the situation in a different way. On the other hand, sometimes we generalize too broadly, seeing an entire group of people in one way, or assuming all things are bad at our workplace. Focusing on one person or one situation a time is another way to helpfully shift perspectives. - Imagine or seek stories and info (through books, films, articles, technology): We can learn and imagine what people’s lives are really like by reading, watching, or listening to the stories of others. - Seek out actual experiences to help us understand what it’s like to be in others’ shoes: We can do something experiential like a ride-along with a police officer or spend a day on the streets to really try to feel what it’s like to be in a situation in which we are not familiar. Bring attention to the perception process. Pull down our own perception glasses and try on a pair of someone else’s. Thinking about our thinking is a process called metacognition. By turning our attention toward the way we perceive information and how that perception makes us feel. What factors make up the rims of our glasses and how do these factors shape our perspectives, thoughts, feelings, and actions? Consider what makes another person unique, and what rim factors may influence the person’s perspectives and feelings. We should try to see the situation through those glasses, inferring how unique perceptual schemas might shape the others person’s emotions and actions too. Remember, though, we can never be certain how or why people do what they do. Only they know for sure. But communication can be more effective if we at least give some type of speculative forethought before we act or react. And when in doubt, we can always ask. Climate-Centered Message Planning Our second mindful competence skill is called Climate-Centered Message Planning (CCMP), which is a term coined by Gerber and Murphy (2019). CCMP refers to the conscious encoding (planning and forethought) involved in meeting communication goals. CCMP requires two steps and takes the basics of empathy a bit further into message construction. The steps include: 1. Think about what we want to say or do. What is our goal? What outcome(s) do we hope to achieve? What message or behaviors are we considering? What needs do we hope to fulfill? What emotional temperature do we hope to create? Which behaviors or message strategies will help us achieve it? 2. Think about how the other person (or persons) might hear (or perceive) what we say. Here, we should put on their perception glasses and consider as many factors as possible that affect how the person might see and feel our message. We should think about whether the message is likely to be perceived and received as intended. If not, rethink what we want to say so that they will be more likely hear what you want them to hear (so a person is more likely to interpret your messages as you intend it to be interpreted). Remember once again, we can never completely ensure that someone “hears what we want them to hear” (interprets what we intended). However, with some awareness and forethought, we can ensure there’s a better chance of it. CCMP also helps us with better awareness of how what we say and how we say it may impact another person’s relational or face needs. Our consideration of what human beings “need” will help us infer how they might react to messages emotionally, intellectually, or relationally. Doing so helps us communicate more effectively and appropriately whatever our goal may be. Metacommunication Our third skill is an action skill: the skill of metacommunication. It, too, requires mindfully elevating awareness beyond the content level of communication, but also requires us to actually discuss things such as needs and relational messages aloud. Metacommunication literally means communicating about communication, and occurs when we talk to each other about any part of the communication process, including what is said or done, how it is interpreted, how we feel, what we wish had been said or done, etc. For example, metacommunication occurs anytime you say “It’s frustrating when you interrupt me,” or “I wish you’d have asked me before you made that decision.” Other forms of metacommunication bring relational messages and social needs right to the surface level for discussion. For example, if you said “when you brought that up in front of my friends, I felt embarrassed and undignified,” or “when I don’t hear from you, I feel less connected to you.” Metacommunication can involve any of the skills we’ve learned so far (“I” messages, perception checking, etc.) and can be used deliberately to address our own wants, needs, or to clarify our intentions when something we’ve expressed may have been ill-received. Scholar and speaker Brene Brown recommends using phrases such as “the story I’m making up about this is…” to explain the way we perceived something and “help me better understand” as a form of listening to understand how another person may have perceived something. Metacommunication can help us in the middle of interactions to clarify and prevent misunderstandings as we both send and receive messages. For example, if you notice someone reacting in a way you didn’t intend, you can ask about it (“how are you feeling right now? What are you hearing me say?”) or you can clarify your intent and adjust (“My intent was not for you to feel disrespected. How can I say this differently so that you hear my respect for you?”). We can also respond to the cold relational messages of others with “When you say it that way, I hear not only what you’re saying but an extra message that you don’t think I’m capable” or “not giving me options leaves me feeling boxed in and I really want to feel more freedom in this relationship.” Contextual Communication: Context and Needs Context influences all of our communication, but it also has important implications when it comes to the interpersonal needs we have discussed throughout this chapter. Below we discuss how three types of contextual nuances that influence our needs: relational, individual, and co-cultural. - Relational Context: Based on the relational context, the relationship we have with others (friend, colleague, etc.), different people will meet different needs. We may expect a specific type of relationship to meet one need (but not the other) or place more or less importance on that relationship meeting a particular need. For example, in workplace relationships with colleagues, managers, or people we manage we may expect these people, and place higher value on these people meeting needs pertaining to competence, capability, control, etc. We may not expect these relationships to, or place lesser importance on them, meeting needs such as warmth and kindness. Conversely, we may expect intimate relationships with friends and romantic partners to satisfy needs related to connection, and not expect them to, or place less importance, on them meeting needs like control. - Individual Context: Individuals tend to vary in the level of desire for certain needs to be met. We may have low needs in one area and medium or high needs in another. For example, we may have a high need for connection and a low need for freedom. Conversely, another individual may have a low need for connection and high need for freedom. We also see a difference between how much needs are wanted (we want our needs met from others) and expressed (how much we want and do work toward meeting these needs in others). For example, we may have a need to feel respected but do little to show respect to another to meet their respect need. - Co-Cultural Context: Group membership and identity based on factors like gender, generation, social class, etc. can influence the value placed on a particular need. For example, men are often taught (through socialization) to strongly value the needs of autonomy, control, freedom from imposition by others, space, and privacy. Conversely, women are often taught to place higher value on needs of belonging, inclusion, warmth, and kindness. Because of this, it is important to recognize what we genuinely want in terms of needs- not just what we think we should want or were told we should value. Reflective Communication: Mindfulness The word mindfulness refers to “paying attention on purpose,” and has many uses in personal and work life. For interpersonal communication purposes, mindfulness relates to becoming more conscious of how we encode and decode messages. We can better meet our communication goals with increased awareness of how communication carries relational subtexts, how those subtexts may be perceived to meet (or not meet) social needs, and how those perceptions might result in a warm or cold emotional temperature. As with all communication competence skills, awareness helps us shift from a habitual or automatic state of being and thinking to a mindful and thoughtful state where we put more effort, attention and forethought into what we hope to accomplish and why. Becoming mindful of climate means increasing awareness of the needs of self and others before, during, and after interactions. It requires reflecting on of our own desires, thought processes and emotional reactions, and with applied forethought, thinking about and speculating about those of others. Learning about relational messages and social needs gives us access to a greater variety of perceptual frameworks through which to view communication (e.g., how might this message be received by others?). It also requires that during interactions we observe, reflect on, and attend to others’ emotional reactions and shift gears midstream if necessary. For example, if mid-interaction we observe a person’s outward response that seems to indicate embarrassment, shame, agitation or defensiveness, we can adjust our behavior or discuss and clarify our intent. We may even take notice of an interaction after it occurred, reviewing it and considering how well it went or how we might do better next time. Through awareness, reflection, mindfulness we can build a cognitively complex repertoire of skill, knowledge, and motivation that helps us engage in a skillful dance of communication that attempts to honor social needs. Practice Consider what you might say and do to convey the given relational subtext. - How might you decline a friend’s invitation to coffee with respect and affection? - How could you address an employee’s need for autonomy when telling her she is needed to work this weekend? The need for dignity? - How might you disagree with a classmate’s politics by recognizing their need for inclusion? Respect? The need to matter? - How might you address the autonomy or affection needs of your significant other when you request that they come home on time tonight?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.857174	2021-07-29T21:18:49	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/10%3A_Communication_Climate/10.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "10.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict	11: Interpersonal Conflict selected template will load here This action is not available. Which of your relationships contain the most conflict right now? Your answer to this question probably depends on the various contexts in your life. If you live with family, you may have daily conflicts as you try to balance your autonomy with the practicalities of living under your family’s roof. Or if you live with friends, you may be negotiating roommate conflicts. You probably also have experiences managing conflict in romantic relationships and in the workplace. Think back and ask yourself, “How well do I handle conflict?” As with all areas of communication, we can improve if we have the background knowledge to identify relevant communication phenomena and the motivation to reflect on and enhance our communication skills. In this chapter, we will define interpersonal conflict, describe common conflict approaches, and explain how to be more competent when it comes to more effectively managing conflict in our lives. Successful students will be able to:	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.932259	2021-07-29T21:18:50	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "11: Interpersonal Conflict", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.01%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict	11.1: Interpersonal Conflict selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will define interpersonal conflict and explain the importance of managing it constructively. Conflict occurs due to real or perceived incompatible goals, scarce resources, or opposing viewpoints. It can be expressed both verbally and/or nonverbally, explicated stated or passively conveyed, and ranges on a continuum from nearly imperceptible (e.g., giving someone the ‘cold shoulder’) to very obvious (e.g., verbally yelling). Conflict is an inevitable part of close relationships and can take a negative emotional toll. It takes effort to ignore someone or to be passive aggressive, and the negative feelings of anger or guilt we may feel after blowing up at someone are valid. However, conflict isn’t always negative or unproductive. In fact, numerous research studies have shown that the number of conflicts in a relationship is not as important as how the conflict is handled (Markman et al., 1993). Improving your competence in dealing with conflict can yield positive effects in the real world. Since conflict is inevitable in our personal and professional lives, the ability to manage conflict and negotiate desirable outcomes can help us be more successful. Whether you are trying to decide what brand of flat-screen television to buy with your partner or discussing the upcoming political election with your mother, the potential for conflict is present. Being able to manage conflict situations can make life more pleasant as opposed to what we may feel if we let a situation stagnate or escalate. Additionally, when conflict is well managed, it has the potential to lead to more rewarding and satisfactory relationships (Canary & Messman, 2000). The negative effects of poorly handled conflict could range from an awkward last few weeks of a semester with a college roommate to violence or divorce.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:35.997534	2021-07-29T21:18:51	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.01%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "11.1: Interpersonal Conflict", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.02%3A__Conflict_Management_Styles	11.2: Conflict Management Styles - - Last updated - Save as PDF Would you describe yourself as someone who prefers to avoid conflict? Do you like to get your way? Are you good at working with someone to reach a solution that is mutually beneficial? Odds are that you have been in situations where you could answer yes to each of these questions. You may also find that one of the above approaches is preferable for most situations you face, making it your primary or “go-to” conflict style. Conflict management styles are the communication strategies we use that attempt to avoid, address, or resolve a conflict. In this section, we will describe five approaches for managing conflict: competing, avoiding, accommodating, compromising, and collaborating. Each of these conflict styles emphasize a dynamic between concern for self and others. In order to better understand the elements of the five styles of conflict management, we will apply each to the following scenario. Amal and Vaughn have been married for seventeen years. Amal is growing frustrated because Vaughn continues to give money to their teenager, Sasha, even though they both decided to keep Sasha on a fixed allowance. While conflicts regarding money and child rearing are very common, we will see the numerous ways that Amal and Vaughn could approach this problem as we address each of the five styles. We rarely are conscious of our approach. Rather, unless we’ve been trained, we tend to handle conflict habitually, in the default ways we’ve been conditioned through observing others (e.g., family, culture). Competing The competing style indicates a high concern for self and a low concern for other. When we compete, we are striving to “win” the conflict, potentially at the expense or “loss” of the other person. One way we may gauge our win is by being granted or taking concessions from the other person. For example, if Vaughn gives Sasha extra money behind Amal’s back, then Vaughn is taking an indirect competitive route. The competing style also involves the use of power, which can be noncoercive or coercive (Sillars, 1980). Noncoercive strategies include requesting and persuading. Amal could try to persuade Vaughn to stop giving Sasha extra allowance money by bringing up their fixed budget or by reminding Vaughn that they are saving for a summer vacation. Coercive strategies may include aggressive communication directed at rousing your partner’s emotions through insults, profanity, and yelling, or through threats of punishment if you do not get your way. If Amal is the primary income earner in the family, they could use that power to threaten to take Vaughn’s ATM card away if Vaughn continues to give Sasha money. In all these scenarios, the “win” that could result is only short term and can lead to conflict escalation, even in the seemingly innocuous noncoercive situation, because the core of the conflict was not resolved. Each parent’s goals for Sasha may still be incompatible. Interpersonal conflict is rarely isolated, meaning ripple effects can occur that connect the current conflict to previous and future conflicts. Vaughn’s behind-the-scenes money giving or Amal’s confiscation of the ATM card could lead to built-up negative emotions that could further test the relationship. Avoiding The avoiding style of conflict management often indicates a low concern for self and a low concern for other, and no overt or direct communication about the conflict takes place. However, in some cultures that emphasize group harmony over individual interests, and even in some situations in the United States, avoiding a conflict can indicate a high level of concern for the other. In general, avoiding doesn’t mean that there is no communication about the conflict. Remember, you cannot not communicate. Even when we try to avoid conflict, we may intentionally or unintentionally give away our feelings through our verbal and nonverbal communication. Amal’s sarcastic tone when telling Vaughn “You are soooo good with money!” and subsequent eye roll both bring the conflict to the surface without specifically addressing it. The avoiding style is either passive or indirect, which may make this style less effective than others. We may decide to avoid conflict for many different reasons, some of which are better than others. If you view the conflict as having little importance to you, it may be better to ignore it. If the person with whom you’re in conflict with will only be working in your office for a week, you may perceive a conflict to be temporary and choose to avoid it, hoping it will solve itself. If you are not emotionally invested in the conflict, you may be able to reframe your perspective and see the situation in a different way, therefore resolving the issue. In all these cases, avoiding doesn’t really require an investment of time, emotion, or communication skill, so there is not much at stake to lose. However, while it may be easy to tolerate a problem when you’re not personally invested in it or view it as temporary, when faced with a situation like Amal and Vaughn’s, avoidance may just make the problem worse. For example, avoidance could first manifest as changing the subject, and then progress from avoiding the issue to avoiding the person altogether, to even ending the relationship. Indirect strategies of hinting and joking also fall under the avoiding style. When we hint, we drop clues that we hope our partner will find and piece together to see the problem and hopefully change, thereby solving the problem without any direct communication. However, often the person dropping the hints overestimates their partner’s detective abilities. For example, when Amal leaves the bank statement on the kitchen table in hopes that Vaughn will realize how much extra money is being given to Sasha, Vaughn may simply ignore it. We also overestimate our partner’s ability to decode the jokes we make about a conflict situation. It is more likely the receiver of the jokes will think you’re genuinely trying to be funny or feel provoked or insulted than realize the conflict situation that you are referencing. More frustration may develop when the hints and jokes are not accurately decoded, which often leads to a more extreme form of hinting/joking: passive-aggressive behavior. Passive-aggressive behavior is a way of dealing with conflict in which one person indirectly communicates negative thoughts or feelings through nonverbal behaviors, such as not completing a task. For example, Amal may wait a few days to deposit money into the bank so Vaughn can’t withdraw it to give to Sasha. Although passive-aggressive behavior can feel rewarding in the moment, it is one of the most unproductive ways to deal with conflict. However, as noted above, avoidance can be appropriate in some situations—for example, when the conflict is temporary, when the stakes are low or there is little personal investment, or when there is the potential for violence or retaliation. Accommodating The accommodating conflict management style indicates a low concern for self and a high concern for other, and is often viewed as passive or submissive, in that someone complies with or obliges another. Basically, accommodating entails doing what the other wants, whereas avoiding is doing nothing in a situation. It should be noted that sometimes avoiding often leads to accommodating indirectly as not addressing a problem or voicing our opinion can lead others to perceive that we are okay with doing things their way. The context for and motivation behind accommodating play an important role in whether or not it is an appropriate approach. Generally, we accommodate because we are being generous, we are obeying, we are yielding (Bobot, 2010). If we are being generous, we accommodate because we genuinely want to. If we are obeying, we don’t have a choice but to accommodate (perhaps due to the potential for negative consequences or punishment). If we yield, we may have our own views or goals but give up on them due to fatigue, time constraints, or because a better solution has been offered. Accommodating can be appropriate when there is little chance that our own goals can be achieved, when we don’t have much to lose by accommodating, when we feel we are wrong, or when advocating for our own needs could negatively affect the relationship (Isenhart & Spangle, 2000). The occasional accommodation can be useful in maintaining a relationship. For example, Amal may say, “It’s OK that you gave Sasha some extra money. Sasha did have to spend more on gas this week since the prices went up.” However, being a team player can slip into being a pushover, which people generally do not appreciate. If Amal keeps telling Vaughn, “It’s OK this time,” the family may find themselves short on spending money at the end of the month. Compromising The compromising style shows a moderate concern for self and other. Even though we often hear that the best way to handle a conflict is to compromise, the compromising style isn’t a win/win solution; it is a partial win/lose. In essence, when we compromise, we give up some or most of what we want. It’s true that the conflict gets resolved temporarily, but lingering thoughts of what you gave up could lead to a future conflict. Compromising may be a good strategy when there are time limitations or when prolonging a conflict may lead to relationship deterioration. Compromise may also be good when both parties have equal power or when other resolution strategies have not worked (Macintosh & Stevens, 2008). Compromising may help conflicting parties come to a resolution, but neither may be completely satisfied if they each had to give something up. Compromising versus Accommodating People often get accommodating and compromising confused. Accommodating means sacrificing your needs/wants/desires for what the other wants, without them giving anything in return. When you compromise, both parties give something and gain something. A negative of compromising is that it may be used as an easy way out of a conflict. The compromising style is most effective when both parties find the solution reasonably agreeable. If Amal values using allowance to teach responsibility and Vaughn wants to give Sasha an extra twenty dollars a week to make Sasha’s life easier, they may decide to compromise by giving Sasha ten more dollars a week. Collaborating The collaborating style involves a high degree of concern for self and other, and usually indicates investment in the conflict situation and the relationship. Although the collaborating style takes the most work in terms of communication competence, it can ultimately lead to a win/win situation in which neither party has to make concessions because a mutually beneficial solution is discovered or created. The obvious advantage is that both parties are satisfied, which could strengthen the overall relationship and may lead to positive problem-solving in the future. For example, Amal and Vaughn may agree that Sasha’s allowance needs to be increased and may decide to give Sasha twenty more dollars a week in exchange for babysitting their five-year old sibling. In this case, they didn’t make the conflict personal but focused on the situation and came up with a solution that may end up saving them money. The disadvantage is that this style is often time consuming, and only one person may be willing to use this approach while the other person may be eager to either compete or accommodate. Problem-Solving When trying to collaborate on solving a conflict, it is useful to use the following five-step problem-solving sequence: - Identify the problem(s). - Analyze the problem(s), the causes, and symptoms. In other words, how did the problem come about and why are you having this conflict? - Identify the goals/needs of each person in the conflict. In other words, what does each person want? - Identify solutions that might solve the problem and meet the goals/needs of the conflict participants. Be creative and think outside the box if necessary. - Evaluate the solutions that were identified. When evaluating the solutions, you should consider the following: Will it solve the problem? Will it satisfy the goals/needs of the conflict participants? What are some potential issues that might arise when the choice is implemented? Here are some tips for collaborating and achieving a win/win outcome (Hargie, 2011): - Avoid viewing the conflict as a contest you are trying to win. - Remain flexible and realize there are solutions yet to be discovered. - Separate between the person and the problem (don’t make it personal). - Determine the underlying needs driving the other person’s demands. - Identify areas of common ground or shared interests that you can work from to develop solutions. - Ask questions to allow them to clarify and to help you understand their perspective.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.066796	2021-07-29T21:18:52	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.02%3A__Conflict_Management_Styles", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "11.2: Conflict Management Styles", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.03%3A_Communication_Competence	11.3: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will cover techniques for approaching and responding to conflict, address cultural nuances surrounding conflict approaches, and reflect on some common conflict triggers. Effective Communication: Approaching and Responding to Conflict and Apologizing While many tend to think of conflict as negative, it isn’t inherently so, and you can use effective interpersonal communication skills to manage conflict constructively. This could potentially transform a negative situation into something that is positive and cathartic. However, it is important to note that conflict involves more than one person, and that the other person or people in the conflict may not have the knowledge or skills of effective communication. Despite this, having just one person knowledgeable in conflict management skills can help deescalate the situation and better resolve the conflict. Below, we will discuss how to approach a conflict situation and how to effectively apologize in situations where you have wronged another person. Approaching Conflict To effectively approach someone about a conflict, consider the strategies below. Prepare. Before approaching someone, be sure to define the problem, your goals, and brainstorm potential solutions that you think will solve the problem. Also, take into consideration how, when, and where you will approach the other person with the problem. Usually it is best to approach someone privately versus in a public location around other people. Take ownership. Recognize that the conflict consists of at least two people. Whether it is a disagreement or hurt feelings, both people play a role in the conflict. Be assertive, not aggressive. Being assertive means stating the message in a clear, direct manner while respecting the other person. Aggressiveness entails attacking another’s self-esteem, blaming, expressing hostility, and name-calling. Behaving aggressively is unlikely to yield the results you want. Start with Facework. In Chapter 10: Communicate Climate we discussed facework strategies that avoid embarrassing, blaming, and/ ascribing motives to the other. Using these strategies when approaching conflict can help reduce defensiveness in the other person. (As a reminder, some good facework starters include ‘You may not have meant it this way…’ or ‘You may not be aware of this, but…’). Describe the conflict in terms of Behavior, Consequences, and/or Feelings. When you approach the other person, be sure to include the behavior(s) involved in the conflict and either the consequences of said behavior or how it makes you feel (or both). - Behavior(s): Tell the other person what the behavior is and when it occurred. In other words, what did the person specifically do or say and when did this occur? Be sure the description of the behavior is specific, objective, and observable, with no meaning, interpretation, or significance attached. For example: “Your voice raised last night when we were discussing finances…” vs “You were being a jerk last night.” “You didn’t respond to my texts yesterday” vs “You are ignoring me.” Starters include “I noticed recently that…” - Consequences: Describe the reason(s) you are bothered by the behavior(s) or what happens in your life or someone else’s life as result of the behavior you described. Starters: “This bothers me because…” “What happens when…” - Feelings: Describe the emotions you are experiencing as a result of the interpretation you attached to the behavior. Be sure to say things like “I feel…” rather than “you make me feel…” or “you hurt my feelings” Starter: “I feel (emotion)…” Use “I” statements. As mentioned in previous communication competence sections throughout this book, “I” statements are key in communication. (For example, “I interpret this behavior x to mean”… versus “you are inconsiderate”). Be sure the other person understands your problem. Invite them to paraphrase and ask additional questions. Don’t be offended or deterred if they have trouble understanding the problem at first, respond defensively or angrily, try to deflect responsibility, or need some time to respond. Remember, not everyone has learned effective communication skills, and needing time to process the information they are receiving should be expected. Phrase your preferred solution in a way that focuses on common ground. Try to identify solutions that meet the goals/needs for both parties. This means utilizing the collaborative approach. Also, avoid framing your solution in a way that makes it seem as if it is the only or even best solution. Instead, solicit potential suggestions from the other. Responding to Conflict When another person approaches you about a conflict, consider the strategies below. Listen to what the other has to say. If you are in situation where another person approaches you with an issue, you can usually help deescalate the situation by listening to what the other person has to say. Sometimes this can be hard, as our immediate reaction may be to deny, or to become defensive or emotional. However, try to listen objectively and demonstrate effective listening skills such as using back-channel cues, asking questions, and paraphrasing to show understanding. When you do this, you are able to gain more information and better understand the other’s perspective and feelings, which will enable you to constructively address the situation Validate what the other person has to say. You do not need to agree but you can show that you recognize and understand the other person’s feelings and thoughts about the situation. Doing so can help to neutralize the tension and enables you to then offer your own or a different perspective and work towards identifying solutions via the collaborative approach to conflict. Take ownership and apologize if necessary. Sometimes conflict occurs because you have done something that has negatively impacted another person in some way, whether intentional or unintentional. When this happens, it is necessary to offer a sincere apology to alleviate hurt feelings and/or prevent the situation from escalating. In some situations, not apologizing and/or apologizing ineffectively (e.g., “my bad”) can exacerbate the situation. Non-apologies or ineffective apologies can be potentially problematic by escalating a simple mistake or misunderstanding into a full-scale conflict, and can result in long-term feelings of resentment and/or the issue being brought up later on (often again and again). Ask the other for preferred solutions or engage in problem solving to identify some. Ask for suggestions and/or work together to brainstorm solutions that might meet both of your needs. Be creative and think outside the box when possible. Evaluate proposed solutions and decide on the necessary actions needed to move forward. Be sure to reflect on how you will keep yourself and the other accountable to implementing solutions. Contextual Communication: Culture and Conflict There is no absolute right or wrong way to handle a conflict. A competent communicator assesses contextual nuances and applies or adapts communication tools and skills to fit the dynamic situation. In this section, we will specifically focus on the role of cultural context when approaching conflict situations, as it is important to understand how various groups value, approach, and respond to conflict in interpersonal relationships. Recent research has called into question some of the assumptions behind the five conflict management styles discussed so far, which were formulated with a Western bias (Oetzel, Garcia, & Ting-Toomey, 2008). For example, the avoiding style of conflict has been cast as a negative option in the U.S., emphasizing it’s focus on the low concern for self and other or as a lose/lose outcome. However, some countries viewed avoiding strategies as demonstrating a concern for the other. We can better understand some of the cultural differences in conflict management by further examining the concept of face. Our face is the projected self we desire to put into the world, and facework, as discussed in Chapter 10: Communication Climate refers to the communicative strategies we employ to project, maintain, or repair our face or maintain, repair, or challenge another’s face. Cultural factors influence whether we are more concerned with self-face or other-face and which types of conflict management strategies we may use. One key cultural influence on face negotiation is the distinction between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Individualistic cultures like the United States emphasize individual identity over group identity and encourage competition and self-reliance. Collectivistic cultures value in-group identity over individual identity and value conformity to social norms of the in-group (Dsilva & Whyte, 1998). Individualistic or collectivistic cultural orientations affect how people engage in facework and the conflict management styles they employ. Individualistic cultures tend to favor self-face concerns and collectivistic cultures tend to employ other-face strategies. Someone from an individualistic culture, like the United States, may be more likely to engage in competing as a conflict management strategy if they are directly confronted, which may be an attempt to defend their reputation (self-face concern). Someone in a collectivistic culture, may be more likely to engage in avoiding or accommodating in order not to embarrass or anger the person confronting them (other-face concern) or out of concern that their reaction could reflect negatively on their family or cultural group (other-face concern). While these distinctions are useful for categorizing large-scale cultural patterns, it is important not to essentialize or arbitrarily group countries together, because there are measurable differences within cultures. Reflective Communication: Conflict Triggers A key to handling conflict effectively is to notice patterns of conflict in specific relationships and to generally have an idea of what causes you and others to react negatively. Four common triggers for conflict are criticism, demand, cumulative annoyance, and rejection (Christensen & Jacobson, 2000). Criticism We all know from experience that criticism, or comments that evaluate another person’s personality, behavior, appearance, or life choices, may lead to conflict. Comments do not have to be meant as criticism to be perceived as such. If Gary comes home from college for the weekend and his mom says, “Looks like you put on a few pounds,” she may view this as a statement of fact based on observation. Gary, however, may take the comment personally and respond negatively back to his mom, starting a conflict that will last for the rest of his visit. However, in many cases, we can consider alternative ways to phrase things that may be taken less personally, or we may determine that our comment doesn’t need to be spoken at all. A majority of the thoughts we have about another person’s physical appearance, especially when negative, do not need to be verbalized. Ask yourself, “What is my motivation for making this comment?” and “Do I have anything to lose by not making this comment?” If your underlying reasons seem valid, perhaps there is another way to phrase your observation. If Gary’s mom is worried about his eating habits and health, she could wait until they’re eating dinner and ask him how he likes the food choices at school and what he usually eats. Remember the tips from Chapter 10: Communication Climate about criticism that honors interpersonal and face needs. Demands Demands also frequently trigger conflict, especially if the demand is viewed as unfair or irrelevant. It’s important to note that demands rephrased as questions may still be or be perceived as demands. Tone of voice and context are important factors here. As with criticism, thinking before you speak and before you respond can help manage demands and minimize conflict episodes. If you are doing the demanding, include more information in the exchange to make your demand clearer or more reasonable to the other person. Consider making a request instead, in a way that honors the other person’s interpersonal and face needs. If you are being demanded of, responding calmly and expressing your thoughts and feelings are likely more effective than withdrawing, which may escalate the conflict. Cumulative Annoyance Cumulative annoyance is a building of frustration or anger that occurs over time, eventually resulting in a conflict interaction. For example, your friend shows up late to drive you to class three times in a row. You didn’t say anything the previous times, but on the third time you say, “You’re late again! If you can’t get here on time, I’ll find another way to get to class.” Cumulative annoyance can build up like a pressure cooker, and as it builds up, the intensity of the conflict also builds. Criticism and demands can also play into cumulative annoyance. Probably, we have all let critical or demanding comments slide, but if they continue, it becomes difficult to hold back, and most of us have a breaking point. The problem here is that all the other incidents come back to your mind as you confront the other person, which usually intensifies the conflict. You’ve likely been surprised when someone has blown up at you due to cumulative annoyance or surprised when someone you have blown up at didn’t know there was a problem building. You are more likely to have success with conflict management if you stick to addressing the problematic behavior, without judgment. If you are the subject of someone else’s built up frustration, remember to employ empathy and listening skills. Rejection No one likes the feeling of rejection. Rejection can lead to conflict when one person’s comments or behaviors are perceived as ignoring or invalidating the other person. Vulnerability is a component of any close relationship. When we care about someone, we verbally or nonverbally communicate. We may tell our best friend that we miss them, or plan a home-cooked meal for our partner who is working late. The vulnerability that underlies these actions comes from the possibility that our relational partner will not notice or appreciate them. When someone feels exposed or rejected, they often respond with anger to mask their hurt, which ignites a conflict. Managing feelings of rejection is difficult because it is so personal, but controlling the impulse to assume that your relational partner is rejecting you, and engaging in communication rather than reflexive reaction, can help put things in perspective. If your partner doesn’t get excited about the meal you planned and cooked, it could be because he or she is physically or mentally tired after a long day. Concepts discussed throughout this book, such as empathy, perception checking, listening skills and facework can be useful here. Apologizing An apology is an expression of remorse for something you’ve done wrong and serves as a way to repair a relationship after that wrongdoing. A good apology will communicate three things: regret, responsibility, and remedy.[2] Apologizing for a mistake might seem difficult, but it will help us repair and improve our relationships with others. Below are some suggestions for crafting apologies. As you review these, consider how each might be effective because it addresses the interpersonal and face needs we covered in Chapter 10: Communication Climate. Give up the idea of being “right.” Arguing about the details of an experience that involves more than one person is usually frustrating because two people may experience the same situation very differently. An apology needs to acknowledge the other person’s feelings, regardless of whether you think they’re “right” or not.[3] For example, imagine that you went out to the movies without your partner. Your partner felt left out and hurt. Instead of arguing about whether they are “right” to feel this way or whether you were “right” to go out, acknowledge that they felt hurt in your apology. Use “I”-statements. When you apologize, don’t push responsibility for the offense off on to the other person. [4] For example, a very common but ineffective way of apologizing is to say something like, “I’m sorry your feelings were hurt” or “I’m sorry you feel that way.” An apology does not need to apologize for the other person’s feelings. It needs to acknowledge your responsibility, and these types of statements don’t. Rather, they push the responsibility back onto the person who was hurt.[5][6] Instead, keep the focus on you. “I’m sorry I hurt your feelings” or “I’m sorry that my actions upset you.” Accept responsibility and be specific. Be as specific as possible when you accept responsibility as it is more likely to be meaningful to the other person, because it shows you have paid attention to the situation.[26][27] Saying something like “I’m a terrible person” isn’t attentive to the specific behavior or situation that caused the hurt. Instead state what, specifically, caused the hurt. For example, “I should never have snapped at you for picking me up late.” State your regret. Express your empathy toward the other person and acknowledge the other person’s feelings as real and valued.[24] For example, you could begin an apology by saying “I’m sorry I made that choice. Looks like you are really hurt, and that matters to me.” Avoid justifying your actions and blaming the other person. It’s natural to want to justify your actions when explaining them to another person. However, presenting justifications will often negate the meaning of an apology, because the other person may perceive the apology as insincere.[7] Justifications may include claims that the person you hurt misunderstood you, such as “you took it the wrong way” or a denial of injury, such as “it wasn’t really that bad.” Also, don’t try to put the blame on the other person. For example, “Well, if you didn’t put the cup on the counter, I wouldn’t have knocked it off.” Use excuses cautiously. An apology may express that your offense was not intentional or aimed at harming the person. However, you must be careful that your reasons for your behavior don’t slip into justifying away the harm you did.[8] Examples of excuses might include denying your intent or a denial of volition, such as “I was drunk and didn’t know what I was saying.” Use these types of statements carefully, and make sure that you always acknowledge the hurt you did first before following it with any reasons for your behavior.[9] Find the right time. Even if you immediately regret something, an apology may not be effective if it comes in the middle of a highly emotional situation. [15] Waiting until you have collected yourself will help you say what you mean to say and make sure that your apology is meaningful and complete. Just don’t wait too long. Waiting days or weeks to apologize can do damage too.[16] In professional settings, it’s a good idea to make your apology as soon after the mistake as possible. Choose a quiet or private setting for the apology. Also, make sure you have enough time to have a complete conversation. Rushed apologies are often ineffective.[18] State how you will remedy the situation. Apologies are likely to be most successful if you offer a suggestion about how you will do things differently in the future, or repair the hurt in some way.[28] For example, “I never should have snapped at you for picking me up late. In the future, I will stop to think more carefully before I say things.”	