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Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite, gabbro, diorite and dunite. Extrusive Igneous Rock. Extrusive igneous rocks form when magma reaches the Earth''s surface a volcano and cools quickly. Most extrusive (volcanic) rocks have small crystals. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and obsidian.READ MORE · Pacific rockfish—also known as rock cod or Pacific snapper—is a very versatile fish. From fried to grilled to steamed and even raw, you have plenty of preparation options. It''s fantastic in almost any fish recipe, and if you have a recipe that doesn''t specify a type of fish, rockfish would be a …READ MORE · This gracefully curved flagstone wall adds a stylish flourish to the backyard patio. The circular wall creates a sense of enclosure and privacy even though the wall is low. Best of all, the wall curls into a small fountain. Flagstone comes in large sheets from 3/4 inch to 4 inches thick.READ MORE rock descriptions are medium-grained, hornblende-biotite schist, or fine- to medium-grained, garnetiferous, muscovite-chlorite-feldspar-quartz gneiss. The above classification can be abbreviated by the deletion of mineral names from the left to right as desired. TheREAD MORE · Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is composed and typically form recognizable and mappable volumes. Rocks are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks…READ MORE IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS In accordance with BS 5930:1999 Amendment 1 and BS EN ISO 14689 ROCK MATERIAL ROCK MASS DIMENSION ROCK MATERIAL GENERAL Strength Structure ... characteristics Small Fine grained BASALT average and average and of infill 0.05 - 5.0 l/secREAD MORE Porphyritic rocks are igneous rocks that have large crystals, called phenocrysts, within a small crystal ground mass. The magma that produced these rocks began to form larger crystals within the Earth, followed by rapid cooling as the magma moved upward or extruded onto the surface, forming the fine-grained surrounding rock.READ MORE Table 4–13 Fracture type 4–21 Table 4–14 Fracturing density description chart 4–21 Table 4–15 Joint set spacing categories 4–22 Table 4–16 Aperture category 4–23 Table 4–17 Joint infilling 4–24 Table 4–18 Joint persistence categories 4–25 Table 4–19 Types of joint ends 4–25 Table 4–20 Descriptors for weathering condition of joint face rock 4–27READ MORE Commonly used words are shown in bold.Rare words are dimmed. Click on a word above to view its definition.READ MORE The rock itself is sturdy and will certainly provide protection from the weather. Since the ground where the rock sit is a bit uneven, I did have to get creative with placing some real rocks around the base but that only added to the ''realistic'' look. (Note: Someone commented on the sticky label on the rock.READ MORE Home » Rocks. Rocks: Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks hold the history of the earth and the materials that will be used to build its future.READ MORE Common Fossils. Ammonites. Ammonites are coiled up shells, with ridges (with exceptions). Some have their original colors (red, purple, pink, blue, orange, green, yellow or brown). However, most Ammonites lose their color and go white or black. Some Ammonites are preserved in iron-pyrite and weigh more; they are golden and shiny.READ MORE · America''s 7 best small rock clubs. ... Smaller, iconic rocks clubs offer history, access, and, for the most part, cheaper beer than uber-venues. Here are seven worth a pilgrimage.READ MORE Jet is an organic rock similar to coal, but instead of breaking like coal it can be cut, carved or polished into interesting sculptures, beads or faceted stones. Jet is a very light-weight material and was popular in jewelry of the Victorian Era. It is rarely seen as a tumbled stone. Shop for Jet.READ MORE Small, flat surfaces that are shiny or sparkly, like tiny mirrors. Fossils Imprints of leaves, shells, insects, or other items in the rock. Gas bubbles "Holes," like Swiss cheese, in the rock. Glassy surface A shiny and smooth surface, like colored glass. Ribbonlike layers Straight or wavy stripes of different colors in the rock. Sand or pebblesREAD MORE · Tiny Toronto Backyard. Beyond Landscaping. Working with limited space, Beyond Landscaping was able to create a low-maintenance retreat in the backyard of a home in Toronto, Canada, that features a small fiberglass pool, composite decking, a horizontal fence for privacy, and artificial turf. Continue to 9 of 23 below.READ MORE In 2002, Thorson published "Stone by Stone," his first book on the topic, and he and his wife Kristine founded the Stone Wall Initiative in conjunction with the publication, which Thorson describes as the first geoarchaeological study of New England''s stone walls. Like the book, the Initiative aims to promote scientific understanding of the walls and advocate for their protection as ...READ MORE · rock composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from their place of origin. detrital rock. Noun. sedimentary rock produced from small pieces of other rocks. dissolution. Noun. termination or destruction by breaking down, disrupting, or dispersing. erosion. Noun.READ MORE Melted rock or magma is sent to the earth''s surface by a volcano. It cools and forms an igneous rock. 2. Next the weather, or a river, and other events will slowly break up this rock into small pieces of sediment. 3. As sediment builds up and hardens over years, a sedimentary rock is formed. 4.READ MORE Rock Classification Answer Key Vocabulary: classify, extrusive igneous rock, foliation, fossil, igneous rock, intrusive igneous rock, metamorphic rock, mineral, sedimentary rock, strata, texture Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo.) When you classify objects, you organize them into groups based on common characteristics. ...READ MORE · The typical rock advertised as a "river rock" will have rounded edges, a flat but textured surface, and small pits, cracks, color changes, and imperfections. Tip River rocks are technically any kind of rock — whether sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic — found in a river.READ MORE The number, rock name, collector''s name, date collected, description of collection site, geologic formation, geologic age, and other pertinent data are entered in a small notebook. If rocks are kept on separate trays, a small card containing some data is usually placed in the tray.READ MORE · But the description of said boulder is what took the Internet by storm. "Large boulder the size of a small boulder is completely blocking east-bound lane Highway 145 mm78 at Silverpick Rd ...READ MORE Indie Rock. Indie rock takes its name from "independent," which describes both the do-it-yourself attitudes of its bands and the small, lower-budget nature of the labels that release the music. The biggest indie labels might strike distribution deals with major corporate labels, but their decision-making processes remain autonomous. As such ...READ MORE · Description: Spending a majority of their focus on the independent punk scene Hopeless Records has owned this sound, claiming the top spot of the punk record labels since their early 90s start. Some of the greatest artists in punk rock and metal during the …READ MORE What is the process: wind blows sediment and small rock fragments. erosion. What is the process: a river breaks down rocks along its bank. weathering. What is the process: a glacier melts and leaves behind sediment and rock fragments. deposition. What is the order in which sedimentary rock forms?READ MORE · The classical example here is basal t, which can have many small crystals or very few large ones. Volcanic rocks are also called extrusive igneous rocks, as opposed to intrusive igneous rocks ...READ MORE ROCK DESCRIPTION CHART A — IGNEOUS ROCKS ROCK DESCRIPTION CHART B — METAMORPHIC ROCKS Rock Name Minerals Present Color Particle Size Layers-Foliation Other Features Granite Quartz, Pink or White Feldspar and Dark Colored iron rich Minerals are present White, Light gray, Pink, or Yellow Coarse to fine grained feldspar crystalsREAD MORE · The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering, or breaking down, of the exposed rock into small fragments. Through the process of erosion, these fragments are removed from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location. Once the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it ...READ MORE · You might not think the meaning of stones and rocks is a big deal, but actually - it is! Stones are symbolic of the history they''ve lived while on this earth. They''re like little history books holding memories. In many cultures rocks are symbols of luck, energy …READ MORE Small, flat surfaces that are shiny or sparkly, like tiny mirrors. Fossils Imprints of leaves, shells, insects, or other items in the rock. Gas bubbles "Holes," like Swiss cheese, in the rock. Glassy surface A shiny and smooth surface, like colored glass. Ribbonlike layers Straight or wavy stripes of different colors in the rock…READ MORE Description: Donated 100 pennies to the shop. Unlock: Donate 100 coins to the Donation Machine. In-Game Secret Number: 152. Store Upgrade lv.2. Lazarus. Description: Unlocked a new character. Unlock: Have 4 or more soul hearts at one time. In-Game Secret Number: 80. Lazarus.READ MORE A small stone micro-tool, a beautiful bifacially worked and serrated side tang knife, milky white quartz, Pre-European contact, Native American, SE Alabama or adjacent areas: $9.00 #12024B : A small stone micro-tool, a micro-knife or miniature triangular point, Pre-European contact, Native American, greater Southeast US: $9.00 #2105CREAD MORE Amethyst Physical Healing Properties. Amethyst boosts the production of hormones and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine glands to optimum performance. It supports oxygenation in the blood, and aids in treatments of the digestive tract, heart, stomach, and skin.READ MORE Apr 28, 2013 - Identifying Indian tools made from rock is moderately easy if you know what you''re looking for. Indian artifacts may be strewn where there was once a settlement. Arrowheads and points may be found at vantage points, such as cliff tops and bluffs, although only fragments or shards of these primitive tools may ...READ MORE 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks A clast is a fragment of rock or mineral, ranging in size from less than a micron (too small to see) to as big as an apartment block. Various types of clasts are shown in Figure 5.3.1 and in Exercise 5.3. The smaller ones tend to be composed of a single mineral crystal, and the larger ones are typically composed of pieces of rock.READ MORE 5.2 Weathering and Erosion. Bedrock refers to the solid rock that makes up the Earth''s outer crust. Weathering is a process that turns bedrock into smaller particles, called sediment. Mechanical weathering includes pressure expansion, frost wedging, root wedging, and salt expansion emical weathering includes carbonic acid and hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation.READ MORE In my detailed descriptions of the tools, I at times will comment on what a particular tool was used for, or on how it may have been made. These details are likely to change over time as I gather more tools and more evidence. I have tried to be careful in wording these descriptions in a way that makes it clear that the descriptions are speculative.READ MORE Phosphatic (rock, grade) Conglomerate: Phosphatic Mixed (grade) Conglomerate: The names in the above chart are root names and should be preceded by appropriate terms for any significant feature of the rock. The proper order is color, structure, grain size (sandstones only), minor constituents, cement, and …READ MORE 50 = mean rock size for which 50% of rocks are smaller [m] d. 90 = rock size for which 90% of rocks are smaller [m] For ''natural'' rock extracted from streambeds the relative roughness (d. 50 /d. 90) is typically in the range 0.2 to 0.5. For quarried rock the ratio is more likely to be in the range 0.5 to 0.8.READ MORE · Carrying away of broken rocks by rain, streams, rivers, and oceans to a distant place from their origin. 6) Deposition. During the carriage of rocks by rivers, the rock particles (mixed with soil) sink and become a layer of sediment. Often the sediments build up and form small accumulations, which over time and pressure turn into sedimentary rock.READ MORE AMC is a specialized company that develops, designs, manufactures and sells large-scale mining machinery and equipment such as cone crushers, jaw crushers, impact crushers, sand making machines, sand washing machines, and feeding and screening machinery. Group"s overseas wholly-owned investment company-China AMC Cameroon Mining Company The company has a modern, high-standard garden-style production park. The heavy-duty industrial production workshop contains various large-scale CNC machining centers, cold work centers, assembly centers, electric hydraulic centers, spraying centers, and storage guarantee centers. The company has a complete product quality system and standardized production management system. All products are designed, produced, assembled and inspected in accordance with international quality system standards, and have successfully passed ISO9001 quality management system, ISO14001 environmental management system and ISO45001 occupational health management system certification . A successful foreign trade company needs not only good talents and organizations, but also good supplier support. Offer advanced and reasonable complete solutions for aggregates & ore processing. China AMC Cameroon Company Sarl (hereinafter referred to as CMCC) has obtained the right to exploit a granite mine with reserves of 33 million tons in the Leboudi II area of Yaoundé. AMC's design team conducted in-depth discussions and exchanges with the engineer team for many times. Through unremitting efforts, various difficulties were finally overcome, and the production line installation, commissioning and operation were completed on schedule, according to quality, quantity, and zero accidents. To ensure that CMCC produces and sells stone materials as scheduled, with an annual output and sales of 8 million tons, it is the largest stone plant in Yaoundé and even Cameroon.contact us At the end of 2020, Dongguan Feiwei Construction Engineering Co., Ltd. plans to establish a high-quality tuff sand and gravel aggregate production line in the Hefei-Zongyang section of the Dezhou-Shangrao Expressway. After many discussions, the AMC design team rushed to the site to design a complete set for the customer. Production line, while guaranteeing to provide the best customer service before, during and after sale.contact us Société Transatlantique Cameroun Sarl (hereinafter as Transatlantique) is mainly engaged in the production and sales of various building stones. In the akak1 area of Yaounde, the capital of Cameroon, Transatlantique has obtained the mining right of a granite mine with reserves of about 12 million tons, producing and selling 1 million tons of stone annually. Through careful calculation and construction, AMC design team overcame all kinds of tests, and finally completed the installation, commissioning and operation of the production line on schedule, And the project meet the requirement of quality, quantity and zero accident.contact us We sincerely welcome you to contact us through the hotline and other instant messaging methods. Whether it's project consultation or feedback, we will serve you in the fastest way and spare no effort to save time for customers. AMC is committed to providing customers with a complete set of quarry and mining development solutions to meet the specific needs of various aspects and bring sustainable profitability to your sand and gravel and other businesses. If the services you need are not listed above, please contact us through online consultation, we will respond to you as soon as possible.

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Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning - LAST REVIEWED: 04 June 2020 - LAST MODIFIED: 28 August 2018 - DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199363445-0099 - LAST REVIEWED: 04 June 2020 - LAST MODIFIED: 28 August 2018 - DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199363445-0099 The design and planning of landscapes is an ancient human activity. The Epic of Gilgamesh described the first recorded urban landscape plan c. 2100 BCE. Intellectuals, builders, priests, royalty, military leaders, poets, slaves, and artists from all over the world have contributed to developing the body of professional knowledge now known as landscape architecture and environmental planning. The practice was formalized in the English-speaking world as landscape gardening in the 17th and 18th centuries. The academic discipline and profession of landscape architecture developed from landscape gardening in the 19th century, as urbanization expanded rapidly. Ideas about the arrangement of landscapes had by that time developed beyond formal geometries to include naturalistic patterns that relied on landscape processes, as well as urban infrastructure and open space systems. Landscape planning emerged as a sub-discipline during this same period of rapid metropolitan expansion, driven by the need to modernize infrastructure and natural resource planning to stabilize human health, safety, and welfare in a spatially extensive urban and industrial metropolitan landscape. Landscape architecture is a synthetic discipline, meaning that it draws on the epistemologies and methods of the arts and humanities as well as the sciences. Academics and practitioners in the field often develop hybrid methods based on practices from the fine arts, historical and political narratives, or scientific theories. They then apply these intellectual and methodological resources to analyze and influence the spatial organization and material design of social activities, land uses, infrastructure, vegetation, watersheds, urban districts, and landscapes within cities. The sub-field known as landscape planning or environmental planning emphasizes the natural, physical, and social sciences as its theoretical base, including studies of human values and decision-making. The primary methods of the discipline involve inventory, representation, or analysis of physical, biological, social, and cultural processes using images, physical models, statistics, narratives, or maps; the use of physical or digital overlay maps to identify areas where changes in land uses can produce conflicts; spatial and temporal strategies that seek to maximize the value of a landscape and its cultural or natural resources, sometimes for specific social groups such as children or people with different physical abilities; and strategies for adaptation to major changes in the social or biophysical environment, such as climate change. The profession became licensed in the United States during the 20th century, tasked with protecting human health, safety, and welfare. Landscape planners proposed parks and other open space systems as national or metropolitan infrastructure with a wide range of aesthetic, social, and environmental goals, including everything from democratic principles and social equity to water quality and biological diversity. In the early 21st century, environmental planners and landscape architects are developing biophysical, social, and aesthetic strategies to enhance human health and quality of life, as well as the health of the environment; to use the beauty of landscapes to inspire and provoke cultural responses; to reveal relationships within social and biophysical environments; to seek to eliminate historic and contemporary social inequalities; to protect important historic resources; to conserve biodiversity and protect or restore ecosystem services; to design infrastructure and urban districts; to mitigate and adapt to climate change; to enhance and protect regional food supply systems; and to design for increased resilience to environmental disasters. General Overview Texts The history of landscape design and environmental planning as broad areas of human activity has been described by two widely read contemporary texts. Rogers 2001 is the better illustrated of the two, and relies on more current historical research. Jellicoe and Jellicoe 1995 (originally published in 1975) is better known to an older generation of practitioners, and often influenced their views of the history of designed landscape. Both texts shift to a focus on the United States in their presentations of 20th-century landscape design and planning. In contrast, Simo 1999 and Walker and Simo 1994 present useful histories of the professional practice of landscape architecture in the United States, identifying schools of thought and changes in professional approaches in the post-WWII era, as the profession adapted to a changing economic context and incorporated new technologies. Several other texts provide a valuable overview of changing ideas that affected both landscape design and landscape planning. Hunt 1992 focuses on the cultural perception of parks and gardens, Schuyler 1986 presents the development of urban park systems as an influence on urban design, and Glacken 1967 describes the long-term history of Western ideas about the relationship between nature and culture. McHarg 1969 presents the author’s version of a widely practiced method of environmental planning using maps in successive overlays, which drew on earlier techniques. Lewis 1996 (cited under Planning and Design: Strategies, Methods, and Materials) presents an overview and history of the environmental planning process the author introduced in the 1960s for greenways and other landscape systems that link urban areas to their larger watershed and regional context, which is broadly representative of the environmental planning methods that were used in the United States before the advent of digital geographic information systems (GIS) in the 1990s. Steinitz 2012 presents the methods of environmental planning as a strategic process of influencing complex decision-making for large landscapes, updated to reflect the current use of GIS data and methods. Spirn 1984 is one of the most widely read texts on landscape architecture and planning as a form of urban design using knowledge of natural processes and spatial strategy. Hough 2004 (also first published in 1984) identifies the main spatial and ethical concepts that emerged from the author’s study of interactions between natural and social processes in cities. Spirn is more concerned with methods and strategies that influenced actual professional practice, and Hough shares more general observations with specific instances that illustrate the need for an ecological framework that can guide design and planning. A more contemporary version of their approach is evident in Yu and Padua 2006, which describes Yu’s philosophy and practice of ecological design and planning as an influential landscape architect and environmental planner in China. Glacken, Clarence J. 1967. Traces on the Rhodian shore: Nature and culture in Western thought from ancient times to the end of the eighteenth century. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. This book was one of the first to compile a sweeping range of references into a historical narrative context describing human perceptions of, and interactions with, the environment. It uses so many primary sources that it continues to be valuable, although new research and attitudes might cause readers to question some of the author’s interpretations. Suitable for any reader who appreciates a densely referenced text. Hough, Michael. 2004. Cities and natural process: A basis for sustainability. 2d ed. London and New York: Routledge. Originally published in 1984, this book presents some important concepts that underlie the application of natural processes to planning and design, with an emphasis on waterways. It is more concerned with ethics than with history, and is suitable for undergraduates or other readers new to the topic. The book has more of an emphasis on community and environmental planning practice than on theory. Hunt, John Dixon. 1992. Gardens and the picturesque: Studies in the history of landscape architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. This book deals with public parks and gardens of the 17th–19th centuries, treating them as texts to be read and interpreted using ideas from the leading thinkers of the time. Hunt applies the methods of art history to consider the contemporary meaning of the elements and spatial patterns of these landscapes. Complex, suitable for advanced undergraduate and graduate students with some previous knowledge of landscape design. Jellicoe, Geoffrey, and Susan Jellicoe. 1995. The landscape of man: Shaping the environment from prehistory to the present day. New York: Thames and Hudson. First published in 1975, this text preceded Rogers 2001 as the introductory text in the discipline. It is well-illustrated, and it covers examples from the ancient world up to the 20th century, but will come across as slightly out of date to contemporary readers in terms of the historical research it relies upon as context. McHarg, Ian. 1969. Design with nature. 1st ed. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press. This is a classic text in environmental planning. McHarg became famous internationally for inventing and promoting a robust method that used transparent map overlays to identify areas that should not be developed, based on the value of existing natural processes and patterns, before computer mapping tools were available. The text lays out his philosophy of planning in relation to dynamic natural processes and human health, as well as the health of the environment. Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. 2001. Landscape design: A cultural and architectural history. New York: Harry N. Abrams. This is the single most comprehensive, up-to-date overview of the activities of landscape design and planning, from ancient times all over the world to contemporary practice in the United States. It is very well-illustrated, and suitable as a text for undergraduates or people at any level of education who would like to know more about the antecedents and development of contemporary landscape architecture. Schuyler, David. 1986. The new urban landscape: The redefinition of city form in nineteenth-century America. New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Schuyler positions the design and planning of parks in the 19th century as an activity that transformed the concept of what a city could and should be in the United States. Carefully referenced, with detailed examples, the book is important because of the influence American park systems have had on cities elsewhere in the world. Likely to appeal to graduate students and professionals with a background in American history generally, or the history of American landscapes specifically. Simo, Melanie Louise. 1999. 100 years of landscape architecture: Some patterns of a century. Washington, DC: ASLA Press. Written for the hundredth anniversary of the American Society of Landscape Architects, this book uses one hundred landmark American projects to articulate the history and influences of individual landscape architecture practices in the United States. Spirn, Anne. 1984. The granite garden: Urban nature and human design. New York: Basic Books. This book was widely read in the 1980s and 1990s. It examines the recent influence of historical perceptions and ideas about cities and nature, using the technical approaches used by environmental planners to estimate flood risks and wind flows, among other dynamics. The book succeeds in making these dynamics engaging and accessible. Suitable for readers at all levels. Steinitz, Carl. 2012. A framework for GeoDesign: Changing geography by design. Redlands, CA: ESRI. Steinitz developed a framework for theory and methods over thirty years of teaching that is uniquely useful, because it provides the basis for both designing a planning process and critiquing plans. This work could be described as the most broadly applicable framework for environmental planning in the literature of the field. First published in 1990, this book develops the framework more thoroughly and for readers from other fields. Suitable for use with graduate students, and in actual planning exercises with professionals across multiple disciplines. Walker, Peter, and Melanie Louise Simo. 1994. Invisible gardens: The search for modernism in the American landscape. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Peter Walker is one of the most experienced practitioners in the United States, who has worked on urban sites all over the world. Writing with Melanie Simo, the two crafted a book that explores changes in American landscape architecture from the inside. Most suitable for people with some knowledge of the field, who want to consider the last sixty years of change during the Modern period affecting architecture and the arts. Yu, Kongjian, and Mary Padua. 2006. The art of survival: Recovering landscape architecture. Mulgrave, Australia: Images Publishing Group. Kongjian Yu is one of the best-known Chinese landscape architects. He began his career as an environmental planner, with a focus on identifying ecological infrastructure (what he called “security patterns”). He later became a designer focused on the articulation of form at the site scale, but continues to be engaged with ecological processes. The book is engaging, and presents his historical and philosophical positions on the discipline, using his firm’s projects as examples. Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. 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Chlorella, a single-celled, micro-algae, is one of the most powerful detoxification tools to eliminate accumulated toxins, including mercury, in your body. Body fat accumulates 10 to 100 times more toxins than your blood. One of the best ways to remove these toxins include detoxifying foods like high quality whey protein concentrate that has the precursors for glutathione, exercise, and using an infrared sauna. Whole chlorella is completely indigestible, so in order to work as a detoxifyer, its cell wall must be broken during manufacturing process. Chlorella also contains complete proteins, so vegans and vegetarians can use it to enhance their B vitamin and protein intake. By Dr. Mercola Have you noticed that practically every day a new story comes out in the media about the toxic side effects of living in the modern world? Chemical and heavy metal dangers seem to be lurking everywhere you turn in the 21st century! Pesticides coat much of our fresh food supply, chemical by-products from manufacturing are routinely dumped into our air and water, and mercury amalgam fillings in your teeth may be releasing mercury into your body with every bite of food you take! The seafood in our oceans are laden with heavy metals and mercury and pass these poisons up the food chain until potentially massive doses of both wind up on your dinner plate disguised as a healthy meal. Underground water supplies have been tainted by chemical and pesticide run off from farms, factories and high technology industries. In fact, acceptable levels of many poisons are allowed to come into your home through your drinking and bathing water, including fluoride, chlorine and low levels of many heavy metals. It doesn’t take much imagination to see that your body too is under attack from environmental pollution every single day. You can seek to protect yourself and combat this hazard by eating foods that are free of pesticides and chemicals, but you simply cannot entirely remove all sources of toxins from your environment. The damage to our world is just too widespread and pervasive. You have to take it upon yourself to take measures to protect yourself and your family from this toxic world, and one of the best natural sources for moving these toxic materials out of your body is a whole-food based, green algae called chlorella. How Can You Fight Systemic Pollution? To address the harmful and unwanted chemicals your body picks up through the food you eat, the air you breathe, and the water you drink, it is wise to develop a proactive plan. One of the most powerful parts of this plan is detoxification of the toxins you may have already built up inside your body. Your body is naturally able to remove many of the harmful pathogens, chemicals and poisons you may come into contact with in the environment. That’s how we are all designed. But in the 21st century, we’re seeing an explosion of accumulated toxin-related diseases like cancer, auto-immune dysfunction, brain disorders like autism, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, nerve disorders and more common ailments like depression, learning disabilities and fatigue. It can become relatively easy to overwhelm your body’s ability to remove many of these toxins. Symptoms of toxic build-up due to chronic metal exposure include: Digestive distress, and reduced ability to properly assimilate and utilize fats Impaired blood sugar regulation Female reproductive problems Mercury is also a potent toxin in its own right that can damage your brain, central nervous system and kidneys, and is especially dangerous for children, fetuses, pregnant and nursing women and people who have high levels of mercury bioburden. So it clearly pays dividends to detoxify your body of the accumulated toxins built up, to get yourself to a healthier state where your body can more effectively remove the toxins you’re exposed to every day. There are ten to 100 times more toxins in your fat than in your blood, so one of the best ways to remove toxins is to decrease your body fat. That really is your first defense. Choosing the right foods and exercise are key here. After that, one of the most effective detoxification strategies I know of is the use of an infrared sauna. This can be done for about one hour daily for a month. Remember, it’s important to hydrate well before and during the sauna treatment to avoid dehydration. Additionally, you can exercise for 30-60 minutes immediately prior to help liberate some of the toxins from your fat. Some clinicians have also found the use of NON timed release niacin useful, as it helps liberate toxins from the fat. However, relatively high doses of 5,000 mg are needed. These high doses need to be slowly worked up to as niacin will cause flushing. However, about one fourth of people are simply unable to tolerate the niacin flush. Please avoid timed release niacin as it can potentially lead to chemical hepatitis. Chlorella as a Powerful Detoxification Tool One of the most exciting nutritional resources available today to help your body naturally fight environmental pollution is a whole-food based supplement called chlorella. Chlorella is actually one of the most widely used supplements in Japan, where over 10 million people use it regularly. The Japanese use of chlorella is more widespread than the North American use of vitamin C, our most popular supplement. Do the Japanese know something we don’t? One of the reasons the Japanese value chlorella so highly is its natural detoxification abilities. Chlorella is a “green food,” a single-celled, micro-algae that is about two to ten microns in size. It’s very small. It is this small size combined with its unique properties that make it such a useful detoxification tool. Its molecular structure, allows it to bond to metals, chemicals and some pesticides. When chlorella is taken into your body, its natural action will bind it to lingering heavy metals, chemicals and pesticides found in your digestive tract, which is your body’s pathway to your bloodstream where these harmful toxins are delivered and deposited into your body’s cells. So chlorella first and foremost will help your body eliminate unwanted metals and toxins. But it does more than that. Chlorella is uniquely designed to not bind to the minerals your body naturally needs to function optimally. It does not bind to beneficial minerals like calcium, magnesium, or zinc. It’s almost as if chlorella knows which metals belong in your body and which chemicals need to be removed. Supplementing with chlorella is like unleashing a tiny army inside your body to fight the battle of removing toxins from your tissues and ushering them back outside your body where they belong. The History of Chlorella Chlorella is one of the most widely studied food supplements in the world. Aside from being the subject of medical research in the USA, USSR, Germany, Japan, France, England and Israel, chlorella has been extensively studied as a food source since it is made up of a whopping 50 percent protein and is considered a complete amino acid-based food. Even NASA has studied using chlorella as the one of first whole foods in space on the international space station! Studies in Japan have shown chlorella may help reduce body fat percentage and may be useful in fighting obesity and weight related diabetes. It may also help reduce both cholesterol and hypertension. Chlorella’s cleansing action on your bowel and other elimination channels, as well as its protection of your liver, also helps promote clean blood. And clean blood helps assure metabolic waste get efficiently carried away from your tissues. Chlorella is such a powerful detoxifier because it is rich in chlorophyll, which is known to: Aid you in processing more oxygen Cleanse key elimination systems like your bowel, liver, and blood Help purify your blood and clean away toxins Aid you in promoting optimal blood pressure Support elimination of molds in your body Help neutralize bad air you might breathe in Promote growth and repair of your tissues Chlorella is actually very useful even beyond detoxification, and its range of health benefits includes: Boosting your immune system Improving your digestion, especially if constipation is a problem Providing B vitamins from an animal source Enhancing your ability to focus and concentrate Increasing your energy levels Balancing your body’s pH Normalizing your blood sugar and blood pressure Reducing your cancer risk Freshening your breath A three-year double-blind metal detoxification study with over 350 people participating was undertaken at a Russian metal foundry, where more than 20 natural compounds were used in trials to remove heavy metals from people who had been exposed at very high levels to four main metals — antimony, lead, cadmium and arsenic. What were the results of testing chlorella as a heavy metal detoxification agent? The Russian trial using Broken Cell Wall chlorella combined with cilantro eliminated ALL heavy metals, including mercury! With no reported side-effects! In fact, the heavy metal binding power of chlorella was first discovered in the mining industry. Mixed with water, they pumped chlorella into mine shafts to collect the residual metals after bulk mining was completed. Not All Chlorella is Created Equal Unlike many food supplements, chlorella has one unique feature that makes the manufacturing process one of the primary concerns when considering a source of supplementation. Chlorella is completely indigestible by humans. We simply do not have the enzymes to break down its cell wall. Unlike other green foods, chewing and digesting chlorella will not release the powerful health benefits contained within this green algae. This is because chlorella’s tough outer cell wall, which is also chemically responsible for binding with the toxins inside your body, cannot be broken down by your biology, Therefore, it is imperative that the manufacturing process break down the tough outer cell wall for you, as this is the only way to make the chlorella biologically available to remove toxins from your body. This is why I only recommend supplementing with Broken Cell Wall chlorella, because this is the only form that allows your body to use this powerful detoxification agent. Another concern when choosing your chlorella is to be sure that the source waters where it is grown and harvested are free of any contamination. Since chlorella is a natural green food, it will be affected by polluted water and will retain environmental toxins if it’s grown in contaminated waters. So be certain any chlorella you supplement with comes from a naturally clean water source. One other aspect of chlorella you need to be aware of is some people tolerate it better than others. You should always start any detox with chlorella gradually, taking just a small amount at first to see how your body tolerates this powerful detoxification tool. Some people also report benefits from beginning a detoxification by first eating small amounts of cilantro for a few days. Cilantro also promotes a detoxification response in your body, but at a less intense level — which may help your body ease into a smoother detoxification response from chlorella. The best results of using broken cell wall chlorella for detoxification have also been documented as coming from mixing chlorella with the green plant cilantro, so this might be another consideration for you when undertaking your detoxification program. I recommend finding an organic source of cilantro, to insure you are not putting more unwanted chemicals into your body as you try to detoxify your body’s already existing heavy metal burden. Too Much Iron? One other thing to be aware of when using chlorella is that this green algae does contain large concentrations of iron. Iron levels in women should not be a problem due to the loss of iron related to the menstrual cycle, but for men, or postmenopausal women, excessive iron can become a problem. So for men using chlorella, you want to have your blood iron levels checked regularly to ensure the iron in your blood is staying within healthy levels. The simple best screen is ferritin. Ideally it should be between 20 and 80 ng/ml. Levels over 150 or higher become problematic and should be treated by blood donations or therapeutic phlebotomies. Chlorella for Vegetarians and Vegans Chlorella is also a great source of complete amino acid protein, and is made up of 50 percent protein. So vegans and vegetarians can benefit not only from the detoxification properties of chlorella, but can also enhance their B vitamin and protein intake as well through chlorella supplementation. Many claim that it can also be a useful source of vitamin B12. While chlorella does contain this vitamin, most people develop deficiencies because they lose the ability to absorb it. So swallowing it will not provide the same benefit as injecting it or using it in a sublingual drop or spray. To the best of my knowledge, chlorella is not an effective alternative to animal sources of vitamin B12 which can be an issue for vegans. Final Thoughts on Chlorella Sometimes living in the modern world can feel like you’re at war with the environment around you, and sources of pollution are often silent and unavoidable. You can do your best to avoid pollution and toxins, eat only the healthiest organic foods, drink only filtered water, avoid exposure to harsh man-made chemicals, and yet still find yourself exposed daily to massive amounts of harmful pollutants that are totally outside of your control. Maintaining optimum wellness includes creating defensive mechanisms to fight back against these pervasive and unavoidable environmental assaults on your good health. By implementing a detoxification program now you can help your body naturally remove the unwanted and harmful heavy metals, chemicals and pesticides you may unknowingly taken into your body. And lessening your toxic burden has been shown to improve many common health ailments, from lack of energy and insomnia, to sluggish digestion, lack of immune response and mental fatigue. In fact, almost everything inside your body, including all of your organs, function better with reduced loads of systemic toxins. And by removing the toxins now and not letting them accumulate to dangerous levels, you may be helping your body ward of such killers as cancer, diabetes, and hypertension, along with all of the now too common neurological disorders that may not manifest for decades to come. Just remember to start slowly, perhaps using cilantro first, and gradually increase your intake of chlorella at a pace your body can tolerate. It took a long time for your body to accumulate these toxins and it will probably take you many weeks and even months to effectively remove them from your system. So if you experience any indigestion or discomfort from chlorella supplements, you’re probably taking too much too fast. It will be crucial to lower your body fat as low as possible as this will remove large amounts of toxins from your body that are stored there. You can also use the infrared sauna in conjunction with exercise and niacin as described above. Be patient, stick with chlorella supplementation, and in a few weeks you’ll most likely begin to notice an overall improvement in your health as you naturally start to remove these heavy metals, chemicals and pesticides from your body.

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A battery is a common but essential component of any car’s electrical system, yet most people don’t know the answer to the question: How long should a car battery last? While today’s modern vehicles have come a long way in technology, when it comes to the battery under the hood most cars and trucks still use a common lead-acid battery. So, while the short answer to the question of battery life is, on average, about five years, there are other factors that come into play. A car battery life is mostly affected by its surrounding climatic conditions, including temperature. Most importantly, the “five years” answer to the question of how long should a car battery last is just an average. So, this doesn’t necessarily mean that right at the five-year mark of a battery’s life it will suddenly stop working. Nor does it mean that a battery can’t fail before five years, or won’t last well beyond five years. Automotive experts have varying ranges of a vehicle’s battery life. Some will give a range of four to six years, while others might say six to eight years. The key thing to remember regarding battery life is that, while a battery can (and does) fail suddenly, it has typically been losing power over time leading up to its eventual failure. Most vehicle batteries will not have the same power after five or six years that they did when they were first manufactured. The biggest mistake most car owners make about their battery is simple neglect. This is why most people don’t even think about their vehicle’s battery until they’re stranded on the side of the road, or can’t start their car on a cold morning. Many people might think that their battery life is infinite, or if they have a vehicle under ten years old they shouldn’t have to worry about their battery. So, the answer to the original question of how long should a car battery last is certainly NOT “forever,” or “as long as I own my car,” or even “at least ten years.” Environmental conditions also play a role in your battery life. Extreme humidity or dryness, heat, cold will all have adverse effects on the life of a car battery. Someone living near Death Valley California should be more proactive about checking their car battery more than someone in Texas. Both places can be hot, but one is more extreme. Also, batteries tend to last longer in cooler climates than those that are warmer or more humid. So, someone living in Michigan might see a longer battery life than someone in Georgia or Florida. Yet, even Michigan won’t get as cold as North Dakota or Alaska. The best rule is to consider your climate: The more extreme, the more often the car battery should be checked. Table of Contents Battery testers: The Proper Way To Use Them A battery load tester is an electronic device built for the sole purpose of determining the state of an electric battery. The testers answer a variety of questions that many users would like to know such as whether the battery is fully charged, has any deterioration in the battery’s performance occurred since its purchase, whether all the terminals on the battery are functional, whether the battery is affected by interference or electrical noise and the quantity of charge present in the battery at a given time. Although the answers to these questions are not always straight forward, a battery tester enables us to get a better picture of the state of our batteries than we would using other devices. To determine how much charge is left in your car battery you’ll need a voltmeter or a multimeter battery load tester. For this article purpose we’ll use the example of a multimeter. You can choose between a digital or an analog battery tester. A digital battery tester is more preferred since it is more accurate. With these device you won’t be required to figure out where the needle is sitting on to determine the voltage. Once obtained, start by turning the car ignition off. Ensure the vehicle lights are also off. Hold the battery tester probes in each hand and connect the positive test probe to the positive terminal of the battery. The battery’s positive terminal will be indicated with a plus sign. The cable that links up to this terminal is almost always red. Afterwards, connect the negative test probe to the negative terminal of the battery. The negative battery terminal will be indicated with a negative sign. Be very careful not to mix up the probes as you might end up frying your battery load tester. Take the reading and compare. A voltage reading of 12.66 indicates a full charge. 12.45 indicates a charge is three quarters full, 12.24 represent a half full battery. Any reading of 11.89 voltage or less indicates an empty or a faulty battery. Here are a few important guidelines to remember when you use a battery tester – Ensure the tester and battery terminals are clean. It’s essential the terminals are clean to produce a meaningful result. Dirt or any other substances such as corrosion might inhibit the flow of charge leading to a false reading. – Check for possible external damage. A broken or lose terminal can be dangerous and cause a short circuit. If there is a bulge in the battery it’s usually a sign the battery has been overcharged. This can be dangerous as sulfuric acid from the battery can leak and cause you harm as you go about the testing process. – Allow the battery load tester probes to cool down for two to three minutes especially if you’re testing multiple batteries. The tester probes tend to become hot when in use due to the charge flowing through them and the heat from the environment of the car. – Never hold the tester probes for more than fifteen seconds when performing a test on your battery. In most cases this will cause irreparable damage to your multimeter or any other tester that you’re currently using. If you’re not sure about something check out more posts on this blog or consult your battery tester manual. They usually come with detailed instructions on how best to conduct tests using them. If you are anything like, me your car is your unsung best friend. It goes everywhere with you, has hosted some of your best memories, hangs out with you even when you don’t treat it well and embarrasses you occasionally. Chances are those embarrassing moments are fallouts of heartbreaks you caused knowingly or otherwise. And the battery is the closest thing to a heart that your car has With your car battery tester handy, you can maintain a healthy heartbeat all year round and enjoy the best of adventures. This is without a doubt the loneliest season for your car. At the very best, it spends the nights in the cold garage after a day of intense cardio, powering fog and glare lights, rear window heaters and windshield wipers. These are your battery’s most vulnerable moments. You spend those extra minutes waiting for a late buddy in your car, with systems running on an idle engine. You are also more likely to leave doors and trunks half-closed as you rush to escape the cold. The higher load increases the tendency for your battery to discharge. Turning the cold chemicals in your battery on takes more cajoling than usual. Considering this, your car battery tester should work more often in winter than any other season, advisably every two weeks. Also, to avoid running the car on idle for heating, raise the temperature for a few minutes and shut off the power totally. If you plan a full car hibernation, you would find good use for a battery tender, which keeps your idle battery with enough charge to get it through the lonely winter. The cold also increases the potential for cracks in the battery’s internal components. Frequent charge tests would reveal any hidden problems. With spring comes the thawing of condensed and frozen water from winter, increasing the likelihood of corrosion at the battery contacts. Ice between connections may also have caused ring-type contacts to expand, causing potential loss of contact in transition. For some car models, light sensors may also have piled on so much smog that your lights stay on when they shouldn’t. Just put a little battery love into your spring cleaning routine, applying some dielectric to contacts, cleaning open sensors and vacuuming interiors to minimize humidity and the need for air-conditioning. With the warmth of summer comes sweatier hangouts and the increased evaporation of fluids from your car battery. In addition to getting your battery tester busy, ensure to have your electrolytes checked at least halfway through summer. Running your sound system at full blast could also combine with the higher cooling load to strain your battery when the alternator’s capacity is exceeded. To manage this, alternate periods of peak and non-peak use effectively. And before you know it, fall is back around. Make the most of this period to prepare for the cold winter. With the heat of summer may have come the dislodgement of internal sensors that throw crazy signals through your electrical system. Ensure you get those checked out if your dashboard indicates them or you notice anything unusual. In addition, if your battery is already past the AA-recommended average car battery life of 3.5 years, this would be a good time to consider a replacement. To be safe, most vehicle batteries should begin being checked when the battery is three years old. Car batteries have a manufactures stamp on them to show when they were made, so regardless if the vehicle is purchased new or used it’s the age of the battery itself that needs to be considered. Simply adding a vehicle’s battery to a routine maintenance checklist can go a long way toward knowing when a battery is starting to fail. Having a car battery checked while having the oil changed, or other routine vehicle service performed, is a good rule of thumb to protect against sudden battery failure.

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Safety / Injuries Subscribe for more content A 3-Step Approach to Improve Ankle Mobility Reading Time: 6 minutes 14 seconds As a personal trainer, you spend your days helping clients build muscle and lose fat. Yet, improving mobility in the joints is just as important. This is especially true when it comes to the ankle. Why Ankle Joint Mobility Is Important Think about all of the exercises you recommend for your clients. For exercises that require the use of the ankle, a good range of motion is needed to support the body’s movements. This motion typically involves engaging in plantar flexion movements or dorsiflexion movements. Plantar flexion occurs when pointing the toes down toward the floor. Dorsiflexion refers to pulling the toes upward, as if lifting them toward the sky. Both of these are difficult to do with a stiff ankle. The force on the ankles varies based on the activity performed. When the client is walking, for instance, the ankle sustains five times the person’s body weight. If the client runs for improved fitness, this force is increased to 13 times their weight. Even if this joint is in a static position, it still provides some level of support for the rest of the body. Tight ankles can also hinder sports performance. For example, a 2015 study looked at ankle mobility and squat depth. After studying 101 subjects, it was determined that ankle dorsiflexion mobility was “significantly associated” with better squat performance. Including mobility exercises in your client’s workouts also helps reduce their risk of ankle injury. A strong ankle is less susceptible to sprains and strains. Poor plantar flexion and dorsiflexion can impact the rest of the body as well. Dysfunction can cause pain that extends into the lower leg, knee, hips, and more. Causes of Poor Ankle Mobility Limited ankle mobility can be caused by a number of factors. The first is genetics. Research indicates that individuals with certain risk alleles, alternative forms of a gene, are more like to experience an injury. As noted in the research, those with risk allele chr21:47156779:D are 1.86 times more likely to suffer an ankle injury, and the risk allele rs13286037 is associated with 1.58 times greater risk of injury. Other studies have connected poor ankle movement with: - gender and age – young females tend to have better ankle range of motion than young males while older males often have better ankle range of motion than older females - presence of disease – conditions such as osteoarthritis can reduce ankle mobility - biomechanical dysfunctions – movement-related dysfunction can increase risk of ankle sprain and other types of injury Poor ankle mobility can also be caused by the strength of surrounding muscles. According to a 2017 study, ankle dorsiflexion strength is linked to dorsiflexion range of motion. It is also moderately correlated to strength of the first toe flexor muscle. Stanford Health Care adds that bone spurs, scar tissue, and soft tissue inflammation can all lead to bad ankle mobility. This is called anterior ankle impingement, or footballer’s ankle, but its effects can be felt in a variety of additional sports. Symptoms typically include pain and reduced range of motion. Sometimes poor ankle mobility is a result of training too hard. This type of overtraining injury appears via pain and discomfort in this joint. Other times, ankle mobility declines due to regular training and competition. A February 2020 study looked at ankle dorsiflexion in 40 professional football players. They found that dorsiflexion range of motion was greatest pre-season, decreasing mid- and post-season. Range of motion also decreased 48 hours after a match, placing players at increased risk of an injury to this joint. How Do You Know If Ankle Mobility Issues Exist? Research shows that a normal range of motion for ankle dorsiflexion is somewhere between 10 and 20 degrees. Average plantar flexion is 40 to 55 degrees. If your client has trouble with these angles, ankle mobility may be restricted. Pain is another indicator that ankle mobility may be an issue. This pain may occur when flexing the foot up or down. It’s important to note that sometimes this pain is a result of other foot injuries. For example, plantar fasciitis—which is a swelling or irritation to the plantar fascia ligament on the bottom of the foot—can cause pain to radiate to the ankle. For this reason, if the client is experiencing chronic or consistent ankle pain, they should see their physician to find the cause. If your client’s heels come off the ground when they perform a squat, this is another sign that mobility may be hindered. There’s also a test you can have them do to check their ankle range of motion. Have your client stand so their big toe is roughly two inches from the wall. Keeping their heel on the floor, ask them to bend their knee and try to make contact with the wall. If this causes pain or they report tension in their ankle or calf muscle, there is limited mobility in their ankle joint. A 3-Step Approach to Improving Ankle Mobility Helping clients achieve good ankle mobility involves following a 3-step approach that includes strength training exercises, stretching, and ankle mobility drills. Step 1: Strength Exercises that Improve Ankle Mobility There are a number of mobility exercises that can help strengthen this joint. Strength-based ankle exercises to consider including in your client’s workout regimen include: - Heel lifts. While standing, have the client lift their heels off the ground. - Toe raises/heel drops. This ankle mobility exercise is performed while standing on a step and involves alternating between rising up on the toes and letting the heels drop toward the ground. - Toe/heel walks. Have the client walk a specific distance entirely on their toes. Ask them to walk the same length back, this time on their heels. - Lunge. Performing a lunge while staying in place (static lunge) helps improve ankle mobility. Walking lunges are beneficial as well. - Overhead squat. This total body squat strengthens mobility in a variety of joints. In addition to the ankle, this includes the knee, hip, and shoulder joints too. - Ankle flexion exercises. Clients can improve ankle mobility by doing both plantar ankle flexion exercises and dorsiflexion ankle exercises. Have them use resistance bands for even better effects. Step 2: Stretches for Increased Ankle Flexibility Researchers from Australia’s Queensland University of Technology conducted a review of 23 ankle dorsiflexion studies. Together, these studies included 734 participants. Based on the findings, they determined that static stretching helps improve ankle joint dorsiflexion range of motion. What are the best stretches to improve ankle mobility? - Big toe stretch. Clients can do this stretch in a sitting or standing position. It involves bending the toes up and back until you feel a stretch along the plantar fascia muscle. - Toe-wall stretch. For this one, you stand with the top of your foot against the wall, toes pointing toward the ceiling. With the heel resting on the floor, shift your body forward to stretch the ankle. - Ankle circles. This exercise involves rotating the ankle joint in circles. Alternate between clockwise and counterclockwise movements. - Ankle end-range isometric stretch. Have the client place one knee on the ground with the other knee bent so they are in a semi-kneeling position. Lean forward so the knee hovers above the toes and push that foot into the ground. This helps stretch the ankle. Step 3: Ankle Mobility Drills to Include in Your Workouts The third piece of an exercise program that improves ankle function is mobility drills. These are movements that don’t fall into the category of strength training or stretching. Often, these drills can be incorporated in the cardio portion of your client’s program. Ankle jumps and single-leg hops are two mobility exercises that help improve poor dorsiflexion. These can be suggested on their own, or they can be performed in conjunction with other movements. For example, clients could transition from a squat into ankle jumps, providing a full-body workout. Improving Ankle Mobility After an Injury If the client has injured their ankle, caution must be used when improving ankle mobility. If the area still has pain or the injury was recent, they should first obtain permission from their doctor. Once that is received, corrective exercises can help build and strengthen this joint. For example, if the client has sustained an ankle tendon injury, have them write the alphabet with their toes. This gets the ankle moving in all directions, improving overall range of motion. If the ankle has been fused, replace a jumping mobility drill with more static movements instead. This helps strengthen the ankle without placing undue pressure on it. If the client has knee pain along with limited ankle mobility, leg lifts with the foot pointed and then flexed can help improve function. Foam rolling post-ankle injury also helps improve blood flow to the area. Simply rub the foam roller against the top of the ankle. You can use it on tight calves as well, helping the ankle and foot to relax. To learn more about what type of exercises are helpful to clients experiencing muscle or movement limitations, the ISSA offers a Corrective Exercise Specialist Certification. In this course, you will learn some of the most common dysfunctions, as well as which exercises help improve movement. It also teaches you how to help your clients restore their structural alignment. Corrective Exercise Specialist The ISSA's Corrective Exercise Course will help you learn how to identify and correct the most common movement dysfunctions that you are likely to see in a wide range of clients, from the weekend warrior to the serious athlete. Both health care professionals and certified personal trainers can benefit from this distance education course, learning more about how people move incorrectly and how to guide them to correct those dysfunctions. Please note: The information provided in this course is for general educational purposes only. The material is not a substitute for consultation with a healthcare provider regarding particular medical conditions and needs.