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.145461	2021-07-29T21:18:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/11%3A_Interpersonal_Conflict/11.03%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "11.3: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication	12: Power and Communication selected template will load here This action is not available. What comes to mind when you think of power? Is having power over others a good or a bad thing? What about others having power over you? Like most people, your answer is likely influenced by the amount of power you personally perceive yourself to have and the ways in which the power others possess has affected your life. While power isn’t inherently good or evil, it is important to understand and recognize how power dynamics shape our life choices, interactions, and relationships with others in significant ways. In this chapter, we will define what power is, describe its principles, and discuss various types of individual and persuasive power. We will also address communication competence and strategies for communicating effectively in situations where we feel less powerful, examine the link between co-culture, culture, and power, and reflect on some common ways in which power is misused in relationships. Successful students will be able to:	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.222777	2021-07-29T21:18:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "12: Power and Communication", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.01%3A_Defining_Power	12.1: Defining Power selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we will explain what power is. Power is the capacity of an individual, group, or social structure to direct, influence, or control the behaviors, thoughts, and/or feelings of others. The use of power can involve ideology, persuasion, intimidation, coercion, or force and it can be tied to resources, money, institutions, positions, or co-cultural membership (such as gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, etc.) Power operates on individual, cultural, and structural levels as well as in our interpersonal relationships. It also generates privilege for individuals and groups of people that hold it and likewise causes disadvantages and oppression for groups who don’t. However, we also have the capacity to empower ourselves and others.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.286300	2021-07-29T21:18:55	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.01%3A_Defining_Power", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "12.1: Defining Power", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.02%3A_Principles_of_Power	12.2: Principles of Power selected template will load here This action is not available. In this section, we address five principles of power: power is a both a perception and fact, is relative and contextual, is influenced by dependence and investment, is prerogative, and generates privilege. Power is a perception in the sense that we may think we have power over another person or that they have power over us, when we or they do not. For example, if you were the lead on a project at work, you may think that particular position gives you control and/or influence over the other group members. However, if they don’t perceive you to have any power over them and don’t listen to what you tell them to do and you have no way to enforce consequences, then you really don’t. In addition, if we admire, respect or love others, we may give them power over us they otherwise wouldn’t have. Conversely, power is also a fact, as there are individuals, groups, and social structures—such as institutions—who can and do direct and control our actions. For example, police officers have the authority to physically restrain people and the legal system has the power to incarcerate. Power exists in all relationships, both personal and professional. How much power we have in comparison to another person may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. In some relationships we may have more, while in others we may have less. For example, you may have equal power in your romantic relationship, more power over your child, but less power at your job. Power can increase and decrease, based on context, and over time. For example, the physical context can influence how much power we have in a particular location. We may have more power in our homes, but less power in other locations, such as a classroom. Culture and co-culture also influence power, as some groups hold more power than others. Since culture and coculture play an important role in power dynamics, this subject is addressed more in-depth in section 12.4.2: Contextual Communication: Culture, Co-culture, and Power. Power is influenced by our level of dependence and investment in a particular relationship, position, or resource. Generally speaking, those who have more dependence or investment are less powerful, while those with less dependence or investment have greater power. For example, someone who is economically dependent on their job but disagrees with a co-worker would be less likely to confront them out of fear of the consequences. As another example, if someone has more emotional investment in a romantic relationship than the other has, then they will have less relational power. The prerogative principle states that the person with more power can make and break the rules. Powerful people can violate norms, break relational rules, and manage interactions without as much penalty as powerless people. These actions may reinforce the dependence power someone holds over another. In addition, the more powerful person has the prerogative to manage both verbal and nonverbal interactions. They can initiate conversations, change topics, interrupt others, initiate touch, and end discussions more easily than less powerful people. Power, whether it is held by an individual or group, grants certain privileges. Often those with privilege do not realize they hold it because it seems normal and natural, and people usually only focus on the way in which they are disadvantaged. For example, someone who is white but of lower-socioeconomic status may not recognize the privileges they have based on skin color and instead focus on the ways in which they are disadvantaged due to social class. It is also important to note that because of our unique positionalities and intersecting identities we are often simultaneously privileged in some ways and disadvantaged in others.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.356597	2021-07-29T21:18:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.02%3A_Principles_of_Power", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "12.2: Principles of Power", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.03%3A_Individual_and_Persuasive_Power	12.3: Individual and Persuasive Power - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will discuss six types of power individuals possess and ways messages can be used to influence the thoughts, behaviors, and actions of others through the use of persuasive tactics. Individual Power Individuals possess six types of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, expert, and informational. These types of power may overlap, differ according to the manner in which they are implemented, and differ in the ways each type of power is established and maintained.[3] - Coercive power: Coercive power uses the threat of force to gain compliance from another. Force may include physical, social, emotional, political, or economic means. This type of power is based upon the idea of coercion, and common tactics include threats and punishment. For example, coercion occurs when we imply or threaten that someone will be fired, demoted, or given undesirable assignments. - Reward power: Reward power is based on the right of some to offer or deny tangible, social, emotional, or spiritual rewards to others for doing what is wanted or expected of them. If others expect to be rewarded for doing what someone wants, there’s a high probability that they’ll do it. Reward power (positive reward) is seen when a child is given money for earning better grades or a student is admitted into an honor society for excellent effort. - Legitimate power: Legitimate power comes from an elected, selected, or appointed position of authority. Legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power such as a uniform, a title, or an imposing physical office. People traditionally obey the person with this power solely based on their role, position, or title rather than someone’s personal leadership characteristics. A police officer is an example of someone who has legitimate power. - Referent power: Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty. It is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. This power is often regarded as admiration, or charm. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Referent power acts a little like role model power and depends on respecting, liking, and holding another individual in high esteem. We can increase our level of referent power as we build up our interpersonal skills. Communicators that meets others’ social needs are often perceived as possessing referent power. - Expert power: Expert power is based on what we know, what we experience, and on our special skills or talents. [8] Expertise can be demonstrated by reputation, credentials, and actions. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. People tend to trust and respect individuals who demonstrate expertise. The expertise does not have to be genuine – it is the perception of expertise that provides the power base. - Informational power: Information power comes as a result of possessing knowledge that others need or want. [8] Information possessed that no one needs or wants is powerless. Information power extends to the ability to get information based on a position held. Not all information is readily available; some information is closely controlled by a few people, such as national security data. Information power is a form of personal or collective power that is based on controlling information needed by others in order to reach an important goal. Our society is reliant on information power as knowledge for influence, decision making, credibility, and control. How information is used—sharing it with others, limiting it to key people, keeping it secret from key people, organizing it, increasing it, or even falsifying it—can generate power. [1] Persuasive Power Regardless of the types of individual power we may (or may not) hold, we also have the ability to empower ourselves and influence others through our communicative messages and the use of persuasion. Persuasion has the ability to change the way people think and feel and act. Persuasion is comprised of three interrelated components: ethos, logos, and pathos. - Ethos: Ethos refers to the credibility of a communicator and includes three dimensions: competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. Competence refers to the perception of a communicator’s expertise in relation to the topic being discussed. Trustworthiness refers to the degree that others perceive a communicator as accurate, honest, and unbiased. Perceptions of trustworthiness come from the content of the message as well as the personality of the communicator. Dynamism refers to the degree to which others perceive a communicator to be outgoing and animated (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). Two components of dynamism are charisma and energy. Charisma refers to a mixture of abstract and concrete qualities that make a communicator attractive to others.Charismatic people usually know they are charismatic because they’ve been told and people have been attracted to them because of it. Unfortunately, charisma is difficult to intentionally develop, and some people seem to have a naturally charismatic personality, while others do not. Even though everyone can’t embody the charismatic aspect of dynamism, the other component of dynamism, energy, is something that everyone can tap into. Communicating enthusiastically and using engaging nonverbals such as vocal variety and eye contact can increase your dynamism. - Logos: Logos refers to the reasoning or logic of an argument. Communicators employ logos by presenting credible information, facts, and statistics. Presenting a rational and logical argument is also an important component of persuasion. When a communicator uses logic, they make a claim, which is a statement of belief or opinion. They then provide good reasons to support their claims. For example, I could make the claim that cats are the best pets and attempt to support this with reasons such as they are cute and like to cuddle. In order to persuade another with logic, the reasons presented should be relevant to the claim, well-supported, and meaningful to the listener. - Pathos: Pathos refers to the use of emotional appeals in messages. Stirring emotions in others is a way to get them involved and can create more opportunities for persuasion and action. Learning that homes in your city are being burglarized may get your attention, but think about how different your reaction would be if you found out it was a home in your neighborhood. Communicators have taken advantage of people’s emotions to get them to support causes, buy products, or engage in behaviors that they might not otherwise if given the chance to see the faulty logic of a message. For example, a politician may try to get your vote by posing for pictures near flags, using patriotic music in their ads, or holding babies at campaign events. None of these actions hold any logical appeal, but they stir up emotions that can make us feel favorable about the politician. Emotional appeals are effective when you are trying to influence a behavior or you want the other to take immediate action (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). However, emotions lose their persuasive effect more quickly than other types of persuasive appeals. Since emotions are often reactionary, they fade relatively quickly when a person is removed from the provoking situation (Fletcher, 2001).	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.422833	2021-07-29T21:18:57	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.03%3A_Individual_and_Persuasive_Power", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "12.3: Individual and Persuasive Power", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.04%3A_Communication_Competence	12.4: Communication Competence - - Last updated - Save as PDF In this section, we will address techniques you can use to communicate your opinions, rights, expectations and boundaries. We will also look at the relationship between culture, co-culture, and power, and at some ways in which power is often misused in intimate relationships. Effective Communication: Communicating Opinions, Rights, Expectations, and Boundaries Since power dynamics influence our interactions and relationships, we may find ourselves in positions where we have less power or perceive we have less power. In these situations, it is important to know how to effectively communicate our opinions, rights, expectations, and boundaries. Below we provide some strategies you can use: Be assertive, not passive or aggressive. Passive behaviors include concealing rather than communicating our feelings, thoughts, rights, and expectations. Often times, people engage in passive behaviors when they perceive they have little power, or they fear damaging a relationship. Aggressive behaviors include yelling, threatening, name calling, etc. Assertive communication carries respect for the feelings, needs, wants, and opinions of others. An assertive communicator avoids infringing upon the rights of others, while asserting their own, and seeking compromise or collaboration in the process. Assertive communication utilizes actions and words to express opinions, rights, expectations, and boundaries in a calm fashion, while conveying a message of confidence and respect. [1] When communicating assertively, you should not make sarcastic or condescending remarks, blame the other, shout, threat, or name call. Don’t be silent if you have something to say. When you have an opinion or feel your rights or expectations are being violated in some way, voice it. Just make sure you pick the right moment and use assertive—not aggressive—communication. Also, make it clear that what you have to say is important, valid, and/or should be noticed. Identify what your needs are. Identify your own needs and what makes you happy. This will help you develop a set of expectations that you wish others would follow as to how you would like to be treated. To help with identifying your needs, situations- past or present-where you don’t feel like you’re being treated with mutual respect or situations where you sense your feelings weren’t considered. Then speculate about what might make you feel more respected. [27] Say “no” when appropriate. It’s okay to reject someone, to say no, or to not do something that is desired of you. Saying no can be difficult for many people. However, saying “yes” when you need to say “no” can lead to unnecessary stress, resentment, and anger toward others. When saying no, it can be helpful to keep in mind a useful set of guidelines: [13] - Keep it brief. - Be clear. - Be honest. For example, if you don’t have time to do a favor, you can simply say, “I can’t this time. Sorry to disappoint you, but I have too many things to do that day, and there’s no room in my schedule.” Also, if someone asks you a question that you don’t want to answer, it okay to say something like “I don’t really feel comfortable answering that.” Have confident body language. The way you hold yourself speaks volumes about you—long before you even get a chance to open your mouth. Keep your shoulders squared and your chin up. Avoid fidgeting (put your hands in your pockets if you must) or covering your mouth when you speak. Look people in the eye when you speak to indicate that you don’t intend to be brushed off. Contextual Communication: Culture, Co-Culture, and Power Power is also influenced by culture and co-culture. As mentioned in Chapter 2: Culture and Communication, all cultures consist of a dominant group and nondominant group. Group memberships and identities, such as gender and race, can work to advantage one particular group of people while simultaneously disadvantaging another to create unequal power dynamics and oppression. Such actions are accomplished, as discussed below, through labeling, othering, and stereotyping. Also covered below is ways in which ideologies operate to mask these inequalities. Labeling, Othering, and Stereotyping The dominant group engages in exercises of power that reflect their interests and help to perpetuate inequalities in power and status. Systems of power and domination are maintained at a cultural and co-cultural level through labeling, othering, and stereotyping. The labels attached to people seen as ‘minorities’ have always been defined by the white majority—that is, by those with power. Defining an individual primarily in terms of their apparent racial or ethnic identity—for example, with labels such as black or Asian—is a way of defining them as ‘different’ from a supposed white ‘norm.’ Othering is accomplished by creating an insider/outsider narrative where whiteness is the criteria for normal; you are either white or non-white. The same can be said of attaching labels to people on the basis of a supposed disability, sexual preference, or age. In addition, stereotyping makes broad generalizations about groups and people based on their co-cultural membership and identities. Often, these stereotypes are negative, since they reflect the differential power between those in the ‘majority’ and those categorized as ‘minorities’ or ‘different.’ So, for example, women may be defined as less rational than men, or black people as less intelligent than white people; in these instances, men and white people respectively are characterized as the ‘norm.’ These negative stereotypes both reflect and perpetuate existing inequalities—patterns of sexism and racism in society. An example would be denying women and people of color access to jobs that require a ‘cool head’ or complex intellectual skills. In other words, stereotyping people as ‘different’ often leads to prejudice and discrimination. Attributing these fixed ‘differences’ to people is not a neutral process, but is one that both reflects and reproduces inequalities of power and status. Ideologies Another way we see power maintained and normalized at a cultural level is through the use of ideologies and values. In the United States, there are many overlapping ideologies that create the illusion that inequality linked to co-cultural categories, such as race or social class, do not exist. For example, a prevalent U.S. American ideology is the Achievement Ideology which is the belief that any person can be successful through hard work and education and that disadvantaged individuals need to “pull themselves up by their bootstraps.” This ideology disadvantages particular groups by placing the blame of success or failure on the individual rather than looking at institutional and systemic inequality—or, “lack of bootstraps.” For example, K-12 educational institutions have become increasingly segregated by race and social class, and, as such, students who attend certain schools don’t have access to the same quality of educational resources as another group may have. Unequal access impacts academic performance and makes some students more likely to attain high grades or perform well on the college admissions tests necessary to get into universities (Orfield and Frankenberg’s, 2014). In addition, inside the classroom, it is the dominant group’s behaviors and values that have been normalized. These norms determine what a successful student looks and acts like, as well as how they are evaluated in assessments like tests and papers (Bennett & Lecompte, 1990; Lesdesma & Caldera, 2005). Students who violate teacher expectations for “normal” behavior face consequences and are “judged by teachers to be less academically able (Bennett & LeCompte, 1990, p. 16).” Such treatment disadvantages low income and students of color who may have different, conflicting, or even contradictory cultural norms and values. People of color and ESL students are also more likely than their white counterparts to be tracked into remedial courses and thus they do not receive the same quality of education. These types of systemic inequalities in K-12 education hold long-term implications for the success of these groups Reflective Communication: Misuses of Power in Intimate Relationships Generally, healthy relationships contain a relative balance of power between participants. Unhealthy relationships occur when there are imbalances of power and one participant tries to control or take advantage of the other. This is accomplished by using abusive power to gain and maintain control and subject that person to psychological, physical, sexual, or financial abuse. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship[2] and abusers usually to try normalize, legitimize, rationalize, deny, minimize the abusive behavior, or blame the victim for it.[7][8][9] Controlling abusers use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their partners. Because each of the tactics are used to maintain power in the relationship, it is important to become familiar with the tactics below in order to avoid being part of an unhealthy relationship, or to help and educate others. - Coercion and Threats: Threats and coercion are tools for exerting control and power. Abusers may threaten to leave, hurt others, or even threaten suicide. They may also coerce others to perform illegal actions or to drop charges against their abusers. [36] At its most powerful, the abuser creates intimidation and fear through unpredictable and inconsistent behavior.[6] - Intimidation: Abused individuals may be intimidated by the brandishing of weapons—for example, threatening to use a gun or simply displaying the weapon. Other forms of intimidation include destruction of property or other things, or use of gestures or looks to create fear.[36] - Economic Abuse: Controlling someone’s access to money is another means of ensuring control and power over another. One method is to prevent the other from getting or retaining a job. Other ways to control access to money are: withholding information and access to family income, taking a person’s money, requiring the person to ask for money, giving someone an allowance, or filing a power of attorney or conservatorship—particularly in the case of economic abuse of the elderly.[36] - Emotional Abuse: Emotional abuse includes name-calling, mind games, putting the victim down, or humiliating the individual. The goals are to make the person feel bad about themselves, feel guilty or think that they are crazy.[36] - Isolation: Another element of psychological control is the isolation of the victim from the outside world.[33] Isolation includes controlling a person’s social activity—who they see, who they talk to, where they go, and any other method that limits access to others. It may include limiting what material is read, insisting on knowing where the victim is at all times, and requiring permission for medical care. The abuser might also exhibit hypersensitive and reactive jealousy.[33] - Minimizing, Denying, and Blaming: An abuser may deny that any abuse occurred in order to place the responsibility for their behavior on the victim. Another example of this type of control is when the abuser minimizes the victim’s concerns or denies the degree of abuse. [36] - Using Children and Pets: Children may be also be used to exert control. Abusers threaten to take the children or make the other feel guilty about the children. Abusers may harass children during visitation or use the children to relay messages. Abusing pets is another controlling tactic. [36] - Using Privilege: Using “privilege” means that the abuser defines the roles in the relationship, makes the important decisions, treats the individual like a servant, and acts like the “master of the castle”.[36]	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:36.492822	2021-07-29T21:18:58	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/", "url": "https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Interpersonal_Communication/I.C.A.T_Interpersonal_Communication_Abridged_Textbook_(Gerber_and_Murphy)/12%3A_Power_and_Communication/12.04%3A_Communication_Competence", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-114733", "title": "12.4: Communication Competence", "author": "Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.07%3A_Individual_and_Cultural_Differences	3.7: Individual and Cultural Differences After reading this section, you should be able to answer these questions: - How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for particular jobs? - How do people with different abilities, skills, and personalities build effective work teams? - How do managers and employees deal effectively with individual differences in the workplace? - How can organizations foster a work environment that allows employees an opportunity to develop and grow? - How do managers know how to get the best from each employee? - What is the role of ethical behavior in managerial actions? - How do you manage and do business with people from different cultures? Building Back Trust on the Back End One institution that has been around for generations is banking. However, many individuals have lost faith in the banking system, and who’s to blame them? Big banks have let the general consumer down with security breaches and countless stories of scandals. One glaring example is Wells Fargo & Co., who are still recovering their brand from their admission of creating nearly two million accounts for customers without their permission. But this problem is not new. The approach to bolstering this trust factor is, however, taking on a new perspective with some quick adaptation and managerial foresight. One CEO, Cathie Mahon, chief executive officer of the National Federation of Community Development Credit Unions, is not taking the disparities between credit unions and big banks lying down. Credit unions have always operated differently from big banks, and one key factor is that they are nonprofit while their big-bank counterparts are for-profit enterprises. This also can mean that they offer higher interest rates on deposits due to their size. Mahon has begun a keen undertaking to educate and empower low-income residents about financial resources. Her most recent endeavor is to provide a platform called CU Impact that keeps customers more informed about their balances, creates more trustworthy auto-pay features, more information delivered at ATMs as well. The improvements to the back-end reliability within the credit union system sustain the small, community feel of the credit union, while providing powerful, trustworthy systems that restore faith in their business. Her willingness to embrace technology and embrace differences of customers, employees, and the company structure overall made her the key to success for the future of their business. Sources: Cohen, Arianne, “The CEO Who’s Leveling the Playing Field Between Credit Unions and Big Banks,” Bloomberg Businessweek , July 9, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-09/ the-ceo-who-s-leveling-the-playing-field-between-credit-unions-and-big-banks; Koren, James Rufus, “It’s been a year since the Wells Fargo scandal broke—and new problems are still surfacing,” Los Angeles Times , September 8, 2017, www.latimes.com/business/la-f...lls-fargo-one- year-20170908-story.html. How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for particular jobs? As we can see in the example of Cathie Mahon, our unique personal characteristics can have a dramatic influence on both individual behavior and the behavior of those around us. To succeed in any managerial position, it is necessary to have the appropriate skills and abilities for the situation. Moreover, when selecting subordinates, managers have similar concerns. In short, individual differences can play a major role in how well someone performs on the job. They can even influence whether someone gets the job in the first place. Because of this, we begin this section with a look at individual differences in the workplace. Several factors can be identified that influence employee behavior and performance. One early model of job performance argued simply that performance was largely a function of ability and motivation . 1 Using this simple model as a guide, we can divide our discussion of individual factors in performance into two categories: those that influence our capacity to respond and those that influence our will or desire to respond . The first category includes such factors as mental and physical abilities, personality traits, perceptual capabilities, and stress-tolerance levels. The second category includes those variables dealing with employee motivation. Both of these sets of factors are discussed in this part of the book as a prelude to more complex analyses of overall organizational performance. Specifically, we begin our analysis in this chapter with a look at individual differences, including employee abilities and skills, personality variables, and work values. We will also examine the nature of culture and cultural diversity as it affects behavior in organizations both at home and abroad. Later we look at perception and job attitudes, and we review basic learning and reinforcement techniques. The basic theories of employee motivation are then introduced, including the concept of employee needs. More complex cognitive models of motivation will be examined, and finally, we review contemporary approaches to performance appraisals and reward systems in organizations. All told, this coverage aims to introduce the reader to the more salient aspects of individual behavior as they relate to organizational behavior and effectiveness. 1. What are the various abilities and skills that should be considered when hiring employees? 2. How should the personality differences and work values be taken into account when selecting employees? 3. What is the role of cultural diversity in selecting employees?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:38.805777	2024-09-04T21:51:03	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.07%3A_Individual_and_Cultural_Differences", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.7: Individual and Cultural Differences", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.08%3A_Employee_Abilities_and_Skills	3.8: Employee Abilities and Skills How do people with different abilities, skills, and personalities build effective work teams? We begin with a look at employee abilities and skills . Abilities and skills generally represent those physical and intellectual characteristics that are relatively stable over time and that help determine an employee’s capability to respond. Recognizing them is important in understanding organizational behavior, because they often bound an employee’s ability to do the job. For example, if a clerk-typist simply does not have the manual dexterity to master the fundamentals of typing or keyboard entry, her performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a sales representative who has a hard time with simple numerical calculations will probably not do well on the job. Mental Abilities It is possible to divide our discussion of abilities and skills into two sections: mental abilities and physical abilities. Mental abilities are an individual’s intellectual capabilities and are closely linked to how a person makes decisions and processes information. Included here are such factors as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, and memory. A summary is shown in Table $\PageIndex{1}$. From a managerial standpoint, a key aspect of mental ability is cognitive complexity. Cognitive complexity represents a person’s capacity to acquire and sort through various pieces of information from the environment and organize them in such a way that they make sense. People with high cognitive complexity tend to use more information—and to see the relationships between aspects of this information—than people with low cognitive complexity. For example, if a manager was assigned a particular problem, would she have the capacity to break the problem down into its various facets and understand how these various facets relate to one another? A manager with low cognitive complexity would tend to see only one or two salient aspects of the problem, whereas a manager with higher cognitive complexity would understand more of the nuances and subtleties of the problem as they relate to each other and to other problems. People with low cognitive complexity typically exhibit the following characteristics: 2 - They tend to be categorical and stereotypical. Cognitive structures that depend upon simple fixed rules of - integration tend to reduce the possibility of thinking in terms of degrees. - Internal conflict appears to be minimized with simple structures. Since few alternative relationships are generated, closure is quick. - Behavior is apparently anchored in external conditions. There is less personal contribution in simple structures. - Fewer rules cover a wider range of phenomena. There is less distinction between separate situations. On the other hand, people with high levels of cognitive complexity are typically characterized by the following:3 - Their cognitive system is less deterministic. Numerous alternative relationships are generated and considered. - The environment is tracked in numerous ways. There is less compartmentalization of the environment. - The individual utilizes more internal processes. The self as an individual operates on the process. Research on cognitive complexity has focused on two important areas from a managerial standpoint: leadership style and decision-making. In the area of leadership, it has been found that managers rated high on cognitive complexity are better able to handle complex situations, such as rapid changes in the external environment. Moreover, such managers also tend to use more resources and information when solving a problem and tend to be somewhat more considerate and consultative in their approach to managing their subordinates. 4 In the area of decision-making, fairly consistent findings show that individuals with high cognitive complexity (1) seek out more information for a decision, (2) actually process or use more information, (3) are better able to integrate discrepant information, (4) consider a greater number of possible solutions to the problem, and (5) employ more complex decision strategies than individuals with low cognitive complexity. 5 Physical Abilities The second set of variables relates to someone’s physical abilities . Included here are both basic physical abilities (for example, strength) and psychomotor abilities (such as manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, and manipulation skills). These factors are summarized in Table $\PageIndex{2}$. 6 Considering both mental and physical abilities helps one understand the behavior of people at work and how they can be better managed. The recognition of such abilities—and the recognition that people have different abilities—has clear implications for employee recruitment and selection decisions; it brings into focus the importance of matching people to jobs. For example, Florida Power has a 16-hour selection process that involves 12 performance tests. Over the test period of a couple of years, 640 individuals applied for “lineperson” jobs. Of these, 259 were hired. As a consequence of the new performance tests and selection process, turnover went from 43 percent to 4.5 percent, and the program saved net $1 million. 7 In addition to selection, knowledge of job requirements and individual differences is also useful in evaluating training and development needs. Because human resources are important to management, it is imperative that managers become more familiar with the basic characteristics of their people. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. Why should abilities and skills be taken into account when selecting employees? 2. Describe the components of mental abilities, cognitive complexity, physical ability, and psychomotor abilities. 2 R.J. Ebert and T.R. Mitchell, Organization Decision Processes: Concepts and Analysis (New York: Crane, Russak, 1975), p. 81. 3 Ibid. 4 T.R. Mitchell, “Cognitive Complexity and Leadership Style,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 16, pp. 166–174. 5 H. M. Schroder, M. H. Driver, and S. Streufert, Human Information Processing (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967). 6 E. J. McCormick and J. Tiffin, Industrial Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976). 7 Dale Feuer & Chris Lee. 1988. The Kaizen Connection: How Companies Pick Tomorrow’s Workers. Training. May, 23–35. Table 2.1 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Table 2.2 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:38.872016	2024-09-04T21:45:55	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.08%3A_Employee_Abilities_and_Skills", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.8: Employee Abilities and Skills", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.09%3A_Personality_-_An_Introduction	3.9: Personality - An Introduction How do managers and employees deal effectively with individual differences in the workplace? The second individual difference variable deals with the concept of personality. We often hear people use and misuse the term personality . For example, we hear that someone has a “nice” personality. For our purposes, we will examine the term from a psychological standpoint as it relates to behavior and performance in the workplace. To do this, let us start with a more precise definition of the concept. Definition of Personality Personality can be defined in many ways. Perhaps one of the more useful definitions for purposes of organizational analysis is offered by Salvatore Maddi, who defines personality as follows: “. . . a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those communalities and differences in the psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.” 8 Several aspects of this definition should be noted. First, personality is best understood as a constellation of interacting characteristics; it is necessary to look at the whole person when attempting to understand the phenomenon and its effects on subsequent behavior. Second, various dimensions of personality are relatively stable across time. Although changes—especially evolutionary ones—can occur, seldom do we see major changes in the personality of a normal individual. And third, the study of personality emphasizes both similarities and differences across people. This is important for managers to recognize as they attempt to formulate actions designed to enhance performance and employee well-being. Influences on Personality Development Early research on personality development focused on the issue of whether heredity or environment determined an individual’s personality. Although a few researchers are still concerned with this issue, most contemporary psychologists now feel this debate is fruitless. As noted long ago by Kluckhohn and Murray: “The two sets of determinants can rarely be completely disentangled once the environment has begun to operate. The pertinent questions are: (1) which of the various genetic potentialities will be actualized as a consequence of a particular series of life-events in a given physical, social, and cultural environment? and (2) what limits to the development of this personality are set by genetic constitution?” 9 In other words, if the individual is viewed from the whole-person perspective, the search for the determinants of personal traits focuses on both heredity and environment as well as the interaction between the two over time. In this regard, five major categories of determinants of personal traits may be identified: physiological, cultural, family and social group, role, and situational determinants. Physiological Determinants. Physiological determinants include factors such as stature, health, and sex that often act as constraints on personal growth and development. For instance, tall people often tend to become more domineering and self-confident than shorter people. Traditional sex-role stereotyping has served to channel males and females into different developmental patterns. For example, males have been trained to be more assertive and females more passive. Cultural Determinants. Because of the central role of culture in the survival of a society, there is great emphasis on instilling cultural norms and values in children growing up. For instance, in capitalist societies, where individual responsibility is highly prized, emphasis is placed on developing achievement-oriented, independent, self-reliant people, whereas in socialistic societies, emphasis is placed on developing cooperative, group-oriented individuals who place the welfare of the whole society ahead of individual needs. Cultural determinants affect personal traits. As Mussen notes, “The child’s cultural group defines the range of experiments and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.”10 Consider, for example, how Japanese society develops its world-renowned work ethic. Family and Social Group Determinants. Perhaps the most important influences on personal development are family and social group determinants. For instance, it has been found that children who grow up in democratic homes tend to be more stable, less argumentative, more socially successful, and more sensitive to praise or blame than those who grow up in authoritarian homes. 11 One's immediate family and peers contribute significantly to the socialization process, influencing how individuals think and behave through an intricate system of rewards and penalties. Role Determinants. People are assigned various roles very early in life because of factors such as sex, socioeconomic background, and race. As one grows older, other factors, such as age and occupation, influence the roles we are expected to play. Such role determinants often limit our personal growth and development as individuals and significantly control acceptable behavior patterns. Situational Determinants. Finally, personal development can be influenced by situational determinants. These are factors that are often unpredictable, such as a divorce or death in the family. For instance, James Abegglen studied 20 successful male executives who had risen from lower-class childhoods and discovered that in three-fourths of the cases these executives had experienced some form of severe separation trauma from their fathers. Their fathers (and role models) had either died, been seriously ill, or had serious financial setbacks. Abegglen hypothesized that the sons’ negative identification with their fathers’ plights represented a major motivational force for achievement and success. 12 Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What is the role of personality and personality development in the workplace? 8 S.R. Maddi, Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis (Homewood, III.: Dorsey, 1980), p. 10. 9. C. Kluckhohn and H. Murray, Personality in Society and Nature, (New York: Knopf, 1953). 10. P.H. Mussen, The Psychological Development of the Child (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963). 11. Ibid. 12. J. C. Abegglen, “Personality Factors in Social Mobility: A Study of Occupationally Mobile Businessmen,” Genetic Psychology Monographs, August 1958, pp. 101–159.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:38.935434	2024-09-04T21:45:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.09%3A_Personality_-_An_Introduction", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.9: Personality - An Introduction", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.10%3A_Personality_and_Work_Behavior	3.10: Personality and Work Behavior How can organizations foster a work environment that allows employees an opportunity to develop and grow? Personality theories that utilize the trait approach have proven popular among investigators of employee behavior in organizations. There are several reasons for this. To begin with, trait theories focus largely on the normal, healthy adult, in contrast to psychoanalytic and other personality theories that focus largely on abnormal behavior. Trait theories identify several characteristics that describe people. Allport insisted that our understanding of individual behavior could progress only by breaking behavior patterns down into a series of elements (traits). 