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- 1 Diabetes and Pregnancy - 2 Planning Pregnancy While Already Diabetic - 3 Pregnancy & Gestational Diabetes - 4 Managing Diabetes During Pregnancy - 5 Diabetes, Pregnancy & Baby Monitoring - 6 Diabetes Tests During Pregnancy - 7 FAQs: - 8 References: Pregnancy is the best gift a woman expects in her life. A woman goes through various transformations physically and mentally during pregnancy. Managing all these changes requires a positive attitude and a healthy body. But what if a woman is already diabetic? Should she go ahead with pregnancy or should she be worried about it? What if a woman develops diabetes during pregnancy? Read this article to know more about effects of diabetes on pregnancy. Diabetes and Pregnancy Diabetes is a condition when the blood glucose levels are not normal. It is due to the body being resistant to insulin or due to deficiency of insulin. As a result, blood glucose levels are high. High blood glucose levels can damage nerves, and vessels, and can impact the eyes, heart, and kidney. But what if a Woman is diabetic and is pregnant? Researches have proved that diabetes does affect both woman and child during pregnancy. Moreover, a healthy woman may become diabetic during pregnancy that may cause trouble during her pregnancy. Thus, proper care must be taken during pregnancy if you are already diabetic. Ideal Blood Glucose Levels During Pregnancy For most pregnant women with diabetes the ideal blood glucose levels should be within the following range: - Overnight fast or at bedtime: 90 mg/dL - After 1 hour of eating: 130 mg/dL to 140 mg/dL - 2 hours after eating: less than 120 mg/dL . Therefore, a woman must maintain these above sugar levels in pregnancy to avoid any complications of diabetes in pregnancy. Effects of Diabetic Pregnancy on the Fetus and Newborn Birth Defects Due to Diabetes: The first eight weeks of pregnancy is crucial for baby development. Especially, the key organs like the brain, heart, kidney, and lungs start developing in the first eight weeks. In such a situation, a high blood sugar level can be dangerous to the baby’s organ development. Thus, high blood sugar levels due to diabetes can cause birth defects, heart defects, brain or spinal cord defects in the newborn. Fetal Death: Due to poor circulation, high blood pressure, nerve and vessel damage due to diabetes, the growth of the baby in the womb may be slow. This can cause the death of the baby in the uterus. Macrosomia: It is a medical condition wherein the baby is larger than normal size. When the mother suffers from a high blood sugar condition, the baby in the womb makes more insulin to use this high sugar. This causes fat accumulation and the growth of the baby. Thus, the baby size is more than the normal size. This can cause injury during pregnancy to the mother. It is also responsible for early birth. Newborn with Breathing Problems: With more insulin and glucose in the blood, the lungs of the baby are not developed fully. Such babies likely suffer from breathing issues and are generally born in 37 weeks of pregnancy. Hypoglycemia Attack: Due to high blood sugar levels in the womb, the baby has a high content of insulin in the body. After birth, the high insulin content remains the same, but the glucose levels are normal. This causes low glucose levels leading to Hypoglycaemia. In some cases, the newborns may have hypoglycaemic attacks and seizures. Diabetes can cause breathing issues, overweight, hypoglycaemic attack in new-born and can lead to birth defects or fetal deaths. Effects of Diabetes During Pregnancy on the Pregnant Women Kidney problems: High blood sugar due to diabetes may be dangerous during pregnancy especially for the kidney. With hormonal changes, the ketone levels in the blood and urine may go high. These if left untreated can cause diabetes ketoacidosis and other kidney-related issues. Preeclampsia: This is a life-threatening medical problem for pregnant women and the baby. With too much protein due to weight gain, high blood pressure, and high blood glucose levels. It can cause seizures, eclampsia and can be fatal. It begins in 20 weeks of pregnancy. To avoid complications the delivery is carried out by 37 weeks. Eye problem: Due to high blood glucose levels there might be chances of eye or vision problems. Diabetes can cause damage to the eye, kidney, and other organs of the woman. It can cause a life-threatening condition of preeclampsia. Planning Pregnancy While Already Diabetic You should consult your diabetes practitioner at least six months in advance, before aiming for pregnancy. It is highly essential to maintain healthy blood glucose levels before pregnancy. Thus, the diabetic practitioner shall give necessary guidance, diet regulations, medicines, and supplements that control the blood sugar levels opt for pregnancy. Regular monitoring should be carried out to ensure the blood glucose levels are properly maintained. Pregnancy & Gestational Diabetes What is it? Some women, who have no history of diabetes in their life, can turn out to have diabetes during pregnancy. The cause of gestational diabetes is mainly due to weight gain and hormonal change during pregnancy. Thus, during pregnancy sometimes your blood sugar levels may fluctuate from normal. Moreover, your body may not respond to insulin or fails to produce insulin than what is required. As a result, blood sugar levels may go high causing gestational diabetes mellitus. It usually happens in the second half of pregnancy. Pregnancy diabetes can affect both women and the baby in the same ways as diabetes affects them. The leading gestational diabetes causes are as follows: - It occurs due to the hormonal change of pregnancy. - When the blood sugar levels during pregnancy are not controlled properly it can lead to gestational diabetes. - Poor lifestyle, bad eating habits during pregnancy can fluctuate blood sugar levels. - Being overweight and having a family history of type- 1 or type-2 diabetes. - Poly-ovarian cyst syndrome and other mensuration problems. In most cases, gestational diabetes has no clear symptoms but if you notice one of them then you should contact your doctor as soon as possible: - Feeling thirsty more than usual. - Frequent urination. - Excessive hunger - Feeling tired and fatigue Some Warning Gestational Diabetes Symptoms - Having a blurry vision - Excessive feeling of thirstiness - Skin infection and fungal infections Signs and symptoms of gestational diabetes include excessive thirst, fatigue, frequent urination, skin infection, and sugar in the urine. Effect of Gestational Diabetes on Pregnancy The gestational diabetes complications are similar to the effects of diabetes on pregnant women and the baby. Thus these are as follows: - Birth defects. Defects in the heart, kidney, or lungs of the baby. - Fetal death or miscarriage - Macrosomia. Having an extra-large baby. - Breathing issues in the newborn. This happens due to poor lung development. - Hypoglycemia attack in the newborn. - Kidney problems in women. High blood pressure, high sugar, and high ketones can cause renal damage and diabetic ketoacidosis. - Preeclampsia. A serious condition when high blood pressure can cause seizures and early birth deliveries. - Eye problems. - Early delivery of the baby. - Future diabetes in the woman who had no previous diabetes problem. Gestational diabetes can cause type 2 diabetes in women after delivery. Gestational diabetes occurs in pregnant women and can lead to birth defects, delivery problems, and future diabetes in women. Managing Diabetes During Pregnancy To avoid diabetic complications during pregnancy do the following things: - Work with your health team: Regularly visit your health team for regular health monitoring of you and your baby. Follow their advice strictly. Always keep their contact numbers ready. - Get check-up. You need to get all the necessary medical check-ups. The doctor may advise blood tests, urine tests, Ultrasound scans. - Quit smoking and avoid alcohol consumption: Smoking can cause damage to the fetus and can cause premature delivery. Alcohol can cause liver issues and diabetes it can cause blood pressure and liver problems. Avoid these too to avoid complications. - Be physically active: Seek health expert advice and try to keep yourself active through exercises. This shall keep cholesterol levels, blood pressure, stress, and blood sugar levels under control. It shall strengthen your bones and improvise your blood circulation. Aim to do some physical activity for 30minutes daily. 30-60 minutes of aerobic exercise 2-7 times per week shall keep weight under control and enhance your health condition. - Take medicines and supplements regularly: If you have a complaint of thyroid, blood pressure along diabetes, the doctor may prescribe medicines. Sometimes you may be required to take insulin injections. Moreover, you should take extra supplements like vitamins and minerals, calcium, and folic acid. These are for the baby healthy development in the fetus and for providing essential nutrients to the body. - Have a proper diet plan. Consult a dietician and follow a proper diet plan that controls your sugar levels. Drink plenty of water to keep hydrated. Consume fibrous food to help you in weight control and bowel movement. Diet During Pregnancy What Food Should You Eat if? If you have diabetes during pregnancy, eat low or medium Glycemic index foods and rich fibrous foods. Some gestational diabetes diet tips are as follows: - Consume 3 to 5 servings of fruits during lunch and breakfast. Vitamin C-rich, Calcium-rich fruits like Apple, Banana, Grapes, berries. - Take 1 to 2 servings of whole grains and Legumes per Day. For example lentils, peas, beans, chickpeas, soybeans, and peanuts. - Eat non-starchy vegetables at least 3 to 5 servings per day. For example leafy green vegetables like lettuce, spinach, kale, beet greens, etc. - 1 portion of protein food. For example, Fish, Egg, Meat. - Get 1 to 3 servings of Natural herbs and spices per day. - Increase fibre content. This is good for bowel moment, and weight management. - Eat regularly and watch your portion size. Calorie Requirements During Pregnancy: - In the first 6 months of pregnancy, Women require 2000 calories per day. - From the third trimester of pregnancy, you need 200 calories extra per day. i.e. 2230 kCals/day. This can be added through a small snack. - Your pregnancy diabetes diet portion must be balanced. In order to maintain a balance based follow the below diet chart. |Calcium content||600 mg| The food you should avoid in diabetes during pregnancies. - Mainly you should avoid food that has lots of sugar like oatmeal’s. - Stop alcohol consumption. - Avoid fast food, processed foods, and canned fruits - It is not good to take sugary drinks like soda, sweet fruits, juices, etc. - Cut off the very starchy food from your diet like white pasta, white rice, white bread, etc. - Don’t take large portions of dairy products and red meat. - Try to avoid confectionery and bakery products. Diabetes, Pregnancy & Baby Monitoring During pregnancy with diabetes, the risks towards the baby’s development are more. Thus, doctors may require special tests to monitor the baby’s growth in the womb. For women who are on insulin, following tests are highly essential: - Ultrasound: Imaging tests based on sound waves help in creating images of the baby in the womb. This shall help in viewing baby development, organ growth, etc. - Fetal movement counting: Counting the number of kicks per day helps in monitoring baby activity. - Doppler study: Along with Imaging it helps in examining a baby’s blood flow and organ development. - Test of Amniocentesis: This test gives idea on whether the lungs of the baby are fully developed or not. When the lungs are fully developed the doctors advise for Caesarean delivery to avoid complications. - Biophysical profile: This helps in measuring heart rate, amniotic fluid, and other baby movements. Various baby movement and monitoring tests are essential to ensure baby development and growth are perfect despite diabetes. Diabetes Tests During Pregnancy Doctors ask for blood glucose tests to diagnose gestational diabetes. The widely preferred test for gestational diabetes diagnosis is Oral Glucose Tolerance Test. - A blood sample is drawn after 1hour of eating. When the blood glucose levels are > 140mg/DL, doctors shall ask for a 3-hour test. Glucose syrup is given. After 3 hours of taking syrup blood, glucose levels are again checked. Value > 140mg/dL indicates gestational diabetes. - Tests shall be repeated by the 4th week of pregnancy for confirming gestational diabetes. Sugar level during 8th month of pregnancy - The normal fasting blood sugar in pregnancy is less than 95mg/dL. - After one hour of the meal, it should be less than 180/dL. - Two hours after the meal, it should be less than 155mg/dL. Diabetes can create serious complications during pregnancy. Women who had gestational diabetes may suffer from future type 2 diabetes. It is therefore essential to get regular check-up for diabetes. Diabetes management requires a positive attitude, proper diet and lifestyle, and regular treatment. When is insulin therapy essential in Gestational diabetes? When the blood glucose levels are greater than 105mg/dL in the fasting state and higher than 120mg/dL after 2 hours of meals. How early gestational diabetes can be diagnosed? By 24th week of pregnancy, the gestational diabetes diagnosis begins. Before that gestational diabetes is unlikely to occur. Can poor diet choices cause gestational diabetes? Just because you have a poor diet choice, does not means that you shall have gestational diabetes. The risk factors for gestational diabetes include age, family history of diabetes, overweight, and polycystic ovary syndrome. - ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins. ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician-gynecologists. Number 60, March 2005. Pregestational diabetes mellitus. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2005;105(3):675–685. Reaffirmed 2014: www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Practice-Bulletins-List External link.

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Location and General Description The Southeast Australia Temperate Forests ecoregion lines the southeastern coast of Australia, heading inland past the Great Dividing Range and surrounding the Australian Alps Montane Grasslands ecoregion. It covers most of southern Victoria and extends into the Southern and Central Tablelands regions of New South Wales. Precipitation along the south coast of New South Wales falls uniformly throughout the year, approximately 800 mm to 1,000 mm per annum. Rainfall quickly decreases as one moves inland, and is approximately 400 mm to 600 mm per annum along the inland boundary of this ecoregion. Further west along the Victorian coast rainfall is largely seasonal, concentrated in the winter (Read 1994). During the last glacial maximum, approximately 15,000 years ago, the northern portion of this ecoregion would have been treeless cold steppe and alpine grassland (White 1994). This northern portion consists of low hills inland of the Dividing Range, and includes the lower elevations of the Dividing Range where steep and rugged ranges of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks extend from New South Wales into Victoria. Further east towards the coast, deeply dissected ranges of Devonian granites and Palaeozoic sediments give way to gently undulating terraces. Tertiary and Quaternary coastal plains continue along the Victorian coast. Further inland in Victoria, an extensive volcanic basaltic plain leads to the Victorian Midlands, a region of foothills and isolated ranges that comprise the lower, inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). A diverse mix of vegetation is found throughout this ecoregion, including coastal vegetation, dense heath, temperate rainforest, riparian communities, wet sclerophyll forests, dry sclerophyll forests, and eucalypt woodlands. Between the coast and the Great Divide, wet sclerophyll forests of medium height grow, with an understory of low shrubs. Dominant species include brown stringybark (Eucalyptus baxteri), manna gum (E. viminalis), messmate stringybark (E. obliqua), and mountain grey gum (E. cypellocarpa) (AUSLIG 1990). Brown stringybark is restricted to soils of low fertility, whereas messmate stringybark becomes more frequent as soil quality improves. The Great Dividing Range separates this wetter eastern flora from the drier woodlands of the west (Beadle 1981). Eucalypt woodland is one of the most heavily altered native communities in Australia, and here consists of open, medium-sized trees, with 10 to 30 percent foliage cover. Shrubs are rare, but the herbaceous layer is dominated by grasses, such as Themeda australis. Dominant trees include grey box (Eucalyptus microcarpa), and communities of yellow box (E. melliodora) and Blakely’s red gum (E. blakelyi) (AUSLIG 1990). Box-Ironbark vegetation is found between the drier inland plains and the wetter forests of the Great Dividing Range on gentle to moderate hills. These communities are dominated by grey box, yellow gum (E. leucoxylon) and red ironbark (E. sideroxylon) (Stothers et al. 1999). Spear grasses (Stipa scabra and S. bigeniculata) grow on flat or gently undulating treeless basalt plains near the Geelong area, and on the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. The quintessential Australian genus, Eucalyptus dominates in all better-watered regions of Australia, including the Southeast Australia Temperate Forests. There are approximately 700 species of Eucalyptus, and only seven are found outside Australia (Berra 1998). Unlike the rest of mainland Australia, soils here are moderately fertile with a cool temperate climate. Australian temperate eucalyptus forests exhibit a long evolutionary history compared with other continents where glaciation was repeated and extensive. Alpha, beta, and gamma diversity in old growth eucalpyt forests are all high in comparison to temperate forests on other continents (Norton 1996). Plant diversity is exceptionally high in the sandstone Grampians Ranges in Victoria, where approximately 1,100 plants, or one-third of Victoria’s flora are found in the 1,700 km2 Grampians National Park (Lunt and Bennett 2000). Temperate woodlands also contain a high number of endangered plant species, including the button winklewort (Rutidosis leptorrynchoides). The Southeast Australian Temperate Forests harbor a number of restricted range and endemic species. Near endemic birds include the gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum), rufous bristlebird (Dasyornis broadbenti), rock warbler (Origma solitaria), and the pilotbird (Pycnoptilus floccosus), which is found in association with the superb lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae). The endangered swift parrot (Lathamus discolor) migrates to this region from Tasmania each winter and the endangered plains-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) lives on volcanic Stipa plains (Hilton-Taylor 2000). Among the mammals, the smoky mouse (Pseudomys fumeus VU) is largely restricted to this ecoregion while the agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis) is near-endemic. The endangered Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) is restricted to wet eucalypt forests of the Victorian Central Highlands. Reptiles of the Southeast Australia Temperate Forests include the striped legless lizard (Delma impar) and the pink-tailed worm-lizard (Aprasia parapulchella). Among the invertebrates, the Mt. Piper region in Victoria is home to a threatened community of ant-attended lycaenid butterflies. This ecoregion is also know for its giant Gippsland earthworms (Megascolides australis), which are restricted to the Bass River Valley region in Victoria. Due to the wide variety of vegetation found here, this ecoregion is known for its avian and mammalian richness. Avian species assemblages differ significantly between mesic and xeric microclimates in this ecoregion (Mac Nally et al. 2000). Many species, such as dasyurid carnivores, bats, owls, and cockatoos are particularly dependent on large areas of old growth eucalypt forest (Norton 1996). Mammals found in this ecoregion include the southern subspecies of spotted tail quoll (Dasyurus maculatus maculatus), long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus), feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), the eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus), and the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). The mainland subspecies of swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) and white footed dunnart (Sminthopsis leucopus) are largely restricted to coastal regions (Strahan 1998), while other species, such as the koala, are widespread throughout this ecoregion and excluded from the Central Highlands because of the cold winters. This ecoregion has been heavily impacted by European settlement, and within the ecoregion the most extensive clearance of native vegetation has occurred to the west of the Dividing Range. Australia’s population is highly urbanized and two major cities, Melbourne and Canberra, are located in this ecoregion. Most wet sclerophyll forests were logged and dry forest and woodland converted to pasture and cultivated land following European arrival. Over 90 percent of temperate woodlands in the State of Victoria have been cleared, mostly for agriculture, leaving less than 6,000 km2 (Lunt and Bennettt 2000). Box-ironbark forests have also been greatly depleted and fragmented (Stothers et al. 1999). Pine plantations, mostly Pinus radiata, are located in the wet sclerophyll forests of this ecoregion (AUSLIG 1990). Many of the grassy coastal forests were also cleared for agriculture, and more recently for urban and recreation development. There are protected areas in this ecoregion, but they are mostly located in coastal regions and to the east of the Great Divide, biased to include wet sclerophyll vegetation (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). Protected areas include Grampians and Wilson’s Promontory National Parks in Victoria and Wadbilliga, Deua, and Morton National Parks in New South Wales. However, throughout Australia, approximately half of all eucalypt forests in protected areas have been subject to logging at some point (Norton 1996). Types and Severity of Threats Dieback disease caused by Phytophthora spp., inappropriate fire regimes, harmful agricultural management, alluvial gold mining, and alien and feral species are all threats to this ecoregion. Feral species include rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and cats (Felis catus). A large portion of land has already been transformed into cropping or pasture but rabbits combine with overgrazing and result in additional degradation. Logging threatens native species, and recent studies suggest that both selective logging and the creation of linear strips or corridors within forests may be ineffective in fulfilling habitat requirements for the full suite of native fauna (Lindenmayer 1997). Justification of Ecoregion Delineation The Southeast Australia Temperate Forests ecoregion includes the low elevation portions of the ‘Australian Alps’ Centre of Plant Diversity (Good 1995) and six IBRAs: ‘South East Corner’, ‘South Eastern Highlands’, ‘South East Coastal Plain’, ‘NSW South Western Slopes’, ‘Victorian Midlands’ and ‘Victorian Volcanic Plain’ (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIG). 1990. Atlas of Australian Resources: Vegetation. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. Beadle, N. C. W. 1981. The Vegetation of Australia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Berra, T. M. 1998. A Natural History of Australia. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA. Good, R. B. 1995. Australian Alps. Pages 458 – 461 in S. D. Davis, V. H. Heywood and A. C. Hamilton. editors. Centres of Plant Diversity. Volume 2. Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific. WWF/IUCN, IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge, UK. Lindenmayer, D. B. 1997. Differences in the biology and ecology of arboreal marsupials in forests of southeastern Australia. Journal of Mammalogy 78(4): 1117-1127. Lunt, I. and A. F. Bennett. 2000. Temperate woodlands in Victoria: distribution, composition, and conservation. Pages 17 – 31 in R. J. Hobbs and C. J. Yates, editors. Temperate Eucalypt Woodlands in Australia: biology, conservation, management, and restoration. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, New South Wales, Australia. Mac Nally, R., T. R. Soderquist, C. Tarzos. 2000. The conservation value of mesic gullies in dry forest landscapes: avian assemblages in the box-ironbark ecosystem of southern Australia. Biological Conservation 93: 293-302. Norton, T. W. 1996. Conserving biological diversity in Australia’s temperate eucalypt forests. Forest Ecology and Management 85: 21-33. Read, I. G. 1994. The bush: a guide to the vegetated landscapes of Australia. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, Australia. Strahan, R. 1998. The mammals of Australia. Australian Museum/Reed New Holland. Syndey, Australia. Stothers, K., R. Loyn, A. Bennett, A., G. Brown, L. Lumsden, and G. Horrocks. 1999. Forests with character: the box-ironbark region of Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria. Flora and Fauna Notes 0051: 1- 5. Thackway, R. and I. D. Cresswell. editors. 1995. An Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia: a framework for establishing the national system of reserves, Version 4.0. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. White, M. E. 1994. After the Greening: the browning of Australia. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, New South Wales. Prepared by: Miranda Mockrin Reviewed by: Roger Kitching

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|Medical Dictionary - Dictionary of Medicine and Human Biology| European white birch, bark and leaves of B. alba (family Betulaceae); native to Europe, northern Asia, and North America, north of Pennsylvania. It contains betulin (b. camphor), betuloresinic acid, volatile oil, saponins, betulol (sesquiterpine alcohol), apigenin, dimethyl ether, betuloside, gaultherin, methyl salicylate, and ascorbic acid; has odor of wintergreen and is used as a pharmaceutic aid (flavor/aromatic). Vladimir A., Russian anatomist, 1834–1894. See B. cells, under cell. Alois J., 20th century German cardiologist. See B. syndrome. William, English physician and physiologist, 1847–1929. See Bevan-Lewis cells, under cell. 1. A surface having a sloped or slanting edge. 2. The incline that one surface or line makes with another when not at right angles. 3. The edge of a cutting instrument. 4. To create a slanting edge on a body structure. cavosurface b. the incline of the cavosurface angle of a prepared cavity wall in relation to the plane of the enamel wall. reverse b. the sloping edge of a cutting instrument. bevonium methyl sulfate (be-vo′ne-um) An anticholinergic agent. SYN: pyribenzyl methyl sulfate. A concretion formed in the alimentary canal of animals, and occasionally humans; formerly considered to be a useful medicine with magical properties and apparently still used for this purpose in some countries; according to the substance forming the ball, may be termed trichobezoar (hairball), trichophytobezoar (hair and vegetable fiber mixed), or phytobezoar (foodball). [Pers. padzahr, antidote] Friedrich, German otologist, 1842–1908. See B. abscess. Albert von, German physiologist, 1836–1868. See B. ganglion, B.-Jarisch reflex. Abbreviation for bone Gla protein. Abbreviation for butylated hydroxyanisole. Name given in the East to powdered preparation of Cannabis sativa that is chewed or smoked by the local residents. SEE ALSO: cannabis. [Hind.] Abbreviation for Brinell hardness number. Abbreviation for butylated hydroxytoluene. Symbol for bismuth. 1. Prefix meaning twice or double, referring to double structures or dual actions. 2. In chemistry, used to denote a partially neutralized acid (an acid salt); e.g., bisulfate. Cf.:bis-, di-. [L.] Manfred, German physician, 1869–1908. See B. test. Giovanni B., Italian anatomist, 1681–1761. See B. nodule. 1. Systematic discrepancy between a measurement and the true value; may be constant or proportionate and may adversely affect test results. 2. Any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation, publication, or review of data that can lead to conclusions that differ systematically from the truth; deviation of results or inferences from the truth, or processes leading to deviation. [Fr. biais, obliquity, perh. fr. L. bifax, two-faced] There is no imputation of prejudice, partisanship, or other subjective or emotional factor such as an investigator's desire to achieve a particular outcome. More than 100 varieties of b. have been described but all fall into one of a rather small number of distinct categories: 1. Systematic one-sided variation of measurements from the true value (syn systematic error, instrumental error, or b.). 2. Variation of statistical summary measures (means, rates, measures of association, etc.) from their true values as a result of systematic variation of measurements, other flaws in data collection, or flaws in study design or analysis. 3. Deviation of inferences from the truth as a result of flaws in study design, data collection, or the analysis or interpretation of results. 4. A tendency of procedures in study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, review or publication, to yield results or conclusions that depart from the truth. 5. Prejudice leading to the conscious or subconscious selection of study procedures that depart from the truth in a particular direction, or to one-sidedness in interpretation of results. This form of b. can arise as a result of shoddy scientific methods, or deliberately when investigators behave fraudulently in order to misrepresent the truth. ascertainment b. systematic failure to represent equally all classes of cases or persons supposed to be represented in a sample. cross-level b. a b. due to aggregation at the population level of causes and/or effects that are unlike at the individual level; can occur in ecologic studies. recall b. systematic error due to differences in accuracy or completeness of recall to memory of past events or experiences. reporting b. selective revealing or suppression of information about past medical history, e.g., details of exposure to sexually transmitted diseases. response b. systematic error due to differences in characteristics between those who choose or volunteer to take part in a study, and those who do not. sampling b. systematic error due to study of a nonrandom sample of a population. Relating to both asterions, especially the b. diameter, or b. width, the shortest distance from one asterion to the other. Relating to both auricles, in any sense. Abbreviation for L. b., drink. Morbidly intense desire to collect and possess books, especially rare books. [G. biblion, book, + mania, frenzy] SYN: absorbent (1) . [L. bibulus, drinking freely, absorbent] Having two chambers; denoting especially an abscess divided by a more or less complete septum. [bi- + L. camera, chamber] Having a double capsule. HCO3−;the ion remaining after the first dissociation of carbonic acid; a central buffering agent in blood. standard b. the plasma b. concentration of a sample of whole blood that has been equilibrated at 37°C with a carbon dioxide pressure of 40 mm Hg and an oxygen pressure greater than 100 mm Hg; abnormally high or low values indicate metabolic alkalosis or acidosis, respectively. The composite curve of an electrocardiogram representing the combined effects of the right and left ventricles. Having two cells or subdivisions. A muscle with two origins or heads. Commonly used to refer to the b. brachii (muscle). [bi- + L. caput, head] Marie F.X., French anatomist, physician, and biologist, 1771–1802. See B. canal, B. fat-pad, B. fissure, B. fossa, B. ligament, B. membrane, B. protuberance, B. tunic. SYN: epidemic gangrenous proctitis. Having two cilia. 1. Two-headed. 2. Relating to a biceps muscle. [bi- + L. caput, head] Gustav, 19th century German physician. See B. ring. Pertaining to or characterized by biclonality. A condition in which some cells have markers of one cell line and other cells have markers of another cell line, as in biclonal leukemias. Concave on two sides; denoting especially a form of lens. SYN: concavoconcave. Convex on two sides; denoting especially a form of lens. SYN: convexoconvex. bicornous, bicornuate, bicornate (bi-kor′nus, -noo-at, -nat) Two-horned; having two processes or projections. [bi- + L. cornu, horn] SYN: pico- (2) . An alkaloid naturally occurring in the d-form; found in Dicentra cucullaria and Adlumia fungosa (family Fumariaceae) and several Corydalis species; a powerful convulsant that acts by antagonizing γ-aminobutyric acid, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. 1. Having two points, prongs, or cusps. 2. Teeth having two cusps. Humans have eight b. or premolar teeth: two in front of each group of molars. See b. tooth. [bi- + L. cuspis, point] b. aortic valve See familial aortic ectasia syndrome. Surgical change of a normally tricuspid valve into a functioning bicuspid valve; performed in correction of tricuspid valvar disease. Abbreviation for L. bis in die, twice a day. Abnormality in which the medial digits are lacking, with only the first and fifth represented. SEE ALSO: lobster-claw deformity, ectrodactyly. [bi- + G. daktylos, finger] A tub for a sitz bath, having also an attachment for giving vaginal or rectal infusions. [Fr. a small horse] Resembling, or consisting of, two disks. Acronym for brittle hair, impaired intelligence, decreased fertility, and short stature; the brittle hair may be due to an inherited deficiency of a high-sulfur protein; autosomal recessive inheritance. Rarely used term denoting of two days' duration. [L. biduus, lasting two days, fr. bi- + dies, day] M. See B. loop. Biebrich scarlet red [C.I. 26905] SYN: scarlet red. [Biebrich, Germany] Joseph, U.S. physician, *1907. See B. sign. Artur, Austrian physician, 1869–1933. See Bardet-B. syndrome. Max, German neuropathologist, 1869–1940. See B. disease, B. stain, Jansky-B. disease. Alfred, German ophthalmologist, 1871–1940. See B. sign. Avic, French neurologist, *1902. See B. syndrome. August K.G., German surgeon, 1861–1949. See B. amputation, B. hyperemia, B. method. Anton, German physician, 1827–1892. See B. anemia, B. disease, Addison-B. disease. Alfred von, Polish physician, 1839–1888. See B. fossa. Involving two of the presumed three major fascicles of the ventricular conduction system of the heart. Split or cleft; separated into two parts. [L. bifidus, cleft in two parts] A genus of anaerobic bacteria (family Actinomycetaceae) containing Gram-positive rods of highly variable appearance; freshly isolated strains characteristically show true and false branching, with bifurcated V and Y forms, uniform or branched, and club or spatulate forms. They frequently stain irregularly; two or more granules may stain with methylene blue, while the remainder of the cell is unstained. They are not acid fast, are nonmotile, and do not produce spores; acetic and lactic acids are produced from glucose. Pathogenicity for humans is rare, although they have been found in the feces and alimentary tract of infants, older people, and animals. The type species is B. bifidum. [L. bifidus, cleft in two parts, + bacterium] B. bifidum type species of the genus B.; it is found in the feces and alimentary tract of breast- and bottle-fed infants and of older persons, rats, turkeys, and chickens; also found in the rumen of cattle; pathogenicity for humans and other animals is rare. Associated with a growth factor belonging to a group of N-containing polysaccharides with a high hexosamine content and known as bifidus factor. B. dentium a bacterial species recovered in association with dental caries and periodontal disease. It is also an opportunistic pathogen, recovered in mixed infections associated with abscess formation. Having two foci. Having two openings. [bi- + L. foro, pp. -atus, to bore, pierce] Referring to a molecule containing two reactive functional groups; cross-linking reagents are b. compounds. bifurcate, bifurcated (bi-fer′kat, -ka-ted) Forked; two-pronged; having two branches. [bi- + L. furca, fork] . . . Feedback