13 "The only thing you can do about a total personality is to send flowers to it," he once said. Hence, in the study of people at work, we may discuss an employee’s dependability, emotional stability, or cognitive complexity. These traits, when taken together, form a large mosaic that provides insight into individuals. A third reason for the popularity of trait theories in the study of organizational behavior is that the traits that are identified are measurable and tend to remain relatively stable over time. It is much easier to make comparisons among employees using these tangible qualities rather than the somewhat mystical psychoanalytic theories or the highly abstract and volatile self theories. The number of traits people are believed to exhibit varies according to which theory we employ. In an exhaustive search, over 17,000 can be identified. Obviously, this number is so large as to make any reasonable analysis of the effects of personality in the workplace impossible. In order for us to make any sense out of this, it is necessary for us to concentrate on a small number of personality variables that have a direct impact on work behavior. If we do this, we can identify six traits that seem to be relatively important for our purposes here. It will be noted that some of these traits (for example, self-esteem or locus of control) have to do with how we see ourselves, whereas other traits (for example, introversion-extroversion or dependability) have to do with how we interact with others. Moreover, these traits are largely influenced by one’s personality development and, in turn, influence actual attitudes and behaviors at work, as shown in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$. Self-Esteem One trait that has emerged recently as a key variable in determining work behavior and effectiveness is an employee’s self-esteem. Self-esteem can be defined as one’s opinion or belief about one’s self and self-worth. It is how we see ourselves as individuals. Do we have confidence in ourselves? Do we think we are successful? Attractive? Worthy of others’ respect or friendship? Research has shown that high self-esteem in school-age children enhances assertiveness, independence, and creativity. People with high self-esteem often find it easier to give and receive affection, set higher goals for personal achievement, and exert energy to try to attain goals set for them. Moreover, individuals with high self-esteem will be more likely to seek higher-status occupations and will take more risks in the job search. For example, one study found that students possessing higher self-esteem were more highly rated by college recruiters, received more job offers, and were more satisfied with their job search than students with low self-esteem.14 Hence, personality traits such as this one can affect your job and career even before you begin work! Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the tendency among individuals to attribute the events affecting their lives either to their own actions or to external forces; it is a measure of how much you think you control your own destiny. Two types of individual are identified. People with an internal locus of control tend to attribute their successes—and failures—to their own abilities and efforts. Hence, a student would give herself credit for passing an examination; likewise, she would accept blame for failing. In contrast, people with an external locus of control tend to attribute things that happen to them as being caused by someone or something else. They give themselves neither credit nor blame. Hence, passing an exam may be dismissed by saying it was “too easy,” whereas failing may be excused by convincing one’s self that the exam was “unfair.” If you want to determine your own locus of control, fill out the self-assessment in the end-of-chapter assignments. This is an abbreviated and adapted version of the scale originally developed by Rotter. When you have finished, refer to that reference for scoring procedures. Recent research on locus of control suggests that people with an internal locus of control (1) exhibit greater work motivation, (2) have stronger expectations that effort will lead to actual high job performance, (3) perform better on tasks requiring learning or problem-solving, (4) typically receive higher salaries and salary increases, and (5) exhibit less job-related anxiety than externals. 15 Locus of control has numerous implications for management. For example, consider what would happen if you placed an “internal” under tight supervision or an “external” under loose supervision. The results probably would not be very positive. Or what would happen if you placed both internals and externals on a merit-based compensation plan? Who would likely perform better? Who might perform better under a piece-rate system? Introversion-Extroversion The third personality dimension we should consider focuses on the extent to which people tend to be shy and retiring or socially gregarious. Introverts ( introversion ) tend to focus their energies inwardly and have a greater sensitivity to abstract feelings, whereas extroverts ( extroversion ) direct more of their attention to other people, objects, and events. Research evidence suggests that both types of people have a role to play in organizations. 16 Extroverts more often succeed in first-line management roles, where only superficial "people skills” are required; they also do better in field assignments—for example, as sales representatives. Introverts, on the other hand, tend to succeed in positions requiring more reflection, analysis, and sensitivity to people’s inner feelings and qualities. Such positions are included in a variety of departments within organizations, such as accounting, personnel, and computer operations. In view of the complex nature of modern organizations, both types of individuals are clearly needed. Authoritarianism and Dogmatism Authoritarianism refers to an individual’s orientation toward authority. More specifically, an authoritarian orientation is generally characterized by an overriding conviction that it is right and proper for there to be clear status and power differences among people. 17 According to T.W. Adorno, a high authoritarian is typically (1) demanding, directive, and controlling of her subordinates; (2) submissive and deferential toward superiors; (3) intellectually rigid; (4) fearful of social change; (5) highly judgmental and categorical in reactions to others; (6) distrustful; and (7) hostile in response to restraint. Nonauthoritarians, on the other hand, generally believe that power and status differences should be minimized, that social change can be constructive, and that people should be more accepting and less judgmental of others. In the workplace, the consequences of these differences can be tremendous. Research has shown, for example, that employees who are high in authoritarianism often perform better under rigid supervisory control, whereas those rated lower on this characteristic perform better under more participative supervision. 18 Can you think of other consequences that might result from these differences? Related to this authoritarianism is the trait of dogmatism. Dogmatism refers to a particular cognitive style that is characterized by closed-mindedness and inflexibility. 19 The dimension has particularly profound implications for managerial decision-making; it is found that dogmatic managers tend to make decisions quickly, based on only limited information and with a high degree of confidence in the correctness of their decisions. 20 Do you know managers (or professors) who tend to be dogmatic? How does this behavior affect those around them? Dependability Finally, people can be differentiated with respect to their behavioral consistency, or dependability . Individuals who are seen as self-reliant, responsible, consistent, and dependable are typically considered to be desirable colleagues or group members who will cooperate and work steadfastly toward group goals. 21 Personnel managers often seek a wide array of information concerning dependability before hiring job applicants. Even so, contemporary managers often complain that many of today’s workers simply lack the feeling of personal responsibility necessary for efficient operations. Whether this is a result of the personal failings of the individuals or a lack of proper motivation by superiors remains to be determined. Obviously, personality factors such as those discussed here can play a major role in determining work behavior both on the shop floor and in the executive suite. A good example of this can be seen in the events leading up to the demise of one of America’s largest and oldest architectural firms. Observe the role of personality in the events that follow. Managing Change Personality Clash: Design vs. Default Philip Johnson, at age 86, was considered the dean of American architecture and was known for such landmarks as the AT&T building in New York and the Pennzoil Center in Houston, but he was also forced out of the firm that he built, only to watch it fall into default and bankruptcy. In 1969, Johnson invited John Burgee, who was just 35, to become his sole partner to handle the management side of the business and thereby allow him to focus on the creative side. “I picked John Burgee as my righthand man. Every design architect needs a Burgee. The more leadership he took, the happier I was,” Johnson said. Burgee’s personality was perfectly suited to the nuts-and-bolts tasks of managing the firm and overseeing the projects through construction. For all his management effort, Burgee felt that only Johnson’s name ever appeared in the press. “It was always difficult for me, being a younger man and less flamboyant,” commented Burgee. Eventually, Burgee was able to get Johnson to change the name of the firm, first to Philip Johnson & John Burgee Architects, then to Johnson/Burgee Architects, and finally to John Burgee Architects, with Philip Johnson. Although Burgee wanted to be involved in all aspects of the business, Johnson was unwilling to relinquish control over design to Burgee. In 1988, Burgee sent a four-page memo to Johnson in which he listed each of the firm’s 24 projects and outlined the ones for which Johnson could initiate designs, initiate contact with clients, or work on independently at home. Burgee also instructed Johnson not to involve himself with the younger architects or advise them on their drawings. The clash of the creative personality of Johnson and the controlling personality of Burgee came to a climax when Burgee asked Johnson to leave the firm. Unfortunately, Burgee underestimated the reaction of clients and lost many key contracts. Eventually, Burgee had to file for bankruptcy, and Johnson continued working on his own, including a project for Estée Lauder. Source: Michelle Pacelle, “Design Flaw.” Wall Street Journal, September 2, 1992, p. A1, A5. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What are the things that managers can do to foster an environment where employees can gain personal development and grow? 13. G.W. Allport, Pattern and Growth in Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961). 14. R. A. Ellis and M. S. Taylor, “Role of Self-Esteem within the Job Search Process,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 1983, 68, pp. 632–640. 15. P. Spector, “Behavior in Organizations as a Function of Locus of Control,” Psychological Bulletin, May 1982, pp. 482–497; P. Nystrom, “Managers’ Salaries and Their Beliefs About Reinforcement Control,” Journal of Social Psychology, August 1983, pp. 291–292. 16. L. R. Morris, Extroversion and Introversion: An Interactional Perspective (New York: Hemisphere, 1979), p.8. 17. T. W. Adorno, E. Frenkel-Brunswik, and D. J. Levinson, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper & Row, 1950). 18. V. H. Vroom, Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, 1960). 19. M. Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960). 20. R. N. Taylor and M. D. Dunnette, “Influence of Dogmatism, Risk-Taking Propensity, and Intelligence on Decision-Making Strategies for a Sample of Industrial Managers,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, pp. 420–423. Exhibit 2.2 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.006180	2024-09-04T21:45:58	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.10%3A_Personality_and_Work_Behavior", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.10: Personality and Work Behavior", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.11%3A_Personality_and_Organization-_A_Basic_Conflict	3.11: Personality and Organization- A Basic Conflict? How do managers know how to get the best from each employee? Most theories of personality stress that an individual’s personality becomes complete only when the individual interacts with other people; growth and development do not occur in a vacuum. Human personalities are the individual expressions of our culture, and our culture and social order are the group expressions of individual personalities. This being the case, it is important to understand how work organizations influence the growth and development of the adult employee. A model of person-organization relationships has been proposed by Chris Argyris. 22 This model, called the basic incongruity thesis , consists of three parts: what individuals want from organizations, what organizations want from individuals, and how these two potentially conflicting sets of desires are harmonized. Argyris begins by examining how healthy individuals change as they mature. On the basis of previous work, Argyris suggests that as people grow to maturity, seven basic changes in needs and interests occur: - People develop from a state of passivity as infants to a state of increasing activity as adults. - People develop from a state of dependence upon others to a state of relative independence. - People develop from having only a few ways of behaving to having many diverse ways of behaving. - People develop from having shallow, casual, and erratic interests to having fewer, but deeper, interests. - People develop from having a short time perspective (i.e., behavior is determined by present events) to having a longer time perspective (behavior is determined by a combination of past, present, and future events). - People develop from subordinate to superordinate positions (from child to parent or from trainee to manager). - People develop from a low understanding or awareness of themselves to a greater understanding of and control over themselves as adults. Although Argyris acknowledges that these developments may differ among individuals, the general tendencies from childhood to adulthood are believed to be fairly common. Next, Argyris turns his attention to the defining characteristics of traditional work organizations. In particular, he argues that in the pursuit of efficiency and effectiveness, organizations create work situations aimed more at getting the job done than at satisfying employees’ personal goals. Examples include increased task specialization, unity of command, a rules orientation, and other things aimed at turning out a standardized product with standardized people. In the pursuit of this standardization, Argyris argues, organizations often create work situations with the following characteristics: - Employees are allowed minimal control over their work; control is often shifted to machines. - They are expected to be passive, dependent, and subordinate. - They are allowed only a short-term horizon in their work. - They are placed on repetitive jobs that require only minimal skills and abilities. - On the basis of the first four items, people are expected to produce under conditions leading to psychological failure. Hence, Argyris argues persuasively that many jobs in our technological society are structured in such a way that they conflict with the basic growth needs of a healthy personality. This conflict is represented in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$. The magnitude of this conflict between personality and organization is a function of several factors. The strongest conflict can be expected under conditions where employees are very mature, organization are highly structured and rules and procedures are formalized, and jobs are fragmented and mechanized. Hence, we would expect the strongest conflict to be at the lower levels of the organization, among blue-collar and clerical workers. Managers tend to have jobs that are less mechanized and tend to be less subject to formalized rules and procedures. Where strong conflicts between personalities and organizations exist, or, more precisely, where strong conflicts exist between what employees and organizations want from each other, employees are faced with difficult choices. They may choose to leave the organization or to work hard to climb the ladder into the upper echelons of management. They may defend their self-concepts and adapt through the use of defense mechanisms. Disassociating themselves psychologically from the organization (e.g., losing interest in their work, lowering their work standards, etc.) and concentrating instead on the material rewards available from the organization is another possible response. Or they may find allies in their fellow workers and, in concert, may further adapt as a group by such activities as quota restrictions, unionizing efforts, strikes, and sabotage. Unfortunately, although such activities may help employees feel that they are getting back at the organization, they do not alleviate the basic situation that is causing the problem. To do this, one has to examine the nature of the job and the work climate. Personality represents a powerful force in the determination of work behavior and must be recognized before meaningful change can be implemented by managers to improve the effectiveness of their organizations. Managing Change Integrating Employee and Organizational Goals at Kayak In many ways the above scenario paints a bleak portrait of the relationship of many workers to their employers. However, it should be noted that many companies are trying to change this relationship and create a partnership between employees and company in which the goals of both are realized. In doing so, however, these companies are careful to select and hire only those employees who have the potential to fit in with the company’s unique culture. A case in point is Kayak, an Internet-based travel company in Stamford, Connecticut. The company strives to create customer satisfaction, starting with their own culture and employees within the walls of their building. Cofounder and former CTO Paul English’s goal was to bring a constant stream of “new-new ideas” and surround himself with “childlike creative people” to liven up the space and be able to promote inspiration. Kayak doesn’t hire based on technical skills; their philosophy is to hire an employee on the basis of being the smartest person that somebody knows. Employees are constantly pushed to put their ideas to the test, and the company emphasizes a work-life balance that puts their employees first, which in turn makes for a productive work environment. Kayak’s ability to make fast-paced decisions comes from the empowerment of their employees to try out their ideas. Current CTO Giorgos Zacharia takes pride in the way they are able to keep order and drive deadlines. “Anyone on any team can come up with the idea, prototype it, and then we see what the user thinks about it. If it works, great! But there’s no grand design; it’s very organic and we see that as a strength,” says Zacharia. By encouraging and rewarding risk-taking, Kayak is able to make fast decisions, fail fast, and then turn around and come up with something more innovative that will be better than the last idea. Overall, the company hopes to offer its employees a work environment that allows for considerable personal growth and need-satisfaction. In short, the company aims to reduce the possibility of a basic incongruity developing between employee and organizational goals. Sources: Hawkes, Jocelyn, “KAYAK on Creating a Culture of Innovation,” Fast Company , April 4, 2012. ( https://www.fastcompany.com/1827003/...ure-innovation ); Hickey, Matt, “How KAYAK Converts Employee Well-Being Into Customer satisfaction,” Forbes , October 4, 2015. www.forbes.com/sites/matthic...ll-being-into- customer-satisfaction/#6c97f519b7a4. Personality and Employee Selection Recent years have seen an increased interest in the use of preemployment screening tests. Several key assumptions underlie the use of personality tests as one method of selecting potential employees: (1) individuals have different personalities and traits, (2) these differences affect their behavior and performance, and (3) different job have different requirements. Consequently, tests can be used to select individuals who match the overall company as well as match particular types of people to specific jobs. However, managers must be careful in their use of these selection instruments. Legally all selection tests must meet the guidelines for nondiscrimination set forth in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission’s Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. Specifically, in 1971 the Supreme Court ruled (Griggs v . Duke Power Company) that “good intent or the absence of discriminatory intent does not redeem . . . testing mechanisms that operate as built-in ‘head-winds’ for minority groups and are unrelated to measuring job capability.” This ruling led to two important cases in which discrimination might apply to selection practices. First, “disparate treatment” involves the intentional discrimination against an individual based on race, color, gender, religion, or national origin. Second, “disparate impact” involves the adverse effect of selection practices (as well as other practices) on minorities regardless of whether these practices were intended to have an adverse impact or not. Consequently, although personality tests can be an important means of selecting potential employees as well as matching them to appropriate jobs, care must be taken to demonstrate that the characteristics measured actually predict job performance. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What are some things that managers can do to foster organizational harmony where they get the best results from all employees? 22 C. Argyris, “Personality and Organization Theory Revisited,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 1973, 18, pp. 141–167. Exhibit 2.3 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.073355	2024-09-04T21:45:59	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.11%3A_Personality_and_Organization-_A_Basic_Conflict", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.11: Personality and Organization- A Basic Conflict?", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.12%3A_Personal_Values_and_Ethics	3.12: Personal Values and Ethics What is the role of ethical behavior in managerial actions? A factor that has surprised many business leaders is the alarming rise in accusations of unethical or disreputable behavior in today’s companies. We hear with increasing regularity of stock market manipulations, disregard of environmental hazards, bribes, and kickbacks. To understand these behaviors, we must examine the role of values and personal ethics in the workplace. We begin with the concept of values. A value may be defined as “an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.” 23 In other words, a value represents a judgment by an individual that certain things are “good” or “bad,” “important” or “unimportant,” and so forth. As such, values serve a useful function in providing guidelines or standards for choosing one’s own behavior and for evaluating the behavior of others. Characteristics of Values The values people have tend to be relatively stable over time. The reason for this lies in the manner in which values are acquired in the first place. That is, when we first learn a value (usually at a young age), we are taught that such-and-such behavior is always good or always bad. For instance, we may be taught that lying or stealing is always unacceptable. Few people are taught that such behavior is acceptable in some circumstances but not in others. Hence, this definitive quality of learned values tends to secure them firmly in our belief systems. This is not to say that values do not change over time. As we grow, we are increasingly confronted with new and often conflicting situations. Often, it is necessary for us to weigh the relative merits of each and choose a course of action. Consider, for example, the worker who has a strong belief in hard work but who is pressured by her colleagues not to outperform the group. What would you do in this situation? Rokeach has identified two fundamental types of values: instrumental and terminal. 24 Instrumental values represent those values concerning the way we approach end-states. That is, do we believe in ambition, cleanliness, honesty, or obedience? What factors guide your everyday behavior? Terminal values , on the other hand, are those end-state goals that we prize. Included here are such things as a comfortable life, a sense of accomplishment, equality among all people, and so forth. Both sets of values have significant influence on everyday behavior at work. You can assess your own instrumental and terminal values by completing the self-assessment in the end-of- chapter assignments. Simply rank-order the two lists of values, and then refer to the reference for scoring procedures. Role of Values and Ethics in Organizations Personal values represent an important force in organizational behavior for several reasons. In fact, at least three purposes are served by the existence of personal values in organizations: (1) values serve as standards of behavior for determining a correct course of action; (2) values serve as guidelines for decision-making and conflict resolution; and (3) values serve as an influence on employee motivation. Let us consider each of these functions. Standards of Behavior. First, values help us determine appropriate standards of behavior. They place limits on our behavior both inside and outside the organization. In such situations, we are referring to what is called ethical behavior , or ethics . Employees at all levels of the organization have to make decisions concerning what to them is right or wrong, proper or improper. For example, would you conceal information about a hazardous product made by your company, or would you feel obliged to tell someone? How would you respond to petty theft on the part of a supervisor or coworker in the office? To some extent, ethical behavior is influenced by societal values. Societal norms tell us it is wrong to engage in certain behaviors. In addition, however, individuals must often determine for themselves what is proper and what is not. This is particularly true when people find themselves in “gray zones”—situations where ethical standards are ambiguous or unclear. In many situations, a particular act may not be illegal. Moreover, one’s colleagues and friends may disagree about what is proper. In such circumstances, people have to determine their own standards of behavior. Expanding Around the Globe Two Cultures’ Perspectives of Straight Talk Yukiko Tanabe, a foreign exchange student from Tokyo, Japan, was both eager and anxious about making new friends during her one-year study abroad in the United States. After a month-long intensive course in English over the summer, she began her studies at the University of California. Yukiko was in the same psychology class as Jane McWilliams. Despite Yukiko’s somewhat shy personality, it did not take long before she and Jane were talking before and after class and studying together. Part of the way through the term, the professor asked for volunteers to be part of an experiment on personalities and problem-solving. The professor also offered extra credit for participation in the experiment and asked interested students to stay after class to discuss the project in more detail. When class was over, Jane asked Yukiko if she wanted to stay after and learn more about the project and the extra credit. Yukiko hesitated and then said that she was not sure. Jane replied that it would only take a few minutes to listen to the explanation, and so the two young women went up to the front of the class, along with about 20 other students, to hear the details. The project would simply involve completing a personality questionnaire and then attempting to solve three short case problems. In total, it would take about one hour of time and would be worth 5 percent extra credit. Jane though it was a great idea and asked Yukiko if she wanted to participate. Yukiko replied that she was not sure. Jane responded that they could go together, that it would be fun, and that 5 percent extra credit was a nice bonus. To this Yukiko made no reply, so Jane signed both of them up for the project and suggested that they meet at the quad about 10 minutes before the scheduled beginning of the experiment. On the day of the experiment, however, Yukiko did not show up. Jane found out later from Yukiko that she did not want to participate in the experiment. “Then why didn’t you just say so?” asked Jane. “Because I did not want to embarrass you in front of all your other friends by saying no,” explained Yukiko. Source: Personal communication by the author. Names have been disguised. Guidelines for Decision-Making and Conflict Resolution. In addition, values serve as guidelines for making decisions and for attempting to resolve conflicts. Managers who value personal integrity are less likely to make decisions they know to be injurious to someone else. Relatedly, values can influence how someone approaches a conflict. For example, if your boss asks your opinion about a report she wrote that you don’t like, do you express your opinion candidly or be polite and flatter her? An interesting development in the area of values and decision-making involves integrity or honesty tests. These tests are designed to measure an individual’s level of integrity or honesty based on the notion that honest or dishonest behavior and decisions flow from a person’s underlying values. Today over 5,000 firms use these tests, some of which use direct questions and some of which use camouflaged questions. Although the reliability of the most common tests seem good, their validity (i.e., the extent to which they can accurately predict dishonest behavior) is more open to question. 25 Nevertheless, because they do not cost much and are less intrusive than drug or polygraph testing, integrity are increasingly used to screen potential employees. Influence on Motivation. Values affect employee motivation by determining what rewards or outcomes are sought. Employees are often offered overtime work and the opportunity to make more money at the expense of free time and time with their families. Which would you choose? Would you work harder to get a promotion to a perhaps more stressful job or “lay back” and accept a slower and possibly less rewarding career path? Value questions such as these confront employees and managers every day. Prominent among work-related values is the concept of the work ethic . Simply put, the work ethic refers to the strength of one’s commitment and dedication to hard work, both as an end in itself and as a means to future rewards. Much has been written lately concerning the relative state of the work ethic in North America. It has been repeatedly pointed out that one reason for our trouble in international competition lies in our rather mediocre work ethic. This is not to say that many Americans do not work hard; rather, it is to say that others (most notably those in East Asia) simply work harder. There are many ways to assess these differences, but perhaps the simplest way is to look at actual hours worked on average in different countries both in Asia and Western Europe. Looking at Table $\PageIndex{1}$, you may be surprised to discover that although the average American works 1,789 hours (and takes an average of 19.5 vacation days) per year, the average South Korean works 2,070 hours per year (and takes only 4.5 days of vacation)! 26 The typical Japanese worker works 1,742 hours per year and takes 9.6 days of vacation. Meanwhile, Western Europeans work fewer hours and take more vacation days. Thus, although Americans may work longer hours than many Europeans, they fall far behind many in East Asia. Example: A Country Tries to Reduce Its Workweek What does a country do when its people are over motivated? Consider the case of Japan. On the basis of Japan’s newfound affluence and success in the international marketplace, many companies—and the government—are beginning to be concerned that perhaps Japanese employees work too hard and should slow down. They may be too motivated for their own good. As a result, the Japanese Department of Labor has initiated a drive to shorten the workweek and encourage more Japanese employees to take longer holidays. The effort is focusing on middle-aged and older employees, because their physical stamina may be less than that of their more junior colleagues. Many companies are following this lead and are beginning to reduce the workweek. This is no easy task in a land where such behavior may be seen by employees as showing disloyalty toward the company. It requires a fundamental change in employee attitudes. At the same time, among younger employees, cracks are beginning to appear in the fabled Japanese work ethic. Younger workers are beginning to express increased frustration with dull jobs and routine assignments, and job satisfaction appears to be at an all-time low. Young Japanese are beginning to take longer lunch periods and look forward to Friday and the coming weekend. Whether this is attributable to increasing affluence in changing society or simply the emergence of a new generation, things are changing—however slowly-in the East. 27 Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What role do managers undertake to ensure an environment where ethics and values are followed? 23. M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: Free Press, 1973), p. 5. 24. Ibid. 25. Paul R. Sackett, Laura R. Burris, and Christine Callahan. 1989. Integrity Testing for Personnel Selection. Personnel Psychology, 42, 491–529. 26. R. M. Steers, Y. K. Shin, and G. R. Ungson, The Chaebol: Korea’s New Industrial Might (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), p. 96. 27. L. Smith, “Cracks in the Japanese Work Ethic,” Fortune, May 14, 1984, pp. 162–168; K. Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York: Knopf, 1989). Table 2.3 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.142693	2024-09-04T21:46:00	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.12%3A_Personal_Values_and_Ethics", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.12: Personal Values and Ethics", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.13%3A_Cultural_Differences	3.13: Cultural Differences How do you manage and do business with people from different cultures? The final topic we will discuss in this chapter is the role of culture and cultural diversity in organizational behavior. Cultural diversity can be analyzed in many ways. For instance, we can compare cultural diversity within one country or company, or we can compare cultures across units. That is, we can look inside a particular North American firm and see employees who are Asian, black, Latino, American Indian, white, and so forth. Clearly, these individuals have different cultural backgrounds, frames of reference, traditions, and so forth. Or we can look more globally and compare a typical American firm with a typical Mexican, Italian, or Chinese firm and again see significant differences in culture. We can also analyze cultural diversity by looking at different patterns of behavior. For instance, Americans often wonder why Japanese or Korean businesspeople always bow when they meet; this seems strange to some. Likewise, many Asians wonder why Americans always shake hands, a similarly strange behavior. Americans often complain that Japanese executives say “yes” when they actually mean something else, while Japanese executives claim many Americans promise things they know they cannot deliver. Many of these differences result from a lack of understanding concerning the various cultures and how they affect behavior both inside and outside the workplace. As the marketplace and economies of the world merge ever closer, it is increasingly important that we come to understand more about cultural variations as they affect our world. What Is Culture? Simply put, culture may be defined as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another; the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influences a human group’s response to its environment.” 28 More to the point, culture is the “collective mental programming of a people.” 29 It is the unique characteristics of a people. As such, culture is: - Something that is shared by all or most of the members of a society - Something that older members of a society attempt to pass along to younger members - Something that shapes our view of the world The concept of culture represents an easy way to understand a people, albeit on a superficial level. Thus, we refer to the Chinese culture or the American culture. This is not to say that every member within a culture behaves in exactly the same way. On the contrary, every culture has diversity, but members of a certain culture tend to exhibit similar behavioral patterns that reflect where and how they grew up. A knowledge of a culture’s patterns should help us deal with its members. Culture affects the workplace because it affects what we do and how we behave. As shown in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$, cultural variations influence our values, which in turn affect attitudes and, ultimately, behaviors. For instance, a culture that is characterized by hard work (e.g., the Korean culture discussed above) would exhibit a value or ethic of hard work. This work ethic would be reflected in positive attitudes toward work and the workplace; people would feel that hard work is satisfying and beneficial—they might feel committed to their employer and they might feel shame if they do not work long hours. This, in turn, would lead to actual high levels of work. This behavior, then, would serve to reinforce the culture and its value, and so on. To see how this works, consider the results of a survey of managerial behavior by French researcher Andre Laurent. 30 He asked managers how important it was for managers to have precise answers when asked a question by subordinates.The results, shown in Figure $\PageIndex{2}$, clearly show how culture can influence very specific managerial behavior. In some countries, it is imperative for the manager to “know” the answer (even when she really doesn’t), whereas in other countries it made little difference. Thus, if we want to understand why someone does something in the workplace, at least part of the behavior may be influenced by her cultural background. Dimensions of Culture There are several ways to distinguish different cultures from one another. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck have identified six dimensions that are helpful in understanding such differences. 31 These are as follows: - How people view humanity . Are people basically good, or are they evil? Can most people be trusted or not? Are most people honest? What is the true nature of humankind? - How people see nature . What is the proper relationship between people and the environment? Should people be in harmony with nature, or should they attempt to control or harness nature? - How people approach interpersonal relationships . Should one stress individualism or membership in a group? Is the person more or less important than the group? What is the “pecking order” in a society? Is it based on seniority or on wealth and power? - How people view activity and achievement . Which is a more worthy goal: activity (getting somewhere) or simply being (staying where one is)? - How people view time . Should one focus on the past, the present, or the future? Some cultures are said to be living in the past, whereas others are looking to the future. - How people view space . How should physical space be used in our lives? Should we live communally or separately? Should important people be physically separated from others? Should important meetings be held privately or in public? To see how this works, examine Figure $\PageIndex{3}$, which differentiates four countries (Mexico, Germany, Japan, and the United States) along these six dimensions. Although the actual place of each country on these scales may be argued, the exhibit does serve to highlight several trends that managers should be aware of as they approach their work. For example, although managers in all four countries may share similar views on the nature of people (good versus bad), significant differences are noted on such dimensions as people’s relation to nature and interpersonal relations. This, in turn, can affect how managers in these countries approach contract negotiations, the acquisition of new technologies, and the management of employees. Dimensions such as these help us frame any discussion about how people differ. We can say, for example, that most Americans are individualistic, activity-oriented, and present/future-oriented. We can further say that they value privacy and want to control their environment. In another culture, perhaps the mode is past-oriented, reflective, group-oriented, and unconcerned with achievement. In Japan we hear that “the nail that sticks out gets hammered down”—a comment reflecting a belief in homogeneity within the culture and the importance of the group. In the United States, by contrast, we hear “Look out for Number One” and “A man’s home is his castle”—comments reflecting a belief in the supremacy of the individual over the group. Neither culture is “right” or “better.” Instead, each culture must be recognized as a force within individuals that motivates their behaviors within the workplace. However, even within the U.S. workforce, we must keep in mind that there are subcultures that can influence behavior. For example, recent work has shown that the Hispanic culture within the United States places a high value on groups compared to individuals and as a consequence takes a more collective approach to decision-making. 32 As we progress through this discussion, we shall continually build upon these differences as we attempt to understand behavior in the workplace. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What role do managers play to ensure that the culture of individuals are valued and appreciated and contribute to a successful work environment? 28. G. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequence, (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), p. 25. 29. Ibid. 30. A. Laurent, “The Cultural Diversity of Western Conceptions of Management,” International Studies of Management and Organization, XII, 1–2, Spring-Summer 1983, pp. 75–96. 31. F. Kluckhohn and F. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations (Evanston, III.: Row, Peterson, 1961). 32. T. Cox, et al., “Effects of Ethnic Group Cultural Differences on Cooperative and Competitive Behavior on a Group Task,” Academy of Management J., 34 , pp. 827–847; and S. Gruman, cited in N. Adler, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior (Boston: PWS/Kent, 1986), pp. 13–14. Exhibit 2.4 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC- SA 4.0 license) Exhibit 2.5 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Exhibit 2.6 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck identified six dimensions that are helpful in understanding such differences. Japan is a populous country that requires workers to take public transportation to and from work. How does the Japanese geography affect Japanese culture? (Credit: elminium/ flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)) Exhibit 2.7 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.209959	2024-09-04T21:46:01	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.13%3A_Cultural_Differences", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.13: Cultural Differences", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.14%3A_Glossary	3.14: Glossary - - Last updated - Save as PDF - Michael Brown - Northeast Wisconsin Technical College Authoritarianism Refers to an individual’s orientation toward authority. Basic incongruity thesis Consists of three parts: what individuals want from organizations, what organizations want from individuals, and how these two potentially conflicting sets of desires are harmonized. Cognitive complexity Represents a person’s capacity to acquire and sort through various pieces of information from the environment and organize them in such a way that they make sense. Culture The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from another; the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influences a human group’s response to its environment. Dependability Individuals who are seen as self-reliant, responsible, and consistent, are viewed as dependable. Dogmatism Refers to a particular cognitive style that is characterized by closed-mindedness and inflexibility. Ethics Values that help us determine appropriate standards of behavior and place limits on our behavior both inside and outside the organization. Extroversion Refers to people who direct more of their attention to other people, objects, and events. Instrumental values Represent those values concerning the way we approach end-states and whether individuals believe in ambition, cleanliness, honesty, or obedience. Introversion Refers to people who focus their energies inwardly and have a greater sensitivity to abstract feelings. Locus of control Refers to the tendency among individuals to attribute the events affecting their lives either to their own actions or to external forces; it is a measure of how much you think you control your own destiny. Mental abilities An individual’s intellectual capabilities and are closely linked to how a person makes decisions and processes information. Included here are such factors as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, and memory. Personal values Represent an important force in organizational behavior for several reasons. Personality A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those communalities and differences in the psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment. Physical abilities Basic functional abilities such as strength, and psychomotor abilities such as manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, and manipulation skills. Psychomotor abilities Examples are manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, and manipulation skills. Self-esteem One’s opinion or belief about one’s self and self-worth. Terminal values End-state goals that we prize. Work ethic Refers to the strength of one’s commitment and dedication to hard work, both as an end in itself and as a means to future rewards.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.271475	2024-09-04T21:46:01	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.14%3A_Glossary", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.14: Glossary", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.15%3A_Management_Skills_Application_Exercises	3.15: Management Skills Application Exercises What Is Your Locus of Control? Instructions: This instrument lists several pairs of statements concerning the possible causes of behavior. For each pair, select the letter ( A or B ) that better describes your own beliefs. Remember: there are no right or wrong answers. To view the scoring key, go to Appendix B . - A. In the long run, the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. B. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three. - A. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. B. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action. - A. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck. B. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. - A. Without the right breaks, one cannot be an effective leader. B. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities. - A. Many times, I feel I have little influence over the things that happen to me. B. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life. - A. Most people don’t realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. B. There really is no such thing as “luck.” - A. Unfortunately, an individual’s worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard she tries. B. In the long run, people get the respect they deserve. Source: Adapted from Julian B. Rotter, “Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement.” Psychological Monographs, 80 (Whole No. 609, 1966), pp. 11–12. Which Values Are Most Important to You? Instructions: People are influenced by a wide variety of personal values. In fact, it has been argued that values represent a major influence on how we process information, how we feel about issues, and how we behave. In this exercise, you are given an opportunity to consider your own personal values. Below are listed two sets of statements. The first list presents several instrumental values, while the second list presents several terminal values. For each list you are asked to rank the statements according to how important each is to you personally. In the list of instrumental values, place a “1” next to the value that is most important to you, a “2” next to the second most important, and so forth. Clearly, you will have to make some difficult decisions concerning your priorities. When you have completed the list for instrumental values, follow the same procedure for the terminal values. Please remember that this is not a test—there are no right or wrong answers—so be completely honest with yourself. To view the scoring key, go to Appendix B . Instrumental Values _____ Assertiveness; standing up for yourself _____ Being helpful or caring toward others _____ Dependability; being counted upon by others _____ Education and intellectual pursuits _____ Hard work and achievement _____ Obedience; following the wishes of others _____ Open-mindedness; receptivity to new ideas _____ Self-sufficiency; independence _____ Truthfulness; honesty _____ Being well-mannered and courteous toward others Terminal Values _____ Happiness; satisfaction in life _____ Knowledge and wisdom _____ Peace and harmony in the world _____ Pride in accomplishment _____ Prosperity; wealth _____ Lasting friendships _____ Recognition from peers _____ Salvation; finding eternal life _____ Security; freedom from threat _____ Self-esteem; self-respect	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.414945	2024-09-04T21:46:03	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.15%3A_Management_Skills_Application_Exercises", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.15: Management Skills Application Exercises", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.16%3A_Managerial_Decision_Exercises	3.16: Managerial Decision Exercises Exercise 1 You work for a large multinational corporation with offices around the globe. One of your colleagues has been offered an assignment overseas to either the Japanese, South Korean, or German offices for a long- term assignment (three to seven years). She has asked your advice on the opportunity because she is concerned about the failure some others have encountered. Often, they want to return home before their assignment is complete, or they decide to quit. She is also concerned about building relationships as a manager with the local employees. Your friend is very skilled technically and you know that she could be successful in the positions being offered. You wonder whether her apprehension has to do with her personality, and whether that might have an impact on her success for this role. - Identify the personality traits you think might be relevant to being successful in a global assignment in either Japan, South Korea, or Germany. - Develop a personality test aimed at measuring these dimensions. - Do you think that your friend will fill out this questionnaire honestly? If not, how would you ensure that the results you get would be honest and truly reflect her personality? - How would you validate such a test? Describe the steps you would take. Exercise 2 It’s your final semester in college and you’re going through several interviews with recruiters on campus. Among the opportunities that you are interviewing for is an entry-level position as a data analyst with a large accounting firm. You have been told during the initial interview that the firm uses a personality assessment as part of their selection process. You feel that this job requires someone who is very high in introversion since it involves a lot of individual work involving analysis of data on the one hand, but that in potential future roles on an audit team, one would need a high level of extroversion dealing with colleagues on the team and with clients. You have a high level of technical ability and can concentrate on tasks for long periods and also feel that you are sociable, but perhaps not as much as some other students in other disciplines. The opportunity is terrific, it is a great stepping-stone to career advancement, and your faculty adviser is very supportive. Refer to the personality test in the Managerial Skills Application Exercises question 2 as an example of the personality test that will be given. How are you going to respond when completing the personality test? Are you going to answer the questions truthfully? - What are the advantages and disadvantages of completing the questions honestly? - What are the advantages and disadvantages of completing the questions in a way you think the company is looking for?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.473262	2024-09-04T21:46:03	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.16%3A_Managerial_Decision_Exercises", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.16: Managerial Decision Exercises", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.17%3A_Critical_Thinking_Case	3.17: Critical Thinking Case Making a Diverse Workplace the Top Priority Johnson & Johnson is a leader in multinational medical devices as well as pharmaceutical and consumer packaged goods. Founded in 1886, the company has been through generations of cultural differences and is consistently listed among the Fortune 500. Johnson & Johnson is a household name for millions with many of their products lining the shelves of medicine cabinets around the globe. In 2017, Johnson & Johnson took the number two spot on the Thomson Reuters Diversity & Inclusion Index. At such a multinational company, with over 130,000 employees worldwide, the forefront of the focus on their internal workforce is diversity. At the forefront of their mission statement, this is clearly stated: “Make diversity and inclusion how we work every day.” Having a mission statement is wonderful, but how does Johnson & Johnson live up to these standards day in and day out? Chief Diversity & Inclusion Officer Wanda Bryant Hope works tirelessly to inject the company with the very founding principles that built the company 130 years ago. She is one of 46 percent of employees worldwide that are women, and is delivering solutions that serve all of the patients and companies that work with Johnson & Johnson. One initiative that sets Johnson & Johnson apart in the diversity category is their programs and initiatives such as the Scientist Mentoring and Diversity Program (SMDP), which is a yearlong mentorship program pairing ethnically diverse students with industry leaders. Additionally, the company commits to alignment with Human Rights Campaign Equality Index benchmarks, as well as supporting the armed forces and wounded soldiers. These benefits include transgender-inclusive health insurance coverage and paid time off after military leave for soldiers to acclimate back to life at home. These commitments make Johnson & Johnson one of the best cases for a company that is making great strides in a tough cultural climate to bridge the gaps and make all of their employees, customers, and clients feel included and a part of the bigger whole. Questions: - What diversity challenges do you think Johnson & Johnson management and employees face due to their presence as worldwide organization? - What other considerations should the company take in order to increase their impact of diversity and inclusion in the workplace? - Johnson & Johnson prides themselves on bridging the gender equality gap. What are some challenges or concerns to consider in the future with their hiring practices? Sources: Johnson & Johnson website accessed August 1, 2018, https://www.jnj.com/about-jnj/diversity ; Johnson & Johnson website accessed August 1, 2018, http://www.careers.jnj.com/careers/w...sity-inclusion .	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.532140	2024-09-04T21:46:05	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.17%3A_Critical_Thinking_Case", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.17: Critical Thinking Case", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.18%3A_Individual_and_Cultural_Factors_in_Employee_Performance	3.18: Individual and Cultural Factors in Employee Performance Exploring Managerial Careers Building Back Trust on the Back End One institution that has been around for generations is banking. However, many individuals have lost faith in the banking system, and who’s to blame them? Big banks have let the general consumer down with security breaches and countless stories of scandals. One glaring example is Wells Fargo & Co., who are still recovering their brand from their admission of creating nearly two million accounts for customers without their permission. But this problem is not new. The approach to bolstering this trust factor is, however, taking on a new perspective with some quick adaptation and managerial foresight. One CEO, Cathie Mahon, chief executive officer of the National Federation of Community Development Credit Unions, is not taking the disparities between credit unions and big banks lying down. Credit unions have always operated differently from big banks, and one key factor is that they are nonprofit while their big-bank counterparts are for-profit enterprises. This also can mean that they offer higher interest rates on deposits due to their size. Mahon has begun a keen undertaking to educate and empower low-income residents about financial resources. Her most recent endeavor is to provide a platform called CU Impact that keeps customers more informed about their balances, creates more trustworthy auto-pay features, more information delivered at ATMs as well. The improvements to the back-end reliability within the credit union system sustain the small, community feel of the credit union, while providing powerful, trustworthy systems that restore faith in their business. Her willingness to embrace technology and embrace differences of customers, employees, and the company structure overall made her the key to success for the future of their business. Sources: Cohen, Arianne, “The CEO Who’s Leveling the Playing Field Between Credit Unions and Big Banks,” Bloomberg Businessweek , July 9, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-09/ the-ceo-who-s-leveling-the-playing-field-between-credit-unions-and-big-banks; Koren, James Rufus, “It’s been a year since the Wells Fargo scandal broke—and new problems are still surfacing,” Los Angeles Times , September 8, 2017, www.latimes.com/business/la-f...lls-fargo-one- year-20170908-story.html. How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for particular jobs? As we can see in the example of Cathie Mahon, our unique personal characteristics can have a dramatic influence on both individual behavior and the behavior of those around us. To succeed in any managerial position, it is necessary to have the appropriate skills and abilities for the situation. Moreover, when selecting subordinates, managers have similar concerns. In short, individual differences can play a major role in how well someone performs on the job. They can even influence whether someone gets the job in the first place. Because of this, we begin this section with a look at individual differences in the workplace. Several factors can be identified that influence employee behavior and performance. One early model of job performance argued simply that performance was largely a function of ability and motivation. 1 Using this simple model as a guide, we can divide our discussion of individual factors in performance into two categories: those that influence our capacity to respond and those that influence our will or desire to respond . The first category includes such factors as mental and physical abilities, personality traits, perceptual capabilities, and stress-tolerance levels. The second category includes those variables dealing with employee motivation. Both of these sets of factors are discussed in this part of the book as a prelude to more complex analyses of overall organizational performance. Specifically, we begin our analysis in this chapter with a look at individual differences, including employee abilities and skills, personality variables, and work values. We will also examine the nature of culture and cultural diversity as it affects behavior in organizations both at home and abroad. Later we look at perception and job attitudes, and we review basic learning and reinforcement techniques. The basic theories of employee motivation are then introduced, including the concept of employee needs. More complex cognitive models of motivation will be examined, and finally, we review contemporary approaches to performance appraisals and reward systems in organizations. All told, this coverage aims to introduce the reader to the more salient aspects of individual behavior as they relate to organizational behavior and effectiveness. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ 1. What are the various abilities and skills that should be considered when hiring employees? 2. How should the personality differences and work values be taken into account when selecting employees? 3. What is the role of cultural diversity in selecting employees?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:39.591064	2024-09-04T21:45:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/03%3A_Group_Membership/3.18%3A_Individual_and_Cultural_Factors_in_Employee_Performance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "3.18: Individual and Cultural Factors in Employee Performance", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.08%3A_Motivation-_Direction_and_Intensity	7.8: Motivation- Direction and Intensity Exploring Managerial Careers Bridget Anderson Bridget Anderson thought life would be perfect out in the “real world.” After earning her degree in computer science, she landed a well-paying job as a programmer for a large nonprofit organization whose mission she strongly believed in. And—initially—she was happy with her job. Lately, however, Bridget gets a sick feeling in her stomach every morning when her alarm goes off. Why this feeling of misery? After all, she’s working in her chosen field in an environment that matches her values. What else could she want? She’s more puzzled than anyone. It’s the end of her second year with the organization, and Bridget apprehensively schedules her annual performance evaluation. She knows she’s a competent programmer, but she also knows that lately she’s been motivated to do only the minimum required to get by. Her heart is just not in her work with this organization. Not exactly how she thought things would turn out, that’s for sure. Bridget’s manager Kyle Jacobs surprises her when he begins the evaluation by inquiring about her professional goals. She admits that she hasn’t thought much about her future. Kyle asks if she’s content in her current position and if she feels that anything is missing. Suddenly, Bridget realizes that she does want more professionally. Question: Are Bridget’s motivational problems intrinsic or extrinsic? Which of her needs are currently not being met? What steps should she and her manager take to improve her motivation and ultimately her performance? Outcome: Once Bridget admits that she’s unhappy with her position as a computer programmer, she’s ready to explore other possibilities. She and Kyle brainstorm for tasks that will motivate her and bring her greater job satisfaction. Bridget tells Kyle that while she enjoys programming, she feels isolated and misses interacting with other groups in the organization. She also realizes that once she had mastered the initial learning curve, she felt bored. Bridget is ready for a challenge. Kyle recommends that Bridget move to an information systems team as their technical representative. The team can use Bridget’s knowledge of programming, and Bridget will be able to collaborate more frequently with others in the organization. Bridget and Kyle set specific goals to satisfy her needs to achieve and to work collaboratively. One of Bridget’s goals is to take graduate classes in management and information systems. She hopes that this will lead to an MBA and, eventually, to a position as a team leader. Suddenly the prospect of going to work doesn’t seem so grim—and lately, Bridget’s been beating her alarm! If you’ve ever worked with a group of people, and we all have, you have no doubt noticed differences in their performance. Researchers have pondered these differences for many years. Indeed, John B. Watson first studied this issue in the early 1900s. Performance is, of course, an extremely important issue to employers because organizations with high-performing employees will almost always be more effective. To better understand why people perform at different levels, researchers consider the major determinants of performance: ability, effort (motivation), accurate role perceptions, and environmental factors (see Figure $\PageIndex{1}$. Each performance determinant is important, and a deficit in one can seriously affect the others. People who don’t understand what is expected of them will be constrained by their own inaccurate role perceptions, even if they have strong abilities and motivation and the necessary resources to perform their job. None of the performance determinants can compensate for a deficiency in any of the other determinants. Thus, a manager cannot compensate for an employee’s lack of skills and ability by strengthening their motivation. Define motivation and distinguish direction and intensity of motivation. Ability refers to the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that a person brings to a task or job. Knowledge is what a person knows. Skill is their capacity to perform some particular activity (like welding or accounting), including knowing what is expected of them (called accurate role perceptions). Receptiveness to learning is a function of how quickly a person acquires new knowledge. Some people have more ability than others, and high-ability people generally perform better than low-ability people (although we will see that this is not always the case). 1 Accurate role perceptions refer to how well an individual understands their organizational role. This includes the goals (outcomes) the person is expected to achieve and the process by which the goals will be achieved. An employee who has accurate role perceptions knows both their expected outcomes and how to go about making those outcomes a reality. Incomplete or inaccurate role perceptions limit employees’ capacity to meet expectations, regardless of their abilities and motivation. The performance environment refers to those factors that impact employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control. Many environmental factors influence performance. Some factors facilitate performance, while others constrain it. A word processor who has to work with a defective personal computer is certainly not going to perform at peak levels, regardless of ability or desire. Students who are working full time and carrying a full load of classes may not do as well on an exam as they would if they could cut back on their work hours, despite the fact that they have high ability and high motivation. Motivation is the fourth major factor that determines whether a person will perform a task well. Motivation is a force within or outside of the body that energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Within the body, examples might be needs, personal values, and goals, while an incentive might be seen as a force outside of the body. The word stems from its Latin root movere , which means “to move.” Generally speaking, motivation arises as a consequence of a person’s desire to (1) fulfill unmet needs or (2) resolve conflicting thoughts that produce anxiety (an unpleasant experience). There are many ways in which we describe and categorize human needs, as we will see later in this chapter. Certain needs are fundamental to our existence, like the need for food and water. When we are hungry, we are energized to satisfy that need by securing and ingesting food. Our other needs operate in a similar manner. When a need is unfulfilled, we are motivated to engage in behaviors that will satisfy it. The same is true for situations in which we experience conflicting thoughts. When we find ourselves in situations inconsistent with our beliefs, values, or expectations, we endeavor to eliminate the inconsistency. We either change the situation, or change our perception of it. In both cases, motivation arises out of our interaction with and perception of a particular situation. We perceive the situation as satisfying our needs, or not. Motivation is thus a result of our interacting with situations to satisfy unmet needs or to resolve cognitive dissonance. Simply stated, work motivation is the amount of effort a person exerts to achieve a certain level of job performance. Some people try very hard to perform their jobs well. They work long hours, even if it interferes with their family life. Highly motivated people go the “extra mile.” High scorers on an exam make sure they know the examination material to the best of their ability, no matter how much midnight oil they have to burn. Other students who don’t do as well may just want to get by—football games and parties are a lot more fun, after all. Motivation is of great interest to employers: All employers want their people to perform to the best of their abilities. They take great pains to screen applicants to make sure they have the necessary abilities and motivation to perform well. They endeavor to supply all the necessary resources and a good work environment. Yet motivation remains a difficult factor to manage. As a result, it receives the most attention from organizations and researchers alike, who ask the perennial question “What motivates people to perform well?” In this chapter, we look at the current answers to this question. What work conditions foster motivation? How can theories of motivation help us understand the general principles that guide organizational behavior? Rather than analyze why a particular student studies hard for a test, we’ll look at the underlying principles of our general behavior in a variety of situations (including test-taking). We also discuss the major theories of motivation, along with their implications for management and organizational behavior. By the end of this chapter, you should have a better understanding of why some people are more motivated than others. Successful employees know what they want to achieve (direction), and they persist until they achieve their goals (intensity). Our discussion thus far implies that motivation is a matter of effort. This is only partially true. Motivation has two major components: direction and intensity. Direction is what a person wants to achieve, what they intend to do. It implies a target that motivated people to try to “hit.” That target may be to do well on a test. Or it may be to perform better than anyone else in a workgroup. Intensity is how hard people try to achieve their targets. Intensity is what we think of as effort. It represents the energy we expend to accomplish something. If our efforts are getting nowhere, will we try different strategies to succeed? (High-intensity-motivated people are persistent!) It is important to distinguish the direction and intensity aspects of motivation. If either is lacking, performance will suffer. A person who knows what they want to accomplish (direction) but doesn’t exert much effort (intensity) will not succeed. (Scoring 100 percent on an exam—your target—won’t happen unless you study!) Conversely, people who don’t have a direction (what they want to accomplish) probably won’t succeed either. (At some point you have to decide on a major if you want to graduate, even if you do have straight As.) Employees’ targets don’t always match with what their employers want. Absenteeism (some employees call this “calling in well”) is a major example. 2 Pursuing your favorite hobby (your target) on a workday (your employer’s target) is a conflict in direction; below, we’ll examine some theories about why this conflict occurs. There is another reason why employees’ targets are sometimes contrary to their employers’—sometimes employers do not ensure that employees understand what the employer wants. Employees can have great intensity but poor direction. It is the management’s job to provide direction: Should we stress quality as well as quantity? Work independently or as a team? Meet deadlines at the expense of costs? Employees flounder without direction. Clarifying direction results in accurate role perceptions, the behaviors employees think they are expected to perform as members of an organization. Employees with accurate role perceptions understand their purpose in the organization and how the performance of their job duties contributes to organizational objectives. Some motivation theorists assume that employees know the correct direction for their jobs. Others do not. These differences are highlighted in the discussion of motivation theories below. At this point, as we begin our discussion of the various motivation theories, it is reasonable to ask “Why isn’t there just one motivation theory?” The answer is that different theories are driven by different philosophies of motivation. Some theorists assume that humans are propelled more by needs and instincts than by reasoned actions. Their content motivation theories focus on the content of what motivates people. Other theorists focus on the process by which people are motivated. Process motivation theories address how people become motivated—that is, how people perceive and think about a situation. Content and process theories endeavor to predict motivation in a variety of situations. However, none of these theories can predict what will motivate an individual in a given situation 100 percent of the time. Given the complexity of human behavior, a “grand theory” of motivation will probably never be developed. A second reasonable question at this point is “Which theory is best?” If that question could be easily answered, this chapter would be quite short. The simple answer is that there is no “one best theory.” All have been supported by organizational behavior research. All have strengths and weaknesses. However, understanding something about each theory is a major step toward effective management practices. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ - Explain the two drivers of motivation: direction and intensity. - What are the differences between content and process theories of motivation? - Will there ever be a grand theory of motivation?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:40.980144	2024-09-04T21:46:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.08%3A_Motivation-_Direction_and_Intensity", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.8: Motivation- Direction and Intensity", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.09%3A_Content_Theories_of_Motivation	7.9: Content Theories of Motivation Describe a content theory of motivation. The theories presented in this section focus on the importance of human needs. A common thread through all of them is that people have a variety of needs. A need is a human condition that becomes “energized” when people feel deficient in some respect. When we are hungry, for example, our need for food has been energized. Two features of needs are key to understanding motivation. First, when a need has been energized, we are motivated to satisfy it. We strive to make the need disappear. Hedonism, one of the first motivation theories, assumes that people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek pleasure, avoid pain). Long since displaced by more refined theories, hedonism clarifies the idea that needs provide direction for motivation. Second, once we have satisfied a need, it ceases to motivate us. When we’ve eaten to satiation, we are no longer motivated to eat. Other needs take over and we endeavor to satisfy them. A manifest need is whatever need is motivating us at a given time. Manifest needs dominate our other needs. Instincts are our natural, fundamental needs, basic to our survival. Our needs for food and water are instinctive. Many needs are learned. We are not born with a high (or low) need for achievement—we learn to need success (or failure). The distinction between instinctive and learned needs sometimes blurs; for example, is our need to socialize with other people instinctive or learned? Manifest Needs Theory One major problem with the need approach to motivation is that we can make up a need for every human behavior. Do we “need” to talk or be silent? The possibilities are endless. In fact, around the 1920s, some 6,000 human needs had been identified by behavioral scientists! Henry A. Murray recognized this problem and condensed the list into a few instinctive and learned needs. 3 Instincts, which Murray called primary needs , include physiological needs for food, water, sex (procreation), urination, and so on. Learned needs, which Murray called secondary needs , are learned throughout one’s life and are basically psychological in nature. They include such needs as the need for achievement, for love, and for affiliation (see Table $\PageIndex{1}$). 4 Sample Items from Murray's List of Needs \| Social Motive \| Brief Definition \| \|---\|---\| \| Source: Adapted from C. S. Hall and G. Lindzey, Theories of Personality. Sample items from Murray’s List of Needs. Copyright 1957 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. \| \| \| Abasement \| To submit passively to external force. To accept injury, blame, criticism, punishment. To surrender. \| \| Achievement \| To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas. \| \| Affiliation \| To draw near and enjoyably cooperate or reciprocate with an allied other (an other who resembles the subject or who likes the subject). To please and win affection of a coveted object. To adhere and remain loyal to a friend. \| \| Aggression \| To overcome opposition forcefully. To fight. To revenge an injury. To attack, injure, or kill another. To oppose forcefully or punish another. \| \| Autonomy \| To get free, shake off restraint, break out of confinement. \| \| Counteraction \| To master or make up for a failure by restriving. \| \| Defendance \| To defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame. To conceal or justify a misdeed, failure, or humiliation. To vindicate the ego. \| \| Deference \| To admire and support a superior. To praise, honor, or eulogize. \| \| Dominance \| To control one’s human environment. To influence or direct the behavior of others by suggestion, seduction, persuasion, or command. \| \| Exhibition \| To make an impression. To be seen and heard. To excite, amaze, fascinate, entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse, or entice others. \| \| Harm avoidance \| To avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death. To escape from a dangerous situation. To take precautionary measures. \| \| Infavoidance \| To avoid humiliation. To quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions that may lead to belittlement or the scorn or indifference of others. \| \| Nurturance \| To give sympathy and gratify the needs of a helpless object: an infant or any object that is weak, disabled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, defeated, humiliated, lonely, dejected, sick, or mentally confused. To assist an object in danger. To feed, help, support, console, protect, comfort, nurse, heal. \| \| Order \| To put things in order. To achieve cleanliness, arrangement, organization, balance, neatness, tidiness, and precision. \| \| Play \| To act for “fun” without further purpose. To like to laugh and make jokes. To seek enjoyable relaxation from stress. \| \| Rejection \| To separate oneself from a negatively valued object. To exclude, abandon, expel, or remain indifferent to an inferior object. To snub or jilt an object. \| \| Sentience \| To seek and enjoy sensuous impressions. \| \| Sex \| To form and further an erotic relationship. To have sexual intercourse. \| \| Succorance \| To have one’s needs gratified by the sympathetic aid of an allied object. \| \| Understanding \| To ask or answer general questions. To be interested in theory. To speculate, formulate, analyze, and generalize. \| Murray’s main premise was that people have a variety of needs, but only a few are expressed at a given time. When a person is behaving in a way that satisfies some need, Murray called the need manifest. Manifest needs theory assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy needs. Lucretia’s chattiness probably indicates her need for affiliation. This is a manifest need. But what if Lucretia also has a need to dominate others? Could we detect that need from her current behavior? If not, Murray calls this a latent need. A latent need cannot be inferred from a person’s behavior at a given time, yet the person may still possess that need. The person may not have had the opportunity to express the need. Or she may not be in the proper environment to solicit behaviors to satisfy the need. Lucretia’s need to dominate may not be motivating her current behavior because she is with friends instead of coworkers. Manifest needs theory laid the groundwork for later theories, most notably McClelland’s learned needs theory, that have greatly influenced the study of organizational behavior. The major implication for management is that some employee needs are latent. Managers often assume that employees do not have certain needs because the employees never try to satisfy them at work. Such needs may exist (latent needs); the work environment is simply not conducive to their manifestation (manifest needs). A reclusive accountant may not have been given the opportunity to demonstrate his need for achievement because he never received challenging assignments. Learned Needs Theory David C. McClelland and his associates (especially John W. Atkinson) built on the work of Murray for over 50 years. Murray studied many different needs, but very few in any detail. McClelland’s research differs from Murray’s in that McClelland studied three needs in-depth: the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power (often abbreviated, in turn, as nAch, nAff, and nPow). 5 McClelland believes that these three needs are learned, primarily in childhood. But he also believes that each need can be taught, especially nAch. McClelland’s research is important because much of the current thinking about organizational behavior is based on it. Need for Achievement The need for achievement (nAch) is how much people are motivated to excel at the tasks they are performing, especially tasks that are difficult. Of the three needs studied by McClelland, nAch has the greatest impact. The need for achievement varies in intensity across individuals. This makes nAch a personality trait as well as a statement about motivation. When nAch is being expressed, making it a manifest need, people try hard to succeed at whatever task they’re doing. We say these people have a high achievement motive. A motive is a source of motivation; it is the need that a person is attempting to satisfy. Achievement needs become manifest when individuals experience certain types of situations. To better understand the nAch motive, it’s helpful to describe high-nAch people. You probably know a few of them. They’re constantly trying to accomplish something. One of your authors has a father-in-law who would much rather spend his weekends digging holes (for various home projects) than going fishing. Why? Because when he digs a hole, he gets results. In contrast, he can exert a lot of effort and still not catch a fish. A lot of fishing, no fish, and no results equal failure! McClelland describes three major characteristics of high-nAch people: - They feel personally responsible for completing whatever tasks they are assigned. They accept credit for success and blame for failure. - They like situations where the probability of success is moderate. High-nAch people are not motivated by tasks that are too easy or extremely difficult. Instead, they prefer situations where the outcome is uncertain, but in which they believe they can succeed if they exert enough effort. They avoid both simple and impossible situations. - They have very strong desires for feedback about how well they are doing. They actively seek out performance feedback. It doesn’t matter whether the information implies success or failure. They want to know whether they have achieved or not. They constantly ask how they are doing, sometimes to the point of being a nuisance. Why is nAch important to organizational behavior? The answer is, the success of many organizations is dependent on the nAch levels of their employees. 6 This is especially true for jobs that require self-motivation and managing others. Employees who continuously have to be told how to do their jobs require an overly large management team, and too many layers of management spell trouble in the current marketplace. Today’s flexible, cost-conscious organizations have no room for top-heavy structures; their high-nAch employees perform their jobs well with minimal supervision. Many organizations manage the achievement needs of their employees poorly. A common perception about people who perform unskilled jobs is that they are unmotivated and content doing what they are doing. But, if they have achievement needs, the job itself creates little motivation to perform. It is too easy. There are not enough workers who feel personal satisfaction for having the cleanest floors in a building. Designing jobs that are neither too challenging nor too boring is key to managing motivation. Job enrichment is one effective strategy; this frequently entails training and rotating employees through different jobs, or adding new challenges. Need for Affiliation This need is the second of McClelland’s learned needs. The need for affiliation (nAff) reflects a desire to establish and maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people. As with nAch, nAff varies in intensity across individuals. As you would expect, high-nAff people are very sociable. They’re more likely to go bowling with friends after work than to go home and watch television. Other people have lower affiliation needs. This doesn’t mean that they avoid other people, or that they dislike others. They simply don’t exert as much effort in this area as high-nAff people do. The nAff has important implications for organizational behavior. High-nAff people like to be around other people, including other people at work. As a result, they perform better in jobs that require teamwork. Maintaining good relationships with their coworkers is important to them, so they go to great lengths to make the workgroup succeed because they fear rejection. So, high-nAff employees will be especially motivated to perform well if others depend on them. In contrast, if high-nAff people perform jobs in isolation from other people, they will be less motivated to perform well. Performing well on this job won’t satisfy their need to be around other people. Effective managers carefully assess the degree to which people have high or low nAff. Employees high in nAff should be placed in jobs that require or allow interactions with other employees. Jobs that are best performed alone are more appropriate for low-nAff employees, who are less likely to be frustrated. Need for Power The third of McClelland’s learned needs, the need for power (nPow) , is the need to control things, especially other people. It reflects a motivation to influence and be responsible for other people. An employee who is often talkative, gives orders, and argues a lot is motivated by the need for power over others. Employees with high nPow can be beneficial to organizations. High-nPow people do have effective employee behaviors, but at times they’re disruptive. A high-nPow person may try to convince others to do things that are detrimental to the organization. So, when is this need good, and when is it bad? Again, there are no easy answers. McClelland calls this the “two faces of power.” 7 A personal power seeker endeavors to control others mostly for the sake of dominating them. They want others to respond to their wishes whether or not it is good for the organization. They “build empires,” and they protect them. McClelland’s other power seeker is the social power seeker. A high social power seeker satisfies needs for power by influencing others, like the personal power seeker. They differ in that they feel best when they have influenced a workgroup to achieve the group’s goals, and not some personal agenda. High social power-seekers are concerned with goals that a workgroup has set for itself, and they are motivated to influence others to achieve the goal. This need is oriented toward fulfilling responsibilities to the employer, not to the self. McClelland has argued that the high need for social power is the most important motivator for successful managers. Successful managers tend to be high in this type of nPow. High need for achievement can also be important, but it sometimes results in too much concern for personal success and not enough for the employer’s success. The need for affiliation contributes to managerial success only in those situations where the maintenance of warm group relations is as important as getting others to work toward group goals. The implication of McClelland’s research is that organizations should try to place people with high needs for social power in managerial jobs. It is critical, however, that those managerial jobs allow the employee to satisfy the nPow through social power acquisition. Otherwise, a manager high in nPow may satisfy this need through the acquisition of personal power, to the detriment of the organization. Ethics in Practice Corporate Social Responsibility as a Motivating Force Whatever their perspective, most people have a cause that they are passionate about. Bitcoin or net neutrality, sea levels or factory farming—social causes bind us to a larger context or assume a higher purpose for living better. So what motivates employees to give their all, work creatively, and be fully engaged? According to CB Bhattacharya, the Pietro Ferrero Chair in Sustainability at ESMT European School of Management and Technology in Berlin, Germany, employment engagement, or how positive employees feel about their current job, was at an all-time low globally in 2016: 13 percent. But not all companies battle such low engagement rates. Unilever employees more than 170,000 workers globally and has an employ engagement level around 80 percent. How? Bhattacharya credits the success of Unilever, and other companies with similar engagement levels, to an emphasis on a “sustainable business model.” He outlines eight steps that companies take to move sustainability and social responsibility from buzzwords to a company mission capable of motivating employees (Knowledge @ Wharton 2016). According to Bhattacharya, a company needs to first define what it does and its long-term purpose, and then reconcile its sustainability goals with its economic goals. With its purpose and goals defined, it can then educate the workforce on sustainable methods to create knowledge and competence. Champions for the effort must be found throughout the organization, not just at the top. Competition should be encouraged among employees to find and embrace new goals. Sustainability should be visible both within and outside the company. Sustainability should be tied to a higher purpose and foster a sense of unity not simply among employees, but even with competition at a societal level (Knowledge @ Wharton 2016). Other companies have made social responsibility an everyday part of what they do. Launched in 2013, Bombas is the brainchild of Randy Goldberg and David Heath. Goldberg and Heath discovered that socks are the most-requested clothing at homeless shelters. In response, the two entrepreneurs launched a line of socks that not only “reinvents” the sock (they claim), but also helps those in need. For each pair of socks purchased, the company donates a pair of socks to someone in need (Mulvey 2017). According to the company website, “Bombas exists to help solve this problem, to support the homeless community, and to bring awareness to an under-publicized problem in the United States” (n.p.). Although the New York-based company is still growing, as of October 2017 Bombas had donated more than four million pairs of socks (Bombas 2017). In 2016, the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) launched a pilot program called Jump in which employees participated in challenges on ways to save water and electricity, as well as other sustainability issues. At the end of the pilot, 95 percent of the employees reported that they felt the program had contributed to employee engagement, team building, and environmental stability. Given the success of the program, in 2017 it was expanded to all RBS sites and a smartphone app was added to help employees participate in the challenges (Barton 2017). Placing a company in a larger context and adding a second, higher purpose than the established company goals motivates employees to police the company itself to be a better global citizen. Companies benefit from reduced waste and increased employee engagement. Many companies are successfully motivating their staff, and working toward more sustainable practices, while improving lives directly. Sources: Barton, Tynan. 2017. “RBS boosts employee motivation and engagement through its CSR approach.” employee benefits. https://www.employeebenefits.co.uk/i...-csr-approach/ Bombas. 2017. “Giving Back.” https://bombas.com/pages/giving-back Knowledge @ Wharton. 2016. “How Companies Can Tap Sustainability to Motivate Staff.” http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/a...otivate-staff/ Mulvey, Kelsey. 2017. “This company spent two years perfecting gym socks, and it paid off.” Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/bomba...-review-2017-1 Questions: - Do you think social responsibility to promote sustainable practices? Why or why not? - Do you think most companies’ CSR programs are essentially PR gimmicks? Why or why not? Give examples. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Any discussion of needs that motivate performance would be incomplete without considering Abraham Maslow. 8 Thousands of managers in the 1960s were exposed to Maslow’s theory through the popular writings of Douglas McGregor. 9 Today, many of them still talk about employee motivation in terms of Maslow’s theory. Maslow was a psychologist who, based on his early research with primates (monkeys), observations of patients, and discussions with employees in organizations, theorized that human needs are arranged hierarchically. That is, before one type of need can manifest itself, other needs must be satisfied. For example, our need for water takes precedence over our need for social interaction (this is also called prepotency ). We will always satisfy our need for water before we satisfy our social needs; water needs have prepotency over social needs. Maslow’s theory differs from others that preceded it because of this hierarchical, prepotency concept. Maslow went on to propose five basic types of human needs. This is in contrast to the thousands of needs that earlier researchers had identified, and also fewer than Murray identified in his theory. Maslow condensed human needs into a manageable set. Those five human needs, in the order of prepotency in which they direct human behavior, are: - Physiological and survival needs. These are the most basic of human needs and include the needs for water, food, sex, sleep, activity, stimulation, and oxygen. - Safety and security needs. These needs invoke behaviors that assure freedom from danger. This set of needs involves meeting threats to our existence, including extremes in environmental conditions (heat, dust, and so on), assault from other humans, tyranny, and murder. In other words, satisfaction of these needs prevents fear and anxiety while adding stability and predictability to life. - Social needs. These needs reflect human desires to be the target of affection and love from others. They are especially satisfied by the presence of spouses, children, parents, friends, relatives, and others to whom we feel close. Feelings of loneliness and rejection are symptoms that this need has not been satisfied. - Ego and esteem. Esteem needs to go beyond social needs. They reflect our need to be respected by others, and to have esteem for ourselves. It is one thing to be liked by others. It is another thing to be respected for our talents and abilities. Ego and esteem needs have internal (self) and external (others) focuses. An internal focus includes desires for achievement, strength, competence, confidence, and independence. An external focus includes desires to have prestige, recognition, appreciation, attention, and respect from others. Satisfaction of external esteem needs can lead to satisfaction of internal esteem needs. - Self-actualization. Self-actualization needs are the most difficult to describe. Unlike the other needs, the need for self-actualization is never completely satisfied. Self-actualization involves a desire for self-fulfillment, “to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.” 10 Because people are so different in their strengths and weaknesses, in capacities and limitations, the meaning of self-actualization varies greatly. Satisfying self-actualization needs means developing all of our special abilities to their fullest degree. Figure $\PageIndex{2}$ A protester at an anti-war demonstration in Seattle held up this sign. Where would you place that on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Figure $\PageIndex{3}$ illustrates Maslow’s proposed hierarchy of needs. According to his theory, people first direct their attention to satisfying their lower-order needs. Those are the needs at the bottom of the pyramid (physiological, safety, and security). Once those needs have been satisfied, the next level, social needs, becomes energized. Once satisfied, we focus on our ego and esteem needs. Maslow believed that most people become fixated at this level. That is, most people spend much of their lives developing self-esteem and the esteem of others. But, once those esteem needs are satisfied, Maslow predicted that self-actualization needs would dominate. There are no higher levels in the pyramid, because self-actualization needs can never be fully satisfied. They represent a continuing process of self-development and self-improvement that, once satisfied on one dimension (painting), create motivation to continue on other dimensions (sculpting). One wonders if athletes like Tim Tebow are self-actualizing when they participate in multiple sporting endeavors at the professional level. An overriding principle in this theory is that a person’s attention (direction) and energy (intensity) will focus on satisfying the lowest-level need that is not currently satisfied. Needs can also be satisfied at some point but become active (dissatisfied) again. Needs must be “maintained” (we must continue to eat occasionally). According to Maslow, when lower-level needs are reactivated, we once again concentrate on that need. That is, we lose interest in the higher-level needs when lower-order needs are energized. The implications of Maslow’s theory for organizational behavior are as much conceptual as they are practical. The theory posits that to maximize employee motivation, employers must try to guide workers to the upper parts of the hierarchy. That means that the employer should help employees satisfy lower-order needs like safety and security and social needs. Once satisfied, employees will be motivated to build esteem and respect through their work achievements. Exhibit 7.6 shows how Maslow’s theory relates to factors that organizations can influence. For example, by providing adequate pay, safe working conditions, and cohesive work groups, employers help employees satisfy their lower-order needs. Once satisfied, challenging jobs, additional responsibilities, and prestigious job titles can help employees satisfy higher-order esteem needs. Maslow’s theory is still popular among practicing managers. Organizational behavior researchers, however, are not as enamored with it because research results don’t support Maslow’s hierarchical notion. Apparently, people don’t go through the five levels in a fixed fashion. On the other hand, there is some evidence that people satisfy the lower-order needs before they attempt to satisfy higher-order needs. Refinements of Maslow’s theory in recent years reflect this more limited hierarchy. 11 The self-assessment below will allow you to evaluate the strength of your five needs. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Clayton Alderfer observed that very few attempts had been made to test Maslow’s full theory. Further, the evidence accumulated provided only partial support. During the process of refining and extending Maslow’s theory, Alderfer provided another need-based theory and a somewhat more useful perspective on motivation. 12 Alderfer’s ERG theory compresses Maslow’s five need categories into three: existence, relatedness, and growth. 13 In addition, ERG theory details the dynamics of an individual’s movement between the need categories in a somewhat more detailed fashion than typically characterizes interpretations of Maslow’s work. As shown in Figure $\PageIndex{4}$, the ERG model addresses the same needs as those identified in Maslow’s work: - Existence needs include physiological and material safety needs. These needs are satisfied by material conditions and not through interpersonal relations or personal involvement in the work setting. - Relatedness needs include all of Maslow’s social needs, plus social safety and social esteem needs. These needs are satisfied through the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other people. - Growth needs include self-esteem and self-actualization needs. These needs tend to be satisfied through one’s full involvement in work and the work setting. Figure $\PageIndex{5}$ identifies a number of ways in which organizations can help their members satisfy these three needs. Four components—satisfaction progression, frustration, frustration regression, and aspiration—are key to understanding Alderfer’s ERG theory. The first of these, satisfaction progression, is in basic agreement with Maslow’s process of moving through the needs. As we increasingly satisfy our existence needs, we direct energy toward relatedness needs. As these needs are satisfied, our growth needs become more active. The second component, frustration, occurs when we attempt but fail to satisfy a particular need. The resulting frustration may make satisfying the unmet need even more important to us—unless we repeatedly fail to satisfy that need. In this case, Alderfer’s third component, frustration regression, can cause us to shift our attention to a previously satisfied, more concrete, and verifiable need. Lastly, the aspiration component of the ERG model notes that, by its very nature, growth is intrinsically satisfying. The more we grow, the more we want to grow. Therefore, the more we satisfy our growth need, the more important it becomes and the more strongly we are motivated to satisfy it. Alderfer’s model is potentially more useful than Maslow’s in that it doesn’t create false motivational categories. For example, it is difficult for researchers to ascertain when interaction with others satisfies our need for acceptance and when it satisfies our need for recognition. ERG also focuses attention explicitly on movement through the set of needs in both directions. Further, evidence in support of the three need categories and their order tends to be stronger than evidence for Maslow’s five need categories and their relative order. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory Clearly one of the most influential motivation theories throughout the 1950s and 1960s was Frederick Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory. 14 This theory is a further refinement of Maslow’s theory. Herzberg argued that there are two sets of needs, instead of the five sets theorized by Maslow. He called the first set “motivators” (or growth needs). Motivators , which relate to the jobs we perform and our ability to feel a sense of achievement as a result of performing them, are rooted in our need to experience growth and self-actualization. The second set of needs he termed “hygienes.” Hygienes relate to the work environment and are based in the basic human need to “avoid pain.” According to Herzberg, growth needs motivate us to perform well and, when these needs are met, lead to the experience of satisfaction. Hygiene needs, on the other hand, must be met to avoid dissatisfaction (but do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation). 15 Hygiene factors are not directly related to the work itself (job content). Rather, hygienes refer to job context factors (pay, working conditions, supervision, and security). Herzberg also refers to these factors as “dissatisfiers” because they are frequently associated with dissatisfied employees. These factors are so frequently associated with dissatisfaction that Herzberg claims they never really provide satisfaction. When they’re present in sufficient quantities, we avoid dissatisfaction, but they do not contribute to satisfaction. Furthermore, since meeting these needs does not provide satisfaction, Herzberg concludes that they do not motivate workers. Motivator factors involve our long-term need to pursue psychological growth (much like Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs). Motivators relate to job content. Job content is what we actually do when we perform our job duties. Herzberg considered job duties that lead to feelings of achievement and recognition to be motivators. He refers to these factors as “satisfiers” to reflect their ability to provide satisfying experiences. When these needs are met, we experience satisfaction. Because meeting these needs provides satisfaction, they motivate workers. More specifically, Herzberg believes these motivators lead to high performance (achievement), and the high performance itself leads to satisfaction. The unique feature of Herzberg’s theory is that job conditions that prevent dissatisfaction do not cause satisfaction. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are on different “scales” in his view. Hygienes can cause dissatisfaction if they are not present in sufficient levels. Thus, an employee can be dissatisfied with low pay. But paying him more will not cause long-term satisfaction unless motivators are present. Good pay by itself will only make the employee neutral toward work; to attain satisfaction, employees need challenging job duties that result in a sense of achievement. Employees can be dissatisfied, neutral, or satisfied with their jobs, depending on their levels of hygienes and motivators. Herzberg’s theory even allows for the possibility that an employee can be satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time—the “I love my job but I hate the pay” situation! Herzberg’s theory has made lasting contributions to organizational research and managerial practice. Researchers have used it to identify the wide range of factors that influence worker reactions. Previously, most organizations attended primarily to hygiene factors. Because of Herzberg’s work, organizations today realize the potential of motivators. Job enrichment programs are among the many direct results of his research. Herzberg’s work suggests a two-stage process for managing employee motivation and satisfaction. First, managers should address the hygiene factors. Intense forms of dissatisfaction distract employees from important work-related activities and tend to be demotivating. 16 Thus, managers should make sure that such basic needs as adequate pay, safe and clean working conditions, and opportunities for social interaction are met. They should then address the much more powerful motivator needs, in which workers experience recognition, responsibility, achievement, and growth. If motivator needs are ignored, neither long-term satisfaction nor high motivation is likely. When motivator needs are met, however, employees feel satisfied and are motivated to perform well. Self-Determination Theory One major implication of Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory is the somewhat counterintuitive idea that managers should focus more on motivators than on hygienes. (After all, doesn’t everyone want to be paid well? Organizations have held this out as a chief motivator for decades!) Why might concentrating on motivators give better results? To answer this question, we must examine types of motivation. Organizational behavior researchers often classify motivation in terms of what stimulates it. In the case of extrinsic motivation , we endeavor to acquire something that satisfies a lower-order need. Jobs that pay well and that are performed in safe, clean working conditions with adequate supervision and resources directly or indirectly satisfy these lower-order needs. These “outside the person” factors are extrinsic rewards . Factors “inside” the person that cause people to perform tasks, intrinsic motivation , arise out of performing a task in and of itself because it is interesting or “fun” to do. The task is enjoyable, so we continue to do it even in the absence of extrinsic rewards. That is, we are motivated by intrinsic rewards, rewards that we more or less give ourselves. Intrinsic rewards satisfy higher-order needs like relatedness and growth in ERG theory. When we sense that we are valuable contributors, are achieving something important, or are getting better at some skill, we like this feeling and strive to maintain it. Self-determination theory (SDT) seeks to explain not only what causes motivation, but also how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation. 17 In SDT, extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain some valued outcome, while intrinsic motivation refers to performing an activity for the inherent satisfaction of the activity itself. SDT specifies when an activity will be intrinsically motivating and when it will not. Considerable numbers of studies have demonstrated that tasks are intrinsically motivating when they satisfy at least one of three higher-order needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. These precepts from SDT are entirely consistent with earlier discussions of theories by McClelland, Maslow, Alderfer, and Herzberg. SDT takes the concepts of extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation further than the other need theories. SDT researchers have consistently found that as the level of extrinsic rewards increases, the amount of intrinsic motivation decreases. That is, SDT posits that extrinsic rewards not only do not provide intrinsic motivation, they diminish it. Think of this in terms of hobbies. Some people like to knit, others like to carve wood. They do it because it is intrinsically motivating; the hobby satisfies needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. But what happens if these hobbyists start getting paid well for their sweaters and carvings? Over time the hobby becomes less fun and is done in order to receive extrinsic rewards (money). Extrinsic motivation increases as intrinsic motivation decreases! When extrinsic rewards are present, people do not feel like what they do builds competence, is self-determined, or enhances relationships with others. SDT theory has interesting implications for the management of organizational behavior. Some jobs are by their very nature uninteresting and unlikely to be made interesting. Automation has eliminated many such jobs, but they are still numerous. SDT would suggest that the primary way to motivate high performance for such jobs is to make performance contingent on extrinsic rewards. Relatively high pay is necessary to sustain performance on certain low-skill jobs. On the other hand, SDT would suggest that to enhance intrinsic motivation on jobs that are interesting, don’t focus only on increasing extrinsic rewards (like large pay bonuses). Instead, create even more opportunities for employees to satisfy their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. That means giving them opportunities to learn new skills, to perform their jobs without interference, and to develop meaningful relationships with other customers and employees in other departments. Such actions enhance intrinsic rewards. You may have noticed that content theories are somewhat quiet about what determines the intensity of motivation. For example, some people steal to satisfy their lower-order needs (they have high intensity). But most of us don’t steal. Why is this? Process theories of motivation attempt to explain this aspect of motivation by focusing on the intensity of motivation as well as its direction. According to self-determination theory, skilled workers who are given a chance to hone their skills and the freedom to practice their craft will be intrinsically motivated. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ - Understand the content theories of motivation. - Understand the contributions that Murray, McClelland, Maslow, Alderfer, and Herzberg made toward an understanding of human motivation.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.087491	2024-09-04T21:46:55	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.09%3A_Content_Theories_of_Motivation", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.9: Content Theories of Motivation", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.10%3A_Process_Theories_of_Motivation	7.10: Process Theories of Motivation Describe the process theories of motivation, and compare and contrast the main process theories of motivation: operant conditioning theory, equity theory, goal theory, and expectancy theory. Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. These theories focus on the mechanism by which we choose a target, and the effort that we exert to “hit” the target. There are four major process theories: (1) operant conditioning, (2) equity, (3) goal, and (4) expectancy. Operant Conditioning Theory Operant conditioning theory is the simplest of the motivation theories. It basically states that people will do those things for which they are rewarded and will avoid doing things for which they are punished. This premise is sometimes called the “law of effect.” However, if this were the sum total of conditioning theory, we would not be discussing it here. Operant conditioning theory does offer greater insights than “reward what you want and punish what you don’t,” and knowledge of its principles can lead to effective management practices. Operant conditioning focuses on the learning of voluntary behaviors. 18 The term operant conditioning indicates that learning results from our “operating on” the environment. After we “operate on the environment” (that is, behave in a certain fashion), consequences result. These consequences determine the likelihood of similar behavior in the future. Learning occurs because we do something to the environment. The environment then reacts to our action, and our subsequent behavior is influenced by this reaction. The Basic Operant Model According to operant conditioning theory , we learn to behave in a particular fashion because of consequences that resulted from our past behaviors. 19 The learning process involves three distinct steps (see Table $\PageIndex{1}$). The first step involves a stimulus (S). The stimulus is any situation or event we perceive that we then respond to. A homework assignment is a stimulus. The second step involves a response (R), that is, any behavior or action we take in reaction to the stimulus. Staying up late to get your homework assignment in on time is a response. (We use the words response and behavior interchangeably here.) Finally, a consequence (C) is any event that follows our response and that makes the response more or less likely to occur in the future. If Colleen Sullivan receives praise from her superior for working hard, and if getting that praise is a pleasurable event, then it is likely that Colleen will work hard again in the future. If, on the other hand, the superior ignores or criticizes Colleen’s response (working hard), this consequence is likely to make Colleen avoid working hard in the future. It is the experienced consequence (positive or negative) that influences whether a response will be repeated the next time the stimulus is presented. \| Process Theories of Motivation \| \| \|---\|---\| \| General Operant Model: S → R → C \| \| \| Ways to Strengthen the S → R Link \| \| \| 1. S → R → C+ \| (Positive Reinforcement) \| \| 2. S → R → C– \| (Negative Reinforcement) \| \| 3. S → R → (no C–) \| (Avoidance Learning) \| \| Ways to Weaken the S → R Link \| \| \| 1. S → R → (no C) \| (Nonreinforcement) \| \| 2. S → R → C– \| (Punishment) \| Reinforcement occurs when a consequence makes it more likely the response/behavior will be repeated in the future. In the previous example, praise from Colleen’s superior is a reinforcer. Extinction occurs when a consequence makes it less likely the response/behavior will be repeated in the future. Criticism from Colleen’s supervisor could cause her to stop working hard on any assignment. There are three ways to make a response more likely to recur: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and avoidance learning. In addition, there are two ways to make the response less likely to recur: nonreinforcement and punishment. Making a Response More Likely According to reinforcement theorists, managers can encourage employees to repeat a behavior if they provide a desirable consequence, or reward, after the behavior is performed. A positive reinforcement is a desirable consequence that satisfies an active need or that removes a barrier to need satisfaction. It can be as simple as a kind word or as major as a promotion. Companies that provide “dinners for two” as awards to those employees who go the extra mile are utilizing positive reinforcement. It is important to note that there are wide variations in what people consider to be a positive reinforcer. Praise from a supervisor may be a powerful reinforcer for some workers (like high-nAch individuals) but not others. Another technique for making a desired response more likely to be repeated is known as negative reinforcement . When a behavior causes something undesirable to be taken away, the behavior is more likely to be repeated in the future. Managers use negative reinforcement when they remove something unpleasant from an employee’s work environment in the hope that this will encourage the desired behavior. Ted doesn’t like being continually reminded by Philip to work faster (Ted thinks Philip is nagging him), so he works faster at stocking shelves to avoid being criticized. Philip’s reminders are a negative reinforcement for Ted. Approach using negative reinforcement with extreme caution. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. Punishment, unlike reinforcement (negative or positive), is intended to make a particular behavior go away (not be repeated). Negative reinforcement, like positive reinforcement, is intended to make a behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. In the previous example, Philip’s reminders simultaneously punished one behavior (slow stocking) and reinforced another (faster stocking). The difference is often a fine one, but it becomes clearer when we identify the behaviors we are trying to encourage (reinforcement) or discourage (punishment). A third method of making a response more likely to occur involves a process known as avoidance learning. Avoidance learning occurs when we learn to behave in a certain way to avoid encountering an undesired or unpleasant consequence. We may learn to wake up a minute or so before our alarm clock rings so we can turn it off and not hear the irritating buzzer. Some workers learn to get to work on time to avoid the harsh words or punitive actions of their supervisors. Many organizational discipline systems rely heavily on avoidance learning by using the threat of negative consequences to encourage desired behavior. When managers warn an employee not to be late again, when they threaten to fire a careless worker, or when they transfer someone to an undesirable position, they are relying on the power of avoidance learning. Making a Response Less Likely At times it is necessary to discourage a worker from repeating an undesirable behavior. The techniques managers use to make a behavior less likely to occur involve doing something that frustrates the individual’s need satisfaction or that removes a currently satisfying circumstance. Punishment is an aversive consequence that follows a behavior and makes it less likely to reoccur. Note that managers have another alternative, known as nonreinforcement , in which they provide no consequence at all following a worker’s response. Nonreinforcement eventually reduces the likelihood of that response reoccurring, which means that managers who fail to reinforce a worker’s desirable behavior are also likely to see that desirable behavior less often. If Philip never rewards Ted when he finishes stocking on time, for instance, Ted will probably stop trying to beat the clock. Nonreinforcement can also reduce the likelihood that employees will repeat undesirable behaviors, although it doesn’t produce results as quickly as punishment does. Furthermore, if other reinforcing consequences are present, nonreinforcement is unlikely to be effective. While punishment clearly works more quickly than does nonreinforcement, it has some potentially undesirable side effects. Although punishment effectively tells a person what not to do and stops the undesired behavior, it does not tell them what they should do. In addition, even when punishment works as intended, the worker being punished often develops negative feelings toward the person who does the punishing. Although sometimes it is very difficult for managers to avoid using punishment, it works best when reinforcement is also used. An experiment conducted by two researchers at the University of Kansas found that using nonmonetary reinforcement in addition to punitive disciplinary measures was an effective way to decrease absenteeism in an industrial setting. 20 Schedules of Reinforcement When a person is learning a new behavior, like how to perform a new job, it is desirable to reinforce effective behaviors every time they are demonstrated (this is called shaping ). But in organizations it is not usually possible to reinforce desired behaviors every time they are performed, for obvious reasons. Moreover, research indicates that constantly reinforcing desired behaviors, termed continuous reinforcement, can be detrimental in the long run. Behaviors that are learned under continuous reinforcement are quickly extinguished (cease to be demonstrated). This is because people will expect a reward (the reinforcement) every time they display the behavior. When they don’t receive it after just a few times, they quickly presume that the behavior will no longer be rewarded, and they quit doing it. Any employer can change employees’ behavior by simply not paying them! If behaviors cannot (and should not) be reinforced every time they are exhibited, how often should they be reinforced? This is a question about schedules of reinforcement , or the frequency at which effective employee behaviors should be reinforced. Much of the early research on operant conditioning focused on the best way to maintain the performance of desired behaviors. That is, it attempted to determine how frequently behaviors need to be rewarded so that they are not extinguished. Research zeroed in on four types of reinforcement schedules: Fixed Ratio. With this schedule, a fixed number of responses (let’s say five) must be exhibited before any of the responses are reinforced. If the desired response is coming to work on time, then giving employees a $25 bonus for being punctual every day from Monday through Friday would be a fixed ratio of reinforcement. Variable Ratio. A variable-ratio schedule reinforces behaviors, on average, a fixed number of times (again let’s say five). Sometimes the tenth behavior is reinforced, other times the first, but on average every fifth response is reinforced. People who perform under such variable-ratio schedules like this don’t know when they will be rewarded, but they do know that they will be rewarded. Fixed Interval. In a fixed-interval schedule, a certain amount of time must pass before a behavior is reinforced. With a one-hour fixed-interval schedule, for example, a supervisor visits an employee’s workstation and reinforces the first desired behavior she sees. She returns one hour later and reinforces the next desirable behavior. This schedule doesn’t imply that reinforcement will be received automatically after the passage of the time period. The time must pass and an appropriate response must be made. Variable Interval. The variable interval differs from fixed-interval schedules in that the specified time interval passes on average before another appropriate response is reinforced. Sometimes the time period is shorter than the average; sometimes it is longer. Which type of reinforcement schedule is best? In general, continuous reinforcement is best while employees are learning their jobs or new duties. After that, variable-ratio reinforcement schedules are superior. In most situations the fixed-interval schedule produces the least effective results, with fixed ratio and variable interval falling in between the two extremes. But remember that effective behaviors must be reinforced with some type of schedule, or they may become extinguished. Equity Theory Suppose you have worked for a company for several years. Your performance has been excellent, you have received regular pay increases, and you get along with your boss and coworkers. One day you come to work to find that a new person has been hired to work at the same job that you do. You are pleased to have the extra help. Then, you find out the new person is making $100 more per week than you, despite your longer service and greater experience. How do you feel? If you’re like most of us, you’re quite unhappy. Your satisfaction has just evaporated. Nothing about your job has changed—you receive the same pay, do the same job, and work for the same supervisor. Yet, the addition of one new employee has transformed you from a happy to an unhappy employee. This feeling of unfairness is the basis for equity theory. Equity theory states that motivation is affected by the outcomes we receive for our inputs compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people. 21 This theory is concerned with the reactions people have to outcomes they receive as part of a “social exchange.” According to equity theory, our reactions to the outcomes we receive from others (an employer) depend both on how we value those outcomes in an absolute sense and on the circumstances surrounding their receipt. Equity theory suggests that our reactions will be influenced by our perceptions of the “inputs” provided in order to receive these outcomes (“Did I get as much out of this as I put into it?”). Even more important is the comparison of our inputs to what we believe others received for their inputs (“Did I get as much for my inputs as my coworkers got for theirs?”). The Basic Equity Model The fundamental premise of equity theory is that we continuously monitor the degree to which our work environment is “fair.” In determining the degree of fairness, we consider two sets of factors, inputs and outcomes (see Figure $\PageIndex{2}$). Inputs are any factors we contribute to the organization that we feel have value and are relevant to the organization. Note that the value attached to an input is based on our perception of its relevance and value. Whether or not anyone else agrees that the input is relevant or valuable is unimportant to us. Common inputs in organizations include time, effort, performance level, education level, skill levels, and bypassed opportunities. Since any factor we consider relevant is included in our evaluation of equity, it is not uncommon for factors to be included that the organization (or even the law) might argue are inappropriate (such as age, sex, ethnic background, or social status). Outcomes are anything we perceive as getting back from the organization in exchange for our inputs. Again, the value attached to an outcome is based on our perceptions and not necessarily on objective reality. Common outcomes from organizations include pay, working conditions, job status, feelings of achievement, and friendship opportunities. Both positive and negative outcomes influence our evaluation of equity. Stress, headaches, and fatigue are also potential outcomes. Since any outcome we consider relevant to the exchange influences our equity perception, we frequently include unintended factors (peer disapproval, family reactions). Equity theory predicts that we will compare our outcomes to our inputs in the form of a ratio. On the basis of this ratio we make an initial determination of whether or not the situation is equitable. If we perceive that the outcomes we receive are commensurate with our inputs, we are satisfied. If we believe that the outcomes are not commensurate with our inputs, we are dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction can lead to ineffective behaviors for the organization if they continue. The key feature of equity theory is that it predicts that we will compare our ratios to the ratios of other people. It is this comparison of the two ratios that has the strongest effect on our equity perceptions. These other people are called referent others because we “refer to” them when we judge equity. Usually, referent others are people we work with who perform work of a similar nature. That is, referent others perform jobs that are similar in difficulty and complexity to the employee making the equity determination (see Figure $\PageIndex{2}$). Three conditions can result from this comparison. Our outcome-to-input ratio could equal the referent other’s. This is a state of equity . A second result could be that our ratio is greater than the referent other’s. This is a state of overreward inequity . The third result could be that we perceive our ratio to be less than that of the referent other. This is a state of underreward inequity . Equity theory has a lot to say about basic human tendencies. The motivation to compare our situation to that of others is strong. For example, what is the first thing you do when you get an exam back in class? Probably look at your score and make an initial judgment as to its fairness. For a lot of people, the very next thing they do is look at the scores received by fellow students who sit close to them. A 75 percent score doesn’t look so bad if everyone else scored lower! This is equity theory in action. Most workers in the United States are at least partially dissatisfied with their pay. 22 Equity theory helps explain this. Two human tendencies create feelings of inequity that are not based in reality. One is that we tend to overrate our performance levels. For example, one study conducted by your authors asked more than 600 employees to anonymously rate their performance on a 7-point scale (1 = poor, 7 = excellent). The average was 6.2, meaning the average employee rated his or her performance as very good to excellent. This implies that the average employee also expects excellent pay increases, a policy most employers cannot afford if they are to remain competitive. Another study found that the average employee (one whose performance is better than half of the other employees and worse than the other half) rated her performance at the 80th percentile (better than 80 percent of the other employees, worse than 20 percent). 23 Again it would be impossible for most organizations to reward the average employee at the 80th percentile. In other words, most employees inaccurately overrate the inputs they provide to an organization. This leads to perceptions of inequity that are not justified. The second human tendency that leads to unwarranted perceptions of inequity is our tendency to overrate the outcomes of others. 24 Many employers keep the pay levels of employees a “secret.” Still other employers actually forbid employees to talk about their pay. This means that many employees don’t know for certain how much their colleagues are paid. And, because most of us overestimate the pay of others, we tend to think that they’re paid more than they actually are, and the unjustified perceptions of inequity are perpetuated. The bottom line for employers is that they need to be sensitive to employees’ need for equity. Employers need to do everything they can to prevent feelings of inequity because employees engage in effective behaviors when they perceive equity and ineffective behaviors when they perceive inequity. Perceived Overreward Inequity When we perceive that overreward inequity exists (that is, we unfairly make more than others), it is rare that we are so dissatisfied, guilty, or sufficiently motivated that we make changes to produce a state of perceived equity (or we leave the situation). Indeed, feelings of overreward, when they occur, are quite transient. Very few of us go to our employers and complain that we’re overpaid! Most people are less sensitive to overreward inequities than they are to underreward inequities. 25 However infrequently they are used for overreward, the same types of actions are available for dealing with both types of inequity. Perceived Underreward Inequity When we perceive that underreward inequity exists (that is, others unfairly make more than we do), we will likely be dissatisfied, angered, and motivated to change the situation (or escape the situation) in order to produce a state of perceived equity. As we discuss shortly, people can take many actions to deal with underreward inequity. Reducing Underreward Inequity A simple situation helps explain the consequences of inequity. Two automobile workers in Detroit, John and Mary, fasten lug nuts to wheels on cars as they come down the assembly line, John on the left side and Mary on the right. Their inputs are equal (both fasten the same number of lug nuts at the same pace), but John makes $500 per week and Mary makes $600. Their equity ratios are thus: \| $500 \| $600 \| \| John: \| <Mary: \| \| 10 lug nuts/car \| 10 lug nuts/car \| As you can see, their ratios are not equal; that is, Mary receives greater outcome for equal input. Who is experiencing inequity? According to equity theory, both John and Mary—underreward inequity for John, and overreward inequity for Mary. Mary’s inequity won’t last long (in real organizations), but in our hypothetical example, what might John do to resolve this? Adams identified a number of things people do to reduce the tension produced by a perceived state of inequity. They change their own outcomes or inputs, or they change those of the referent other. They distort their own perceptions of the outcomes or inputs of either party by using a different referent other, or they leave the situation in which the inequity is occurring. - Alter inputs of the person. The perceived state of equity can be altered by changing our own inputs, that is, by decreasing the quantity or quality of our performance. John can effect his own mini slowdown and install only nine lug nuts on each car as it comes down the production line. This, of course, might cause him to lose his job, so he probably won’t choose this alternative. - Alter outcomes of the person. We could attempt to increase outcomes to achieve a state of equity, like ask for a raise, a nicer office, a promotion, or other positively valued outcomes. So John will likely ask for a raise. Unfortunately, many people enhance their outcomes by stealing from their employers. - Alter inputs of the referent other. When underrewarded, we may try to achieve a state of perceived equity by encouraging the referent other to increase their inputs. We may demand, for example, that the referent other “start pulling their weight,” or perhaps help the referent other to become a better performer. It doesn’t matter that the referent other is already pulling their weight—remember, this is all about perception. In our example, John could ask Mary to put on two of his ten lug nuts as each car comes down the assembly line. This would not likely happen, however, so John would be motivated to try another alternative to reduce his inequity. - Alter outcomes of the referent other. We can “correct” a state of underreward by directly or indirectly reducing the value of the other’s outcomes. In our example, John could try to get Mary’s pay lowered to reduce his inequity. This too would probably not occur in the situation described. - Distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes. It is possible to reduce a perceived state of inequity without changing input or outcome. We simply distort our own perceptions of our inputs or outcomes, or we distort our perception of those of the referent other. Thus, John may tell himself that “Mary does better work than I thought” or “she enjoys her work much less than I do” or “she gets paid less than I realized.” - Choose a different referent other. We can also deal with both over- and underreward inequities by changing the referent other (“my situation is really more like Ahmed’s”). This is the simplest and most powerful way to deal with perceived inequity: it requires neither actual nor perceptual changes in anybody’s input or outcome, and it causes us to look around and assess our situation more carefully. For example, John might choose as a referent other Bill, who installs dashboards but makes less money than John. - Leave the situation. A final technique for dealing with a perceived state of inequity involves removing ourselves from the situation. We can choose to accomplish this through absenteeism, transfer, or termination. This approach is usually not selected unless the perceived inequity is quite high or other attempts at achieving equity are not readily available. Most automobile workers are paid quite well for their work. John is unlikely to find an equivalent job, so it is also unlikely that he will choose this option. Implications of Equity Theory Equity theory is widely used, and its implications are clear. In the vast majority of cases, employees experience (or perceive) underreward inequity rather than overreward. As discussed above, few of the behaviors that result from underreward inequity are good for employers. Thus, employers try to prevent unnecessary perceptions of inequity. They do this in a number of ways. They try to be as fair as possible in allocating pay. That is, they measure performance levels as accurately as possible, then give the highest performers the highest pay increases. Second, most employers are no longer secretive about their pay schedules. People are naturally curious about how much they are paid relative to others in the organization. This doesn’t mean that employers don’t practice discretion—they usually don’t reveal specific employees’ exact pay. But they do tell employees the minimum and maximum pay levels for their jobs and the pay scales for the jobs of others in the organization. Such practices give employees a factual basis for judging equity. Supervisors play a key role in creating perceptions of equity. “Playing favorites” ensures perceptions of inequity. Employees want to be rewarded on their merits, not the whims of their supervisors. In addition, supervisors need to recognize differences in employees in their reactions to inequity. Some employees are highly sensitive to inequity, and a supervisor needs to be especially cautious around them. 26 Everyone is sensitive to reward allocation. 27 But “equity sensitives” are even more sensitive. A major principle for supervisors, then, is simply to implement fairness. Never base punishment or reward on whether or not you like an employee. Reward behaviors that contribute to the organization, and discipline those that do not. Make sure employees understand what is expected of them, and praise them when they do it. These practices make everyone happier and your job easier. Goal Theory No theory is perfect. If it was, it wouldn’t be a theory. It would be a set of facts. Theories are sets of propositions that are right more often than they are wrong, but they are not infallible. However, the basic propositions of goal theory* come close to being infallible. Indeed, it is one of the strongest theories in organizational behavior. The Basic Goal-Setting Model Goal theory states that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific, accepted performance goals or objectives. 