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Once lush, El Salvador is dangerously close to running dry | Jane Hahn & Heather Gies | National Geographic The country’s shrinking water supply is in jeopardy as weak regulation, lagging services, and climate variability fuel a complex crisis. BY HEATHER GIES PHOTOGRAPHS BY JANE HAHN SAN SALVADOR – As the sun comes up through a thick morning fog, Teresa Serrano joins other women from her community gathering around a natural spring nestled in the rolling hills of the Cabañas region. Here, in remote north-central El Salvador, they bathe, wash clothes, and prepare food. Today, Serrano waited until dawn to fetch water, but when the worst dry spells hit, she and her neighbors trek to the spring even earlier in the day. “The well doesn’t produce a lot of water,” she says. “And when it dries up, we have had problems with people fighting.” In rural villages across El Salvador, like Serrano’s, more than 600,000 people have no access to drinking water, and hundreds of thousands more experience limited or intermittent access. Although Central America is rich in water resources, El Salvador’s small land area relative to its population size puts its thinning annual water supply per capita dangerously close to falling short of demand. Decades of failure to adequately regulate water use in the country have also opened the door to overexploitation and pollution, while fragmented water management has left services lacking. The Rio Pampe as it appears today. In May 2016, nine thousand gallons of molasses spilled into it and the San Lorenzo, killing wildlife and contaminating the water supply for thousands of people. After two lawsuits and millions of dollars in fines, Ingenio La Magdalena has effectively cleaned up the disaster, though many residents say they have yet to be compensated for damages to their livelihoods. PHOTOGRAPH BY JANE HAHN In recent years, aquifers in the coastal and central parts of El Salvador have receded by as much as 13 feet (4 meters), a trend Minister of Environment Lina Pohl flags as extremely alarming. Meanwhile, more than 90 percent of surface water sources in the country are contaminated, according to reports from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. To make matters worse, none of the country’s main rivers can be purified for drinking through conventional methods such as filtration or chlorination. Experts say that untreated wastewater gushing straight from sewers into rivers as well as runoff from industry and agriculture are to blame. General Manager of Grupo Roble Rafael Menéndez, Vice President of El Salvador Óscar Ortiz, and President of ANDA (National Administration of Aqueducts and Sewers) Felipe Rivas tour a high-end apartment building under construction in San Salvador. Nearby, poor residents complain that they lack water service. PHOTOGRAPH BY JANE HAHN “Poor people are the ones who tend to end up drinking contaminated water from natural sources,” says Andrés McKinley, an expert on water and mining at the Central American University José Simeón Cañas (UCA) in the capital city of San Salvador. “When large-scale industry is located near poor or lower-income communities, their overuse of water from subterranean aquifers leaves those communities without adequate water resources.” McKinley says this is because power imbalances in decision-making have historically handed priority water usage to “Big Business,” such as industrial plantations, mining corporations, luxury housing developments, and bottling companies. Zoila Ramirez, 40, carries a jug of water to her home in San Jeronimo Los Planes, Nejapa. Water is collected during the rainy season in the communal tank and sold for 10 cents a jug during the dry season. Money raised is used to fund water trucks once the tank runs dry. However, the roof was lost during a recent hurricane and very little water has been collected since. PHOTOGRAPH BY JANE HAHN La Constancia, a subsidiary of ABInBev, for example, fills thousands of cartons of Coca Cola every day in Nejapa, a town perched atop a significant aquifer, while water only flows through local residents’ taps a few times each week, or less. La Constancia spokesperson Raúl Palomo attributes the problem to poor infrastructure and says a potable water initiative launched by the company in 2015 has helped close the gap in access. Priscilla Pérez, a 32-year-old mother of four, faces shortages despite living atop an important aquifer in Nejapa. “There hasn’t been enough rain to collect water in eight days,” she told photographer Jane Hahn in June, one month into the typical rainy season. “We wish we had water from a faucet.” According to the Salvadoran Foundation for Economic and Social Development (FUSADES), nearly a quarter of the population in rural areas has no access to running water either in their homes or at public taps. Women and children are particularly impacted by shortages, as they tend to bear the burden of hauling water for domestic uses. For those living in areas controlled or contested by rival gangs, fetching water from remote sources also exposes them to greater risks of robbery, rape, and other attacks. City dwellers are not immune to the water crisis, either. According to Maria Dolores Rovira, head of the department of process engineering and environmental sciences at UCA, water quality and supply are similarly deficient in poor neighborhoods in the capital, San Salvador. The Nejapa aquifer serves as the water source for the majority of metropolitan San Salvador, and damages to pipes earlier this year cut service to more than one million people for days. Thousands queued to fill jugs from emergency water trucks, some from private companies charging a fee. Exasperated residents in poor neighborhoods took to the streets to protest the mismanagement and shortcomings of the current system. Residents like Carlos Melara, 45, who lives in the community of San Antonio Abad on the outskirts of San Salvador, fear that development is taking precedence over poor households like his. In June, Melara was hauling water up a steep hill to his family’s home multiple times a day. Half a mile away, one of the largest real estate developers in Central America, Grupo Roble, was building a high-rise apartment with such advertised amenities as a car wash, pet shower, and swimming pool. Bracing for climate change Central America, a narrow isthmus flanked by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, is set to be hard hit by extreme weather events that are expected to increase in severity and frequency in the coming years. The region’s drought-prone Dry Corridor, in particular, is one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to the disasters resulting from a changing climate, and it blankets El Salvador. This will inevitably put further pressure on the country’s dwindling—and highly contaminated—water resources. (Learn how climate change is impacting Guatemala.) Harsh conditions continued in 2015 as a strong El Niño brought prolonged dry weather to the region. In 2016 the Salvadoran government declared the first-ever state of emergency due to drought. These severe dry spells have provoked major losses for El Salvador’s small farmers, many of whom are already experiencing food insecurity, which could drive displacement and migration. After poverty and unemployment, agricultural losses due to drought and other events is a leading cause of migration from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, according to the World Food Programme. At the same time, the expansion of industrial agriculture—in a country known for its export of crops like coffee and sugar—fuels soil degradation and extensive deforestation. The result is hard-packed soils impenetrable to rain. Add to that the fact that climate change is causing more sudden and intense rainfalls, and a water paradox is born. As Minister Pohl describes it, rains come too fast and too hard to soak into the hard-packed ground, so not only does the precipitation fail to recharge severely depleted groundwater reserves during the rainy season, but it also provokes deadly floods that further displace residents. Hydroelectric power generation in El Salvador, too, has been declining since 2010, with significant drops below the 30-year average in 2015 and 2016, according to government data. As hydroelectricity makes up a shrinking portion of the total energy mix, use of fossil fuels and imported electricity have risen to compensate. Tackling the crisis The government of El Salvador has made progress in recent years by improving water services and creating systems to monitor water quality and supply. But the country remains gripped by a polarizing debate over how water resources should be managed. Currently, more than 20 different institutions juggle the management and distribution of water, including the National Water Mains and Sewers Administration (ANDA), not to mention the more than 2,000 locally run water networks established to cover service gaps in rural areas. “If we want to confront climate change, we first need to have strong governance,” says Helga Cuéllar-Marchelli, director of the department of social studies at FUSADES. “We need a joint effort from the central government, municipal governments, civil society, [and] the business sector. If there is no legal framework, it will be very difficult to coordinate efforts.” Cuéllar-Marchelli advocates for an integrated approach that takes into consideration social equity, economic efficiency, and ecological sustainability in accordance with international best practices. That means treating watersheds holistically, by addressing not only water quality and quantity, but also soil conditions and other environmental factors affecting water supply. Water legislation drafted by the governing Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) party has stagnated in El Salvador’s National Assembly for more than a decade in the face of opposition from a majority of conservative, business-aligned lawmakers. The General Water Law, first introduced in 2006, proposes a regulatory body composed of various public institutions to govern water as a public good. The United Nations urged El Salvador in 2016 to enshrine water as a human right in its constitution and to fill the regulatory vacuum by approving the proposed water law. And supporters of the law were encouraged when El Salvador approved a landmark ban on metals mining last year, celebrated as a historic move to protect clean water. But then, in 2017, the conservative Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) party introduced a counter-proposal, with backing from the country’s powerful business lobby. This Comprehensive Water Law proposes an alternative five-member board with one representative from the government, two from the business sector, and two from the association of municipalities, which is currently dominated by ARENA. For Minister Pohl, the counter-proposal represents an attempt to privatize decision-making, which she argues is more reckless than privatizing service provision. “In a time of conflict and scarcity, when decisions need to be made about allocation, there must be criteria based on the common good, not private entities,” she says. McKinley agrees that a rights-based focus is key to guiding effective legislation. “If you recognize water as a human right, it’s a logical extension to accept the fact that it is the state that has responsibility for managing that resource for all citizens of the country,” he says. The complexity of the water crisis demands active participation from citizens and civil society, including the private sector, but McKinley says that should take place through government-led processes. “All of these issues related to climate change or to other causes of the crisis of water in El Salvador keep coming back to the lack of institutional structures to regulate water,” he says. “El Salvador’s viability as a nation really depends on the state of its natural resources, especially water.” Heather Gies is a freelance journalist. Follow her on Twitter@HeatherGies. Jane Hahn is a freelance photojournalist based in Dakar, Senegal. You can follow her on Instagram @JaneHahn. She also contributed reporting to this story.

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A Colorfully Insightful Book & Recycled Crayon Letters! After reading Natascha Biebow’s “The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons” & engaging in The Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum for Letter C, we decided to make homemade Recycled Crayon Letters & Crayon Wrapper Confetti Art! I’m excited to walk you through how we made both, so let’s get started… This post may contain affiliate links, which means I receive a small commission, at no extra cost to you, if you make a purchase using this link. Summary of “The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons” “The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons” by Natascha Biebow and illustrated by Steven Salerno is a great Picture Book Biography about Edwin Binney and his cousin C. Harold Smith who created the amazing Crayola crayons we all know and love. Colorful, playful, & detailed illustrations walk you through the crayon inventing process. The story also covers how Binney & Smith named their crayons “Crayola”! In the back of the book the provide a step by step guide of “How Crayola Crayons are Made Today” complete with photographs, as well as, an authors note on Edwin Binney. Definitely recommended. The Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum – Letter C I was gifted a wonderful curriculum called “The Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum” by Alexandra from themasterpiecestudio.com that covers both the alphabet and the elements of art! I only post about books & activities we genuinely like and this curriculum is truly amazing & worth many mentions! I’m not one for following a set curriculum in our homeschooling. We definitely identify more as unschoolers; and my daughters least favorite thing is any type of worksheet. So I was very pleasantly surprised when I opened up the pdf file to find a very full, multifaceted approach to learning about art while reinforcing the alphabet at the same time. As you work your way through the alphabet this curriculum offers book suggestions, sensory letter tracing, hands on crafts, recipes, felt or embroidered letter making & more! The Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum has links to many different tutorials and read aloud’s. But the absolute best part is the super helpful & timesaving QR code she put on each letter lesson page! Just open your camera, point it at the QR code on the printout and bam all the links at your fingertips to click and engage with! I’m sure you can tell I could go on and on about this terrific curriculum but you should really go check it out. The first lesson “A is for Artist” is generously available for FREE to sample!!! You can see our Letter A post HERE & our Letter B post HERE. We’re currently working on “C is for Crayon” which is why we read “The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons”, watched a video showing how crayons are made, a tutorial on making classic recycled crayons, & created our own Recycled Crayon Letters using our favorite alphabet silicone molds, as well as, Crayon Wrapper Confetti Art! How We made Recycled Crayon Letters… We tend to keep the activities as simple as possible around here. We’re not interested in complicated or costly. We are also all about fostering independence. For this activity we decided to make homemade Recycled Crayons following the video tutorial provided by The Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum “C is for Crayons”. However, instead of using a metal muffin tin, we chose to make Recycled Crayon Letters using our favorite silicone Alphabet Letter molds! Next, being in recycling mode we couldn’t see throwing away the crayon wrappers, so we turned it into confetti art! Recycled Crayon Letters are a spin on the classic melted recycled crayons you might have made as a kid. First, we looked for crayons that were older & used but realized we had already used those to do THIS creative bookish play and another time when we created melted crayon pumpkin art. Anyway, that didn’t stop us, at the beginning of every school year we always get a few boxes of Crayola Crayons since they’re $0.50 a box! We unwrapped the crayons, which I have to say from experience is MUCH easier with Crayola Crayons than any other brand! No, this is not a sponsored post for Crayola lol, just love them. We decided to save the wrapper scraps, so we set them aside. Next, we cut up the crayons into little pieces using a knife. This all takes time, but I see that as an opportunity for engaging in conversation and just hanging out crafting. So keep in mind, you might want to split these tasks up throughout the week, or set aside a large block of family crafting time! Lastly, we got out our alphabet silicone molds, placed the crayon bits into the letters, & placed the silicone molds on a cookie tray in the preheated oven. Once the crayons were melted, we took them out of the oven to cool. Then came the fun parts, carefully taking them out of the silicone molds & coloring with them! How we made Crayon Wrapper Confetti Art? Super simple and oh so colorful! If the wrappers came off in large pieces you can tear them into smaller ones. Then add glue to the paper where you want the crayon wrapper confetti to stick & either sprinkle it on or place it one by one. We used our crayon wrapper confetti to fill in the letter “C” printable that comes with the Masterpiece Alphabet Curriculum. You can do the same if you have the curriculum, or create your own unique work of art! Wait?!? Am I Supposed To Be Making One Too? I highly recommend getting hands on and doing art projects with your child. If you’d rather not, thats okay too, but please do not correct anything they do. If you want the art to look a certain way – make your own. Especially if your child is little, its okay if it doesn’t turn out the way you imagined. Maybe its what they imagined. Also, its a process. They are learning. They will learn more through trial and error than if you correct them or do it for them. All they will learn if you “help” is that they didn’t do a good enough job on their own or they can’t do it; not exactly the message you want to give your kid. Am I right?!? Believe me, I know it can be really challenging to let them make “mistakes”. Try doing the project along side them. It will allow you to focus on your own work, give them appropriate modeling of how to use the materials, and show them that you like art too! A lot of what I talk about in “What about the Sensory Mess?” applies to Art projects as well, you might wanna check it out! I love how each art has its own identity. I would suggest making Recycled Crayon Letters if you’re looking for a memory making classic art activity to connect with your child. Materials We Used - “The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons” book (from the library or buy it HERE) - Crayola Crayons - A Knife - Alphabet Silicone Molds - A Cookie Sheet Click HERE for Free Printable copy (Email Subscribers Only) How We Made Recycled Crayon Letters & Crayon Wrapper Confetti Art? - Open the box of Crayola Crayons. - Choose which colors you’d like to use. You could choose 2 different colors together in the same letter spot for a marbled effect, or you could choose similar shades of the same color to create a solid colored letter. - Unwrap the crayons you wish to melt, keep the wrapper bits. - Cut the crayons into small pieces that will fit in the alphabet mold. - Preheat the oven to 350 Degrees Fahrenheit. - It will probably only take about 5 minutes for the crayons to be melted. - Take them out of the oven, let them cool completely before removing them from the alphabet molds. - While you’re waiting for the recycled crayon letters to cool, you could take out your Masterpiece Alphabet letter “C” or a blank piece of paper and some glue (we used a glue stick). - We filled in the Masterpiece Alphabet letter “C” with our crayon wrapper confetti, you can do the same if you have the curriculum, or create your own original artwork using the crayon wrappers! Click HERE for Free Printable copy (Email Subscribers Only) Wait, There’s More… I believe you can easily strengthen communication skills and foster independence all while playing and connecting with your child. To help you do this; I’ve created a FREE printable for each activity called, “Communicating & Connecting”. It will give you a list of suggestions I’ve found very helpful as a Mom & as a special education teacher; to help you build lifelong skills. Please don’t feel obligated to do everything on the list (but if you do, you’re a rockstar 😉 ). As a Thank You for subscribing; this is a special FREEBIE for our Email Subscribers Only. 🙂 Click here if you’ve already subscribed. Otherwise, Sign Up below to get the password & access to our entire FREE Printables Library today! 😉 If you liked this Storytime Art activity you might also like…

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Cochlear implantation is a treatment for patients with severe sensorineural hearing loss/deafness, who get no help from ordinary hearing aids. The cochlear implant is surgically placed under the skin near the ear and a very thin electrode array is introduced into the cochlea of the inner ear, where it stimulates the remaining nerve fibers (1,2). The operation is complicated; it is performed with the aid of a microscope, and involves drilling very close to vital vessels and important nerves. The method was introduced in Sweden in 1984 by Professor Göran Bredberg, then at Stockholm Söder Hospital. High resolution computed tomography (CT) of the temporal bone is a part of the preoperative evaluation preceding cochlear implantation. It is a method for visualizing the bony structures of the middle and inner ear - to diagnose pathology and to describe the anatomy. In Stockholm, these examinations have usually been performed at the Radiology Department of Stockholm Söder Hospital. Examinations of cochlear implant candidates from other parts of Sweden and from abroad are also sent there for special reviewing. The first work concerns CT of the temporal bone and cochlear implant surgery in children with CHARGE association. This is a rare condition with multiple congenital abnormalities, sometimes lethal. Children with CHARGE have different combinations of disabilities, of which impairments of vision and hearing, as well as balance problems and facial palsy can lead to developmental delay. There have been few reports of radiological temporal bone changes and none of cochlear implant surgery for this group. The work includes a report of the findings on preoperative CT and at surgery, as well as post-implant results in two children. A review of the latest diagnostic criteria of CHARGE and the temporal bone changes found in international literature is also included. The conclusion was that certain combinations of temporal bone changes in CHARGE are, if not specific, at least extremely rare in other materials. CT can visualize these changes and be used as a diagnostic tool. This is important, since some of the associated disabilities are not so obvious from the start. Early treatment is vital for the child's development. This work also shows that cochlear implantation may help some of these often very isolated children to communicate. The second work is a radioanatomic study of one of the structures of the inner ear - the bony canal for the cochlear nerve. It involves measurements of the dimensions of the canal on 117 silicone rubber casts of the temporal bone (from a unique collection of casts at Uppsala temporal bone laboratory) and on 50 clinical CT-studies (100 ears). The purpose was to show the normal variation, which is of use in the appraisal of congenital temporal bone malformations on CT. Based on our results we propose that if the canal is less than 1.4 mm, as measured on CT, the possibility of cochlear nerve abnormality should be considered. This is of interest since aplasia of the cochlear nerve is a contraindication to cochlear implantation. If the canal is wider than 3.0 mm, then other anomalies may coexist, with the risk of CSF gusher when a cochleostomy or stapedectomy is performed. There are currently no agreed-upon criteria to establish candidacy for bilateral cochlear implants (CIs). This study categorized practice patterns for establishing bilateral CI candidacy. A postal survey was sent to all practices performing CIs in the United States and Canada. The survey queried centers regarding candidacy criteria for bilateral implantation, testing parameters, definition of 'best aided condition', use of testing in noise, localization, and quality-of-life questionnaires. The survey was resent to non-responding centers 4 weeks after the initial mailing. The overall response rate was 40%. 'Best aided condition' (70%) and hearing in noise (52%) were used to establish bilateral candidacy, while 45% of centers offered bilateral implants to all candidates. The majority of respondents defined 'best aided' as hearing aids only (57% non-exclusive) or CI and hearing aid together (57%). Only 25% considered a CI alone as best aided. Nearly 5% considered no aiding to be the best aided. Sound localization was used by 8% of respondents for candidacy assessment. Reimbursement affected candidacy decision for 45%. There was variability in stimulus levels (60, 50, 45, and 55 dB), signal-to-noise ratios, and speaker orientations used. There are no consistent criteria to assess patients for bilateral CIs. This practice variation makes comparing outcomes across centers challenging and leaves open the possibility of having external standards imposed by regulators or payors. Standardization of candidacy assessment is necessary to develop best practices for bilateral cochlear implantation both to optimize patient outcomes and to ensure the continuity of coverage for these services. INTRODUCTION: Hearing loss affects 1.5 of newborns in Denmark. New research estimates that genetic factors account for 60% of hearing loss present at birth or in early childhood. The growing knowledge of the genetic causes of hearing loss provides new potential in the diagnostic process, either as prenatal diagnostics (PND) by means of placenta biopsy or amniocentesis or as a supplement to the existing audiologic screening. The purpose of this study was to shed light on the attitude towards PND among the parents of 22 children who received a cochlear implant in the cochlear implant centre of Western Denmark. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The parents received a questionnaire with questions on demographics and general attitudes and personal views regarding PND. RESULTS: In total, 42 persons received a questionnaire, 18 replied (41%). There was generally a positive attitude towards attaining early knowledge about the child's hearing status. The most significant reason for this attitude was that it would make it possible to prepare for having a deaf child. Only 6% thought that the obtained knowledge would lead to termination of pregnancy. CONCLUSION: In consistency with these parents' point of view, audiologic testing was implemented in Denmark in 2004. In future, screening for hearing loss would benefit from the addition of molecular genetic testing to detect late-onset hearing loss. This study documents child, family and educational characteristics of a large representative sample of 8- to 9-yr-old prelingually deaf children who received a cochlear implant by 5 yr of age. Because pre-existing factors such as the child's gender, family characteristics, additional handicaps, age at onset of deafness and at implant, may affect postimplant outcomes, these variables must be accounted for before the impact of educational factors on performance with an implant can be adequately determined. Classroom variables that may affect postimplant outcomes include placement in public or private, mainstream or special education, oral or total communication environments. Other intervention variables include type and amount of individual therapy, experience of the therapist and parent participation in therapy. Documenting these characteristics for a large representative sample of implanted children can provide clinicians and researchers with insight regarding the types of families who sought early cochlear implantation for their children and the types of educational programs in which they placed their children after implantation. It is important to undertake studies that control for as many of these factors as possible so that the relative benefits of specific educational approaches for helping children to get the most benefit from their cochlear implant can be identified. Over a 4-yr period, 181 children from across the US and Canada, accompanied by a parent, attended a cochlear implant research camp. Parents completed questionnaires in which they reported the child's medical and educational history, characteristics of the family, and their participation in the child's therapy. The parent listed names and addresses of clinicians who had provided individual speech/language therapy to the child and signed permission for these clinicians to complete questionnaires describing this therapy. To the extent that this sample is representative of those families seeking a cochlear implant for their child, especially during the initial period of device availability, this population can be characterized as follows. Most parents had normal hearing, were of majority (white) ethnicity and had more education and higher incomes than the general population. The families tended to be intact with both a mother and a father who involved their hearing-impaired child in family activities on a regular basis. The children were enrolled in the full range of educational placements available across the United States and Canada. Fairly even distributions of children from public and private schools, special education and mainstream classes and oral and total communication methodologies were represented. Educational placement changed as children gained increased experience with a cochlear implant. They received an increased emphasis on speech and auditory skills in their classroom settings and tended to move from private school and special education settings to public school and mainstream programs. These data support the position that early cochlear implantation is a cost effective procedure that allows deaf children to participate in a normal school environment with hearing age mates. In July 2002, a cluster of bacterial meningitis (BM) cases was identified among European cochlear implant recipients (CIRs), prompting Health Canada to conduct a retrospective cohort study to determine the rate of BM infection among Canadian CIRs and to identify risk factors for acquiring BM. A survey was mailed to 1,432 Canadian CIRs who had received implants during January 1995-July 2002 to assess occurrence of postimplant BM infection. Data collection included demographics, episodes of meningitis, and vaccination status. A total of 1,024 (72%) surveys were completed. Median age of CIRs at implantation was 16 years (range: 7 months-81 years). Five (0.5%) cases of BM infection were reported (two pneumococcal, one meningococcal, and two of unknown etiology); one CIR died. Four cases occurred among children aged or =18 years and 2.9 among those aged To present the results of a survey administered to a group of early-deafened cochlear implants adults and to report the level of perceived benefit. Large tertiary referral centre. A 47-item questionnaire designed to evaluate cochlear implant use and benefit was sent to 42 early-deafened adult cochlear implant users. The questionnaire can be divided into seven subcategories: time of use, associated symptoms, communication, employment status and function, socialization, perceived benefit, and the impact on quality of life. Responses from 30 patients were received. The majority of our patients use their cochlear implant all of their waking hours. The majority of patients continue to depend on lip-reading and hearing as their main mode of communication, although they reported improved lip-reading skills with their cochlear implant. Twenty-three patients (76.7%) were employed. Eleven patients had a change in employment subsequent to cochlear implantation, nine (81.8%) of whom attributed this to their cochlear implant. Our patients als reported greater independence, a greater sense of safety in their environment, and an improved social life. Twenty-nine patients (96.7%) said that they were satisfied with their implant, 28 (93.3%) said that they would go through the same process again, and 27 (90%) said that they would recommend it to a friend in a similar situation. Twenty-nine patients (96.7%) stated that the cochlear implant has had a positive effect on their quality of life. Family and peer support, prior auditory-verbal therapy, and a positive attitude were the most commonly cited factors in successful cochlear implant use. Early-deafened adult cochlear implant users perceive significant benefit from cochlear implantation. Importantly, family and peer support, prior auditory-verbal therapy, and a positive attitude are considered important factors in maximizing this benefit.

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How much time do you spend each day on social media? Have you ever thought about going two days without accessing the computer? Have you managed recently to stay three days without video games? We are going to deal with electronic addictions today. We will have a look at some of the more recent scientific findings that have shown how addiction, and specifically electronic addictions, can affect your brain in an unhealthy way. Do you know that today there are specific treatments for people who are addicted to the internet, social networks and video games? But let’s understand what an addiction is. An addict is a person who is dependent on something, so addiction is what becomes a god to you. If you look at what you are addicted to, you are worshiping this object and it becomes a god. Addiction is what dominates your thoughts, dominates your feelings and influences your attitudes. If we want a scientific definition of addiction, it can be: It is an unhealthy model of substance use or some other object, which leads to negative changes in your health. Addiction separates you from your emotions. You may notice, when you stop or try to stop something that is the object of your addiction, there is certainly anxiety, restlessness, nervousness, insomnia, irritability and impatience. So addiction dulls reasoning and emotions. If you are addicted, it can be sex, a substance that is legalized as alcohol, you certainly have a numbness, an anesthesia, a blockage of some reasoning, some thoughts, some feelings that you would need to be experiencing to have a healthier behavior. So you use a substance, you use a product, you use a practice, in this case video game addiction, social network addiction, internet addiction, you use that to numb your emotion, then comes a remorse: I spent a lot of time on it! Oh boy, I neglected my kids! I arrived late for work! I spent a lot of money, because I wanted to buy a more powerful equipment! Or whatever else! Then comes the guilt, then comes the feeling of lack of self-worth, because I think I’m no good as a human being, I don’t think there’s an escape, and then you feel more anguish, more sadness and then you can think: Let me get on a social network again to see if I can relieve myself a little. And you get this sick emotional ping pong, it’s really a destructive cycle! Types of Addictions Every addiction creates a destructive cycle for your health, for your peace, for your happiness and also for the well-being of the people around you. There are several types of addictive agents, that is, there are several instruments, several situations, several practices that can produce an addiction in your life, not just alcohol, cocaine, marijuana and what we are talking now about the internet. There are people addicted to work, to success, to spending too much, to gambling, to accumulating goods, people addicted to controlling others, to humiliating people, it is an addiction, a disorder, an alteration. You have to deal with it. There are people addicted to food, people addicted to sex, pedophilia, pornography, indeed, there is an epidemic of pornography addiction. People you never imagined are connected with this. This is a symptom; the world is compulsive. Compulsive not in a positive sense unfortunately, of having a compulsion to do something good for society. The world is medicated, the world is anesthetized, the world is altered, in their emotions, in their reasoning due to various types of drugs. Some people are addicted to approval, a need to please, always neglecting their needs to see if they please someone. People in a savior role, people who are dependent on toxic relationships. What is a toxic relationship? It’s a relationship that’s bad for you, that will harm you. There are people who marry a complicated person, suffer a lot, separate, marry another complicated person, suffer a lot again. There are people with a mania for their physical outlook, their cosmetics and clothing, obsessed with aesthetics and plastic surgery, it’s just that these people want to try to look good on the outside, while on the inside they’re not very well centered. Some people are addicted to academic titles, there are various types of addictions there. There exists a vicious cycle of addiction. The person has emotional pain, he has emotional discomfort, there is something that is not well resolved within him, some trauma. I don’t like this word because it gives the impression that emotional suffering has to do with a trauma, while in reality it is a set of situations in life that are, in general, painful and difficult, which develops the person’s emotional suffering. So he has pain, he looks for an agent to get rid of this pain, it can be cocaine, marijuana, sex, pornography, food, as I said, he has a temporary anesthesia of this pain, then it can have negative consequences, it will depend on the type of addictive object that he’s using, and then he’s finally going to have shame, guilt and that results in more pain and lessening of his self-worth and he gets stuck in this cycle. Effects of Electronic Addiction Some studies show that too much time on the internet infantilizes the brain. It’s showing that it can produce a generation of young people incapable to think for themselves. For anything, they get on the internet: Let’s see what that person says. They will access site a b c or d. Dr Susan Greenfield, a neuroscientist at Oxford University, says the following: The immediacy of imagery in the internet impairs mental development in children and adolescents. These images are very fast, the child’s brain is not prepared to be able to manage all of this. So it’s different from stories told by parents in the past, They used to sit on the porch, telling stories of this and that to the children, but a story that has a beginning, a middle, an end, and a lesson. On the internet, those images with a lot of virtual stimulation confuses children’s minds. So these stories that parents can offer their children help the brain to think in sequence, reason from cause to effect, in addition to the emotional bond that father and mother have talking to their child and interacting with the family.1)Greenfield S, “Excesso de internet pode criar geração de jovens incapazes de pensar por si próprios” Revista Ser Médico, Jan/Fev/Mar de 2012 In the Chinese Academy of Sciences, a very interesting scientific study was done by a scientist named Fuchun Lin in 2012, he came to the conclusion that young people who surf excessively in the internet have brain changes similar to those seen in gambling compulsives.2)Lin F, Abnormal White Matter Integrity in Adolescents with Internet Addiction Disorder: A Tract-Based Spatial Statistics Study. Plos One, January 11, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030253. So you see the matter is serious. At the University of Rochester, in a 2010 study by scientist Daphne Bavelier, she came to the following conclusion that there is a strong correlation between exaggerated computer use and brain abnormalities.3)Bavelier D et.al. Children, Wired: For Better and for Worse. Neuron, Vol. 67, Issue 5, 9 September 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.035 What To Do About Electronic Addictions? What can you do if you’re addicted to electronics, social networking, you can’t go two hours without accessing and posting things? And if you stop you will feel symptoms of the withdrawal crisis, anxiety, irritation, impatience and nervousness, some lose their appetite, in others it increases appetite or causing insomnia? Let’s talk a little bit if you have children and don’t know how to dose the use of electronics in their hands, what can be done? First, it’s important to understand that any compulsion can serve to keep you from realizing some inner needs, experiencing certain emotions, living certain thoughts, improving relationships in some areas of your life. If the family you live in is experiencing this problem of excessive use of electronics, then it is important that the family as a whole looks for solutions to this. It’s no use for you as a father, as a mother who is addicted to electronics, wanting to teach your child a moral lesson and say: “Stop it! Or: Turn it off! Give it to me! I’ll take it away!” But you are addicted too? You can’t put down your electronics, how are you going to exact this from your child? To fix the excess, the abuse of electronics that can already be characterized as an addiction, it is important that you lead by example. So in this family where there is a member who is really addicted, maybe a young man is leaving his studies, because he spends hours and nights on his computer, in his bedroom, he sees who knows what, even if you have parental control connected on the computer, you need to set an example. So this young person or child will need a limit in their computer time. You have to determine this as a father, as a mother, you have to have a firm hand, love has to be firm. If you’ve a small child, don’t put electronics in that child’s hand too early. Take it to the park or play an educational toy with them. So parents need to lead by example. Because you as a dad or mom might not be addicted to electronics, but you can be addicted to something else. There are people who come home, tired from work and say: My day was so exhausting, let me have a drink of whiskey to relax! Oops! Or they may say: Where’s my tranquilizer, have you seen my medicine box over there? I’m nervous, I want to take an extra dose of tranquilizer! You know your son, your daughter is seeing this, is noticing that you are dependent on something to make you feel better. Then you can allow internet access for your children after they do some chores or homework. It seems that parents today feel guilty about giving chores to their children. They want to give everything on a silver plate to their children. This is a diseducation. In a house, even if it is a middle-class or rich house, even if it has employees for house cleaning for example, it is important that father and mother finds some simple tasks for their children: “you clean your closet, you put the garbage out, you put the clothes into the dryer, you help me here to peel these fruits so we can have breakfast, because the maid hasn’t arrived yet. This participation, this setting of limits, giving tasks to your children, for everyone to participate, is necessary. This does not mean that you will be sitting in the armchair demanding: “Go there and bring me my coffee, go do this and that!” If you participate then this will help in setting limits for your children, including internet usage. This is an important factor, because the ones who set rules in the house have to be the father and the mother. Another important thing you can do with your children is to change the electronics use pattern, like: “Look, you’re only going to use the computer after doing a homework and school assignment. You only use your tablet after you shower.” That’s it, it’s set. You have to dialogue and explain, and keep that decision firm. Don’t go back. So don’t say something you won’t do, or you’ll lose morale. They will see that you say something and don’t do it, or give in easily. Being firm is different from exercising authoritarianism; an emotional dictatorship should not exist in the relationship between parents and children. Children need an authority, that’s why God even placed a commandment: honor father and mother. Some scientific studies, analyzing young people who were raised in very dictatorial homes, compared to young people raised in homes that were very liberal, have shown that these young people in their adulthood had somewhat similar sufferings. In other words, children raised in very dictatorial homes, which can never do anything, had emotional distress in adulthood, and also young people who could do anything when they wanted to, also had emotional distress in adulthood. Why? Because young teenagers who had this freedom, said consciously: “Oh my dad, my mom, is cool, they let me do what I want!”, but deep down they felt like: “Do they care about myself? Are they interested in me? Do they want to know how my inner world is?” That’s interesting! If there is any kind of addiction, you have already noticed that your child is too much hooked to the computer in his room, you will have to make a decision and explain: “Look son, I’m going to put the computer in the living room.”, especially if you’ve noticed that he’s hiding what he does, or if you’ve already seen that he’s been accessing some bad websites. It’s not even a dictatorial attitude, because you could even take the computer away from him. But you’re giving him a chance: “I’ll put the computer in the room for you to use in an educated way, for things that are good for you.” Because people go back and forth in the room, which restricts inappropriate use. Of course, there are also programs that block certain websites. You can also use a timer: “Look, I’ll put an hour here for you before you take a shower, or after you shower”. You can use this strategy. It is also important to think about whether there is some kind of emotional disorder that is leading this person to this addiction. This may need a professional assessment. There are people who may be addicted to pornography, and then they will need to have specialized treatment to deal with it and get out of that kind of suffering. We might think: “Wow, that sounds somewhat backwards and outdated, how can I pass this on to my children?” Because kids today want electronics! How to go about it? Will you block everything? For infants yes, but for a little bit older children you can dose them. “You will play a little in the backyard, a little in the park, climb the trees, play on the beach and then you have a moment alone with your electronics”. It’s not one or the other, but you definitely don´t want your kids on electronics all day long without having any outdoor activity. The virtual world is not a healthy replacement for the real world. So, protect your kids from overexposure to electronics. And small child doesn’t need a cell phone. I would like to finish with the text that is in the book of Luke: People were also bringing babies to Jesus for him to place his hands on them. When the disciples saw this, they rebuked them. But Jesus called the children to him and said, “Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these.”4)The Bible, Luke 18:15,16 (New International Version).Luke 18:15.16 Take care of your children so that they don’t get their brains harmed by excessive exposure to electronics! Stay Always Up to Date Sign up to our newsletter and stay always informed with news and tips around your health. Dr. Cesar Vasconcellos de Souza is working as a psychiatrist and international speaker. He is author of 3 books, columnist of the health magazine “Vida e Saúde” for 25 years, and has a regular program on the “Novo Tempo” TV channel. |↑1||Greenfield S, “Excesso de internet pode criar geração de jovens incapazes de pensar por si próprios” Revista Ser Médico, Jan/Fev/Mar de 2012| |↑2||Lin F, Abnormal White Matter Integrity in Adolescents with Internet Addiction Disorder: A Tract-Based Spatial Statistics Study. Plos One, January 11, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030253| |↑3||Bavelier D et.al. Children, Wired: For Better and for Worse. Neuron, Vol. 67, Issue 5, 9 September 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.035| |↑4||The Bible, Luke 18:15,16 (New International Version).|

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Having long pondered the complex question of how to provide leadership in a system of government deriving its "just powers from the consent of the governed" and having gained wide experience in public office, Madison became president on 4 March 1809. Although painful intraparty opposition by his long-time friend James Monroe and by Vice President George Clinton, as well as by a Federalist party revived by anger at the embargo, denied him the political domination enjoyed by Jefferson, Madison nonetheless won comfortably with 122 votes in the electoral college to 47 for Federalist Charles C. Pinckney, 6 for Clinton, and none for Monroe. Trying to adjust to his diminished political position and perhaps too little inclined to exert his will on Congress, Madison accepted one of the weakest cabinets in American history. Thwarted by the Senate from moving Gallatin to the State Department, Madison instead appointed affable but incompetent Robert Smith, who, through alliance with a group of hostile senators led by his brother, Samuel Smith of Maryland, became a center of disaffection within the cabinet. Madison endured this disloyalty and covered up for Robert Smith's incompetence by in effect continuing to do the work of the secretary of state himself for two years, but he finally had to replace Smith in a storm of factional invective in April 1811. The new secretaries of war and the navy, William Eustis of Massachusetts and Paul Hamilton of South Carolina, were second or third choices for their posts and were appointed largely to achieve regional balance. Eustis proved utterly unsuited to the administrative needs of the War Department, while Hamilton became an alcoholic, ordinarily unable to perform any duties after noontime. Even Gallatin, although a most able secretary of the treasury and entirely loyal, was restive, resentful, and politically damaged at being barred by the Senate from the State Department. Two men carried over from Jefferson's administration in offices not yet accorded cabinet status were scarcely better: Attorney General Caesar Rodney was seldom in the capital, while Postmaster General Gideon Granger, because of disputes over appointments, was increasingly estranged from, and hostile to, the president. Madison began his presidency, then, laboring under severe political difficul-ties and surrounded by less-than-ideal colleagues. The ill effects of these appointments might have been avoided in normal times, but Madison faced the climactic years of the Napoleonic Wars. Britain and France were locked in a life-and-death combat that made neutrality difficult and infringed the rights of nonbelligerents. Both great powers plundered American vessels on the high seas, issued arbitrary decrees to damage American commerce, and otherwise took what advantage they could of the scorned and unarmed upstart nation. But it was Britain—with warships that ruled the seas; arrogant naval officers who ruthlessly impressed American sailors; sharp-dealing merchants who were eager to keep the former colonies in a state of economic dependence; and a fleet that could harass, blockade, and bombard the American coast with impunity—that could, and did, most injure and offend the United States. Thus, Madison saw Britain as the principal threat to the nation and came increasingly to feel that standing up to her might require a "second War of Independence." The tangled diplomacy and stop-and-start legislation to impose economic sanctions on one or both of the belligerents that preoccupied Madison during his first three years as president—the signing and repudiation of the Erskine Agreement, the two Macon bills, protests of British orders-in-council and Napoleonic decrees, and so on—all failed because both France and Britain, fighting for survival, were prepared to use any means to win any advantage they could. In the summer of 1811, Madison, by then ably supported by James Monroe, who had replaced Robert Smith as secretary of state, and buttressed in Congress by energetic young members soon dubbed War Hawks (Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun foremost among them), decided that if final efforts at favorable diplomatic settlement with each belligerent failed, war with the worst offender (almost sure to be Britain) would be necessary. In the spring of 1812, as Madison, Monroe, and their congressional allies pushed war preparations, intransigent dispatches arrived from Europe, so on 1 June, Madison asked Congress to declare war on the former mother country. With Federalists (dominant only in New England) solidly in opposition, the House of Representatives voted for hostilities (seventy-nine to forty-nine) and the Senate followed suit (nineteen to thirteen); on 18 June, Madison signed the declaration of war. Madison viewed the declaration with sadness and regret, although he had for nearly a year been working with his cabinet and with Clay and others in Congress to prepare the country for battle. In reviewing the course toward war, Madison observed that Britain's notice of July 1811 that it would require humiliating concessions before withdrawing orders-in-council had made hostilities virtually inevitable. Writing to antiwar John Taylor "of Caroline" even before the final declaration, Monroe had explained that upon joining the cabinet in April 1811, he had found erroneous his conviction that Britain would make concessions if properly approached. Nothing, he added, "would satisfy the present Ministry of England short of unconditional submission which it was impossible to make." Thus, after July 1811, "the only remaining alternative was to get ready for fighting, and to begin as soon as we were ready. This was the plan of the administration when Congress met [in November 1811]; the President's message announced it; and every step taken by the administration since had led to it." Asked to assess Madison's state of mind as the war approached, his private secretary, Edward Coles, noted that "it was congenial alike to the life and character of Mr. Madison that he should be reluctant to go to war, . . . this savage and brutal manner of settling disputes between nations," while diplomacy afforded any peaceful hopes at all. Coles agreed with Monroe that Britain's notice of July 1811 "closed the door to peace in Mr. Madison's opinion" and observed further that during the long session of Congress from November 1811 to July 1812, "a class of irritable men, . . . hotspurs of the day," declaimed for war, heedless of the need for preparation and scornful of "sound, prudent and patriotic men" who wanted delay and further diplomatic initiatives. Madison stood in the middle, Coles said, trying "to moderate the zeal and impatience of the ultra belligerent men, and to stimulate the more moderate and forbearing. To check those who were anxious to rush on hastily to extreme measures without due preparation and to urge those who lagged too far behind." The president restrained his own determination to go to war to bring to his side "tardy and over cautious members of Congress" and thus be able to declare war "by a large and influential majority." Viewed in this perspective, Madison's course during the year preceding the war declaration and even during the whole seven-year period following full-scale resumption of the Napoleonic Wars in 1805, appears straight and consistent, if not always wise and well executed. He thought throughout that his goal, a genuine republican independence for the United States, found its worst menace in the commercial and maritime arrogance and power of Great Britain. To have submitted to her unilateral decrees, her discriminatory trade regulations, or her naval outrages would have restored the colonial dependence Madison had fought for half a century. It would, moreover, have ratified unjust principles of international law and emboldened antirepublican forces in Britain and the United States, thereby threatening, in Madison's opinion, the survival of free government anywhere in the world. War was deemed so corrosive to republican principles that only the direst emergency could condone it. Thus, Madison tried every conceivable and even some inconceivable ways of peaceful resistance until many men less patient, less subtle, and less earnestly republican than he thought him hopelessly irreso-lute or a tool of Napoleon. Madison pronounced this latter charge "as foolish as it is false." If the war coincided with the views of the enemy of Great Britain and was favored by Napoleon's operations against the British, he observed coolly, that assuredly could be no sound objection to the time chosen for extorting justice from her. On the contrary, the coincidence, though it happened not to be the moving consideration, would have been a rational one; especially as it is not pretended that the United States acted in concert with [Napoleon], or precluded themselves from making peace without any understanding with him; or even from making war on France, in the event of peace with her enemy, and her continued violation of our neutral rights. Although in retrospect it may seem Madison underestimated Napoleon's global ambitions, he had no illusions about the French tyrant. Britain's greater capacity to injure the United States was the steady, realistic base of Madison's policy. Less defensible is Madison's relentless, sometimes innocently implausible reliance on peaceful coercion—such as embargo, selective trading with the belligerents, or alliances with other neutral nations—which instead of persuading the belligerents to deal honorably with the United States, only convinced them they had nothing to fear from it. Thus, insult followed depredation, year after year. Shifting from one kind of nonviolent coercion to another and offering the carrot and then the stick first to one belligerent and then to the other, instead of persuading either of them to accept American support in exchange for commercial justice, led each country to think it could, by intrigue and maneuver, get all it wanted while granting nothing. As a result, by 1812 the United States was neither trusted nor respected by the warring powers. At home, Madison's patient, subtle efforts to unite the country behind him often had the doubly debilitating effect of disgusting those impatient for war and encouraging those opposed to it to think he would ultimately flinch from hostilities. Although, even in retrospect, better alternatives are not readily apparent, Madison's course seldom had the effect he intended. Least defensible of all is the unfitness of the nation for war in June 1812. In response to those who charged that Britain, not the United States, had to fight at long distance and therefore would benefit from delay and warning, Madison insisted that "it was, in fact, not the suddenness of war as an Executive policy, but the tardiness of legislative provision" that left the nation unprepared. He had, he pointed out, recommended a military buildup in early November 1811, and it was more than two months before Congress took even ill-conceived steps. Although Congress did indeed hang back in this and many other ways during the twelve years of Republican rule, Madison seldom did more than call vaguely for "attention to the nation's defenses," and Secretary Gallatin insisted repeatedly that military expenditures be limited by his plans to discharge the national debt. From 1805 on, while Madison talked loudly and unyieldingly of neutral rights, the chasm widened between the obvious military peril of the European war and the pitiful state of the country's armed forces. He often spoke loudly and carried no stick at all. Madison correctly pointed out the host of difficulties he faced in placing the nation on a war footing. Officers for the army had to be chosen from among "survivors of the Revolutionary band," many of whom "were disqualified by age or infirmities," or from among those untried on the battlefield. Furthermore, to appoint any executive officer, "an eye must be had to his political principles and connections, his personal temper and habits, his relations . . . towards those with whom he is to be associated, and the quarter of the Union to which he belongs." Add to this, Madison concluded, "the necessary sanction of the Senate" (often denied) and the large "number of refusals" of office by the most qualified prospects, and the reasons for a poorly staffed register were painfully obvious. Madison did not lack will, or understanding of what needed to be done, or courage to face war, but rather, as his own apologies verify, the capacity to disentangle himself from republican pieties, political crosscurrents, and organizational weaknesses. Calhoun wrote a friend in April 1812 that "our President tho a man of amiable manners and great talents, has not I fear those commanding talents, which are necessary to controul those about him. He permits division in his cabinet. He reluctantly gives up the system of peace." The South Carolinian observed further that "this is the first war that the country has ever been engaged in; there is a great want of military knowledge; and the whole of our system has to be commenced and organized." Eight months later, after disasters caused by "errors and mismanagement . . . of most incompetent men," Calhoun noted that the difficulties "lie deep; and are coeval with the existence of Mr. Jefferson's administration." Jeffersonian republicanism, with its hostility to economic regulation, deficit financing, and militarism, simply was not a vehicle designed for effective travel down the road to war. What Clay, Calhoun, and other War Hawks did in 1811 and 1812 was not browbeat the president into war or give the impulse to it from their expansionist predilections but rather to provide the legislative leadership in Congress, the effective attention to preparedness, and the sharp propaganda sense needed to arouse the country. Madison saw too clearly all the variables of a complex situation, knew too well the traps awaiting him in every direction, and understood too profoundly the anti-republican tendencies of arming for war to accept readily the reckless and unsubtle needs of girding for battle. What undermined Madison's policy of upholding American rights by peaceful means was, first and foremost, the absence of effective armed force, which again and again prevented him from being able to confront his opponents with a plausible threat and made skeptics on both sides of the Atlantic doubt he could have any ultimate intention of going to war. Second, an impression of irresolution grew from the shifting terms of his policies of commercial retaliation and peaceful coercion—embargo, nonintercourse, nonimportation, and so on—which often, at the very moment of effective pressure, freed trade long enough for Britain to fill its warehouses. Madison underestimated, too, the flexibility of international trade, the endurance of the belligerents, and the amount of damage some of his policies inflicted on the United States. Thus, the nation, especially New England, saw no credible and effective policy around which to rally. Although Madison, striving for domestic unity, both tempered his policy and manipulated his channels of communication, his stance was inevitably regarded as unwarlike. Reflecting on the causes of the war, Republican Congressman Jonathan Roberts wrote that "there had all along been an idea cherished by the opposition, that the majority would not have nerve enough to meet war. This I believe, mainly induced Britain to persist in her aggressions. If she could have been made to believe . . . that we were a united people, and would act as such, war might have been avoided." As the London Independent Chronicle pointed out, "in every measure of government, the [Federalist] faction have rallied in opposition, and urged the British Ministry to persist in their Orders. They forced the United States to the alternative, either to surrender their independence, or maintain it by War." Thus, although these misjudgments, too subtle policies, and republican predilections may paradoxically have made more likely the war that Madison tried to avoid and certainly left the nation dangerously unprepared, he was perfectly clear, as he stated in his first wartime message to Congress, on the basic cause and ultimate need for hostilities: The war in which we are actually engaged is a war neither of ambition nor of vainglory.. . . It is waged not in violation of the rights of others, but in maintenance of our own.. . . To have shrunk [from it] . . . would have struck us from the high rank where the virtuous struggles of our fathers had placed us, and have betrayed the magnificent legacy which we hold in trust for future generations. It would have acknowledged that on [water] . . . where all independent nations have equal and common rights, the American people were not an independent people but colonists and vassals.