28 , 29 The first and most basic premise of goal theory is that people will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve. Thus, if we intend to do something (like get an A on an exam), we will exert effort to accomplish it. Without such goals, our effort at the task (studying) required to achieve the goal is less. Students whose goals are to get As study harder than students who don’t have this goal—we all know this. This doesn’t mean that people without goals are unmotivated. It simply means that people with goals are more motivated. The intensity of their motivation is greater, and they are more directed. The second basic premise is that difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals. This does not mean that difficult goals are always achieved, but our performance will usually be better when we intend to achieve harder goals. Your goal of an A in Classical Mechanics at Cal Tech may not get you your A, but it may earn you a B+, which you wouldn’t have gotten otherwise. Difficult goals cause us to exert more effort, and this almost always results in better performance. Another premise of goal theory is that specific goals are better than vague goals. We often wonder what we need to do to be successful. Have you ever asked a professor “What do I need to do to get an A in this course?” If she responded “Do well on the exams,” you weren’t much better off for having asked. This is a vague response. Goal theory says that we perform better when we have specific goals. Had your professor told you the key thrust of the course, to turn in all the problem sets, to pay close attention to the essay questions on exams, and to aim for scores in the 90s, you would have something concrete on which to build a strategy. A key premise of goal theory is that people must accept the goal. Usually we set our own goals. But sometimes others set goals for us. Your professor telling you your goal is to “score at least a 90 percent on your exams” doesn’t mean that you’ll accept this goal. Maybe you don’t feel you can achieve scores in the 90s. Or, you’ve heard that 90 isn’t good enough for an A in this class. This happens in work organizations quite often. Supervisors give orders that something must be done by a certain time. The employees may fully understand what is wanted, yet if they feel the order is unreasonable or impossible, they may not exert much effort to accomplish it. Thus, it is important for people to accept the goal. They need to feel that it is also their goal. If they do not, goal theory predicts that they won’t try as hard to achieve it. Goal theory also states that people need to commit to a goal in addition to accepting it. Goal commitment is the degree to which we dedicate ourselves to achieving a goal. Goal commitment is about setting priorities. We can accept many goals (go to all classes, stay awake during classes, take lecture notes), but we often end up doing only some of them. In other words, some goals are more important than others. And we exert more effort for certain goals. This also happens frequently at work. A software analyst’s major goal may be to write a new program. Her minor goal may be to maintain previously written programs. It is minor because maintaining old programs is boring, while writing new ones is fun. Goal theory predicts that her commitment, and thus her intensity, to the major goal will be greater. Allowing people to participate in the goal-setting process often results in higher goal commitment. This has to do with ownership. And when people participate in the process, they tend to incorporate factors they think will make the goal more interesting, challenging, and attainable. Thus, it is advisable to allow people some input into the goal-setting process. Imposing goals on them from the outside usually results in less commitment (and acceptance). The basic goal-setting model is shown in Figure $\PageIndex{3}$. The process starts with our values. Values are our beliefs about how the world should be or act, and often include words like “should” or “ought.” We compare our present conditions against these values. For example, Randi holds the value that everyone should be a hard worker. After measuring her current work against this value, Randi concludes that she doesn’t measure up to her own value. Following this, her goal-setting process begins. Randi will set a goal that affirms her status as a hard worker. Figure $\PageIndex{3}$ lists the four types of goals. Some goals are self-set. (Randi decides to word process at least 70 pages per day.) Participative goals are jointly set. (Randi goes to her supervisor, and together they set some appropriate goals for her.) In still other cases, goals are assigned. (Her boss tells her that she must word process at least 60 pages per day.) The fourth type of goal, which can be self-set, jointly determined, or assigned, is a “do your best” goal. But note this goal is vague, so it usually doesn’t result in the best performance. Depending on the characteristics of Randi’s goals, she may or may not exert a lot of effort. For maximum effort to result, her goals should be difficult, specific, accepted, and committed to. Then, if she has sufficient ability and lack of constraints, maximum performance should occur. Examples of constraints could be that her old computer frequently breaks down or her supervisor constantly interferes. The consequence of endeavoring to reach her goal will be that Randi will be satisfied with herself. Her behavior is consistent with her values. She’ll be even more satisfied if her supervisor praises her performance and gives her a pay increase! In Randi’s case, her goal achievement resulted in several benefits. However, this doesn’t always happen. If goals are not achieved, people may be unhappy with themselves, and their employer may be dissatisfied as well. Such an experience can make a person reluctant to accept goals in the future. Thus, setting difficult yet attainable goals cannot be stressed enough. Goal theory can be a tremendous motivational tool. In fact, many organizations practice effective management by using a technique called “management by objectives” (MBO). MBO is based on goal theory and is quite effective when implemented consistently with goal theory’s basic premises. Despite its many strengths, several cautions about goal theory are appropriate. Locke has identified most of them. 30 First, setting goals in one area can lead people to neglect other areas. (Randi may word process 70 pages per day, but neglect her proofreading responsibilities.) It is important that goals be set for most major duties. Second, goal setting sometimes has unintended consequences. For example, employees set easy goals so that they look good when they achieve them. Or it causes unhealthy competition between employees. Or an employee sabotages the work of others so that only she has goal achievement. Some managers use goal setting in unethical ways. They may manipulate employees by setting impossible goals. This enables them to criticize employees even when the employees are doing superior work and, of course, causes much stress. Goal setting should never be abused. Perhaps the key caution about goal setting is that it often results in too much focus on quantified measures of performance. Qualitative aspects of a job or task may be neglected because they aren’t easily measured. Managers must keep employees focused on the qualitative aspects of their jobs as well as the quantitative ones. Finally, setting individual goals in a teamwork environment can be counterproductive. 31 Where possible, it is preferable to have group goals in situations where employees depend on one another in the performance of their jobs. The cautions noted here are not intended to deter you from using goal theory. We note them so that you can avoid the pitfalls. Remember, employees have a right to reasonable performance expectations and the rewards that result from performance, and organizations have a right to expect high performance levels from employees. Goal theory should be used to optimize the employment relationship. Goal theory holds that people will exert effort to accomplish goals if those goals are difficult to achieve, accepted by the individual, and specific in nature. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory posits that we will exert much effort to perform at high levels so that we can obtain valued outcomes. It is the motivation theory that many organizational behavior researchers find most intriguing, in no small part because it is currently also the most comprehensive theory. Expectancy theory ties together many of the concepts and hypotheses from the theories discussed earlier in this chapter. In addition, it points to factors that other theories miss. Expectancy theory has much to offer the student of management and organizational behavior. Expectancy theory is sufficiently general that it is useful in a wide variety of situations. Choices between job offers, between working hard or not so hard, between going to work or not—virtually any set of possibilities can be addressed by expectancy theory. Basically, the theory focuses on two related issues: - When faced with two or more alternatives, which will we select? - Once an alternative is chosen, how motivated will we be to pursue that choice? Expectancy theory thus focuses on the two major aspects of motivation, direction (which alternative?) and intensity (how much effort to implement the alternative?). The attractiveness of an alternative is determined by our “expectations” of what is likely to happen if we choose it. The more we believe that the alternative chosen will lead to positively valued outcomes, the greater its attractiveness to us. Expectancy theory states that, when faced with two or more alternatives, we will select the most attractive one. And, the greater the attractiveness of the chosen alternative, the more motivated we will be to pursue it. Our natural hedonism, discussed earlier in this chapter, plays a role in this process. We are motivated to maximize desirable outcomes (a pay raise) and minimize undesirable ones (discipline). Expectancy theory goes on to state that we are also logical in our decisions about alternatives. It considers people to be rational. People evaluate alternatives in terms of their “pros and cons,” and then choose the one with the most “pros” and fewest “cons.” The Basic Expectancy Model The three major components of expectancy theory reflect its assumptions of hedonism and rationality: effort-performance expectancy, performance-outcome expectancy, and valences. The effort-performance expectancy , abbreviated E1, is the perceived probability that effort will lead to performance (or E ➨ P). Performance here means anything from doing well on an exam to assembling 100 toasters a day at work. Sometimes people believe that no matter how much effort they exert, they won’t perform at a high level. They have weak E1s. Other people have strong E1s and believe the opposite—that is, that they can perform at a high level if they exert high effort. You all know students with different E1s—those who believe that if they study hard they’ll do well, and those who believe that no matter how much they study they’ll do poorly. People develop these perceptions from prior experiences with the task at hand, and from self-perceptions of their abilities. The core of the E1 concept is that people don’t always perceive a direct relationship between effort level and performance level. The performance-outcome expectancy , E2, is the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes (or P ➨ O). 1 Many things in life happen as a function of how well we perform various tasks. E2 addresses the question “What will happen if I perform well?” Let’s say you get an A in your Classical Mechanics course at Cal Tech. You’ll be elated, your classmates may envy you, and you are now assured of that plum job at NASA. But let’s say you got a D. Whoops, that was the last straw for the dean. Now you’ve flunked out, and you’re reduced to going home to live with your parents (perish the thought!). Likewise, E2 perceptions develop in organizations, although hopefully not as drastically as your beleaguered career at Cal Tech. People with strong E2s believe that if they perform their jobs well, they’ll receive desirable outcomes—good pay increases, praise from their supervisor, and a feeling that they’re really contributing. In the same situation, people with weak E2s will have the opposite perceptions—that high performance levels don’t result in desirable outcomes and that it doesn’t really matter how well they perform their jobs as long as they don’t get fired. Valences are the easiest of the expectancy theory concepts to describe. Valences are simply the degree to which we perceive an outcome as desirable, neutral, or undesirable. Highly desirable outcomes (a 25 percent pay increase) are positively valent. Undesirable outcomes (being disciplined) are negatively valent. Outcomes that we’re indifferent to (where you must park your car) have neutral valences. Positively and negatively valent outcomes abound in the workplace—pay increases and freezes, praise and criticism, recognition and rejection, promotions and demotions. And as you would expect, people differ dramatically in how they value these outcomes. Our needs, values, goals, and life situations affect what valence we give an outcome. Equity is another consideration we use in assigning valences. We may consider a 10 percent pay increase desirable until we find out that it was the lowest raise given in our work group. Figure $\PageIndex{4}$ summarizes the three core concepts of expectancy theory. The theory states that our perceptions about our surroundings are essentially predictions about “what leads to what.” We perceive that certain effort levels result in certain performance levels. We perceive that certain performance levels result in certain outcomes. Outcomes can be extrinsic , in that others (our supervisor) determine whether we receive them, or intrinsic , in that we determine if they are received (our sense of achievement). Each outcome has an associated valence (outcome A’s valence is VaVa). Expectancy theory predicts that we will exert effort that results in the maximum amount of positive-valence outcomes. 2 If our E1 or E2 is weak, or if the outcomes are not sufficiently desirable, our motivation to exert effort will be low. Stated differently, an individual will be motivated to try to achieve the level of performance that results in the most rewards. V o is the valence of the outcome. The effort level with the greatest force associated with it will be chosen by the individual. Implications of Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory has major implications for the workplace. Basically, expectancy theory predicts that employees will be motivated to perform well on their jobs under two conditions. The first is when employees believe that a reasonable amount of effort will result in good performance. The second is when good performance is associated with positive outcomes and low performance is associated with negative outcomes. If neither of these conditions exists in the perceptions of employees, their motivation to perform will be low. Why might an employee perceive that positive outcomes are not associated with high performance? Or that negative outcomes are not associated with low performance? That is, why would employees develop weak E2s? This happens for a number of reasons. The main one is that many organizations subscribe too strongly to a principle of equality (not to be confused with equity). They give all of their employees equal salaries for equal work, equal pay increases every year (these are known as across-the-board pay raises), and equal treatment wherever possible. Equality-focused organizations reason that some employees “getting more” than others leads to disruptive competition and feelings of inequity. In time employees in equality-focused organizations develop weak E2s because no distinctions are made for differential outcomes. If the best and the worst salespeople are paid the same, in time they will both decide that it isn’t worth the extra effort to be a high performer. Needless to say, this is not the goal of competitive organizations and can cause the demise of the organization as it competes with other firms in today’s global marketplace. Expectancy theory states that to maximize motivation, organizations must make outcomes contingent on performance. This is the main contribution of expectancy theory: it makes us think about how organizations should distribute outcomes. If an organization, or a supervisor, believes that treating everyone “the same” will result in satisfied and motivated employees, they will be wrong more times than not. From equity theory we know that some employees, usually the better-performing ones, will experience underreward inequity. From expectancy theory we know that employees will see no difference in outcomes for good and poor performance, so they will not have as much incentive to be good performers. Effective organizations need to actively encourage the perception that good performance leads to positive outcomes (bonuses, promotions) and that poor performance leads to negative ones (discipline, termination). Remember, there is a big difference between treating employees equally and treating them equitably. What if an organization ties positive outcomes to high performance and negative outcomes to low performance? Employees will develop strong E2s. But will this result in highly motivated employees? The answer is maybe. We have yet to address employees’ E1s. If employees have weak E1s, they will perceive that high (or low) effort does not result in high performance and thus will not exert much effort. It is important for managers to understand that this can happen despite rewards for high performance. Task-related abilities are probably the single biggest reason why some employees have weak E1s. Self-efficacy is our belief about whether we can successfully execute some future action or task, or achieve some result. High self-efficacy employees believe that they are likely to succeed at most or all of their job duties and responsibilities. And as you would expect, low self-efficacy employees believe the opposite. Specific self-efficacy reflects our belief in our capability to perform a specific task at a specific level of performance. If we believe that the probability of our selling $30,000 of jackrabbit slippers in one month is .90, our self-efficacy for this task is high. Specific self-efficacy is our judgment about the likelihood of successful task performance measured immediately before we expend effort on the task. As a result, specific self-efficacy is much more variable than more enduring notions of personality. Still, there is little doubt that our state-based beliefs are some of the most powerful motivators of behavior. Our efficacy expectations at a given point in time determine not only our initial decision to perform (or not) a task, but also the amount of effort we will expend and whether we will persist in the face of adversity. 32 Self-efficacy has a strong impact on the E1 factor. As a result, self-efficacy is one of the strongest determinants of performance in any particular task situation. 33 Employees develop weak E1s for two reasons. First, they don’t have sufficient resources to perform their jobs. Resources can be internal or external. Internal resources include what employees bring to the job (such as prior training, work experience, education, ability, and aptitude) and their understanding of what they need to do to be considered good performers. The second resource is called role perceptions—how employees believe their jobs are done and how they fit into the broader organization. If employees don’t know how to become good performers, they will have weak E1s. External resources include the tools, equipment, and labor necessary to perform a job. The lack of good external resources can also cause E1s to be weak. The second reason for weak E1s is an organization’s failure to measure performance accurately. That is, performance ratings don’t correlate well with actual performance levels. How does this happen? Have you ever gotten a grade that you felt didn’t reflect how much you learned? This also happens in organizations. Why are ratings sometimes inaccurate? Supervisors, who typically give out ratings, well, they’re human. Perhaps they’re operating under the mistaken notion that similar ratings for everyone will keep the team happy. Perhaps they’re unconsciously playing favorites. Perhaps they don’t know what good and poor performance levels are. Perhaps the measurements they’re expected to use don’t fit their product/team/people. Choose one or all of these. Rating people is rarely easy. Whatever the cause of rating errors, some employees may come to believe that no matter what they do they will never receive a high performance rating. They may in fact believe that they are excellent performers but that the performance rating system is flawed. Expectancy theory differs from most motivation theories because it highlights the need for accurate performance measurement. Organizations cannot motivate employees to perform at a high level if they cannot identify high performers. Organizations exert tremendous influence over employee choices in their performance levels and how much effort to exert on their jobs. That is, organizations can have a major impact on the direction and intensity of employees’ motivation levels. Practical applications of expectancy theory include: - Strengthening the effort ➨ performance expectancy by selecting employees who have the necessary abilities, providing proper training, providing experiences of success, clarifying job responsibilities, etc. - Strengthening the performance ➨ outcome expectancy with policies that specify that desirable behavior leads to desirable outcomes and undesirable behavior leads to neutral or undesirable outcomes. Consistent enforcement of these policies is key—workers must believe in the contingencies. - Systematically evaluating which outcomes employees value. The greater the valence of outcomes offered for a behavior, the more likely employees will commit to that alternative. By recognizing that different employees have different values and that values change over time, organizations can provide the most highly valued outcomes. - Ensuring that effort actually translates into performance by clarifying what actions lead to performance and by appropriate training. - Ensuring appropriate worker outcomes for performance through reward schedules (extrinsic outcomes) and appropriate job design (so the work experience itself provides intrinsic outcomes). - Examining the level of outcomes provided to workers. Are they equitable, given the worker’s inputs? Are they equitable in comparison to the way other workers are treated? - Measuring performance levels as accurately as possible, making sure that workers are capable of being high performers. Managing Change Differences in Motivation across Cultures The disgruntled employee is hardly a culturally isolated feature of a business, and quitting before leaving takes the same forms, regardless of country. Cross-cultural signaling, social norms, and simple language barriers can make the task of motivation for the global manager confusing and counterintuitive. Communicating a passion for a common vision, coaching employees to see themselves as accountable and as owning their work, or attempting to create a “motivational ecosystem” can all fall flat with simple missed cues, bad translations, or tone-deaf approaches to a thousand-year-old culture. Keeping employees motivated by making them feel valued and appreciated is not just a “Western” idea. The Ghanaian blog site Starrfmonline emphasizes that employee motivation and associated work quality improve when employees feel “valued, trusted, challenged, and supported in their work.” Conversely, when employees feel like a tool rather than a person or feel unengaged with their work, then productivity suffers. A vicious cycle can then begin when the manager treats an employee as unmotivated and incapable, which then demotivates the employee and elicits the predicted response. The blogger cites an example from Eastern Europe where a manager sidelined an employee as inefficient and incompetent. After management coaching, the manager revisited his assessment and began working with the employee. As he worked to facilitate the employee’s efficiency and motivation, the employee went from being the lowest performer to a valuable team player. In the end, the blog says, “The very phrase ‘human resources’ frames employees as material to be deployed for organizational objectives. While the essential nature of employment contracts involves trading labour for remuneration, if we fail to see and appreciate our employees as whole people, efforts to motivate them will meet with limited success” (Starrfmonline 2017 n.p.) Pavel Vosk, a business and management consultant based in Puyallup, Washington, says that too often, overachieving employees turn into unmotivated ones. In looking for the answer, he found that the most common source was a lack of recognition for the employee’s effort or exceptional performance. In fact, Vosk found that most employees go the extra mile only three times before they give up. Vosk’s advice is to show gratitude for employees’ effort, especially when it goes above and beyond. He says the recognition doesn’t have to be over the top, just anything that the employees will perceive as gratitude, from a catered lunch for a team working extra hours to fulfill a deadline to a simple face-to-face thank you (Huhman 2017). Richard Frazao, president of Quaketek, based in Montreal, Quebec, stresses talking to the employees and making certain they are engaged in their jobs, citing boredom with one’s job as a major demotivating factor (Huhman 2017). But motivating employees is not “one size fits all” globally. Rewarding and recognizing individuals and their achievements works fine in Western cultures but is undesirable in Asian cultures, which value teamwork and the collective over the individual. Whether to reward effort with a pay raise or with a job title or larger office is influenced by culture. Demoting an employee for poor performance is an effective motivator in Asian countries but is likely to result in losing an employee altogether in Western cultures. According to Matthew MacLachlan at Communicaid, “Making the assumption that your international workforce will be motivated by the same incentives can be dangerous and have a real impact on talent retention” (2016 n.p.). Huhman, Heather R. 2017. “Employee Motivation Has to Be More Than 'a Pat on the Back.’” Entrepreneur. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/287770 MacLachlan, Matthew. 2016. “Management Tips: How To Motivate Your International Workforce.” Communicaid. https://www.communicaid.com/cross-cu...nal-workforce/ Starrfmonline. 2017. “HR Today: Motivating People Starts With Right Attitude.” starrfmonline.com/2017/03/30/...ght-attitude/# - As a Western manager working in the Middle East or sub-Saharan Africa, what motivational issues might you face? - What problems would you expect a manager from a Confucian culture to encounter managing employees in America? In Europe? - What regional, cultural, or ethnic issues do you think managers have to navigate within the United States? Expectancy Theory: An Integrative Theory of Motivation More so than any other motivation theory, expectancy theory can be tied into most concepts of what and how people become motivated. Consider the following examples. - Need theories state that we are motivated to satisfy our needs. We positively value outcomes that satisfy unmet needs, negatively value outcomes that thwart the satisfaction of unmet needs, and assign neutral values to outcomes that do neither. In effect, the need theories explain how valences are formed. - Operant conditioning theories state that we will probably repeat a response (behavior) in the future that was reinforced in the past (that is, followed by a positively valued consequence or the removal of a negatively valued consequence). This is the basic process involved in forming performance ➨ outcome expectancies. Both operant theories and expectancy theory argue that our interactions with our environment influence our future behavior. The primary difference is that expectancy theory explains this process in cognitive (rational) terms. - Equity theories state that our satisfaction with a set of outcomes depends not only on how we value them but also on the circumstances surrounding their receipt. Equity theory, therefore, explains part of the process shown in Exhibit 7.11 . If we don’t feel that the outcomes we receive are equitable compared to a referent other, we will associate a lower or even negative valence with those outcomes. - Goal theory can be integrated with the expanded expectancy model in several ways. Locke has noted that expectancy theory explains how we go about choosing a particular goal. 34 A reexamination of Exhibit 7.11 reveals other similarities between goal theory and expectancy theory. Locke’s use of the term “goal acceptance” to identify the personal adoption of a goal is similar to the “choice of an alternative” in the expectancy model. Locke’s “goal commitment,” the degree to which we commit to reaching our accepted (chosen) goal, is very much like the expectancy description of choice of effort level. Locke argues that the difficulty and specificity of a goal are major determinants of the level of performance attempted (goal-directed effort), and expectancy theory appears to be consistent with this argument (even though expectancy theory is not as explicit on this point). We can reasonably conclude that the major underlying processes explored by the two models are very similar and will seldom lead to inconsistent recommendations. Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ - Understand the process theories of motivation: operant conditioning, equity, goal, and expectancy theories. - Describe the managerial factors managers must consider when applying motivational approaches. Footnotes - 1 Sometimes E2s are called instrumentalities because they are the perception that performance is instrumental in getting some desired outcome. - 2 It can also be expressed as an equation: \[ Force\enspace to\enspace Choose\enspace a\enspace Level\enspace of\enspace Effort \quad=\quad \mathrm{E} 1 \times \sum\left(\mathrm{E} 2_{\mathrm{o}} \times \mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{o}}\right) \] Where $V_{0}$ is the valence of a given outcome (o), and $\mathrm{E}_{2} \mathrm{o}$ is the perceived probability that a certain level of performance (e.g., Excellent, average, poor) will result in that outcome. So, for multiple outcomes, and different performance levels, the valence of the outcome and its associated performance ➔ outcome expectancy (E2) are multiplied and added to the analogous value for the other outcomes. Combined with the E1 (the amount of effort required to produce a level of performance), the effort level with the greatest force associated with it will be chosen by the individual.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.212101	2024-09-04T21:46:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.10%3A_Process_Theories_of_Motivation", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.10: Process Theories of Motivation", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.11%3A_Recent_Research_on_Motivation_Theories	7.11: Recent Research on Motivation Theories Describe the modern advancements in the study of human motivation. Employee motivation continues to be a major focus in organizational behavior. 35 We briefly summarize current motivation research here. Content Theories There is some interest in testing content theories (including Herzberg’s two-factor theory), especially in international research. Need theories are still generally supported, with most people identifying such workplace factors as recognition, advancement, and opportunities to learn as the chief motivators for them. This is consistent with need satisfaction theories. However, most of this research does not include actual measures of employee performance. Thus, questions remain about whether the factors that employees say motivate them to perform actually do. Operant Conditioning Theory There is considerable interest in operant conditioning theory, especially within the context of what has been called organizational behavior modification. Oddly enough, there has not been much research using operant conditioning theory in designing reward systems, even though there are obvious applications. Instead, much of the recent research on operant conditioning focuses on punishment and extinction. These studies seek to determine how to use punishment appropriately. Recent results still confirm that punishment should be used sparingly, should be used only after extinction does not work, and should not be excessive or destructive. Equity Theory Equity theory continues to receive strong research support. The major criticism of equity theory, that the inputs and outcomes people use to evaluate equity are ill-defined, still holds. Because each person defines inputs and outcomes, researchers are not in a position to know them all. Nevertheless, for the major inputs (performance) and outcomes (pay), the theory is a strong one. Major applications of equity theory in recent years incorporate and extend the theory into the area called organizational justice. When employees receive rewards (or punishments), they evaluate them in terms of their fairness (as discussed earlier). This is distributive justice. Employees also assess rewards in terms of how fair the processes used to distribute them are. This is procedural justice. Thus during organizational downsizing, when employees lose their jobs, people ask whether the loss of work is fair (distributive justice). But they also assess the fairness of the process used to decide who is laid off (procedural justice). For example, layoffs based on seniority may be perceived as more fair than layoffs based on supervisors’ opinions. Goal Theory It remains true that difficult, specific goals result in better performance than easy and vague goals, assuming they are accepted. Recent research highlights the positive effects of performance feedback and goal commitment in the goal-setting process. Monetary incentives enhance motivation when they are tied to goal achievement, by increasing the level of goal commitment. There are negative sides to goal theory as well. If goals conflict, employees may sacrifice performance on important job duties. For example, if both quantitative and qualitative goals are set for performance, employees may emphasize quantity because this goal achievement is more visible. Expectancy Theory The original formulation of expectancy theory specifies that the motivational force for choosing a level of effort is a function of the multiplication of expectancies and valences. Recent research demonstrates that the individual components predict performance just as well, without being multiplied. This does not diminish the value of expectancy theory. Recent research also suggests that high performance results not only when the valence is high, but also when employees set difficult goals for themselves. One last comment on motivation: As the world of work changes, so will the methods organizations use to motivate employees. New rewards—time off instead of bonuses; stock options; on-site gyms, cleaners, and dental services; opportunities to telecommute; and others—will need to be created in order to motivate employees in the future. One useful path that modern researchers can undertake is to analyze the previous studies and aggregate the findings into more conclusive understanding of the topic through meta-analysis studies. 36 Catching the Entrepreneurial Spirit Entrepreneurs and Motivation Motivation can be difficult to elicit in employees. So what drives entrepreneurs, who by definition have to motivate themselves as well as others? While everyone from Greek philosophers to football coaches warns about undirected passion, a lack of passion will likely kill any start-up. An argument could be made that motivation is simply part of the discipline or the outcome of remaining fixed on a purpose to mentally remind yourself of why you get up in the morning. Working from her home in Egypt, at age 30 Yasmine El-Mehairy launched Supermama.me, a start-up aimed at providing information to mothers throughout the Arab world. When the company began, El-Mehairy worked full time at her day job and 60 hours a week after that getting the site established. She left her full-time job to manage the site full time in January 2011, and the site went live that October. El-Mehairy is motivated to keep moving forward, saying that if she stops, she might not get going again (Knowledge @ Wharton 2012). For El-Mehairy, the motivation didn’t come from a desire to work for a big company or travel the world and secure a master’s degree from abroad. She had already done that. Rather, she said she was motivated to “do something that is useful and I want to do something on my own” (Knowledge @ Wharton 2012 n.p.). Lauren Lipcon, who founded a company called Injury Funds Now, attributes her ability to stay motivated to three factors: purpose, giving back, and having fun outside of work. Lipcon believes that most entrepreneurs are not motivated by money, but by a sense of purpose. Personally, she left a job with Arthur Andersen to begin her own firm out of a desire to help people. She also thinks it is important for people to give back to their communities because the change the entrepreneur sees in the community loops back, increasing motivation and making the business more successful. Lipcon believes that having a life outside of work helps keep the entrepreneur motivated. She particularly advocates for physical activity, which not only helps the body physically, but also helps keep the mind sharp and able to focus (Rashid 2017). But do all entrepreneurs agree on what motivates them? A July 17, 2017 survey on the hearpreneur blog site asked 23 different entrepreneurs what motivated them. Seven of the 23 referred to some sense of purpose in what they were doing as a motivating factor, with one response stressing the importance of discovering one’s “personal why.” Of the remaining entrepreneurs, answers varied from keeping a positive attitude (three responses) and finding external sources (three responses) to meditation and prayer (two responses). One entrepreneur said his greatest motivator was fear: the fear of being in the same place financially one year in the future “causes me to take action and also alleviates my fear of risk” (Hear from Entrepreneurs 2017 n.p.). Only one of the 23 actually cited money and material success as a motivating factor to keep working. However it is described, entrepreneurs seem to agree that passion and determination are key factors that carry them through the grind of the day-to-day. Sources: Hear from Entrepreneurs. 2017. “23 Entrepreneurs Explain Their Motivation or if ‘Motivation is Garbage.’” https://hear.ceoblognation.com/2017/...ation-garbage/ Knowledge @ Wharton. 2012. “The Super-motivated Entrepreneur Behind Egypt’s SuperMama.” http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/a...pts-supermama/ Rashid, Brian. 2017. “How This Entrepreneur Sustains High Levels of Energy and Motivation.” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brianra.../#2a8ec5591111 Questions: - In the article from Hear from Entrepreneurs, one respondent called motivation “garbage”? Would you agree or disagree, and why? - How is staying motivated as an entrepreneur similar to being motivated to pursue a college degree? Do you think the two are related? How? - How would you expect motivation to vary across cultures?[/BOX] Exercise $\PageIndex{1}$ - Understand the modern approaches to motivation theory.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.283002	2024-09-04T21:46:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.11%3A_Recent_Research_on_Motivation_Theories", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.11: Recent Research on Motivation Theories", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.12%3A_Glossary	7.12: Glossary - - Last updated - Save as PDF - Michael Brown - Northeast Wisconsin Technical College ability The knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that an individual brings to a task or job. content motivation theories Theories that focus on what motivates people. direction What a person is motivated to achieve. intensity (1) The degree to which people try to achieve their targets; (2) the forcefulness that enhances the likelihood that a stimulus will be selected for perceptual processing. motivation A force within or outside of the body that energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Within the body, examples might be needs, personal values, and goals, while an incentive might be seen as a force outside of the body. The word stems from its Latin root movere, which means “to move.” performance environment Refers to those factors that impact employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control. process motivation theories Theories that focus on the how and why of motivation. role perceptions The set of behaviors employees think they are expected to perform as members of an organization. work motivation The amount of effort a person exerts to achieve a level of job performance. ERG theory Compresses Maslow’s five need categories into three: existence, relatedness, and growth. extrinsic motivation Occurs when a person performs a given behavior to acquire something that will satisfy a lower-order need. hedonism Assumes that people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek pleasure, avoid pain). hygienes Factors in the work environment that are based on the basic human need to “avoid pain.” instincts Our natural, fundamental needs, basic to our survival. intrinsic motivation Arises out of performing a behavior in and of itself, because it is interesting or “fun” to do. latent needs Cannot be inferred from a person’s behavior at a given time, yet the person may still possess those needs. manifest needs Are needs motivating a person at a given time. manifest needs theory Assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy needs. motivators Relate to the jobs that people perform and people’s ability to feel a sense of achievement as a result of performing them. motive A source of motivation; the need that a person is attempting to satisfy. need for achievement (nAch) The need to excel at tasks, especially tasks that are difficult. need for affiliation (nAff) The need to establish and maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people. need for power (nPow) The need to control things, especially other people; reflects a motivation to influence and be responsible for other people. need A human condition that becomes energized when people feel deficient in some respect. primary needs Are instinctual in nature and include physiological needs for food, water, and sex (procreation). secondary needs Are learned throughout one’s life span and are psychological in nature. self-determination theory (SDT) Seeks to explain not only what causes motivation, but also the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. avoidance learning Occurs when people learn to behave in a certain way to avoid encountering an undesired or unpleasant consequence. effort-performance expectancy E1, the perceived probability that effort will lead to performance (or E ➨ P). equity theory States that human motivation is affected by the outcomes people receive for their inputs, compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people. expectancy theory Posits that people will exert high effort levels to perform at high levels so that they can obtain valued outcomes. extinction Occurs when a consequence or lack of a consequence makes it less likely that a behavior will be repeated in the future. extrinsic outcomes Are awarded or given by other people (like a supervisor). goal commitment The degree to which people dedicate themselves to achieving a goal. goal theory States that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific, accepted performance goals or objectives. input Any personal qualities that a person views as having value and that are relevant to the organization. intrinsic outcomes Are awarded or given by people to themselves (such as a sense of achievement). negative reinforcement Occurs when a behavior causes something undesirable to be removed, increasing the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring. nonreinforcement Occurs when no consequence follows a worker’s behavior. operant conditioning A learning process based on the results produced by a person “operating on” the environment. operant conditioning theory Posits that people learn to behave in a particular fashion as a result of the consequences that followed their past behaviors. outcome Anything a person perceives as getting back from an organization in exchange for the person’s inputs. overreward inequity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be greater than that of their referent other. performance-outcome expectancy E2, the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes (or P ➨ O). positive reinforcement Occurs when a desirable consequence that satisfies an active need or removes a barrier to need satisfaction increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring. punishment An aversive consequence that follows a behavior and makes it less likely to reoccur. referent others Workers that a person uses to compare inputs and outcomes, and who perform jobs similar in difficulty and complexity to the employee making an equity determination. reinforcement Occurs when a consequence makes it more likely a behavior will be repeated in the future. schedules of reinforcement The frequency at which effective employee behaviors are reinforced. self-efficacy A belief about the probability that one can successfully execute some future action or task, or achieve some result. state of equity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be equal to that of their referent other. underreward inequity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be less than that of their referent other. valences The degree to which a person perceives an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.351478	2024-09-04T21:46:58	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.12%3A_Glossary", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.12: Glossary", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.17%3A_Work_Motivation_for_Performance	7.17: Work Motivation for Performance After reading this section, you should be able to answer these questions: - Define motivation, and distinguish the direction and intensity of motivation. - Describe a content theory of motivation, and compare and contrast the main content theories of motivation: manifest needs theory, learned needs theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory, and self-determination theory. - Describe the process theories of motivation, and compare and contrast the main process theories of motivation: operant conditioning theory, equity theory, goal theory, and expectancy theory. - Describe the modern advancements in the study of human motivation.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.523739	2024-09-04T21:55:19	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/07%3A_Group_Motivation/7.17%3A_Work_Motivation_for_Performance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "7.17: Work Motivation for Performance", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict	8: Group Conflict Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 118213 Michael Brown Northeast Wisconsin Technical College 8.1: Chapter Introduction 8.2: Conflict in Organizations - Basic Considerations 8.3: Causes of Conflict in Organizations 8.4: Resolving Conflict in Organizations 8.5: Negotiation Behavior 8.6: Chapter Introduction 8.7: What Is Conflict? 