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Action And Clinical Pharmacology: Enflurane is an inhalation anesthetic. Induction and recovery from anesthesia with enflurane are rapid. Enflurane does not appear to stimulate excessive salivation or tracheabronchial secretions, or affect bronchomotor tone. Pharyngeal and laryngeal reflexes are readily obtunded. The level of anesthesia changes rapidly, which would be predicted based upon its Oswald partition coefficients. Enflurane reduces ventilation as depth of anesthesia increases. This is a result of a decrease in tidal volume with rate of respiration remaining essentially constant. Enflurane provokes a sigh response reminiscent of diethyl ether. There is a decrease in blood pressure with induction of anesthesia, followed by a return to near normal with surgical stimulation. A slight fall in cardiac output, stroke volume, and peripheral resistance, and an increase in central venous pressure may occur. Progressive increases in depth of anesthesia produce corresponding increases in hypotension. ECG monitoring and recording indicate that the cardiac rhythm remains remarkably stable. Elevation of CO2 level in arterial blood does not alter cardiac rhythm. While enflurane has been shown to sensitize the myocardial conduction system to epinephrine in the dog and may produce serious arrhythmias, studies in cats and man indicate that there is a certain margin of safety in the administration of epinephrine-containing solutions during enflurane anesthesia. Enflurane anesthesia has been used in medical conditions involving high levels of endogenous catecholamines, as well as surgical procedures involving carefully administered quantities of epinephrine-containing solutions. On the basis of this experience, up to 10 mL of 1:100 000 or 1:200 000 epinephrine-containing solution alone or in conjunction with lidocaine 0.5 to 2.0% may be injected s.c. at a rate of not more than 10 mL/10-minute period and no more than 30 mL/h. The concomitant administration of lidocaine enhances the safety of the use of epinephrine during enflurane anesthesia. This effect of lidocaine is dose related. More dilute solutions and reduced dosages should be used in highly vascular areas. All customary precautions in the use of vasoconstrictor substances should be observed, including monitoring of respiration, blood pressure and pulse. Epinephrine should be used in association with enflurane only in patients who have adequate pulmonary function to ensure optimal pulmonary ventilation and should not be used in patients with pre-existing cardiac disease who cannot tolerate the tachycardia or hypertension which may result from the administration of exogenous catecholamines, or in patients with hyperthyroidism. Muscle relaxation in man may in certain cases be adequate for intra-abdominal operations at normal levels of anesthesia. Should greater relaxation be necessary, minimal doses of muscle relaxants may be used. Nondepolarizing muscle relaxants are markedly potentiated by enflurane. All commonly used muscle relaxants are compatible with enflurane. Neostigmine does not reverse the direct relaxant effect of enflurane. Enflurane 0.25 to 1.0% (average 0.5%) provides analgesia equal to that produced by 30 to 60% (average 40%) nitrous oxide for vaginal delivery. With either agent, patients remain awake, cooperative and oriented. These anesthetic approaches produce normal Apgar scores and comparable maternal blood losses. Neither enflurane nor nitrous oxide when used for obstetrical analgesia alters BUN, creatinine, uric acid or osmolality. The only difference in the use of these two agents for obstetrical analgesia appears to be higher inspired oxygen concentration that may be used with enflurane. Analgetic doses of enflurane (e.g. 0.5 to 0.8%) do not significantly depress the frequency of contraction of human uterine muscle. Force of contraction remains at more than 80% of normal. Higher concentrations (1.5 to 3.0%) depress both rate and contractility. Intrauterine manipulations for versions and extractions are easily done at higher concentrations because of the profound uterine relaxation. Blood loss in patients anesthetized for therapeutic abortion with 1.0% enflurane in 70% nitrous oxide is 24 mL greater than blood loss in patients receiving paracervical block anesthesia. Uterine bleeding may be increased when enflurane is used in anesthetizing concentrations for vaginal delivery or delivery by Cesarean section. However, unless the enflurane concentration exceeds 2 to 3%, the uterine muscle remains responsive to oxytocic administration. Babies delivered per vagina or by Cesarean section under nitrous oxide-enflurane anesthesia usually have normal Apgar scores. The systemic metabolism of enflurane in humans was measured in healthy female patients anesthetized with enflurane and undergoing routine gynecological procedures. In 7 patients, 85.1% of the administered enflurane was recovered; 82.7% as unchanged enflurane and 2.4% as nonvolatile fluorine-containing urinary metabolites. Of the urinary fluorine-containing metabolites, 0.5% was inorganic fluoride and 1.9% organic fluoride. Maximum inorganic fluoride excretion was attained in 7 hours, while maximum urinary organic fluoride excretion was attained on the second day. Although metabolism to the extent of at least 2.4% is attained, the degree is much less than that reported with halothane, methoxyflurane, fluroxene and trichloroethylene. Serum inorganic fluoride was determined in 66 patients receiving enflurane. The patient population consisted of 23 males, 43 females, with a mean age of 53, age spread of 19 to 88, and a mean duration of anesthesia of 212 minutes. The mean serum inorganic fluoride levels in mol/L are as follows (the standard error of the mean was 0.03 to 2.6): before anesthesia (control) 1.54; 1 hour anesthesia 11.1; end of anesthesia 15.6; 24 hours postoperatively 7.6; 48 hours postoperatively 3.5. These levels are well below the 50 mol/L threshold level which can produce minimal renal damage in normal subjects. However, patients chronically ingesting isoniazid or other hydrazine-containing compounds may metabolize greater amounts of enflurane. Although no significant renal dysfunction has been found thus far in such patients, peak serum fluoride levels can exceed 50 µmol/L, particularly when anesthesia goes beyond 2 MAC hours. Depression of lymphocyte transformation does not follow prolonged enflurane anesthesia in man in the absence of surgery. Thus enflurane does not depress this aspect of the immune response. Indications And Clinical Uses: May be used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. Enflurane may be used for analgesia in vaginal delivery. Enflurane may also be used for anesthesia during operative vaginal delivery or delivery by Caesarean section. However, as noted above, higher concentrations of enflurane may produce uterine bleeding. Contra-Indications: Seizure disorders (see Warnings). Known sensitivity to enflurane or other halogenated anesthetics. Manufacturers’ Warnings In Clinical States: With increasing depth of enflurane anesthesia, CNS excitation occurs, manifested by a change in the EEG characterized by high voltage, fast frequency, progressing through spike-dome complexes alternating with periods of electrical silence to frank seizure activity. The latter may or may not be associated with motor movement. Motor activity, when encountered, generally consists of twitching or “jerks” of various muscle groups; it is self-limiting and can be terminated by lowering the anesthetic concentration. This EEG pattern associated with deep anesthesia is exacerbated by hyperventilation producing low arterial CO2 tension. The pattern serves as a warning that depth of anesthesia is excessive. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism studies in normal volunteers during seizure patterns show no evidence of cerebral hypoxia, and recovery appears to be uncomplicated. Nevertheless, enflurane should not be used in patients with convulsive disorders. Since levels of anesthesia may be altered easily and rapidly, only vaporizers producing predictable concentrations should be used. Hypotension and respiratory exchange can serve as a guide to anesthesia depth. With deep levels of anesthesia, more marked hypotension and respiratory depression are encountered. The action of nondepolarizing relaxants is augmented by enflurane, so less than the usual amounts of those drugs should be used. The time for recovery from the myoneural effect of these relaxants is greater in the presence of enflurane than for other commonly used anesthetics. Safety of repeat anesthesia with enflurane has not been established. Epinephrine-containing solutions should be used in association with enflurane only in patients with adequate pulmonary function and should not be used in patients with pre-existing cardiac disease who cannot tolerate the tachycardia or hypertension which may result from the administration of exogenous catecholamines, or patients with hyperthyroidism. Pregnancy: Safe use in pregnancy other than for analgesia for vaginal delivery or anesthesia during operative vaginal delivery or Cesarean section has not been established. Reproduction studies performed in rabbits and rats reveal no evidence of harm to the animal fetus. The relevance of these studies to the human is not known. There is no adequate experience in pregnant women who have received enflurane during the course of pregnancy (other than at term). Thus, safety to the fetus or pregnant mother has not been established. Precautions: Bromsulfalein (BSP) retention is mildly elevated postoperatively in some cases. There is some elevation of glucose and WBC count intraoperatively. Glucose elevation should be considered in diabetic patients. In susceptible individuals, enflurane anesthesia may trigger a skeletal muscle hypermetabolic state leading to high oxygen demand and the clinical syndrome known as malignant hyperthermia. The syndrome includes nonspecific features such as muscle rigidity, tachycardia, tachypnea, cyanosis, arrhythmias, and unstable blood pressure. (It should also be noted that many of these nonspecific signs may appear with light anesthesia, acute hypoxia, etc. The syndrome of malignant hyperthermia secondary to enflurane appears to be rare; by March 1980, 35 cases had been reported in North America for an approximate incidence of 1/725 000 enflurane anesthesias.) An increase in overall metabolism may be reflected in an elevated temperature (which may rise rapidly early or late in the case, but usually is not the first sign of augmented metabolism) and an increased usage of the CO2 absorption system (hot canister). PaO2 and pH may decrease, and hyperkalemia and a base deficit may appear. Treatment includes discontinuance of triggering agents (e.g. enflurane), administration of i.v. dantrolene sodium, and application of supportive therapy. Such therapy includes vigorous efforts to restore body temperature to normal, respiratory and circulatory support as indicated, and management of electrolyte-fluid-acid-base derangements. (Consult prescribing information for dantrolene sodium i.v. for additional information on patient management.) Renal failure may appear later, and urine flow should be sustained if possible. Adverse Reactions: Motor activity exemplified by movement of various muscle groups and/or seizures may be encountered with deep levels of enflurane anesthesia. Hypotension, respiratory depression, arrhythmias, shivering, hyperthermia, nausea and vomiting have been reported. Elevation of the WBC count has been observed. It has not been determined whether this is related to enflurane or to surgical stress. Elevation of AST, LDH, alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin, with or without frank jaundice, have been reported in the post-operative period following enflurane anesthesia in some patients. Hepatitis has been reported very rarely. Delirium, hallucinations and hiccup occur rarely. Symptoms And Treatment Of Overdose: Symptoms: Overdosage will generally produce marked hypotension and apnea in the absence of muscle relaxants. Treatment: In the event of overdosage, or what may appear to be overdosage, the following action should be taken: Stop drug administration. Establish that the airway is clear. Instigate assisted or controlled ventilation with pure oxygen as the circumstances dictate. Similarly, motor activity and increased electrical and seizure-like activity in the EEG may be indicative of excessive levels of anesthesia. In the event that this occurs, it is recommended that the level of anesthesia be lowered. If motor activity does not cease, the administration of enflurane should be discontinued. Dosage And Administration: The concentration of enflurane being delivered during anesthesia from a vaporizer should be known. This may be accomplished by using: (a) vaporizers calibrated specifically for enflurane; (b) vaporizers from which delivered flows can easily and readily be calculated. Nothing is present in the agent to alter calibration or affect the operation characteristics of the vaporizer. Preanesthetic Medication: Preanesthetic medication should be selected according to the needs of the individual patient, taking into account that secretions are weakly stimulated by enflurane and the heart rate remains constant. The use of anticholinergic drugs is a matter of choice. Surgical Anesthesia: Induction may be achieved using enflurane alone with oxygen or in combination with oxygen-nitrous oxide mixtures. Under these conditions some excitement may be encountered. If excitement is to be avoided, a hypnotic dose of a short-acting barbiturate should be used to induce unconsciousness, followed by the enflurane mixture. In general, inspired concentrations of 2.0 to 4.5% enflurane produce surgical anesthesia in 7 to 10 minutes. Maintenance: Surgical levels of anesthesia may be maintained with 0.5 to 3.0% enflurane. Maintenance concentrations should not exceed 3.0%. If added relaxation is required, supplemental doses of muscle relaxants may be used. Ventilation to maintain the tension of CO2 in arterial blood in the 35 to 45 mm Hg range is preferred. Hyperventilation should be avoided in order to minimize possible CNS excitation. The level of blood pressure during maintenance is an inverse function of enflurane concentration in the absence of other complicating problems. Excessive decreases (unless related to hypovolemia) may be due to depth of anesthesia and in such instances should be corrected by lightening the level of anesthesia. Analgesia: Enflurane 0.25 to 1.0% provides analgesia for vaginal delivery equal to that produced by 30 to 60% nitrous oxide. These concentrations normally do not produce amnesia. Enflurane, like some other inhalational anesthetics, can react with desiccated carbon dioxide (CO2) absorbents to produce carbon monoxide which may result in elevated levels of carboxyhemoglobin in some patients. Case reports suggest that barium hydroxide lime and sodalime become desiccated when fresh gases are passed through the CO2 absorber cannister at high flow rates over many hours or days. When a clinician suspects that CO2 absorbent may be desiccated, it should be replaced before the administration of enflurane. Administration Equipment: Enflurane may be administered from a flow-through type vaporizer manufactured and specifically calibrated for enflurane. Vaporizers which deliver saturated vapor at reasonable flows but are not specifically calibrated for enflurane may be used. The actual concentration can also be calculaled by the following formula (1) where: (1) Fv % Conc ( V V ) = ( Pv 760-Pv FT ) Legend: Pv=Vapor pressure of agent. Fv=Flow through vaporizer. FT=Total flow. For all practical purposes, Diluent Flow and Total Flow can be considered the same. However, if Diluent Flow is accurately desired, it can be calculated by formula (2). (2) FD=FT- ( 760 760-PV ) FV where FD=Diluent flow. Fv=Flow through vaporizer. Pv=Vapor pressure of agent. FT=Total flow. Enflurane contains no stabilizer. Nothing is present in the agent to alter calibration or affect the operation characteristics of the vaporizer. Keyed Bottle Collar (for use with key-fil vaporizer): Directions for Use: To attach a keyed bottle adaptor, remove cap and seal from anesthetic bottle. Check that the anesthetic bottle neck is not chipped or damaged. Match keyed bottle adaptor to keyed bottle collar and screw together until tight. Now connect the bottle to the vaporizer filler receptable. Note that color of keyed bottle collar will match the color of the adpator. (Refer to package insert for calculation of delivered enflurane concentration.) Availability And Storage: Amber-colored bottles of 250 mL. No additives or stabilizers are present. ETHRANE® Zeneca Enflurane Inhalation Anesthetic Posted by RxMed

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DESIDERIUS ERASMUS was the last great intellectual of a united Christian Europe: a scholar of universal renown, a friend to kings and tutor to princes, and a self-proclaimed “citizen of the world”. He produced a translation of the New Testament that changed the way Christians think about their faith. He also shaped popular culture. His dictionary rescued phrases such as “breaking the ice”, “teaching an old dog new tricks” and “leaving no stone unturned” from obscurity. His “In Praise of Folly” (1511) was hailed as a comic masterpiece. In an age when birth was generally destiny, he was a self-made man. Born in the small provincial town of Rotterdam in 1466, the illegitimate son of a priest, he was dumped in a local monastery at the earliest opportunity. He grew up far from the centre of the Renaissance in northern Italy. His subsequent stardom was purely the result of his extraordinary intellectual gifts. Unlike so many other great thinkers, in his time and since, Erasmus never fell prey to extremism. He believed in the healing power of moderation and reason, and in the civilising power of wine and conversation. This was partly a matter of personal style. He craved a life of scholarly comfort: “He lived in his study and died in his bed,” as the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper put it. Confronted with a king—and potential patron—he bent the knee; challenged by a bully, he changed the subject. It was also a matter of conviction. Erasmus loathed the certitude of ideologues and worried about the tendency of extremists to goad one another into greater acts of fanaticism. In place of revolutionary certainty, he preached the Middle Way. The best way to reform the establishment was from within, he argued. The Catholic church should be reinvigorated by calling it back to its original purpose; society should be reformed by educating princes in the art of government. But this moderate champion had the great bad luck to live in a zealous era. Soon after climbing to the intellectual and social pinnacle of Europe, Erasmus was thrown down and condemned. Only after his death was he given his due. His story is a warning to modern moderates, but also an inspiration. When Erasmus left his monastery and began to explore the world, he was astonished by the sorry state of the church. Nepotism was rife. Popes fathered children and advanced them, disguised as nephews, into well-paid jobs. The largest businesses in Rome were the wine trade and prostitution. The papacy preyed on the credulity of the laity by selling indulgences—“forged pardons for real sins”, in Erasmus’s words. Leo X, pope during Erasmus’s glory years, was the spirit of corruption made pudgy and pampered flesh. The church’s material self-indulgence was equalled by its intellectual desiccation. Universities were self-perpetuating oligarchies of obscurantists and suck-ups. A doctorate in theology at the Sorbonne took a minimum of eight years to complete and an average of 18. Erasmus described his teachers there as “quasi theologians” whose “brains are the most addled, tongues the most uncultured, wits the dullest, teachings the thorniest, characters the least attractive, lives the most hypocritical, talk the most slanderous, and hearts the blackest on Earth.” How could the church be rescued from its torpor? Erasmus believed that the answer lay in rediscovering the spirit of Christ. He did not believe, as some Christians did, that it was necessary to get rid of your property and devote yourself to the poor. Rather, for Erasmus it meant producing a perfect translation of the Bible based on the best texts available, assembled from libraries across Europe. For how could you hope to imitate Christ unless you knew exactly what he had said and how he had lived? Renaissance scholars in Italy had provided a model of how to revive classical studies by producing improved classical texts. Erasmus’s great scholarly achievement was to import these techniques to northern Europe and apply them to biblical texts. This inaugurated one of the great love affairs of his life, with ancient Greek. At the age of 30 he determined to make his Greek as good as his Latin (which was regarded as the best in Europe). He was astonished by what he found as he read classical Greek texts as well as fragments of the Bible. Whereas “we Latins have but a few small streams, a few muddy pools,” he wrote, “the Greeks possess crystal-clear springs and rivers that run with gold.” His “Novum Instrumentum” was the first Greek New Testament ever published. He put the Greek text next to the Latin Vulgate and his own “pure” Latin translation, which extirpated what he saw as linguistic corruptions in the church’s approved text. Like the Protestants who would soon convulse Europe, Erasmus believed that Christ’s message should be taught by and to everybody. Forget the waffling of the theologians: a “few truths are enough.” And forget the superstructure of the church: what really matters is the Word. “I would have women read the Gospels and the Epistles of St Paul...I would have the ploughman and the craftsman sing them at work; I would have the traveller recite them to forget the weariness of his journey...True theology is possessed by every man who is possessed of the spirit of Christ, be he digger or weaver.” Erasmus’s scholarly distinction brought him success in the secular world as well as the religious one. His admirers included almost all the crowned heads of Europe—the kings of France and Portugal were correspondents and the king of Scotland a pupil. He was a particular favourite of the ruler of his native state, Archduke Charles, who, as Charles V, went on to become Holy Roman Emperor and the most powerful man in Europe. Hans Holbein the younger, whom Erasmus supported, painted several portraits of him. Though he enjoyed the flattery, Erasmus used his connections to pursue a higher goal—to persuade the rulers of Europe to lead their people into an era of Christian enlightenment. What better way to reform government in an age of royal power, he calculated, than to educate the royals themselves? His “Education of a Christian Prince” (1516) was written as practical advice to Archduke Charles. Erasmus argued that the king is a servant of the people and must rule according to the principles of honour and sincerity, a revolutionary notion disguised as flattery. In “The Prince”, published three years earlier, Machiavelli had argued that it was better for a ruler to be feared than loved. Erasmus argued, on the contrary, that it was better to be loved than feared, and suggested that the way to create a lovable prince was to give him a well-rounded humanist education. A ruler should be learned (“man unless he has experienced the influence of learning and philosophy is at the mercy of impulses that are worse than those of a wild beast”) and should cultivate the habits of gentleness and public service. He proceeded to dish out advice to the class of educated Europeans who operated the machinery of the state. “Enchiridion Militis Christiani” (“Handbook of a Christian Soldier”) argued that Christianity was above all an ethical system of charity, love and generosity. A succession of school textbooks were designed to show that classical learning was a joy rather than a chore. In place of mechanical grammar books he produced selections of the great classical authors. Technology helped spread his fame. The printing press had been invented a quarter of a century before his birth and the great printers of his day (Thierry Martens of Lausanne, Jose Badius of Paris and Aldus Manutius of Venice) had established international distribution networks. “In Praise of Folly” was one of the first secular bestsellers, with more than 30 Latin editions appearing during Erasmus’s lifetime. He thus embodied a new social ideal: the humanist scholar who rejected monkish asceticism and the arid scholasticism of the university professors. He was genial and civilised: after books, he liked nothing more than good food, good wine and good conversation. He had a gift for friendship, enjoying an intellectual romance with the English humanist Thomas More. But he also had a talent for mockery, which he wielded against the pompous, pedantic and closed-minded. “In Praise of Folly” attacked everyone from doctors (quacks and flatterers, in his eyes) to monks (donkeys braying out psalms that they had memorised because they could not read). This earned him a legion of fans: the Erasmians who thrived in courts across Europe and who pored over his every pronouncement. Bulldozing the Middle Way Erasmus’s happy world began to crumble in October 1517, when Martin Luther, his junior by 17 years, nailed 95 theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church. Erasmus sympathised with many of the young monk’s criticisms of the church. But he disliked Luther’s dogmatic temperament and feared the consequences of smashing the institution that, for all its faults, sat at the heart of European civilisation. Surely Luther’s extremism would provoke counter-extremism? And surely the battle would destroy the Christian humanism that Erasmus had spent his life cultivating? Both sides of the emerging schism initially tried to win the great man’s approval. This put him into an impossible bind. He could not repudiate Luther without repudiating some of his own criticisms of the church. But he could not support the pope wholeheartedly without endorsing corruption. Reluctantly, Erasmus stuck with the Catholic church on the grounds that institutions are easier to reform than fanatical mobs inspired by a charismatic preacher. That soon seemed like bad judgment. Rather than taking Erasmus’s Middle Way, the church embraced religious orthodoxy, empowering the most reactionary elements in the hierarchy and stretching every sinew to destroy heresy. Erasmus was reduced from hero to bogeyman. “My popularity, if I had any, has either cooled off so far that it scarcely exists, or has quite evaporated, or even has turned into hatred,” he wrote in 1523. Luther denounced him as an “enraged reptile”, “vainglorious beast” and “instrument of Satan”. The Catholic church denounced him as a proto-Luther. “Erasmus laid the eggs,” a monk from Cologne wrote; “Luther hatched them. God grant that we may smash the eggs and stifle the chicks.” One of his translators was burned at the stake. In 1546, ten years after Erasmus’s death, the Council of Trent exploded his life’s work by declaring that the Vulgate was the only acceptable translation of the Bible. In 1559 the Index of Prohibited Books banned his entire oeuvre, along with the works of 550 other writers. The edict was not withdrawn until 1966. As Michael Massing shows vividly in “Fatal Discord: Erasmus, Luther and the Fight for the Western Mind” (2018), the growing religious battle destroyed Erasmianism as a movement. Princes had no choice but to choose sides in the 16th-century equivalent of the cold war. Some of Erasmus’s followers reinvented themselves as champions of orthodoxy. The “citizen of the world” could no longer roam across Europe, pouring honeyed words into the ears of kings. He spent his final years holed up in the free city of Basel. The champion of the Middle Way looked like a ditherer who was incapable of making up his mind, or a coward who was unwilling to stand up to Luther (if you were Catholic) or the pope (if you were Protestant). Yet the next hundred years of European history bloodily confirmed Erasmus’s warnings about the dangers of religious extremism. Luther denounced the pope as the Antichrist while comparing Rome to Sodom and Gomorrah; the pope called Luther a “roaring sow”. Then came the book-burning and the statue-smashing. Finally, the fanatics graduated to burning their fellow human beings at the stake. The cycle of intolerance was matched by a cycle of self-righteousness. Protestants competed with their fellow Protestants, and Catholics with their fellow Catholics, to see who possessed the purest heart and the fiercest faith. The test of being a good Christian ceased to be decent behaviour. It became fanaticism: who could shout most loudly? Or persecute heresy most vigorously? Or apply fuel to the flames most enthusiastically? Erasmus had predicted that Luther’s theological complaint would lead to war. In time, he wrote, “the long war of words and pamphlets” would be waged “with halberds and cannons”. He was proved right many times over as fanatical passions fired terrible conflicts. The Thirty Years War killed more than a third of the German population and featured every imaginable atrocity, from torched villages to mass rapes to widespread torture, including waterboarding. But great ideas are harder to kill than people. At first Erasmian ideas went underground—an astonishing fate for a philosophy that had thrived on the patronage of princes. Intellectuals preserved Erasmianism in private and talked about it in whispers. Then it began to resurface. The Jesuits smuggled elements of Erasmianism into their Catholic philosophy: Ignatius of Loyola based his “Spiritual Exercises” on Erasmus’s “Enchiridion”. Supporters of a more tolerant style of Protestant Christianity, such as the one that emerged in Britain after the Puritan revolution, dusted off their Erasmus. The most intellectually accomplished reviver of the Erasmian tradition was arguably a Jew, Spinoza, who put the notion of scepticism at the heart of his great treatise, the “Tractatus Theologico-Politicus”. A world of folly Erasmus is now celebrated by people of all religious inclinations and none. In his native city of Rotterdam a university, a grammar school and a subway station have been named in his honour. The European Union’s ambitious student-exchange programme, from which more than 10m have benefited, bears his name. The University of Toronto has produced an 89-volume edition of Erasmus’s collected works, one of the greatest scholarly projects of our time. Fittingly, one of the editors, James McConica, is a Roman Catholic priest who embodies Erasmus’s learned, epicurean style. The spirit of the Middle Way has not conquered all—far from it. The West is now in the grip of rival extremisms that mock every principle that the great man held dear. Everywhere ideologues are breaking eggs and murdering chicks. In Britain, Brexiteers denounce “citizens of the world” as “citizens of nowhere” and cast out moderate politicians with more talent than they possess, while anti-Brexiteers are blind to the excesses of establishment liberalism. In America “woke” extremists try to get people sacked for slips of the tongue or campaign against the thought crimes of “unconscious bias”. Intellectuals who refuse to join one camp or another must stand by, as mediocrities are rewarded with university chairs and editorial thrones. But the 16th-century humanist should give hope to those who resist competing bigotries. Erasmus shows that moderates are right to warn about the awful consequences of extremism and intolerance. He also proves that you can triumph in the long term even if you are crushed in the short term. Modern advocates of the Middle Way may not be rewarded with an 89-volume edition of their collected works. But they at least have the comfort that they were on the right side of history when their fellow intellectuals were taking the line of least resistance or maximum fanaticism. ■ This article appeared in the Christmas Specials section of the print edition under the headline "Citizen of the world"

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Total Views 82,479 , Views Today 2 George John Hanania, US 5th Army WWII George John Hanania was born in Jerusalem on Nov. 11, 1909. He was one of the first Arab Americans to immigrate and settle in Chicago, in the mid-1920s. He followed his brother, Mousa (Moses) who had settled in Chicago around 1922. His father, Hanna Mousa (John Moses) Hanania, lived in the Romema Quarter of Old Jerusalem on Jaffa Road. Hanna Mousa worked as a traveling salesman and sold goods at the Centennial Celebration in New York and at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Most of his recent trips, though, were to Cairo, Egypt. His wife was Katreena Jyries Cattan. George had five brothers, two older brothers, Yusef (Joseph) and Mousa (Moses), and three younger brothers, Khamis, Farid and Edward. He had two sisters, Ellen and Helen. The family was related to Jyries Hanania, the founder of Al-Quds newspaper in the mid-19th Century and to Judge Hanania Hanania, a Palestinian Magistrate in Jerusalem. George obtained a typical education as a Palestinian Arab. He attended the Ratisbon’s School (1912-1914), and then the American Mission School (1915-1917). He also attended Eccles des Freres and then St. George High schools (1914-1920). He entered college in 1923 attending the Palestine Patriarchal University (1923-1926) where he began his studies of law. Because of the influence of the British and their control of Palestine through a “Mandate,” the English language was taught as a second language to nearly all Palestinian Arabs. French was the second most popular language taught in schools supported by Christian missions from the West. Yusef and George worked at the Jerusalem Post Office. George was a Postal Clerk Grade V Posts and Telegraphs, employed from June 23, 1920 until August 31, 1926. If his birth certificate is correct (being born in 1909) George would have been 11 years old when he started at the post office. I believe his date of birth as registered on his entrance papers to the United States is incorrect, and he was probably born between 1901 and 1904, making him 16-19 years old when he first started working for the British Government Postal Service. Yusef was able to secure a fulltime position working in the Jerusalem Post Office, and he was able to help his brother George obtain part-time work there, too. There is correspondence between George and the Director of the Government of Palestine in charge of various employment positions indicating efforts were made to secure jobs for other members of the family, but to no avail. Four specific events, most dealing with the poor employment conditions in Palestine in the mid-1920s, influenced the decision by George Hanania to leave Palestine and immigrate to the United States. George’s brother Yusef drowned at the Jerusalem Quarry in April 1926, at a time when Arab and Jewish relations were simmering politically. Jewish, Muslim and Christian by-standers hearing Yusef’s cries for help did not respond. Jews thought he was Muslim. Muslims thought he was Jewish. Christians thought he was not Christian. The event typified the growing animosity that existed in Palestine between Arabs and Jews who had conflicting interests there. Deteriorating relations between Jews and Arabs culminated in riots in 1929 and again in 1936 when Arabs protested British policies favoring large immigration quotas for European Jews. George’s older brother, Mousa, had already left Palestine to come to the United States several years earlier. Mousa found full time work as a cook in a suburb of Chicago at the Rolling Green Country Club, located in Arlington Heights. A short newspaper article published at the time reported that the country club had been robbed and that a significant amount of money had been taken from the employees, including Mousa, who lost some $800, a sizeable amount of money back then indicating that he was doing very well financially. After Yusef’s death, George and his siblings found it difficult to obtain work. George, who was working part-time, tried to find another position with the British Mandate government for himself and for his sister, Ellen. Applications he had submitted to the Department of Health were turned down. His sister, Ellen, also tried and failed to find work. Finally, George discovered that the British Mandate Government supervisors at the Jerusalem Post Office did not encourage his efforts to complete his education and they either refused or could not accommodate his need for a change in working hours. A request he made to alter his hours or receive permission to be absent from work specifically to attend Law College classes was turned down by his supervisor at the Post Office. George decided to join his brother, Mousa, in the New World, America, “the land of the free.” He was given a Laisser Passer document that permitted his immigration to the United States. It was his only document that identified him as a Palestinian. George arrived in New York City on October 4, 1926, arriving on board the S.S. Sinaea passenger ship, under the raised arm of the Statue of Liberty. He always recalled it as an inspiring site. He quickly took a train and arrived in Chicago’s Union Station where he was met by his brother. The month long trip was trying and expensive, requiring him to spend much of his savings earned working in Jerusalem. Aboard the ship were many other immigrants, Arabs and Jews. While in the United States, between 1926 and 1929, George worked at the Fenske Brothers Center (on North Clybourne), the Astor Street Theater and the LaSalle Street Theater. Eventually, he secured a decent paying job at the Rolling Green Country Club, in Arlington Heights, where he worked with his brother, Mousa. They worked together from 1930 through 1940. In 1934, George was granted naturalization and awarded his US citizenship. Sometime after World War II broke out with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, both he and his brother enlisted in military service. George had just started a job as an accountant at the Sinclair Oil Company in early 1941 and the company was supportive of employees who left their jobs to serve in the military. Mousa entered the US Navy. George entered the US 5th Army, and was assigned to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS, which was the precursor to the CIA). George was assigned to manage communications and telegraphs, something he learned to do at the Jerusalem Post Office. He also served as an interpreter. While in active duty, George traveled throughout Europe, returning several times to visit with his mother in Jerusalem, Palestine. Apparently, it was either in the late 30s or 1940s, while he was in the United States, that his father died. During the war, he left extensive writings on his experiences in the service, describing the places he visited in both letters to his brother and sisters, and also to his fiancée, Walbert Mueller, an American woman who was also serving in the Army at the time when they met. George was discharged honorably in 1945. The following year, he married his sweetheart, Walbert “Wally” Mueller. They were married in a double ceremony with “Wally’s” brother, Clinton, and his fiancée. Their first year anniversary celebration was reported in the local Arlington Heights newspaper, the Herald. You might imagine the terrible conflict he had in his mind. On the one hand, he fought to liberate Europe and to free the Jews, who were the target of Nazi hatred. On the other hand, the Jews who were saved from the Nazis as a result of the American led effort to combat Germany during the war, sought to take over Palestine as their “homeland.” This personal conflict increased after his marriage and with the birth of his first son, John George, named after his father and carrying the father’s name as a middle name, a tradition of many Christian Arabs in Palestine. On Dec. 24, 1947, Christmas Eve, Walbert gave birth to a son, John George Hanania. John was named in the practice and tradition of the Orthodox Christian Church. As the first son, he was named after his grandfather, Hanna (John), and was given the name of his father, George, as his middle name. It was supposed to be a joyous occasion. But Walbert experienced trouble during the childbirth and she died immediately after her son, John, was born. It is unclear whether she ever saw her son whom George was left to raise on his own. George had lived at several locations in Chicago, including 2100 North Clybourne (1926), 924 W. Lawrence Avenue (1938), 916 Eastwood (1942), 1530 East 87th Street (1944), and 848 Wellington (1948). In early 1952, George was encouraged by his sisters and brothers, who he helped immigrate and settle in Chicago, too, to take a trip back home to Jerusalem Palestine where he was introduced to a man who knew a family in Bethlehem. The family had a young daughter, the eldest of four sisters, 19 years old. Her father was a tailor. George was escorted to the home of Saba Kronfil and his wife, Regina Dabdoub, where he was introduced to their daughter, Georgette. They were married on June 1, 1952 and they spent a month traveling in Colombia, South America visiting other relatives who had left Palestine, too. In the photo above, Georgette is pictured leaning a large water container into the Bethlehem Well to bring water to the family. They returned to Chicago and purchased their first home together, at 9905 S. Forest Avenue. In 1960, they moved to 8928 S. Luella Avenue, where they lived until 1968. At that time, they purchased a small home in the Southwest Suburbs, Burbank, which was beginning to see a rise in Arab families. Like many Christian Arab families, George and Georgette were very religious but they did not have access to an Orthodox Church where they could worship in those early years, or where they could send their children. At first, we were sent to a Baptist Church on Stony Island Avenue, where we attended Sunday worship to the shrill cries of the Baptist Minister who led his congregation in devote prayer and confession. That’s where we were baptized. Later, at the urging of an uncle, Assad Shorrosh, we were registered at Bethany Lutheran Church at 95th and Chappel, near our home. Assad had married Georgette’s sister, Lillian, also an arranged marriage. He had been raised Lutheran in Palestine and attended Protestant missionary schools in his youth. Sometime in the mid-60s, they learned of a new Orthodox Church that had opened on Chicago’s North Suburbs, in Oak Park. Although we were confirmed as Lutherans, we would accompany our parents to the Orthodox Church that they preferred because the pastor conducted the service in Arabic. George Hanania died in August 1970. He was buried at the South Side’s historic cemetery Oak Woods, next to the body of Mousa and his mother, Katreena. Buried with him today at the same cemetery are such famous personalities as Chicago Mayors Harold Washington and William Hale Thompson, mobster Big Jim Colosimo, physicist Enrico Fermi, and Olympian Jesse Owens. The cemetery also has a monument to the 6,000 Confederate prisoners of war who died at Camp Douglas. Georgette Hanania died 15 years later in July 1985. She is buried in the Evergreen Park Cemetery. This post has already been read 279 times!

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The Akron Plan was a scheme for the design of churches and other religious buildings that housed Sunday school s. It was characterized by a set of wedge-shaped classrooms that radiated from the direction of a central superintendent's platform. Doors or movable partitions could be closed to separate the classes, or opened to allow the entire body of pupils to participate in school-wide exercises. Until about 1860, Sunday-school pupils of all ages were taught together in a single large room. After that, there was an increasing tendency for pupils to be taught separately, with instruction tailored to their ages, for most of the session. However, the superintendent conducted all-school exercises at the beginning and end of the session. To facilitate this, the building's interior layout had to enable the students to be quickly and efficiently divided into classes or brought together in a single body. The Akron Plan was devised to address this need. It took its name from the city of Akron in the state of Ohio in the Great Lakes region of the United States, where it was developed for the construction of a church built in 1866–67. It was quickly adopted by Protestant churches across the United States. The plan fell out of favor in the early 20th century, when Sunday schools changed their approach to one in which pupils were taught separately for the entire session, eliminating the school-wide exercises. The awkwardly shaped and imperfectly soundproofed rooms were poorly adapted for this new approach, and many of them underwent extensive remodelling. By the beginning of the 21st century, few intact Akron Plan interiors remained in existence. Sunday schools, 1780–1872 The genesis of the Sunday school occurred in 1780 in Gloucester, England , when philanthropist Robert Raikes arranged for the teaching of a measure of literacy and religious instruction to slum children, most of whom worked six days a week and had Sunday as their only free day. The experiment proved successful and was taken up elsewhere; by Raikes's death in 1811, Sunday-school pupils numbered about a quarter-million, throughout the British Isles and in the United States. With the passage of time, the exclusive focus on lower-class children was abandoned. The expansion to upper classes was pioneered by, among others, noted divine Lyman Beecher, who in about 1830 sent his children to Sunday school, and encouraged his neighbors to do likewise. Instruction in reading and writing was dropped, and the schools devoted themselves to religious education.] [ Through the first quarter of the 19th century, religious instruction in Sunday schools took the form of rote memorization of extensive passages from the Bible or the catechism; pupils might be tasked with memorizing as many as 300 verses a week. In about 1826, this began to give way to a new system, the "selected lesson" or "limited lesson", whereunder all pupils were given the same relatively short excerpt from Scripture to memorize, and were taught the passage's meaning and significance.] [ Until about 1860, Sunday school was usually conducted in a single large room, with pupils of all ages learning the same lesson. This allowed all members of a family to discuss the lesson at home after church; but it was difficult to devise lessons that would be useful to all members of such a heterogeneous set of pupils, and the mix of ages tended to give rise to disciplinary problems. In response to this, and in keeping with the practice in the public schools, Sunday schools began to be divided into grades. In 1872, a national convention adopted the Uniform Lesson Plan, whereunder all students would study the same Scriptural passage but would be taught in a manner appropriate to their age.] [ Uniform Lessons and Akron Plan Under the Uniform Lesson Plan, the grades were not to be kept separate for the entire duration of the session. Rather, the class was to begin with devotional exercises, led by the superintendent and involving the entire body of pupils. After this, the grades were to be taught separately. The session would end with the superintendent's leading, and the whole body's participating in, a five-minute review of the lesson followed by closing exercises. This created a challenge for ecclesiastical architects. The Sunday-school building had to be designed in such a way that the pupils could quickly and efficiently be separated according to their various grades, and brought together for whole-school activities.] [ John H. Vincent, an authority on Sunday schools in the Methodist Episcopal Church and later a bishop,] [ described the architectural requirements: "Provide for togetherness and separateness; have a room in which the whole school can be brought together in a moment for simultaneous exercises, and with a minimum of movement can be divided into classes for uninterrupted classwork".] [ One of those who addressed the design problem was Lewis Miller. A wealthy inventor and industrialist, Miller supervised a Sunday school in Canton, Ohio, and later one in Akron. There, he employed the graded system and experienced the problems that arose from unsuitable building designs.] [ When the First Methodist Episcopal Church of Akron decided to construct a new building, Miller interested himself in the building's design. Working with architects Walter Blythe of Cleveland and Jacob Snyder of Akron, he devised a plan in which wedge-shaped classrooms were separated by partitions radiating from the direction of a central superintendent's platform. Doors on the platform-facing side of each classroom could be closed during grade-separated lessons, or opened to allow all pupils to see and hear the superintendent during school-wide exercises. The new church, following these plans, was constructed in 1866–67.] [ The so-called Akron Plan was adopted by Protestant churches throughout the United States and the world, particularly after 1872, when the Fifth National Sunday-School Convention adopted the Uniform Lesson Plan.] [ A 1911 American publication stated that "This plan for the Sunday-school building has been almost universally adopted in this country",] [ and a 1914 publication stated that of the churches built in the preceding fifty years, three-quarters of those that made provisions for Sunday schools had used some version of the Akron Plan.] [ Many of these churches modified the design with the addition of a movable partition between the sanctuary and the Sunday-school spaces, allowing the Sunday-school classes and the main body of congregants to be separated or united.] [ The Akron Plan was not without its failings. The divisions between the classrooms impeded worship by the whole body of pupils, compared to how they might have acted in a single large space. The wedge-shaped rooms were often poorly lighted and ventilated. Flimsy partitions and doors did not suffice to exclude distracting noises. In the early 20th century, the Uniform Lesson Plan began to fall out of favor. The requirement that the same Scriptural passages be taught to pupils of all grades was seen as unduly constraining: passages that adults could profitably study might be meaningless to small children. Moreover, the exclusive focus on Biblical passages made it difficult to study such things as church history and organization, missions, and latter-day issues such as temperance.] [ In 1908,] [ a convention of the International Sunday School Association approved the development of completely graded lesson plans. These were adopted by 35,000 Sunday schools during the following five years. With the different grades no longer studying the same topic during a given week, there was no longer a place for the superintendent's review of the whole school. School-wide assemblies became infrequent, eliminating the need for a means of quickly bringing the whole body of pupils together.] [ The change in Sunday-school organization did away with the advantages of the Akron Plan. The oddly shaped rooms could not readily be turned to other purposes without extensive modification. While Akron Plan churches continued to be built into the 1920s and 1930s, many existing churches were remodelled to create more useful interior spaces. By the beginning of the 21st century, few intact Akron Plan interiors remained.] [ [Jenks, Brother Christopher Stephen (1995). "The Akron Plan Sunday School". ''Common Bond'' (New York Landmarks Conservancy), December 1995. Reproduced a] Partners for Sacred Places. "Aultman companies enjoy period of prosperity". Part 2 of a 3-part article. [Chambers et al. (2003), section 8, p. 4.] [Chambers et al. (2003), section 8, p. 5.] [Cope (1911), pp. 113–15.] [Evans (1915), p. 29.] [Evans (1915), pp. 29–30.] [Evans (1915), p. 30.] [Evans (1914), p. 155.] [Evans (1914), pp. 155–56.] [Evans (1914), pp. 157–58.] [Evans (1914), p. 158.] [Hamill (1905), p. 38.] [Hamill (1905), pp. 41–42.] [Hamill (1905), pp. 42–43.] [Lawrance (1911), p. 14.] [Lawrance (1911), pp. 83–84.] [Lawrance (1911), pp. 84–89.] [Lawrance (1911), p. 90.] [Evans (1915), p. 31, gives a date of 1909 for the Louisville convention of the International Sunday School Association. This is apparently an error. Evans (1914), p. 158, gives a date of 1908, as do other sources, including Cope (1911), p. 117, and Meyer (1910), p. 232.] [Trine, Phyllis, and Stacy Stupka-Burda (2008).] "National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: First United Presbyterian Church". [Mavromatis, Kelly (2008). ''Akron Churches: Early Architecture''. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. p. 8. Retrieved 2017-01-07 vi] [Merrill (1905), pp. 3–6.] [Trumbull (1905), pp. 8–9.] [Trumbull (1905), pp. 10–11.] *Chambers, Murphy & Burge, Restoration Architects, Ltd. (2003). "National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: First Congregational Church" (Akron, Ohio). *Cope, Henry Frederick (1911). ''The Evolution of the Sunday School''. Boston: Pilgrim Press. Retrieved vi *Evans, Herbert Francis (1914). "The Sunday-School Building and Its Equipment". ''The Biblical World'', vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 150–224. Retrieve *Evans, H. F. (1915). "Architecture of Sunday Schools" in ''The Encyclopedia of Sunday Schools and Religious Education'', ed. by John T. McFarland and Benjamin S. Winchester, pp. 28–55. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons. Retrieved vi *Hamill, H. M. (1905). "The Genesis of the International Sunday-school Lesson", in ''The Development of the Sunday-School, 1780–1905'', ed. by W. N. Hartshorn, Rev. George R. Merrill, and Marion Lawrance. Boston: Fort Hill Press; published by Executive Committee of the International Sunday-School Association. Retrieved vi *Lawrance, Marion (1911). ''Housing the Sunday School''. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. Retrieved vi *Merrill, George R. (1905). "Robert Raikes and the Eighteenth Century", in ''The Development of the Sunday-School, 1780–1905'', ed. by W. N. Hartshorn, Rev. George R. Merrill, and Marion Lawrance. Boston: Fort Hill Press; published by Executive Committee of the International Sunday-School Association. Retrieved vi *Meyer, Henry H. (1910). ''The Graded Sunday School in Principle and Practice''. New York: Eaton & Mains. Retrieved vi *Trumbull, Charles Gallaudet (1905). "The Nineteenth Century Sunday-school", in ''The Development of the Sunday-School, 1780–1905'', ed. by W. N. Hartshorn, Rev. George R. Merrill, and Marion Lawrance. Boston: Fort Hill Press; published by Executive Committee of the International Sunday-School Association. Retrieved vi Category:History of Methodism

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What is smallpox? A contagious infection, smallpox has a somewhat devastating history. It could be easily spread once contracted, with progressive symptoms (that were often disfiguring) and high mortality rates. At least a third of infections in unvaccinated individuals before 1980 resulted in deaths from the disease. (1) Characteristics of the disease include a very high fever and fatigue, soon followed by a distinctive body rash, mostly affecting the facial area and limbs (arms and legs). The spotty rash then develops into fluid-filled lesions (pustules) which form a crust. These crusted formations dry out, forming scabs and fall off the surface of the skin, leaving behind disfiguring scars. It is possible for an infection to be successfully treated, but not without some permanent scarring. In some instances, a person can even become blind as a result of infection. For now, the condition is considered to be eradicated, due to the successful implementation of vaccination for prevention purposes. There have been no known infections since 1977 (i.e. medically reported cases of the virus occurring naturally). That said, there is growing concern that the virus causing the disease (i.e. the variola virus) could be ‘re-created’ in the laboratory environment, and thus pose a threat to the world population once again. Small, authorised quantities of the variola virus are stored in two separate World Health Organisation (WHO) research laboratories in Koltsovo, Russia (State Research Centre of Virology and Biotechnology) and Atlanta, Georgia, USA (at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention / CDC). These authorised samples are kept for research purposes only. (2) Long feared as a possibility, smallpox has been labelled a ‘category A bioterrorism agent’ which can be used as a ‘weaponised virus’. What this ‘category A’ classification means is that the pathogen (viral organism) responsible for the disease is capable of posing a high risk to countries and their populations. An outbreak could cause a spike in mortality rates and result in mass disruption to health sectors. Smallpox is not considered an immediate health threat, but preparations for epidemic re-emergence have been issued by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) to governments around the world to take note of so as to better handle situations should a biological attack occur.(3) Scientific research is also ongoing so as to ensure that in the event of a re-emergence, countries are sufficiently equipped with the most up to date vaccines and pharmacological treatment methods to stop infection in its tracks and prevent severe complications. A brief history of smallpox and the virus that causes it The variola virus (VARV) is responsible for the development of this highly infectious disease. This virus is a member of the genus Orthopoxvirus – a group of viruses (belonging to the Poxviridae family), which are also associated with the monkeypox virus (MPXV), vaccinia virus (VACV), camelpox virus (CMLV) and cowpox virus (CPXV) – all infectious diseases which are transmittable from human to human or from animal to human. Poxyviridae viruses are characterised as linear (or brick-shaped), double-stranded DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) viruses which are able to replicate themselves in living cells (i.e. host cells). There are two sub-families of this virus form: - Chordopoxvirinae (capable of infecting vertebrates / animals) - Entomopoxvirinae (capable of infecting insects) VARV resulting in smallpox infections does not appear to occur in a carrier state but is known to be most stable at low temperatures and humidity levels. Smallpox is transmittable between humans only, causing large-scale epidemics for many years prior to the implementation of an effective vaccination. It is said to have resulted in more than 400 000 annual European deaths during the 18th Century. (4) The origins of VARV have been reasonably well researched over the years so as to gain a clearer understanding of the mechanistic patterns of the virus, and how it came to have such a dramatic impact on the wellbeing of populations around the world. Its precise origins are, however, not entirely known but some ancient data and research has turned up some interesting clues. VARV has been associated with an African rodent and camels but is yet to be distinctively linked to these animals. It is also thought that early infections may have originated in ancient Egypt (around the 3rd century BCE), spreading through the development of international trade between the 4th and 15th centuries (with some written descriptions speculating that the disease was rife in China, Korea and Japan). Other speculations have mentioned possible occurrences in India around the 7th century and in Asia Minor (the westernmost protrusion of Asia) during the 10th century. The disease could have reached the Western world via European explorers by the early 16th century (being carried from one location to another during the Crusades, Portuguese occupation in parts of Western Africa, European colonisations and the African slave trade etc.), causing waves of illness. It is believed that the growth of civilisations and trade route expansions most likely resulted in the widespread transmission of the disease. By the 17th and 18th centuries, European colonisations and British explorations could have introduced the disease to North America and Australia. Are there different types of smallpox? There are two primary variants of VARV (smallpox types): VARV major (or variola major) is the predominant epidemic viral strain that resulted in mass infections all over the world, including Europe, Asia and Africa until the 20th century. Mortality rates were as high as 30% to 50%. There are 5 subtypes of VARV major: - Ordinary smallpox: The most common form of the disease, this subtype occurs in at least 90% of all reported cases. - Modified smallpox: This subtype is a milder form of the disease which can occur in individuals who have been vaccinated against the disease. - Malignant / flat smallpox: This subtype is a severe form whereby skin lesions / bumps develop beneath the skin’s surface (and do not project on the surface of the skin as is most characteristic of the disease). - Haemorrhagic / fulminant smallpox: This subtype is considered highly severe and rare. Lesion haemorrhages in the skin and mucous membranes can result in life-threatening conditions. - Variola sine eruptione (variola sine exanthemata): A less common form of the disease, wherein symptoms that occur are not accompanied by the characteristic rash. Some individuals may be asymptomatic or experience short-lived symptoms such as a headache, fever and other flu-like ailments. This form may also affect previously vaccinated individuals. VARV minor (or variola minor) is the strain that was endemic to certain European, American (North and South), Australian and African (South Africa) countries since the second half of the 20th century. Mortality rates were far lower (around 1%). Other known forms of smallpox included: - Pharyngeal form of smallpox: This form can occur in vaccinated individuals, resulting in a spotty rash in mucous membranes – mainly affecting the soft palate (soft tissue at the back of the roof of the mouth), uvula (fleshy tissue which hangs at the back of the mouth over the tongue) and pharynx (cavity behind the nose and the mouth). It is typically mild and can be effectively treated. - Influenza-like form of smallpox: In this mild form of the disease a skin rash rarely occurs. This form is also more typical in individuals who have received sufficient vaccinations against the condition. - Pulmonary form of smallpox: Characteristic smallpox symptoms of this variety are typically severe and include cyanosis (a condition which causes the skin and / or mucous membranes to become discoloured, appearing blue or purple due to low oxygen levels in the red blood cells or a lack of oxygen circulation in the body). This form of the disease may affect individuals who have very little or no immunity against smallpox at all. Is smallpox contagious? Smallpox was highly contagious and could be spread from person to person via close personal contact. To date, research has not identified a transmission route between insects / animals and humans. Air in enclosed environments is also not considered a primary transmission route. There was a general incubation period of between 7 and 17 days once a person had been exposed to the infectious agent. (5) Once a fever developed, an infected person became contagious and could transmit the virus to another person. A person was considered to be at their most contagious when lesions and bumps first developed around the mouth and throat areas (normally within the first week). From there, the virus was mostly transmittable through contact with the moisture droplets released during respiration by an infected person – most commonly from the nose (when sneezing) or mouth (during coughing or through saliva). Transmission contact with infected moisture droplets quickly led to the infection of another person via the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. Lesions and bumps which formed on the skin contained fluid (either clear, opaque or pus) and the variola virus. Contact with this fluid and the scabs which later formed could also spread infection (although to a lesser extent than the respiratory secretion and saliva contact route). Thus, contaminated materials and objects (i.e. that had contact with infected lesions, bumps and scabs), like clothing and bed linens (referred to as fomite transmission), could also contribute to the spread of infection to other individuals. An infected individual remained contagious until the very last scab had fallen away from the body. Transmission of the disease as a result of the smallpox vaccine which uses the vaccinia virus (a live virus belonging to the same family) in order to achieve immunity was also reported as being possible. Such cases have shown that sexual transmission of vaccinia was also possible if an unvaccinated partner came into contact with another who had been recently immunised (i.e. secondary vaccinia which can be transmitted to other partners as well). The natural smallpox virus (variola) was transmittable via respiratory secretions. In contrast, the vaccinia virus which is used in smallpox vaccines, showed the potential for transmission via direct contact through mucosal membranes or broken skin before the healing of the inoculation site was completed. Genital lesions could occur, along with other symptoms of the disease. If encountered by medical professionals, a distinction between smallpox and a possible genital herpes infection (herpes simplex virus type 2 / HSV-2) had to be made. 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. June 2016. What is Smallpox?: https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/about/index.html [Accessed 06.04.2018] 2. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. December 2014. Smallpox: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/smallpox [Accessed 06.04.2018] 3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. December 2016. Bioterrorism: https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/bioterrorism/public/index.html [Accessed 06.04.2018] 4. US National Library of Medicine - National Institute of Health. March 2015. The Origin of the Variola Virus: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4379562/ [Accessed 06.04.2018] 5. World Health Organization. June 2016. Frequently asked questions and answers on smallpox: http://www.who.int/csr/disease/smallpox/faq/en/ [Accessed 06.04.2018] Other Articles of Interest Mumps can be a painful condition that results in the swelling of the face. The diseases dissected... Suffering from a runny tummy? Having diarrhoea can often be an embarrassing and even painful experience. Find out all you need to know about dealing with and combating this condition. Molluscum Contagiosum is a highly contagious virus that affects your skin in the form of raised bumps or lesions. Find out more about this virus here...