8.8: Leadership and Conflict 8.9: Conflict is Normal 8.10: Conflict Styles 8.11: Conflict in the Work Environment 8.12: Effective Conflict Management Strategies 8.13: Crisis Communication Plan 8.14: Summary 8.15: Additional Resources 8.16: Glossary	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.724703	2024-09-04T21:47:29	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8: Group Conflict", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.01%3A_Chapter_Introduction	8.1: Chapter Introduction Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions: - How does conflict arise in organizations? - How do you recognize and respond to cultural differences in negotiation and bargaining strategies? Exploring Managerial Careers Conflict at Google Over the past two years at Google, 48 people have been terminated for sexual harassment. There is a firm policy at Google pertaining to this type of misconduct, but when the effects of these types of events cause an uproar based on reports that a former top executive was paid millions of dollars after leaving Google despite misconduct and harassment allegations, it’s important to get to the point of conflict and face it head on. That’s exactly why Chief Executive Officer Sundar Pichai did just that. In an attempt to get ahead of the storm, Pichai wrote an email to explaining that none of the individuals that were asked to leave were given severance packages. Despite this, employees are still feeling upset over such claims. “The culture of stigmatization and silence enables the abuse by making it harder to speak up and harder to be believed,” Liz Fong-Jones, who is quoted in the Times’s story, wrote on Twitter. “It’s the abuse of power relationships in situations where there was no consent, or consent was impossible.” After the article came out in the New York Times reporting that Google gave Andy Rubin, former Android chief, a $90 million exit package, it was not just employees that were upset; there was external conflict between the company and Rubin. The media was heavily involved, including Bloomberg, and Rubin used social channels as well, making it even more complicated to counteract the negative comments or come to a resolution. Since the reports of Rubin’s actions as well as additional reports regarding Google’s permissive culture became public, Google has taken actions to update its policy on relationship disclosure. This stance from the Google executive team is just one step in the right direction to address a culture that suggests a high level of conflict due to the protection of executives over the safety and well-being of the employees, who may be less likely to report incidents of abuse of power. Sources A. Barr, “Google CEO Tries to Calm Staff After Executive Misconduct Report,” Bloomberg , October 25, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/artic...conduct-report ; D. Wakabayashi and K. Benner, “How Google Protected Andy Rubin, the ‘Father of Android’,” New York Times , October 25, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/25/t...ndy-rubin.html ; A. Panchadar, “Alphabet Harassment,” New York Times , October 25, 2018, www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018...arassment.html. In all organizations, including Google, some conflict is inevitable. Simply making a decision to do A instead of B often alienates the supporters of B, despite the soundness of the reasons behind the decision. Moreover, the consequences of conflict (and failed negotiations) can be costly to an organization, whether the conflict is between labor and management, groups, individuals, or nations. In an era of increasing business competition both from abroad and at home, reducing conflict is important. For these reasons, contemporary managers need a firm grasp of the dynamics of intergroup and interorganizational conflict and of negotiation processes. We begin with a discussion of the conflict process, followed by a look at negotiations both within and between organizations.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.785390	2024-09-04T21:47:30	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.01%3A_Chapter_Introduction", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.1: Chapter Introduction", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.02%3A_Conflict_in_Organizations_-_Basic_Considerations	8.2: Conflict in Organizations - Basic Considerations How do you recognize and resolve short- and long-term conflicts among group members and among groups? By any standard of comparison, conflict in organizations represents an important topic for managers. Just how important it is can be seen in the results of a study of how managers spend their time. It was found that approximately 20 percent of top and middle managers’ time was spent dealing with some form of conflict. In another study, it was found that managerial skill in handling conflict was a major predictor of managerial success and effectiveness. A good example of the magnitude of the problems that conflict can cause in an organization is the case of General Concrete, Inc., of Coventry, Rhode Island. Operations at this concrete plant came to a halt for more than three weeks because the plant’s one truck driver and sole member of the Teamsters Union began picketing after he was laid off by the company. The company intended to use other drivers from another of their plants. In response to the picketing, not a single employee of General Concrete crossed the picket line, thereby closing the plant and costing the company a considerable amount in lost production and profit. Could this problem have been handled better? We shall see. In the sections that follow, several aspects of conflict in organizations are considered. First, conflict is defined, and variations of conflict are considered by type and by level. Next, constructive and destructive aspects of conflict are discussed. A basic model of the conflict process is then examined, followed by a look at several of the more prominent antecedents of conflict. Finally, effective and ineffective strategies for conflict resolution are contrasted. Throughout, emphasis is placed on problem identification and problem resolution. There are many ways to determine conflict as it relates to the workplace. For our purposes here, we will define conflict as the process by which individuals or groups react to other entities that have frustrated, or are about to frustrate, their plans, goals, beliefs, or activities. In other words, conflict involves situations in which the expectations or actual goal-directed behaviors of one person or group are blocked—or about to be blocked—by another person or group. Hence, if a sales representative cannot secure enough funds to mount what she considers to be an effective sales campaign, conflict can ensue. Similarly, if A gets promoted and B doesn’t, conflict can emerge. Finally, if a company finds it necessary to lay off valued employees because of difficult financial conditions, conflict can occur. Many such examples can be identified; in each, a situation emerges in which someone or some group cannot do what it wants to do (for whatever reason) and responds by experiencing an inner frustration. Types of Conflict If we are to try to understand the roots of conflict, we need to know what type of conflict is present. At least four types of conflict can be identified: - Goal conflict . Goal conflict can occur when one person or group desires a different outcome than others do. This is simply a clash over whose goals are going to be pursued. - Cognitive conflict . Cognitive conflict can result when one person or group holds ideas or opinions that are inconsistent with those of others. This type of conflict is evident in political debates. - Affective conflict. This type of conflict emerges when one person’s or group’s feelings or emotions (attitudes) are incompatible with those of others. Affective conflict is seen in situations where two individuals simply don’t get along with each other. - Behavioral conflict . Behavioral conflict exists when one person or group does something (i.e., behaves in a certain way) that is unacceptable to others. Dressing for work in a way that “offends” others and using profane language are examples of behavioral conflict. Each of these types of conflict is usually triggered by different factors, and each can lead to very different responses by the individual or group. Levels of Conflict In addition to different types of conflict, there exist several different levels of conflict. Level refers to the number of individuals involved in the conflict. That is, is the conflict within just one person, between two people, between two or more groups, or between two or more organizations? Both the causes of a conflict and the most effective means to resolve it can be affected by level. Four such levels can be identified: - Intrapersonal conflict . Intrapersonal conflict is conflict within one person. We often hear about someone who has an approach-avoidance conflict; that is, she is both attracted to and repelled by the same object. Similarly, a person can be attracted to two equally appealing alternatives, such as two good job offers (approach-approach conflict) or repelled by two equally unpleasant alternatives, such as the threat of being fired if one fails to identify a coworker guilty of breaking plant rules (avoidance-avoidance conflict). In any case, the conflict is within the individual. - Interpersonal conflict. Conflict can also take form in an interpersonal conflict , where two individuals disagree on some matter. For example, you can have an argument with a coworker over an issue of mutual concern. Such conflicts often tend to get highly personal because only two parties are involved and each person embodies the opposing position in the conflict. Hence, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the opponent’s position and her person. - Intergroup conflict . Third, conflict can be found between groups. Intergroup conflict usually involves disagreements between two opposing forces over goals or the sharing of resources. For example, we often see conflict between the marketing and production units within a corporation as each vies for more resources to accomplish its subgoals. Intergroup conflict is typically the most complicated form of conflict because of the number of individuals involved. Coalitions form within and between groups, and an “us-against-them” mentality develops. Here, too, is an opportunity for groupthink to develop and thrive. - Interorganizational conflict . Finally, we can see interorganizational conflict in disputes between two companies in the same industry (for example, a disagreement between computer manufactures over computer standards), between two companies in different industries or economic sectors (for example, a conflict between real estate interests and environmentalists over land use planning), and even between two or more countries (for example, a trade dispute between the United States and Japan or France). In each case, both parties inevitably feel the pursuit of their goals is being frustrated by the other party. The Positive and Negative Sides of Conflict People often assume that all conflict is necessarily bad and should be eliminated. On the contrary, there are some circumstances in which a moderate amount of conflict can be helpful. For instance, conflict can lead to the search for new ideas and new mechanisms as solutions to organizational problems. Conflict can stimulate innovation and change. It can also facilitate employee motivation in cases where employees feel a need to excel and, as a result, push themselves in order to meet performance objectives. Conflict can at times help individuals and group members grow and develop self-identities. As noted by Coser: Conflict, which aims at a resolution of tension between antagonists, is likely to have stabilizing and integrative functions for the relationship. By permitting immediate and direct expression of rival claims, such social systems are able to readjust their structures by eliminating their sources of dissatisfaction. The multiple conflicts which they experience may serve to eliminate the causes for dissociation and to reestablish unity. These systems avail themselves, through the toleration and institutionalization of conflict, of an important stabilizing mechanism. Conflict can, on the other hand, have negative consequences for both individuals and organizations when people divert energies away from performance and goal attainment and direct them toward resolving the conflict. Continued conflict can take a heavy toll in terms of psychological well-being. As we will see in the next chapter, conflict has a major influence on stress and the psychophysical consequences of stress. Finally, continued conflict can also affect the social climate of the group and inhibit group cohesiveness. Thus, conflict can be either functional or dysfunctional in work situations depending upon the nature of the conflict, its intensity, and its duration. Indeed, both too much and too little conflict can lead to a variety of negative outcomes, as discussed above. This is shown in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$. In such circumstances, a moderate amount of conflict may be the best course of action. The issue for management, therefore, is not how to eliminate conflict but rather how to manage and resolve it when it occurs. Managerial Leadership Executive Conflict Resolution Strategies A good way to see how conflict can be functional or dysfunctional is to observe the behaviors of many of America’s CEOs. Classic examples include the cases of Jack Welch, former chairman of General Electric, and Fred Ackman, former chairman of Superior Oil. Welch enjoyed a good fight and took pleasure in the give-and-take of discussions and negotiations. On one occasion, he engaged a senior vice president in a prolonged and emotional shouting match over the merits of a certain proposal. Several managers who were present were embarrassed by the confrontation. Yet after the argument, Welch thanked the vice president for standing up to him and defending his views. This is what Welch calls “constructive conflict,” also termed constructive confrontation. On the other hand, according to one account, Fred Ackman approached conflict quite differently. Ackman has been accused of being autocratic—he often refused even to discuss suggestions or modifications to proposals he presented. Disagreement was seen as disloyalty and was often met with an abusive temper. As one former subordinate said, “He couldn’t stand it when someone disagreed with him, even in private. He’d eat you up alive, calling you a dumb S.O.B. . . . It happened all the time.” Many today will suggest that Jack Welch’s management approach and the conglomerate approach of GE has led to the company’s fiscal problems, while others fault the direction that Jack Welch’s successor Jeff Immelt. Others say that leaders at other companies, such as Apple’s Tim Cook, are making the same leadership errors as Jack Welch. Questions: - How do you feel you respond to such conflict? - Would your friends agree with your assessment? Sources: R. X. Cringely, “2019 prediction #1 -- Apple under Tim Cook emulates GE under Jack Welch, BetaNews , February 27, 2019, https://betanews.com/2019/02/28/2019...er-jack-welch/ ; M. A. Harris, “Can Jack Welsh Reinvent GE?” Business Week , June 30, 1986; S. Flax, “The Ten Toughest Bosses in America,” Fortune , August 6, 1984, p. 21; J. A. Byrne, “Jack Welch successor destroyed GE he inherited,” USA Today , July 15, 2018, https://www.usatoday.com/story/opini...ates/36895027/ . How can the use of power help and harm organizations?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.857398	2024-09-04T21:47:31	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.02%3A_Conflict_in_Organizations_-_Basic_Considerations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.2: Conflict in Organizations - Basic Considerations", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.03%3A_Causes_of_Conflict_in_Organizations	8.3: Causes of Conflict in Organizations How does conflict arise in organizations? Here we will examine two aspects of the conflict process. First, several factors that have been found to contribute to conflict will be identified. After this, a model of conflict processes in organizations will be reviewed. Why Organizations Have So Much Conflict A number of factors are known to facilitate organizational conflict under certain circumstances. In summarizing the literature, Robert Miles points to several specific examples. These are as follows: Task Interdependencies. The first antecedent can be found in the nature of task interdependencies. In essence, the greater the extent of task interdependence among individuals or groups (that is, the more they have to work together or collaborate to accomplish a goal), the greater the likelihood of conflict if different expectations or goals exist among entities, in part because the interdependence makes avoiding the conflict more difficult. This occurs in part because high task interdependency heightens the intensity of relationships. Hence, a small disagreement can very quickly get blown up into a major issue. Status Inconsistencies. A second factor is status inconsistencies among the parties involved. For example, managers in many organizations have the prerogative to take personal time off during workdays to run errands, and so forth, whereas nonmanagerial personnel do not. Consider the effects this can have on the nonmanagers’ view of organizational policies and fairness. Jurisdictional Ambiguities. Conflict can also emerge from jurisdictional ambiguities —situations where it is unclear exactly where responsibility for something lies. For example, many organizations use an employee selection procedure in which applicants are evaluated both by the personnel department and by the department in which the applicant would actually work. Because both departments are involved in the hiring process, what happens when one department wants to hire an individual, but the other department does not? Communication Problems. Suffice it to say that the various communication problems or ambiguities in the communication process can facilitate conflict. When one person misunderstands a message or when information is withheld, the person often responds with frustration and anger. Dependence on Common Resource Pool. Another previously discussed factor that contributes to conflict is dependence on common resource pools . Whenever several departments must compete for scarce resources, conflict is almost inevitable. When resources are limited, a zero-sum game exists in which someone wins and, invariably, someone loses. Lack of Common Performance Standards. Differences in performance criteria and reward systems provide more potential for organizational conflict. This often occurs because of a lack of common performance standards among differing groups within the same organization. For example, production personnel are often rewarded for their efficiency, and this efficiency is facilitated by the long-term production of a few products. Sales departments, on the other hand, are rewarded for their short-term response to market changes—often at the expense of long-term production efficiency. In such situations, conflict arises as each unit attempts to meet its own performance criteria. Individual Differences. Finally, a variety of individual differences , such as personal abilities, traits, and skills, can influence in no small way the nature of interpersonal relations. Individual dominance, aggressiveness, authoritarianism, and tolerance for ambiguity all seem to influence how an individual deals with potential conflict. Indeed, such characteristics may determine whether or not conflict is created at all. A Model of the Conflict Process Having examined specific factors that are known to facilitate conflict, we can ask how conflict comes about in organizations. The most commonly accepted model of the conflict process was developed by Kenneth Thomas. This model, shown in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$, consists of four stages: (1) frustration, (2) conceptualization, (3) behavior, and (4) outcome. Stage 1: Frustration. As we have seen, conflict situations originate when an individual or group feels frustration in the pursuit of important goals. This frustration may be caused by a wide variety of factors, including disagreement over performance goals, failure to get a promotion or pay raise, a fight over scarce economic resources, new rules or policies, and so forth. In fact, conflict can be traced to frustration over almost anything a group or individual cares about. Stage 2: Conceptualization. In stage 2, the conceptualization stage of the model, parties to the conflict attempt to understand the nature of the problem, what they themselves want as a resolution, what they think their opponents want as a resolution, and various strategies they feel each side may employ in resolving the conflict. This stage is really the problem-solving and strategy phase. For instance, when management and union negotiate a labor contract, both sides attempt to decide what is most important and what can be bargained away in exchange for these priority needs. Stage 3: Behavior. The third stage in Thomas’s model is actual behavior . As a result of the conceptualization process, parties to a conflict attempt to implement their resolution mode by competing or accommodating in the hope of resolving problems. A major task here is determining how best to proceed strategically. That is, what tactics will the party use to attempt to resolve the conflict? Thomas has identified five modes for conflict resolution, as shown in Figure $\PageIndex{1}$. These are (1) competing, (2) collaborating, (3) compromising, (4) avoiding, and (5) accommodating. Also shown in the exhibit are situations that seem most appropriate for each strategy. The choice of an appropriate conflict resolution mode depends to a great extent on the situation and the goals of the party. This is shown graphically in Figure $\PageIndex{2}$. According to this model, each party must decide the extent to which it is interested in satisfying its own concerns—called assertiveness —and the extent to which it is interested in helping satisfy the opponent’s concerns—called cooperativeness . Assertiveness can range from assertive to unassertive on one continuum, and cooperativeness can range from uncooperative to cooperative on the other continuum. Once the parties have determined their desired balance between the two competing concerns—either consciously or unconsciously—the resolution strategy emerges. For example, if a union negotiator feels confident she can win on an issue that is of primary concern to union members (e.g., wages), a direct competition mode may be chosen (see upper left-hand corner of Figure $\PageIndex{2}$). On the other hand, when the union is indifferent to an issue or when it actually supports management’s concerns (e.g., plant safety), we would expect an accommodating or collaborating mode (on the right-hand side of the exhibit). Five Modes of Resolving Conflict \| Conflict-Handling Modes \| Appropriate Situations \| \|---\|---\| \| Source : Adapted from K. W. Thomas, “Toward Multidimensional Values in Teaching: The Example of Conflict Behaviors,” Academy of Management Review 2 (1977), Table 1, p. 487. \| \| \| Competing \| \| \| Collaborating \| \| \| Compromising \| \| \| Avoiding \| \| \| Accommodating \| \| Table $\PageIndex{1}$ (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) What is interesting in this process is the assumptions people make about their own modes compared to their opponents’. For example, in one study of executives, it was found that the executives typically described themselves as using collaboration or compromise to resolve conflict, whereas these same executives typically described their opponents as using a competitive mode almost exclusively. In other words, the executives underestimated their opponents’ concern as uncompromising. Simultaneously, the executives had flattering portraits of their own willingness to satisfy both sides in a dispute. Stage 4: Outcome. Finally, as a result of efforts to resolve the conflict, both sides determine the extent to which a satisfactory resolution or outcome has been achieved. Where one party to the conflict does not feel satisfied or feels only partially satisfied, the seeds of discontent are sown for a later conflict, as shown in the preceding Figure 14.1.1. One unresolved conflict episode can easily set the stage for a second episode. Managerial action aimed at achieving quick and satisfactory resolution is vital; failure to initiate such action leaves the possibility (more accurately, the probability) that new conflicts will soon emerge. Describe the process of the conflict model.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:41.933527	2024-09-04T21:47:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.03%3A_Causes_of_Conflict_in_Organizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.3: Causes of Conflict in Organizations", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.04%3A_Resolving_Conflict_in_Organizations	8.4: Resolving Conflict in Organizations When and how do you negotiate, and how do you achieve a mutually advantageous agreement? We have discovered that conflict is pervasive throughout organizations and that some conflict can be good for organizations. People often grow and learn from conflict, as long as the conflict is not dysfunctional. The challenge for managers is to select a resolution strategy appropriate to the situation and individuals involved. A review of past management practice in this regard reveals that managers often make poor strategy choices. As often as not, managers select repressive or ineffective conflict resolution strategies. Common Strategies that Seldom Work At leave five conflict resolution techniques commonly found in organizations prove to be ineffective fairly consistently. In fact, not only do such techniques seldom work—in many cases, they actually serve to increase the problem. Nonetheless, they are found with alarming frequency in a wide array of business and public organizations. These five ineffective strategies are often associated with an avoidance approach and are described below. Nonaction. Perhaps the most common managerial response when conflict emerges is nonaction —doing nothing and ignoring the problem. It may be felt that if the problem is ignored, it will go away. Unfortunately, that is not often the case. In fact, ignoring the problem may serve only to increase the frustration and anger of the parties involved. Administrative Orbiting. In some cases, managers will acknowledge that a problem exists but then take little serious action. Instead, they continually report that a problem is “under study” or that “more information is needed.” Telling a person who is experiencing a serious conflict that “these things take time” hardly relieves anyone’s anxiety or solves any problems. This ineffective strategy for resolving conflict is aptly named administrative orbiting . Due Process Nonaction. A third ineffective approach to resolving conflict is to set up a recognized procedure for redressing grievances but at the same time to ensure that the procedure is long, complicated, costly, and perhaps even risky. The due process nonaction strategy is to wear down the dissatisfied employee while at the same time claiming that resolution procedures are open and available. This technique has been used repeatedly in conflicts involving race and sex discrimination. Secrecy. Oftentimes, managers will attempt to reduce conflict through secrecy . Some feel that by taking secretive actions, controversial decisions can be carried out with a minimum of resistance. One argument for pay secrecy (keeping employee salaries secret) is that such a policy makes it more difficult for employees to feel inequitably treated. Essentially, this is a “what they don’t know won’t hurt them” strategy. A major problem of this approach is that it leads to distrust of management. When managerial credibility is needed for other issues, it may be found lacking. Character Assassination. The final ineffective resolution technique to be discussed here is character assassination . The person with a conflict, perhaps a woman claiming sex discrimination, is labeled a “troublemaker.” Attempts are made to discredit her and distance her from the others in the group. The implicit strategy here is that if the person can be isolated and stigmatized, she will either be silenced by negative group pressures or she will leave. In either case, the problem is “solved.” Strategies for Preventing Conflict On the more positive side, there are many things managers can do to reduce or actually solve dysfunctional conflict when it occurs. These fall into two categories: actions directed at conflict prevention and actions directed at conflict reduction . We shall start by examining conflict prevention techniques, because preventing conflict is often easier than reducing it once it begins. These include: - Emphasizing organization-wide goals and effectiveness. Focusing on organization-wide goals and objectives should prevent goal conflict. If larger goals are emphasized, employees are more likely to see the big picture and work together to achieve corporate goals. - Providing stable, well-structured tasks. When work activities are clearly defined, understood, and accepted by employees, conflict should be less likely to occur. Conflict is most likely to occur when task uncertainty is high; specifying or structuring jobs minimizes ambiguity. - Facilitating intergroup communication. Misperception of the abilities, goals, and motivations of others often leads to conflict, so efforts to increase the dialogue among groups and to share information should help eliminate conflict. As groups come to know more about one another, suspicions often diminish, and greater intergroup teamwork becomes possible. - Avoiding win-lose situations. If win-lose situations are avoided, less potential for conflict exists. When resources are scarce, management can seek some form of resource sharing to achieve organizational effectiveness. Moreover, rewards can be given for contributions to overall corporate objectives; this will foster a climate in which groups seek solutions acceptable to all. These points bear a close resemblance to descriptions of the so-called Japanese management style. In Japanese firms, considerable effort is invested in preventing conflict. In this way, more energy is available for constructive efforts toward task accomplishment and competition in the marketplace. Another place where considerable destructive conflict is prevented is Intel. Managerial Leadership Sustainability and Responsible Management: Constructive Conflict that Leads to Championships Dealing with conflict lies at the heart of managing any business. Confrontation—facing issues about which there is disagreement—is avoided only at a manager’s peril. Many issues can be postponed, allowed to fester, or smoothed over; eventually, they must be solved. They are not going to disappear. This philosophy not only applies to business but to sports dynamics as well. Take two NBA all-stars, Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O’Neal. Although they are world-renowned athletes now, when they first started in the NBA, there was plenty of conflict that could have caused their careers to take a much different path. In 1992, O’Neal was the first play taken in by the NBA draft, he dominated the court with his size and leadership from day one. Four years later, Kobe Bryant, the youngest player to start in the NBA was brought onto the same team: the Los Angeles Lakers. The two were not fast friends, and the trash talk started as Bryant publicly criticized his teammate—and continued for years. Ultimately in 1999, Phil Jackson was brought in to coach the LA Lakers, and his creative approach to their conflict changed everything. Instead of seeing this tension and ignoring it, or chastising the players for their feud, he used their skills to develop a new way of playing the game. O’Neal brought power and strength to the court, while Bryant was fast and a great shooter. Jackson developed a way of playing that highlighted both of these talents, and he built a supporting cast around them that brought out the best in everyone. The outcome: three NBA championships in a row. While many may have just ignored or tried to separate the two superstars, Jackson was innovative in his approach, saw the opportunity in using the conflict to create a new energy, and was able to build a very successful program. - What was the key to the success for Phil Jackson and his team? - How would you have approached the two players (or employees) that were in conflict and causing tension on your team? - What strategies would have been important to employ with these two individuals to resolve the conflict? Sources: J. DeGraff, “3 Legendary Creative Conflicts That Sparked Revolutionary Innovation,” Huffington Post , September 26, 2017, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry...b08d66155043d6 ; K. Soong, “‘I owe you an apology’: Shaquille O’Neal explains why he loves Kobe Bryant years after feud,” Washington Post , February, 17, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/...=.b9cca63b5761 ; M. Chiari, “Kobe Bryant Discusses Getting into Fist Fight with Shaquille O'Neal,” Bleacher Report , March 9, 2018, https://bleacherreport.com/articles/...haquille-oneal . Strategies for Reducing Conflict Where dysfunctional conflict already exists, something must be done, and managers may pursue one of at least two general approaches: they can try to change employee attitudes , or they can try to change employee behaviors . If they change behavior, open conflict is often reduced, but groups may still dislike one another; the conflict simply becomes less visible as the groups are separated from one another. Changing attitudes, on the other hand, often leads to fundamental changes in the ways that groups get along. However, it also takes considerably longer to accomplish than behavior change because it requires a fundamental change in social perceptions. Nine conflict reduction strategies are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{Exhibit 14.5. The techniques should be viewed as a continuum, ranging from strategies that focus on changing behaviors near the top of the scale to strategies that focus on changing attitudes near the bottom of the scale. - Physical separation. The quickest and easiest solution to conflict is physical separation. Separation is useful when conflicting groups are not working on a joint task or do not need a high degree of interaction. Though this approach does not encourage members to change their attitudes, it does provide time to seek a better accommodation. - Use of rules and regulations. Conflict can also be reduced through the increasing specification of rules, regulations, and procedures. This approach, also known as the bureaucratic method, imposes solutions on groups from above. Again, however, basic attitudes are not modified. - Limiting intergroup interaction. Another approach to reducing conflict is to limit intergroup interaction to issues involving common goals. Where groups agree on a goal, cooperation becomes easier. An example of this can be seen in recent efforts by firms in the United States and Canada to work together to “meet the Japanese challenge.” - Use of integrators. Integrators are individuals who are assigned a boundary-spanning role between two groups or departments. To be trusted, integrators must be perceived by both groups as legitimate and knowledgeable. The integrator often takes the “shuttle diplomacy” approach, moving from one group to another, identifying areas of agreement, and attempting to find areas of future cooperation. - Confrontation and negotiation. In this approach, competing parties are brought together face-to-face to discuss their basic areas of disagreement. The hope is that through open discussion and negotiation, means can be found to work out problems. Contract negotiations between union and management represent one such example. If a “win-win” solution can be identified through these negotiations, the chances of an acceptable resolution of the conflict increase. (More will be said about this in the next section of this chapter.) - Third-party consultation. In some cases, it is helpful to bring in outside consultants for third-party consultation who understand human behavior and can facilitate a resolution. A third-party consultant not only serves as a go-between but can speak more directly to the issues, because she is not a member of either group. - Rotation of members. By rotating from one group to another, individuals come to understand the frames of reference, values, and attitudes of other members; communication is thus increased. When those rotated are accepted by the receiving groups, change in attitudes as well as behavior becomes possible. This is clearly a long-term technique, as it takes time to develop good interpersonal relations and understanding among group members. - Identification of interdependent tasks and superordinate goals. A further strategy for management is to establish goals that require groups to work together to achieve overall success—for example, when company survival is threatened. The threat of a shutdown often causes long-standing opponents to come together to achieve the common objective of keeping the company going. - Use of intergroup training. The final technique on the continuum is intergroup training. Outside training experts are retained on a long-term basis to help groups develop relatively permanent mechanisms for working together. Structured workshops and training programs can help forge more favorable intergroup attitudes and, as a result, more constructive intergroup behavior. What are the strategies that managers can use that can reduce conflict?	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:42.005689	2024-09-04T21:47:33	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.04%3A_Resolving_Conflict_in_Organizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.4: Resolving Conflict in Organizations", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.05%3A_Negotiation_Behavior	8.5: Negotiation Behavior How do you recognize and respond to cultural differences in negotiation and bargaining strategies? We have seen the central role conflict plays in organizational processes. Clearly, there are some areas where managers would prefer to solve a problem between two parties before it results in high levels of conflict. This is usually accomplished through negotiation. Negotiation is the process by which individuals or groups attempt to realize their goals by bargaining with another party who has at least some control over goal attainment. Throughout the negotiation process, considerable skill in communication, decision-making, and the use of power and politics is required in order to succeed. We will consider several aspects of negotiation, including stages of negotiation, types of negotiation behavior, and the negotiation process itself. We begin with the reasons why people engage in negotiation and bargaining in the first place. Stages of Negotiation In general, negotiation and bargaining are likely to have four stages. Although the length or importance of each stage can vary from situation to situation or from one culture to another, the presence and sequence of these stages are quite common across situations and cultures. - Non-task time. During the first stage, the participants focus on getting to know and become comfortable with each other and do not focus directly on the task or issue of the negotiation. In cultures such as ours, this stage is often filled with small talk. However, it is usually not very long and is not seen as important as other stages. North Americans use phrases such as “Let’s get down to business,” “I know you’re busy, so let’s get right to it,” and “Let’s not beat around the bush.” However, in other cultures such as Mexico or South Korea, the non-task stage is often longer and of more importance because it is during this stage the relationship is established. In these cultures, it is the relationship more than the contract that determines the extent to which each party can trust the other to fulfill its obligations. - Information exchange. The second stage of negotiations involves the exchange of background and general information. During this stage, participants may, for example, provide overviews of their company and its history. In Japan, this is an important stage because specific proposals or agreements must be considered and decided in the larger context. The information exchanged during the second stage provides this larger context. - Influence and persuasion. The third stage involves efforts to influence and persuade the other side. Generally, these efforts are designed to get the other party to reduce its demands or desires and to increase its acceptance of your demands or desires. There are a wide variety of influence tactics, including promises, threats, questions, and so on. The use of these tactics as well as their effectiveness is a function of several factors. First, the perceived or real power of one party relative to another is an important factor. For example, if one party is the only available supplier of a critical component, then threatening to go to a new supplier of that component unless the price is reduced is unlikely to be an effective influence tactic. Second, the effectiveness of a particular influence tactic is also a function of accepted industry and cultural norms. For example, if threats are an unacceptable form of influence, then their use could lead to consequences opposite from what is desired by the initiator of such tactics. - Closing. The final stage of any negotiation is the closing. The closing may result in an acceptable agreement between the parties involved or it may result in failure to reach an agreement. The symbols that represent the close of a negotiation vary across cultures. For example, in the United States, a signed contract is the symbol of a closed negotiation. At that point, “a deal is a deal” and failure to abide by the contents of the document is considered a breach of contract. In China, however, there is not the strong legal history or perspective that exists in the United States, and a signed document is not necessarily a symbol of the close of the negotiations. In fact, to some extent it symbolizes the beginning of the final points of negotiation. The signed document identifies the key issues that still need to be negotiated despite the fact that it may contain specific obligations for the involved parties concerning these issues. Quite simply, even though the document may obligate one party to deliver a product on a certain day and obligate the other party to pay a certain price for delivery, the document itself does not symbolize that the negotiation concerning these specifics is closed. Each of these four stages and the sequence described above are common across most situations and cultures. However, the length of time devoted to each stage, the importance of each stage, and the specific behaviors associated with each stage can vary by situation and certainly do vary by culture. Bargaining Strategies Within the context of these four stages, both parties must select an appropriate strategy that they believe will assist them in the attainment of their objectives. In general, two rather distinct approaches to negotiation can be identified. These are distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining. A comparison of these two approaches is shown in Table $\PageIndex{1}$. Distributive Bargaining. In essence, distributive bargaining is “win-lose” bargaining. That is, the goals of one party are in fundamental and direct conflict with those of the other party. Resources are fixed and limited, and each party wants to maximize her share of these resources. Finally, in most cases, this situation represents a short-term relationship between the two parties. In fact, such parties may not see each other ever again. A good example of this can be seen in the relationship between the buyer and seller of a house. If the buyer gets the house for less money (that is, she “wins”), the seller also gets less (that is, she “loses”). This win-lose situation can also be seen in classes where the professor insists on grading on a specified curve. If your friends get an A, there are fewer As to go around, and your chances are diminished. \| Two Approaches to Bargaining \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Bargaining Characteristic \| Distributive Bargaining \| Integrative Bargaining \| \| Payoff structure \| Fixed amount of resources to be divided \| Variable amount of resources to be divided \| \| Primary motivation \| I win, you lose \| Mutual benefit \| \| Primary interests \| Opposed to each other \| Convergent with each other \| \| Focus of relationships \| Short term \| Long term \| Table $\PageIndex{1}$. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Under such circumstances, each side will probably adopt a course of action as follows. First, each side to a dispute will attempt to discover just how far the other side is willing to go to reach an accord. This can be done by offering outrageously low (or high) proposals simply to feel out the opponent. For example, in selling a house, the seller will typically ask a higher price than she actually hopes to get (see Figure $\PageIndex{1}$) The buyer, in turn, typically offers far less than she is willing to pay. These two prices are put forth to discover the opponent’s resistance price. The resistance price is the point beyond which the opponent will not go to reach a settlement. Once the resistance point has been estimated, each party tries to convince the opponent that the offer on the table is the best one the opponent is likely to receive and that the opponent should accept it. As both sides engage in similar tactics, the winner is often determined by who has the best strategic and political skills to convince the other party that this is the best she can get. Integrative Bargaining. Integrative bargaining is often described as the “win-win” approach. That is, with this technique, both parties try to reach a settlement that benefits both parties. Such an approach is often predicated on the belief that if people mutually try to solve the problem, they can identify some creative solutions that help everyone. A good example can be seen in bilateral trade negotiations between two nations. In such negotiations, participants usually agree that a trade war would hurt both sides; therefore, both sides attempt to achieve a balance of outcomes that are preferable to a trade war for both sides. In doing so, however, the trick is to give away as little as possible to achieve the balance. As shown previously in Table $\PageIndex{1}$, this approach is characterized by the existence of variable resources to be divided, efforts to maximize joint outcomes, and the desire to establish or maintain a long-term relationship. The interests of the two parties may be convergent (noncompetitive, such as preventing a trade war between two countries) or congruent (mutually supportive, as when two countries reach a mutual defense pact). In both cases, bargaining tactics are quite different from those typically found in distributive bargaining. Here, both sides must be able and willing to understand the viewpoints of the other party. Otherwise, they will not know where possible consensus lies. Moreover, the free flow of information is required. Obviously, some degree of trust is required here too. In discussions, emphasis is placed on identifying commonalities between the two parties; the differences are played down. And, finally, the search for a solution focuses on selecting those courses of action that meet the goals and objectives of both sides. This approach requires considerably more time and energy than distributive bargaining, yet, under certain circumstances, it has the potential to lead to far more creative and long-lasting solutions. The Negotiation Process The negotiation process consists of identifying one’s desired goals—that is, what you are trying to get out of the exchange—and then developing suitable strategies aimed at reaching those goals. A key feature of one’s strategy is knowing one’s relative position in the bargaining process. That is, depending upon your relative position or strength, you may want to negotiate seriously or you may want to tell your opponent to “take it or leave it.” The dynamics of bargaining power can be extrapolated directly from the discussion of power Table $\PageIndex{2}$ and indicate several conditions affecting this choice. For example, you may wish to negotiate when you value the exchange, when you value the relationship, and when commitment to the issue is high. In the opposite situation, you may be indifferent to serious bargaining. \| When to Negotiate \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Bargaining Strategies \| \|\| \| Characteristics of the Situation \| Negotiate \| “Take It or Leave It” \| \| * Indicates relative power distribution between the two parties; “low” indicates that one has little power in the situation, whereas “high” indicates that one has considerable power. \| \|\| \| Value of exchange \| High \| Low \| \| Commitment to a decision \| High \| Low \| \| Trust Level \| High \| Low \| \| Time \| Ample \| Pressing \| \| Power distribution* \| Low or balanced \| High \| \| Relationship between two parties \| Important \| Unimportant \| Table $\PageIndex{2}$. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Once goals and objectives have been clearly established and the bargaining strategy is set, time is required to develop a suitable plan of action. Planning for negotiation requires a clear assessment of your own strengths and weaknesses as well as those of your opponents. Roy Lewicki and Joseph Litterer have suggested a format for preparation for negotiation. According to this format, planning for negotiation should proceed through the following phases: - Understand the basic nature of the conflict. What are the primary areas of agreement and disagreement? - What exactly do you want out of this negotiation? What are your goals? - How will you manage the negotiation process? Here, several issues should be recognized: - Identify the primary issues to negotiate. - Prioritize these issues. - Develop a desirable package including these important issues. - Establish an agenda. - Do you understand your opponent? - What are your opponent’s current resources and needs? - What is the history of your opponent’s bargaining behavior? What patterns can you see that can help you predict her moves? Research indicates that following such procedures does, in fact, lead to more successful bargaining. In Table $\PageIndex{3}$, for example, we can see differences in both the planning approaches and the actual behaviors of successful and average negotiators. Preparation clearly makes a difference, as does interpersonal style during the actual negotiation. \| Differences Between Successful and Average Negotiations \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Negotiation Behavior \| Skilled Negotiators \| Average Negotiators \| \| Source: Based on data reported in N. J. Adler and A. Gunderson, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior 5 th edition (Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008), pp. 165–181. \| \|\| \| Before the Negotiation \| \|\| \| Number of options considered per issue \| 5.1 \| 2.6 \| \| Portion of time spent focusing on anticipated areas of agreement instead of conflict \| 39% \| 11% \| \| During Negotiation \| \|\| \| Portion of time spent asking questions of opponent \| 21% \| 10% \| \| Portion of time spent in active listening \| 10% \| 4% \| \| Portion of time spent attacking opponent \| 1% \| 6% \| Table $\PageIndex{3}$ (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Cultural Differences in International Negotiations In view of the increased emphasis on international industrial competitiveness, it is important to understand what happens when the two parties to a negotiation come from different cultures or countries. A knowledge of cultural differences can assist the manager both in understanding the other party’s position and in striking the best possible deal given the circumstances. A good way to start this analysis is by recognizing how different cultures approach the art of persuasion; that is, how do people in different countries try to win you over to their side in a dispute? Although we cannot possibly examine all cultures, consider the results of a study of differences in persuasion techniques for North America, the Middle East, and the former Soviet Union. As can be seen in Table $\PageIndex{4}$, Americans, Arabs, and Russians have significantly different approaches to persuasion. Americans tend to enter into a discussion emphasizing facts and figures, whereas Arabs may focus on emotions. The Russians may talk about ideals. Moreover, in a negotiation situation, the American is ever-conscious of deadlines, whereas the Arab takes a more casual approach, and the Russian is often unconcerned about time. Americans make small concessions early in the bargaining process to establish a relationship. Arabs, on the other hand, make concessions throughout the bargaining process, and the Russians try not to make any concessions at all. Clearly, this study has only highlighted trends, and exceptions can be easily found. Even so, a knowledge of such differences, however general, can greatly facilitate improved interpersonal relations and bargaining success for both parties. \| National Styles of Persuasion \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| North Americans \| Arabs \| Russians \| \| \| Source: Adapted from J. S. Martin, Intercultural Business Communication , (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pearson, 2005). \| \|\|\| \| Primary negotiating style and process \| Factual: appeals made to logic \| Affective: appeals made to emotions \| Axiomatic: appeals made to Ideals \| \| Conflict: opponent’s arguments countered with \| Objective facts \| Subjective feelings \| Asserted ideals \| \| Making concessions \| Small concessions made early to establish a relationship \| Concessions made throughout as a part of the bargaining process \| Few, if any, small concessions made \| \| Response to opponent’s concessions \| Usually reciprocate opponent’s concessions \| Almost always reciprocate opponent’s concessions \| Opponent’s concessions viewed as weakness and almost never reciprocated \| \| Relationship \| Short-term \| Long-term \| No continuing relationship \| \| Authority \| Broad \| Broad \| Limited \| \| Initial position \| Moderate \| Extreme \| Extreme \| \| Deadline \| Very important \| Casual \| Ignored \| Table $\PageIndex{4}$. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) We can also examine the personal characteristics of negotiators from different countries. A study by John Graham focused on the key characteristics of negotiators from different countries, in this case the United States, Japan, Taiwan, and Brazil. Results of the study are shown in Table $\PageIndex{5}$, which shows the rank order of the defining characteristics. Again, we can see major differences in negotiators from around the world. Each has certain strengths, yet these strengths vary considerably from country to country. Americans are seen as prepared and organized, thinking well under pressure, whereas Japanese are seen as more dedicated and shrewd. Taiwanese negotiators were found in the study to be highly persistent and determined, working hard to win the opponent’s respect, and the Brazilians were amazingly similar to the Americans. \| Key Individual Characteristics of Negotiators (Rank Order) \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| American Managers \| Japanese Managers \| Chinese Managers (Taiwan) \| Brazilian Managers \| \| Source: “Key Individual Characteristics of Negotiators” by John Graham, Graduate School of Management, University of California, Irvine. \| \|\|\| \| Preparation and planning skill \| Dedication to job \| Persistence and determination \| Preparation and planning skill \| \| Thinking under pressure \| Perceive and exploit power \| Win respect and confidence \| Thinking under pressure \| \| Judgment and intelligence \| Win respect and confidence \| Preparation and planning skill \| Judgment and intelligence \| \| Verbal expressiveness \| Integrity \| Product knowledge \| Verbal expressiveness \| \| Product knowledge \| Listening skill \| Interesting \| Product knowledge \| \| Perceive and exploit power \| Broad perspective \| Judgment and intelligence \| Perceive and exploit power \| \| Integrity \| Verbal expressiveness \| Competition \| Table $\PageIndex{5}$. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Finally, we should note that negotiators from different countries differ markedly in their verbal and nonverbal communication patterns . In one study (again among Americans, representing North America; Japanese, representing East Asia; and Brazilians, representing South America), observers counted the number of times each negotiator did certain things within a given time limit. The results are shown in Table $\PageIndex{6}$. As can be seen, these negotiators use both verbal and nonverbal communication in very different ways. Note, for example, that Brazilians on average said “no” 83 times within a 30-minute segment, compared to 5 times for Japanese and 9 times for Americans. On the other hand, Japanese appealed to ideals and societal norms and simply sat in silence more than the others. Such differences affect not only the negotiation process but also, in many cases, the outcomes. That is, if a negotiator from one culture has annoyed or insulted the opponent (intentionally or unintentionally), the opponent may resist doing business with that person or may fail to offer attractive terms. Hence, again we see the value of better understanding cultural variations in negotiations, as in other matters. \| Communication Patterns during Negotiations for Three Cultures \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Tactic \| Japan \| United States \| Brazil \| \| Source: Based on data reported in J. Graham, “The Influence of Culture on Business Negotiations,” Journal of International Business Studies, Spring 1985, pp. 81–96. \| \|\|\| \| Verbal Communication \| \|\|\| \| Making promises \| 7 \| 8 \| 3 \| \| Making threats \| 4 \| 4 \| 2 \| \| Making recommendations \| 7 \| 4 \| 5 \| \| Appealing to ideals and norms \| 4 \| 2 \| 1 \| \| Giving a command \| 8 \| 6 \| 14 \| \| Saying “no” \| 5 \| 9 \| 83 \| \| Making initial concessions \| 6 \| 7 \| 9 \| \| Nonverbal Communication \| \|\|\| \| Periods of silence \| 6 \| 3 \| 0 \| \| Interrupting opponent \| 12 \| 10 \| 29 \| \| Looking directly into opponent’s eyes \| 1 \| 3 \| 5 \| \| Touching opponent \| 0 \| 0 \| 5 \| Table $\PageIndex{6}$ (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Concluding Thoughts about Conflict and Negotiations One of the classic negotiations approaches that you might encounter is the book, Getting to Yes. This book expound the authors favored method of conflict resolution, which they term principled negotiation . This method attempts to find an objective standard, typically based on existing precedents, for reaching an agreement that will be acceptable to both interested parties. Principled negotiation emphasizes the parties’ enduring interests, objectively existing resources, and available alternatives, rather than transient positions that the parties may choose to take during the negotiation. The outcome of a principled negotiation ultimately depends on the relative attractiveness of each party’s so-called BATNA: the “Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement”, which can be taken as a measure of the objective strength of a party’s bargaining stance. In general, the party with the more attractive BATNA gets the better of the deal. If both parties have attractive BATNAs, the best course of action may be not to reach an agreement at all. Conflict is most likely to occur when the goals, expectations, and/or behaviors of at least two parties differ and when those differences are difficult to avoid (such as when interdependence among the parties involved is high). Conflict itself is neither good nor bad, productive nor destructive. The key to the outcome of conflict is the manner in which it is managed. Negotiation, as a key means of managing conflict, has four distinct stages. However, the length, importance, and norms for each stage can vary by situation and especially by culture. Expanding Around the Globe Negotiating Styles in Malaysia and America One of the emerging countries in Southeast Asia is Malaysia, whose natural resources and stable economic growth are allowing it to develop as an important manufacturing center in the region along with Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand. What happens when American businesspeople visit Malaysia to do business? In the following example, cross-cultural researcher George Renwick describes major differences between the two cultures as they approach a negotiation. Americans’ patterns of negotiation, like all of their patterns, differ somewhat depending upon their context. The negotiating patterns of government officials working out a treaty, for example, are somewhat different from those of a business executive “hammering out” a contract. The pattern portrayed here will be that of the business executive. The American businessperson usually begins a series of negotiating sessions in a cordial manner, but he is intent on getting things under way. He is very clear as to what he and his company want, when it is wanted, and how he will go about getting it; he has planned his strategy carefully. And he has done what he could to “psyche out” his counterpart, with whom he will be negotiating. From the outset, the American negotiator urges everyone to “dispense with the formalities” and get on with the business at hand. As soon as possible, he expresses his determination, saying something like, “Okay, let’s get down to brass tacks.” The American usually states his position (at least his first position) early and definitely. He plans before long to “really get down to the nitty gritty.” He wants to “zero in” on the knotty problems and get to the point where “the rubber meets the road” (the point, that is, where “the action” begins). Once the negotiations are “really rolling,” the American usually deals directly with obstacles as they come up, tries to clear them away in quick order, and becomes impatient and frustrated if he cannot. Most of what the American wants to convey, of course, he puts into words—often many of them. His approach is highly verbal and quite visible—and thoroughly planned. He has outlined his alternative ahead of time and prepared his counterproposals, contingencies, backup positions, bluffs, guarantees, and tests of compliance, all carefully calculated, and including, of course, lots of numbers. Toward the end, he sees that some bailout provisions are included, but he usually doesn’t worry too much about them; making and meeting business commitments “on schedule” is what his life is all about—he is not too concerned about getting out. If he has to get out, then he has to, and he will find a way when the time comes. The American experiences real satisfaction when all the problems have been “worked out,” especially if he has been able to get provisions very favorable to his company—and to his own reputation as a “tough negotiator.” He rests securely when everything is “down in black and white” and the contract is initialed or signed. Afterward, the American enjoys himself; he relaxes “over some drinks” and carries on some “small talk” and “jokes around” with his team and their counterparts. Malay patterns of negotiation, as might be expected, differ considerably. When they are buying something, Malays bargain with the merchant, and when they are working, they socialize with their boss and coworkers. Their purpose is to develop some sense of relationship with the other person. The relationship then provides the basis, or context, for the exchange. Malays take the same patterns and preferences into their negotiating sessions. When all is said and done, it is not the piece of paper they trust, it is the person—and their relationship with the person. A Malay negotiator begins to develop the context for negotiations through the interaction routines appropriate to this and similar occasions. These routines are as complicated and subtle as customary American routines; they are cordial but quite formal. Like Americans and their own routines, Malays understand the Malay routines but are seldom consciously aware of them. Neither Malays nor Americans understand very clearly the routines of the other. As the preliminary context is formed, it is important to the Malay that the proper forms of address be known beforehand and used and that a variety of topics be talked about that are unrelated to the business to be transacted. This may continue for quite a while. A Malay negotiator wants his counterpart to participate comfortably, patiently, and with interest. As in other interaction, it is not the particular words spoken which are of most importance to the Malay; rather he listens primarily to the attitudes which the words convey—attitudes toward the Malay himself and toward the matter being negotiated. Attitudes are important to the relationship. At this point and throughout the negotiations, the Malay is as much concerned about the quality of the relationship as the quantity of the work accomplished. Motivation is more important to the Malay than momentum. The Malay negotiator, as in other situations, is also aware of feelings—his own and those of his counterpart, and the effects of the exchanges upon both. He is also aware of, and concerned about, how he looks in the eyes of his team, how his counterpart looks in the eyes of the other team, and how both he and his counterpart will look after the negotiations in the eyes of their respective superiors. The Malay is alert to style, both his own and that of his counterpart. Displaying manners is more important than scoring points. The way one negotiates is as important as what one negotiates. Grace and finesse show respect for the other and for the matter under consideration. Negotiating, like other interaction, is something of an art form. Balance and restraint are therefore essential. The agenda that the Malay works through in the course of the negotiation is usually quite flexible. His strategy is usually rather simple. His positions are expressed in more general terms than the American’s, but no less strongly held. His proposals are more offered than argued: they are offered to the other party rather than argued with him. Malays do not enjoy sparring. They deeply dislike combat. In response to a strong assertion, the Malay negotiator usually expresses his respect directly by replying indirectly. The stronger the assertion and the more direct the demands, the more indirect the reply—at least the verbal reply. The Malay and his team usually formulate their positions gradually and carefully. By the time they present their position, they usually have quite a lot of themselves invested in it. Direct rejection of the position, therefore, is sometimes felt to be a rejection of the person. Negotiating for the Malay is not quite the game that it is for some Americans. If the Malay and his team have arrived at a position from which they and those whom they represent cannot move, they will not move. If this requires a concession from the counterpart, the Malays will not try to force the concession. If the counterpart sees that a concession from him is necessary, and makes it, the Malays, as gentlemen, recognize the move and respect the man who made it. A concession, therefore, is not usually considered by the Malay team to be a sign that they can press harder and extract further concessions. Instead, a concession by either side is considered as evidence of strength and a basis for subsequent reconciliation and cooperation. What about getting out a contract? Making and meeting business commitments is not what a Malay’s life is all about. He has other, often prior, commitments. He therefore enters into contracts cautiously and prefers to have an exit provided. In addition, Malays are certain of their control over the future (even their control of their own country) than are Americans. Therefore, promising specific kinds of performance in the future by specific dates in a contract, especially in a long-term contract where the stakes are high, is often difficult for Malays. It is even more difficult, of course, if they are not certain whether they can trust the persons to whom they are making the commitment and from whom they are accepting commitments. Malays therefore give a great deal of thought to a contract and to the contracting party before signing it. And they are uneasy if provisions have not been made for a respectable withdrawal should future circumstances make their compliance impossible. Questions: - How are the different approaches important to understanding negotiations and cultural differences? Sources: G. Renwick, Malays and Americans: Definite Differences, Unique Opportunities (Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 1985), pp. 51–54. - Understand the strategies in bargaining. - Understand the role that cultural differences have in the negotiation process.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:42.120329	2024-09-04T21:47:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.05%3A_Negotiation_Behavior", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.5: Negotiation Behavior", "author": "" }
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.16%3A_Glossary	8.16: Glossary Key Terms: Administrative orbiting An ineffective strategy for resolving conflict. Affective conflict Seen in situations where two individuals simply don’t get along with each other. BATNA An acronym popularised by Roger Fisher and William Ury which stands for ‘Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement’. BATNA answers the question: ‘What would you do if you weren’t able to agree a deal with your negotiation counterparty?’ Your BATNA is the alternative action you’ll take should your proposed agreement fail to materialize. Behavioral conflict Exists when one person or group does something that is unacceptable to others. Character assassination An ineffective resolution technique where the person with a conflict attempts to discredit and distance an individual from the others in the group. Cognitive conflict Can result when one person or group holds ideas or opinions that are inconsistent with those of others. Conflict The four types of conflict are goal conflict, cognitive conflict, affective conflict, and behavioral conflict. Constructive confrontation A conflict that leads to a positive result. Cooperativeness The extent to which someone is interested in helping satisfy the opponent’s concerns. Distributive bargaining Where the goals of one party are in fundamental and direct conflict with those of the other party. Resources are fixed and limited, and each party wants to maximize its share of these resources. Due process nonaction The strategy of wearing down a dissatisfied employee while at the same time claiming that resolution procedures are open and available. This technique has been used repeatedly in conflicts involving race and sex discrimination. Frustration May be caused by a wide variety of factors, including disagreement over performance goals, failure to get a promotion or pay raise, a fight over scarce economic resources, new rules or policies, and so forth. Goal conflict Can occur when one person or group desires a different outcome than others do. This is simply a clash over whose goals are going to be pursued. Integrative bargaining Essentially “win-lose” bargaining where the goals of one party are in fundamental and direct conflict with those of the other party. Resources are fixed and limited, and each party wants to maximize its share of these resources. Intergroup conflict Usually involves disagreements between two opposing forces over goals or the sharing of resources. Interorganizational conflict Disputes between two companies in the same industry, two companies in different industries or economic sectors, or two or more countries. Interpersonal conflict Where two individuals disagree on some matter. Intrapersonal conflict A conflict within one person. Assertiveness - Can range from assertive to unassertive on one continuum. Jurisdictional ambiguities Situations where it is unclear exactly where responsibility for something lies. Negotiation The process by which individuals or groups attempt to realize their goals by bargaining with another party who has at least some control over goal attainment. Resistance price The point beyond which the opponent will not go to reach a settlement. Status inconsistencies Situations where some individuals have the opportunity to benefit whereas other employees do not. Consider the effects this can have on the nonmanagers’ view of organizational policies and fairness. Task interdependencies The greater the extent of task interdependence among individuals or groups, the greater the likelihood of conflict if different expectations or goals exist among entities, in part because the interdependence makes avoiding the conflict more difficult. Third-party consultation An outside consultant that serves as a go-between and can speak more directly to the issues because she is not a member of either group.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:42.585270	2024-09-04T21:47:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Northeast_Wisconsin_Technical_College/Team_Building_and_Problem_Solving_(NWTC)/08%3A_Group_Conflict/8.16%3A_Glossary", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/biz-118069", "title": "8.16: Glossary", "author": "" }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction	1: Introduction Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 16471 Lapum et al. Ryerson University (Daphne Cockwell School of Nursing) via Ryerson University Library 1.1: Chapter 1 Learning Objectives 1.2: Purpose and Audience of this Book 1.3: Introduction to Scholarly Writing 1.4: Relevance of Scholarly Writing to the Nursing Profession 1.5: Post-secondary Expectations 1.6: Chapter Summary	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.379447	2019-11-19T04:49:28	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1: Introduction", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.01%3A_Chapter_1_Learning_Objectives	1.1: Chapter 1 Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Define scholarly writing. - Identify the relevance of scholarly writing to nursing. - Identify post-secondary writing expectations. selected template will load here This action is not available. By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.444517	2019-11-19T04:49:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.01%3A_Chapter_1_Learning_Objectives", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.1: Chapter 1 Learning Objectives", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.02%3A_Purpose_and_Audience_of_this_Book	1.2: Purpose and Audience of this Book The purpose of this textbook is to facilitate your capacity for scholarly writing. No one is born a good writer: writing is a journey that takes skill and practice. Part of this journey involves learning to read and understand scholarly writing, becoming information literate, understanding the nature and types of scholarly writing, and developing your ability to engage in the writing process. Figure 1.1: The journey of scholarly writing This textbook is written for students in university-level nursing programs. It may also be useful for students in other health-related programs, graduate students, or healthcare providers. It is designed and co-authored by students for students. It is written in second person and in a conversational tone because the authors want to engage and immerse you, the reader, in the journey to becoming a scholarly writer. However, please note that these styles are not generally used in scholarly writing. You will also notice that gender-inclusive language is used throughout. For example, the terms “they” and “their” are used purposefully as both singular and plural pronouns. See Audio Podcast 1.1 that provides an introduction about what to expect by one of the book’s authors. Audio Podcast 1.1 : Introduction to textbook [2:41] Helpful Features - Student Tips with helpful information that will guide your writing. - Important phrases are bolded in the text. - Some unfamiliar and complex terms are bolded in blue ; hover your cursor over the word and click on it for a definition. These terms are also included in a glossary at the end of the book. - Audio podcasts from learners and experts about their journey to becoming a writer. - Images and videos to help you connect with the content in a visual way. - Activities to help you evaluate your knowledge. - Chapter summaries along with “Your Writing Journey” boxes at the end of each chapter writing. The textbook has a self-directed format and provides an interactive and engaging way for you to learn about and develop capacity in scholarly writing in the nursing context. You can review the full textbook or advance to sections that you have identified as areas you want to work on. This textbook is best viewed online in the “Read Book” format available through Pressbooks. The Read Book format enables all accessible multimedia content. You can also download a PDF to read offline. Figure 1.2: View this textbook online	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.504039	2019-11-19T04:49:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.02%3A_Purpose_and_Audience_of_this_Book", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.2: Purpose and Audience of this Book", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.03%3A_Introduction_to_Scholarly_Writing	1.3: Introduction to Scholarly Writing When you first enter university, you may be unfamiliar with scholarly writing. This genre of writing is associated with post-secondary education and many academic fields including nursing. When learning to write in a scholarly way, it is important to consider both the content of your writing (what you write) and the presentation of your ideas (how you write). Figure 1.3: Scholarly writing Fundamentals of Scholarly Writing include: - Presentation of ideas in clear, succinct, accurate, and congruent ways. - Incorporation of your original thought and a critical lens. - Credible evidence to support your thoughts. - Attention to structure, paragraph construction, grammar, language, tone, voice, audience, etc.—all of these are addressed in future chapters. Scholarly writing is completely different from conversations or other types of writing. When you speak, send a text, or write in a diary, you use informal language . For example, a phone text typically lacks attention to structure and grammar, is short and conversational in tone, and may include acronyms, symbols, and emojis. These non-scholarly formats often use colloquial phrasing— familiar, everyday, slang terms. More to come on that in Chapter 5. Some of you are enrolled or may choose to enroll in a writing course; if so, this book will complement your learning. The fundamentals of scholarly writing are expanded on in each chapter of this book.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.561767	2019-11-19T04:49:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.03%3A_Introduction_to_Scholarly_Writing", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.3: Introduction to Scholarly Writing", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.04%3A_Relevance_of_Scholarly_Writing_to_the_Nursing_Profession	1.4: Relevance of Scholarly Writing to the Nursing Profession Scholarly writing is a form of communication and a necessary skill that is important to the nurse’s role as a clinician, professional, a leader, a scholar, an educator, and an advocate. As a student, developing skills in scholarly writing will help prepare you for your nursing role. Types of scholarly writing that you may be involved in as a nurse are: - Social awareness and advocacy campaigns in which you share knowledge and bring awareness to an issue or a new policy. - Educating and influencing people and communities. The power of writing provides a means for nurses to state their position and influence others. Nurses are involved in crafting policy ideas to influence stakeholders and government bodies on public health issues. - Best practice guidelines, standards of practice, and policies and procedures to inform nursing practice. - Research grants and manuscripts for publication. - Reflective practice, which is a professional expectation for nurses to demonstrate their commitment to life-long learning and continuing competence by reflecting on their practice (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2018). Nurses may engage in scholarly writing in ways that differ from other disciplines . For example: - As noted above, nurses engage in many forms of scholarly writing, so you should be prepared to tailor the style of writing to your audience and your objectives. - In nursing and other health-related fields, you must incorporate evidence to support your statements. - It is important that you draw from scholarly sources, such as peer-reviewed journals, as opposed to magazines or books. - You need to be clear and concise, with a logical flow in your writing from point A to B. - Scholarly writing allows you develop your capacity as a communicator, a skill that transcends domains of professional and personal life. References College of Nurses of Ontario (2018, October). QA Program. Retrieved from https://www.cno.org/en/myqa/	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.619854	2019-11-19T04:49:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.04%3A_Relevance_of_Scholarly_Writing_to_the_Nursing_Profession", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.4: Relevance of Scholarly Writing to the Nursing Profession", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.05%3A_Post-secondary_Expectations	1.5: Post-secondary Expectations In the post-secondary nursing environment, academic expectations differ from what you may have experienced in high school, see Table 1.1 . You are expected to do more work, and managing your workload may be challenging. This book teaches you strategies for managing your time while reading and writing effectively. Along with the quantity of work, the quality of your work also changes. It is not enough to understand and summarize course material. You are expected to engage seriously with new ideas by reflecting on them, analyzing them, critiquing them, making connections, drawing conclusions, and finding new ways of thinking about a given subject. Table 1.1: Expectations for high-school versus post-secondary nursing programs. \| High-school programs \| Post-secondary nursing programs \| \|---\|---\| \| Reading assignments are moderately long. Teachers may set aside some class time for reading and reviewing the material in depth. \| Some reading assignments may be very long. You are expected to come to class and lab having completed the readings and ready to engage in discussion and practice skills. \| \| Teachers often provide study guides and other aids to help you prepare for exams. \| Reviewing for exams is primarily your responsibility. \| \| Your grade is determined by your performance on a wide variety of assessments, including minor and major assignments. Not all assessments are writing-based. \| Your grade may depend on just a few major assessments. These assessments may include a combination of writing assignments and multiple-choice tests as well as other types of evaluations. \| \| Writing assignments include personal writing and creative writing in addition to expository writing. \| You are expected to engage in many types of writing, including reflective writing, summary and synthesis writing, and critical and analytic writing. \| \| The structure and format of writing assignments is generally stable over the high-school years. \| Depending on the course, you may be asked to master new forms of writing and follow standards within the profession of nursing and other related fields. \| \| Teachers often go out of their way to identify and try to help students who are performing poorly on exams, missing classes, not turning in assignments, or just struggling with the course. Often, teachers give students many ‘second chances.’ \| Teachers expect you to be proactive and take steps to help yourself. If you are struggling with your course work, make an appointment with your teacher or another support person, such as a learning strategist or counsellor. \| Sounds like a lot? Remember, it is a journey to developing your ability as a scholarly writer. Engaging with this textbook is a great first step. Attribution statement This page was remixed with our own original content and adapted from: Writing for Success 1st Canadian Edition by Tara Horkoff is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Download for free at: https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.682281	2019-11-19T04:49:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.05%3A_Post-secondary_Expectations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.5: Post-secondary Expectations", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.06%3A_Chapter_Summary	1.6: Chapter Summary This chapter has provided a brief introduction to scholarly writing and its importance to the nursing profession. You will recognize that becoming a scholarly writer is a journey that evolves over the course of your post-secondary nursing program and your career as a nurse. You may be at the beginning of this journey or partway through it; either way, this textbook will help you along your journey. In future chapters, you will further explore how to enhance your scholarly writing ability by reading and writing. Your Writing Journey By this time, you have reflected on your writing experience to date and how you have traditionally approached writing assignments. This chapter has explored the culture built around writing for scholarship in nursing. While you may have some experience writing formally or creatively, it is advantageous to learn early on in your post-secondary career how to write for scholarship. Are you a last-minute writer or do you agonize over every sentence? This self-analysis will help you identify your current style in relation to what is needed to write in nursing.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.738505	2019-11-19T04:49:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction/1.06%3A_Chapter_Summary", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "1.6: Chapter Summary", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension	2: Reading and Comprehension Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 16472 Lapum et al. Ryerson University (Daphne Cockwell School of Nursing) via Ryerson University Library 2.1: Notetaking 2.2: Annotating 2.3: Dialectic Notetaking 2.4: Reading Critically 2.5: Critiquing a Text 2.6: Reflecting and Summarizing 2.7: Troubleshooting Your Reading 2.8: Chapter Summary 2.9: Chapter 2 Learning Objectives 2.10: Overview- Reading and Comprehension 2.11: Reading Effectively 2.12: Best Place and Time for Reading 2.13: The Distracted Reader 2.14: Learning Preferences 2.15: Types of Texts You Are Expected to Read 2.16: Pre-reading Strategies 2.17: Reading the Article in Full	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.832835	2019-11-19T04:49:28	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "2: Reading and Comprehension", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.01%3A_Notetaking	2.1: Notetaking The objective of notetaking is to help you enter a discussion with the text, make sense of the reading, and think about how it applies to your nursing practice. You can take notes in many ways when reading, such as annotating and dialectic notetaking—detailed on the next pages. These two methods of notetaking are done differently, but both help you achieve the same objective. Both methods involve identifying key points of the text and highlighting elements that did not make sense to you or that you have questions about.	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.887953	2019-11-19T04:49:42	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.01%3A_Notetaking", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "2.1: Notetaking", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.02%3A_Annotating	2.2: Annotating Annotating involves physically adding notes to the text that you are reading. As a nursing student, you are expected to read all sorts of unfamiliar texts detailing thought-provoking, upsetting, interesting, and important information that will influence how you think and how you practice as a nurse. The level of detail in your notetaking may vary if you are reading and taking notes about the step-by-step process involved in handwashing for infection control purposes versus the importance of empathy in nursing. How you go about taking notes also depends on: - The subject and the level of detail required. - What works best for you. - Whether you are reading a hard copy or an e-text. Writing in your textbooks or on articles as you read is a powerful strategy for engaging with a text and entering into a discussion with it. You might jot down questions and ideas as they come to you. You might highlight or underline important points, circle words you don’t understand, and use your own set of symbols to highlight portions that you feel are important. You might also use sticky notes to write down points or identify how the reading relates to your clinical practice. Capturing these ideas as they occur to you is important, because they may play a role not just in understanding the text better, but also in your assignments. If you don’t make notes as you go, today’s great observation will likely become tomorrow’s forgotten detail. Many people are more likely to remember something if they write it down. See Figure 2.5 for an example of an annotated text. Figure 2.5 : Example of an annotated text Reading online Annotating in some way is still important if you are reading online. You can do this in a few ways: - Take notes on paper. - Use a digital text editor or PDF editor to highlight text and make notes. - Another option is using: Hypothes.is – this tool allows you to annotate an online text. Depending on your preference, you can set it so that your annotations are private (only accessible to you) or public (anyone using this tool can read your comments). Figure 2.6 : Hypothes.is Attribution statement This page was remixed with our original content and with editorial changes, adapted from: The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Download for free at: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:51.951740	2019-11-19T04:49:43	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.02%3A_Annotating", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "2.2: Annotating", "author": "Lapum et al." }
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.03%3A_Dialectic_Notetaking	A dialectical approach to taking notes sounds much more complicated than it is. Dialectic just means a dialogue —a discussion between two (or more) voices trying to figure something out. Whenever you read new material, particularly material that is challenging in some way, it can be helpful to take dialectic notes to create clear spaces for organizing different sets of thoughts. Start by drawing a vertical line down the middle of a fresh sheet of paper to make two long columns—leave some space at the bottom of the page. Table 2.5 provides an overview of what you should put in the left and right column. It’s a good idea to leave space at the bottom of the page (or on the back) for additional notes about this piece or cite the source. Table 2.5: Dialectic note-taking \| Left column – main ideas \| Right column – your response \| \| This column is a straightforward representation of the main ideas in the text you are reading. For example: - Also, take a look at Table 2.6 for an example of dialectic notetaking, which demonstrates how to document the main ideas of a text and your comments. Table 2.6: Example of dialectic note-taking \| Main ideas \| My comments \| - main blood pressure (BP) methods: manual and automatic - both arms (measurements should be within 10 mm Hg) - sitting position with feet flat on floor, “bare arm at heart level” and resting for 5 minutes before measurement - accurate cuff size based on the person’s arm: “width of cuff 40% of the person’s arm circumference … length of cuff’s bladder is 80-100% of the person’s arm circumference” (see video) - palpate brachial artery firmly (2 cm medially from bicep tendon and 2-3 cm above antecubital fossa) - place cuff over bare arm with artery marker aligned with the artery \| - will need to figure out where to place the client’s arm (e.g., on a table) - how much pressure does “firm pressure” involve? - I have had my BP taken and the healthcare provider took it over my clothing. How come? - talk with teacher about how to pronounce “sphygmomanometer”? - >need to re-watch video when I get a chance - does it hurt to have your BP taken? \| Source: Lapum, J., Verkuyl, M., Garcia, W., St-Amant, O., & Tan, A. (2018). Vital sign measurement across the lifespan – 1 st Canadian edition. Retrieved from: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/vitalsign/ Once you have this set of dialectic notes, there are several ways you can use them. For example: - These notes can help you contribute to class discussion about this piece and the topics it addresses. - Significant questions you encountered while reading are already written down and collected in one place so you don’t have to sift through the reading again to find them. - Your observations and thoughts about the piece are already organized, which can help you see patterns and connections within those observations. Finding these connections can be a strong starting point for written assignments. - If you are asked to respond to this piece in writing, these notes can serve as a reference point as you develop a draft. They can give you new ideas if you get stuck and help keep the original connections you saw when reading fresh in your mind as you respond more formally to that reading. Activities: Check Your Understanding The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element. The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element. \|	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:52:52.023121	2019-11-19T04:49:43	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/The_Scholarship_of_Writing_in_Nursing_Education_(Lapum_et_al.)/02%3A_Reading_and_Comprehension/2.03%3A_Dialectic_Notetaking", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/med-16470", "title": "2.3: Dialectic Notetaking", "author": "Lapum et al." }

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