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The history of American intelligence is a history of malfeasance, scandal, hyperbole, and self-promotion. It’s been that way for 150 years, argues Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, a professor of American history at the University of Edinburgh. The author of numerous books, including three earlier volumes on the subject of American espionage, Jeffreys-Jones’s newest book offers some badly needed historical perspective to current debates about the uses and non-uses of secret intelligence in the United States. Cloak and Dollar: A History of American Secret Intelligence begins with George Washington and ends with George Bush, arguing that “failures” in American intelligence repeat themselves like history, as do public and official debates and uproars about the practices and credibility of intelligence. In the final paragraphs Jeffreys-Jones discusses the role of intelligence in the wake of the attacks of 9-11. As if that epilogue didn’t make his sobering and insightful history timely enough, the revelations in recent weeks of the existence of advance intelligence prior to the September 2001 attacks should make his book required reading. Jeffreys-Jones is a historian, not a political scientist, and one of the book’s strengths is that it tells a good story. Because his historical perspective locates secret intelligence agents and agencies within broad cultural movements, it’s possible to see, for example, how the ascendancy of the Pinkerton agency in the intelligence game is very much a function of the temper of the times (e.g. fear of assassination, distrust of labor). Jeffreys-Jones argues, moreover, that as much as the culture of secret intelligence has changed along with the larger culture, there are some enduring characteristics of those who work in secret intelligence that can be traced from Allen Pinkerton to Oliver North. These are the characteristics which, clustered together, form the trope of the Confidence Man, the craven, prevaricating, self-promoting huckster portrayed in American literature in such works as Melville’s darkest novel, The Confidence Man, and Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. The emergence and persistence of confidence man culture is “a special reason why secret intelligence [in the United States] has tended to run amok with the taxpayers’ money,” writes Jeffreys-Jones. The ways that the confidence man ethos manifests itself on the institutional level, he argues, is in the tendency in American secret intelligence practice toward “indiscriminate gathering of too much information and the neglect of analysis, subordination of national security to bureaucratic ambition,” and the insistence of an American “intelligence monopoly,” which feeds distrust among allies and keeps the American people “in the dark about alternative viewpoints.” The long view of secret intelligence in America reveals a series of episodes in which ambitious intelligence men “painted the menace” of their day and reaped the rewards in the form of power, money, and prestige. “American espionage,” Jeffreys-Jones explains, “has since the 1850s become progressively more commercial, more bureaucratic, and more populist. The wiles of the intelligence confidence man have been directed not just at foreign foes but at American citizens as well. The American public has been importuned to believe in a variety of menaces and crises that were by no means always what they seemed to be. They have ranged from Confederate assassination plots to Western land fraud, from white slavery to communism, from German sabotage to Chinese espionage, from crack cocaine scares to digital encryption.” To some degree all of these menaces were real, just as we must acknowledge today the legitimacy of warnings about shoe bombs and mysterious white powders, but intelligence men have always found it advantageous to exaggerate the severity or imminence of the threats. Although the early history of secret intelligence is no doubt important, especially because of its roots in private investigation and security, Cloak and Dollar hits its stride in the chapter on Pearl Harbor. Jeffreys-Jones argues that “by means of energetic propaganda, a version of the Pearl Harbor story convenient to the Roosevelt administration and to CIA expansionists has been woven into intelligence history.” The story of Pearl Harbor goes like this: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor succeeded because American intelligence failed; for reasons of national security and to protect intelligence sources, investigations into the causes of failure were veiled and hampered; failure was rewarded with increased budgets, personnel, and power; and the CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947. The success of this account of intelligence’s role in the attack contributed to a “conspiracy of silence,” an obsession with prediction as the primary function of intelligence, and a bureaucratic practice of rewarding failure. “For this reason,” he writes, “the myth of Pearl Harbor as the epitome of lack of preparedness in peacetime has distorted perceptions of America’s post-World War II intelligence mission.” Arguably, Pearl Harbor has now been displaced as the epitome of unreadiness in peacetime, but the lessons of its aftermath should be–but sadly, usually are not–at the center of current debates about the role of intelligence in the “war” against terrorism. The problem with the intelligence failure of Pearl Harbor was not that information wasn’t gathered, but that there was no mechanism for coordinating all the bits of intelligence from all the various sources. The new CIA would prevent future failures on the scale of Pearl Harbor by coordinating and analyzing information collected by its own staff and by operatives in all the other intelligence agencies. There are unique attributes of the CIA compared to other American intelligence agencies (National Security Agency, Office of Strategic Services, Office of Naval Intelligence, for example), Jeffreys-Jones concedes, such as its legislative genesis and its independence from the military. But in too many ways, the new organization repeated and even amplified the features of the intelligence agencies that preceded and became enfolded into it: a culture of hyperbole, self-promotion, and deception. And because the CIA came into its own during the Cold War and benefited both from the “blinding hyperbole of single-issue anti-communism” and from the resource building of policies of rewarding failure, new professional employees of the CIA “competed with one another to dream up schemes that would justify their salaries.” The creation of the CIA doesn’t end the tradition of the confidence man in American secret intelligence, he contends, it extends and institutionalizes it. The rest of Cloak and Dollar recounts the successes (there are some–the Cuban missile crisis, for example) and failures of the CIA from the 1950s to the present. Jeffreys-Jones charges that as CIA operatives meddled in Guatemala and Iran, among other places, the habit of hyperbole “became part of a culture of mendacity, fusing seamlessly with disinformation campaigns at first aimed at foreigners but increasingly contaminating U.S. institutions and citizens.” The decades of the sixties and seventies form a “meaningful rhetorical interlude between the tenancies of those two great exponents of the mythology of espionage, Allen Dulles (Director of Central Intelligence, 1953-1961) and William Casey (1981-1987).” The most significant event of this interlude was the investigation led by Senator Frank Church in the 1975. Jeffreys-Jones devotes an entire chapter to the Church hearings and concludes that the investigation yielded mixed results. The Church hearings reminded the public of the need for Congressional oversight of intelligence activities and inspired some specific reforms, but more important, Jeffreys-Jones argues, the hearings “educated the public about both the problems that can stem from a secret state and the need for an efficient foreign intelligence service” (lessons we should review today). The Church committee, however, did nothing to “dispel that great and abiding illusion, the belief in the confidence man as intelligence leader.” For proof of this assertion, one need only “review the stewardship of Ronald Reagan and William Casey in the 1980s.” The era of the confidence man achieves frightening new heights with the election of the supreme confidence man himself, Ronald Reagan, in 1980. Under the stewardship of Casey and Reagan, the CIA was “unleashed,” which meant “attacks on open government, a renewed surge in covert operations, and a larger budget.” Jeffreys-Jones’s criticism of this era of intelligence is particularly harsh: “Casey’s two-pronged, if inconsistent, strategy became an inheritance–according to the hype, he had battled the beast of communism and defeated it, conferring everlasting glory and appropriations-worthiness on the intelligence community. Yet, he had retasked the CIA and its intelligence siblings to combat drugs, nuclear proliferation, and alternative ‘menaces’ lying conveniently at hand. Victory and diversification would be potent companions in the great rhetorical carpetbag of the post-Cold War intelligence confidence man.” Of course we now live in an era of a new menace, terrorism, though some of the old ones still apparently stalk us as well. The attempts to marry drugs to terrorism in the public imagination, which already seemed shameful and pandering, now seem especially insidious in light of the author’s argument that the practice of secret intelligence in America has always used the confidence man’s strategy of painting the menace. This doesn’t suggest that terrorism isn’t a real threat and that secret intelligence isn’t a vital and necessary tool to protect American citizens and interests, but it’s critically important at this juncture to use history to frame debates about the menace of terrorism and the role of intelligence in combating it. Writing about the attacks on the World Trade Center in the last paragraph of Cloak and Dollar, Jeffreys-Jones warns: “The situation was custom-made for the intelligence confidence man and his political allies. Once again, the cries were heard: give them more money, unleash the CIA. Once again it was tempting to reward failure, and to resort to expensive, static, and home-based solutions.” Everyone agrees that the government should use all its intelligence resources to prevent another terrorist attack on the United States. But the proposed solution to the perceived failure in intelligence, as it has been for a century and a half, is to centralize and expand the bureaucracy, throw money at the new agency, and unfetter its operations from as many legal and ethical constraints as possible. Creating a cabinet-level post in charge of homeland security funded by $34.7 billion, suspending civil liberties in the name of national security, and charging the FBI and the CIA to play nice with each other are not novel solutions to an unprecedented menace. In Jeffreys-Jones’s view, what we’re witnessing is just the latest instance of the confidence man’s game: While we bend in close to hear his urgent whispers in our ears, he pulls wallets out of our pockets and then convinces us that only he can protect us from dangers real and imagined. Elisabeth Piedmont-Marton is a writer who lives in Austin and an assistant professor of English at Southwestern University.

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March 29, 2021 By Jess Cherofsky and Bia'ni Madsa' Juárez López (CS STAFF) More than a year has passed since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has resulted in upheaval to peoples’ lives globally. More than 2.7 million people have died and the global economic crisis has deepened. Indigenous Peoples have faced challenges based on their diverse situations and experiences. Subsequent waves of infections have been worse than the first in some Indigenous communities in terms of the number of deaths, and while it still has not been possible to account for all of the impacts over the first year, other issues continue to be added to the list of priorities to understand the course of the pandemic: new COVID-19 variants, reinfection, immunity, vaccines, and other data related to SARS-CoV-2. In this article, we will offer an overview of these issues framed through case studies of Indigenous Peoples around the world. New Variants of SARS-CoV-2 As was to be expected given viruses’ capacity to mutate, new variants have appeared, with few extensively studied and described to date. It is not clear yet how many of the variants have significant health implications, but some have already resulted in both higher infection rates and higher mortality rates than the first. Variants like those from Brazil, South Africa, and the United Kingdom have been the most studied due to their impact. In mid-2020, the first wave of infections reached the Ziora Amena community, located in Colombia on the border with Brazil and Peru, leaving almost all of the community’s 110 families infected. The arrival of that first wave meant very difficult weeks for the community, as they had neither tests, nor specialty hospital beds, nor sufficient medicine for the region. But 2021 started off even worse for this Muruy Indigenous community when the Brazil variant arrived, again infecting almost every community member, resulting in much worse symptoms, two deaths, and leaving the community incapacitated as far as its ability to sell its products and access food. In spite of the clear impacts in the region during the first wave, the Colombian government took no precautions and failed to increase medical capacity, all of which meant that when the second wave carried in the new variant, it found them in the same conditions as the previous had. Reinfection and Immunity to COVID-19 The available information related to SARS-CoV-2 has been advancing throughout the pandemic. However, scientists continue to lack a complete understanding of how the virus behaves. Over time, the list of symptoms has changed, making diagnosis difficult in areas without access to tests and leaving an enormous number of cases unaccounted for. There is also no firm consensus on how long immunity lasts after a person is infected; the exact long-term consequences following infection are unknown; and without access to testing, it is not possible to know the true number of reinfections or whether they result from the same variant or not. This information is even more scarce in rural and Indigenous areas. Updated information in Indigenous languages is delayed in arriving, if it does at all, compared to the development and spread of the pandemic. The distribution of updated information about COVID-19 in Indigenous communities continues to be of utmost importance, and governments should act as such. The situation becomes even more complicated by the fact that, oftentimes, the information that does arrive in communities is false, which does not give communities the opportunity to make informed decisions. Lack of Disaggregated Data for Indigenous Peoples In June of 2020, Cultural Survival published an article about the lack of disaggregated data regarding COVID-19 in Indigenous communities. Since then, no country has yet correctly included in its official reports disaggregated data; the few that do record data by ethnic group compile the great diversity of Indigenous cultures into one category. It has been civil society organizations and communities themselves who have taken on this task. Maps like those of the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Equadorian Amazon (CONFENAIE), the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC), and Indian Country Today have consistently gathered data, classifying it by Indigenous People. Also in June 2020, Cultural Survival undertook a global mapping project where data of COVID-19 cases continues to be collected, including subsequent deaths and cases of human rights violations in the context of COVID-19. To date, Cultural Survival has compiled information on at least 263 Indigenous Peoples in 28 countries have had cases of COVID-19 and 102 associated human rights violations against 88 Indigenous Peoples in 30 countries. Successful Community Strategies in the Face of COVID-19 In the face of the pandemic, Indigenous communities have shown their capacity for resilience, implementing different measures to ensure the health of their populations. In many Indigenous communities, the communities have taken actions such as closing their borders, establishing COVID-19 checkpoints, canceling festivals and other big events, and establishing mask requirements to prevent the virus from entering their territories. As a result, one year into the pandemic, 82 communities in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, find themselves completely free of COVID-19 cases. Importantly, these communities are majority Indigenous and operate according to collective self-government. In the Kuikuro community in Mato Grosso, Brazil, the community achieved zero mortality after improvising a hospital in their territory and hiring medical personnel to attend to people who had been infected with the virus. Also in Brazil, in December 2020, the Ashaninka People became the only Indigenous People without COVID-19 cases in the state of Acre after adopting strict isolation measures for nine months. These successes that emerge when Indigenous Peoples have autonomy demonstrate that the catastrophes that have occurred in Indigenous communities in many parts of the world throughout the pandemic are not inevitable. Rather, they are the result of structures of marginalization which deprive many Indigenous Peoples of the right to self-determination and empower the state as the sole decision-maker, many times without the involvement nor consent of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Peoples are capable of identifying and creatively developing responses and solutions, based on their own values and systems of organization which save lives. Image courtesy of APIB. Vaccination Among Indigenous Peoples Indigenous Peoples have a diversity of perspectives on and experiences with vaccination. At the global level, there are cases of communities that accept the vaccine and those that don’t, communities that have had access and those that haven’t. There are also countries where Indigenous communities have been included as part of the vaccination plan and many places where Indigenous Peoples have taken advantage of their own collective systems and values to lead unique vaccination programs for their own communities. Several of these cases follow. The development of COVID-19 vaccines has occurred at a historic rate, and around the world, to date, approximately 458 million doses have been administered. Although this is the “biggest vaccination campaign in history,” there are major inequalities in access to the vaccine. It is predicted that 90 percent of the residents of approximately 70 low-income countries will be unlikely to receive the vaccine in 2021. Meanwhile, wealthy countries have hoarded vaccines, an extreme example being Canada, which has bought enough doses for each resident to receive the vaccine five times. South African social justice activist and human rights lawyer Fatima Hassan has called this “vaccine apartheid.” According to Andrea Taylor, director of the Duke University Global Health Innovation Center, “While high-income countries represent only 16% of the world’s population, they currently hold 60% of the vaccines for COVID-19 that have been purchased so far.” Even within countries that have been able to access the vaccine, there are enormous gaps between who can access it and who cannot, with Indigenous, rural, and poor communities being among the most commonly left behind. On top of this, there is a lack of sufficient and culturally appropriate information which would permit Indigenous Peoples to make informed decisions related to the vaccine. In Australia, Indigenous Peoples are included among the priority groups receiving the vaccine; community members age 55 and older are allowed to access the vaccine during the same phases as non-Indigenous people age 70 and older. This serves as a way of addressing historical inequities which make Indigenous Peoples disproportionately more vulnerable to the virus. It is a strategy being used as a reference in the struggle for vaccine equity in other communities, such as in Black communities in the U.S. who have also suffered socioeconomic and medical inequities that result in poorer health outcomes. Yet Australia’s Indigenous Peoples are also hesitant due to distrust and misinformation. “‘We’re quite early in the vaccination process – for obvious reasons,’ [said Dr. Tanya Schramm, a Palawa woman and Chair of the Expert Committee behind the COVID-19 clinical recommendations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.]. ‘But because we’re getting it earlier than say the general population, there’s concern that there may be … a problem with it.’” Limitations in Vaccine Access The limitations in access to vaccines in Indigenous communities relate to factors such as the lack of infrastructure and communication. This is the case in communities on the margins of the city of Oaxaca, Mexico, where much of the Indigenous population lives. The vaccine requires advance online registration, to which elders generally cannot access due to lack of devices, internet, and familiarity with the technology. Also in Mexico, communities like Vista del Valle, largely comprised of Chatina and Zapotec people, there is no electricity, much less internet, nor are there many young people who could help elders navigate the vaccine registration system. This is not a unique situation that only affects a few people; to the contrary, only around half of homes in the community have cell phones or computers. In the case of this community, a 22-year-old Ayuuk woman, Adriana Kupijy Vargas, has organized to support her elderly neighbors to register; however, the structural problem that results in exclusion persists. Meanwhile, the government of Tanzania, a country which has an Indigenous population of over half a million, has taken the unique unilateral decision to prohibit importation and registration of the vaccine entirely. They have argued that the nation “should stop living in fear and that they should trust in God and rely on traditional African remedies to prevent getting the virus, according to Catherine Kyobutungi, Executive of the African Population and Health Research Center. Kyobutungi explains that this leads to two great risks: that the uncontrolled transmission of the virus can lead to the development of new variants, and that, if just one country does not control the pandemic, the efforts of other countries cannot be successful due to the movement of people, especially between neighboring countries. However, Tanzanian authorities are pressuring doctors to treat patients as if they have pneumonia and other illnesses that are not COVID-19. Since the government stopped tracking COVID-19 infection data since May 2020, it is difficult to know the virus’s impact, much less its impact in Indigenous communities. To date, no testing has been reported in the country. Rejection, Fear, and Distrust Regarding Vaccines The doubts and fear that Indigenous Peoples in various parts of the world feel towards western institutions is founded on a long history of violence, “disinvestment, incompetence and brutality,” including the intentional propagation of diseases as an integral part of the genocide perpetrated by colonizers, cases of forced sterilization among Indigenous Peoples, and general practices and institutions that colonial governments have imposed upon Indigenous Peoples without their consent. Despite the fact that Indigenous Peoples in the US are being vaccinated at a higher rate than any other group, there continue to be doubts about vaccination. In the state of Nevada, the One Community campaign is involving leaders and community members from Indigenous, Black, Latinx, and other marginalized communities to “provide multilingual, culturally competent vaccine outreach to help keep Nevadans of color healthy.” They have identified distrust of government agencies as an obstacle to vaccination. Roxann McCoy, President of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) says, ”It's really not just about the vaccine. We've seen police brutality. All those entities that are 'in authority' that are there to protect and serve have not equitably protected served and especially when it comes to the minority community.” In some cases, fear and distrust is being imposed upon Indigenous Peoples systematically by external forces. In Brazil, evangelical groups, as well as President Jair Bolsonaro himself, who has constantly negated the truth of the pandemic which has killed more than 266,000 people in Brazil, are perpetuating “Fake News” about the dangers of the vaccine. “‘Fundamentalists and evangelical missionaries are preaching against the vaccine,’ says Dinamam Tuxá, a Tuxá leader of APIB, Brazil’s largest indigenous organization.” Leader Apuriña Claudemir da Silva says, “It’s not happening in all villages, just in those that have missionaries or evangelical chapels where pastors are convincing the people not to receive the vaccine, that they will turn into an alligator and other crazy ideas.” In response, some Indigenous Peoples in Brazil are launching local campaigns to combat this misinformation and educate their communities with the hashtag #vacinaparente. Many remote Peoples in Brazil have been heavily impacted by the pandemic, which has arrived to their communities via illegal miners operating in their territories throughout the pandemic. This has gone on in spite of major campaigns, such as that of the Yanomami in the Amazon, to expel the miners in accordance with Indigenous rights. Similar disinformation and religious campaigns have taken place in Chiapas, Mexico, one of the poorest states in Mexico with some of the greatest diversity of Indigenous cultures in Mexico. Forty-five communities in Chiapas decided in a community assembly that they would not permit any of their members to receive the COVID-19 vaccine. One community member explains that people believe that the vaccine, rather than preventing COVID-19, would cause infection. This distrust has also affected other medical campaigns; for example, it has resulted in rejecting fumigation for dengue-carrying mosquitoes because the community feared that fumigation would spread COVID-19. Acceptation of the Vaccine The Navajo Nation has seen 11 percent of their population of 170,000 people infected by COVID-19, and in the whole country Indigenous Peoples have the highest COVID-19 mortality rate. By mid-February 2021, “Indigenous Americans [had] the highest inoculation rate so far, with 11.6% (one in nine) already having received at least one dose.” Indigenous Nations had the option to receive the vaccine through state governments or through the Indian Health Service (IHS) at the federal level; many Indigenous Nations and Urban Indigenous Organizations have chosen the second option and many of them are “pleased with the distribution so far.” However, these national statistics do not reflect the reality of every person and community, and in some places, such as in Los Angeles County, the vaccination rate for Indigenous communities, as well as Black and Latinx communities, is lower than for the white population. Many Indigenous Nations are designing and activating systems that accelerate vaccine distribution to protect their beloved members, above all their elders who are invaluable for the survival of their languages and cultures. The Cherokee Nation is putting elders “at the front of the line”; this follows their having lost, over the course of the pandemic, 35 of just 2,000 remaining fluent speakers of their language. Although Indigenous Peoples in the US have survived a long history of medical violence imposed by the colonizers, “a survey of 1,435 Native Americans [spearheaded by Abigail Echo-Hawk, Director of the Urban Indian Health Institute based in Seattle, WA] revealed that 75 percent would be willing to be vaccinated, not because they suddenly trust Uncle Sam, but because they put the ‘we’ ahead of the ‘me.’” Although a vast range of Indigenous perspectives towards the vaccine exists and each person and community will have their own opinion, the survey suggests that Native Americans are proportionately more willing to receive the vaccine than the general population, largely due to their commitment to collective wellbeing. Indigenous Nations are using community centers and other creative methods to educate and distribute the vaccine to their members, while directly addressing the historical trauma associated with the abuses of western medicine. The pandemic in Indigenous communities globally has had a wide range of impacts, and thus it is necessary to evaluate the particularities of each Indigenous People to take action to reduce the pandemic’s impact. Cultural Survival demands that states provide culturally appropriate and updated information to Indigenous communities; generate disaggregated data; and respect Free, Prior and Informed Consent and the self-determination of Indigenous Peoples for all actions related to combatting the pandemic. Photo courtesy of ARHI, India.

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- Task 1. Understanding Marketing - 1.1. Various Definitions of Marketing to Explain what Marketing Is - Buy "Marketing Case Study" essay paper online - 1.2. The role of the organizational orientation - Task 2. Product Development and Market Research - 2.1. Identification of the Product and the Role of Market Research on its Development - 2.2. Types of Market Research - 2.3. The Limitations of Market Research - Task 3. Marketing Mix - 3.1. How the Marketing Mix Is Coordinated by Business - 3.2. The Managerial Implications of the Marketing Mix - Task 4. Marketing Strategies - 4.1. Corporate Strategy of George at ASDA - 4.2. The Importance of Monitoring Activity - 4.3. The Evaluation of Actions - Related Case Study essays George at ASDA is the company that specializes in clothing products and accessories. The strength of the organization is that it owns and operates retail stores. George at ASDA is based in Lutterworth, United Kingdom. Moreover, it operates as the subsidiary of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. The variety of the products include women’s clothes, such as socks, trousers, skirts and shorts, dresses, jumpers, cardigans, and tops. Moreover, George at ASDA provides baby clothes, school wear, lingerie, carry bags, and swimwear. Additionally, the company offers compact disc holders, universal serial bus drives, printers, shoes, and stationery products. Since the company was founded in 1990, it has a rich experience in the market. Consequently, the current paper intends to understand the marketing of George at ASDA, describe product development and market research, analyze marketing mix, and discuss marketing strategies. Task 1. Understanding Marketing 1.1. Various Definitions of Marketing to Explain what Marketing Is Speaking about marketing, one should say that there are many definitions of it. It means that marketing is a complex notion that presupposes building of many elements. Marketing is a management process that is based on the movement of goods and services to the customers. Marketing is a system that consists of the following elements: promotion, place, price, and product. Marketing is the activity to create, deliver, communicate, and exchange the products and services. Such definitions of marketing are relevant to George at ASDA. First, marketing of this company presupposes the movement of goods to the customers. For example, the operation is done with the help of retail stores in the UK. Second, promotion, place, price, and product are key elements of company’s marketing that help evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. Third, all stakeholders of George at ASDA are responsible for creating, delivering, communicating, and exchanging products and services of the company. Marketing is regarded as an art and science of creating and delivering value to satisfy the needs and demands of the target market. Additionally, marketing builds the relationships between the brands and customers. Marketing is also the communication of information about a service and product to the audience. George at ASDA uses marketing effectively to succeed and grow. It delivers its products to the domestic and international markets. In addition, the company collaborates with many suppliers to guarantee high quality and catering. 1.2. The role of the organizational orientation The organizational marketing orientation is a business model that determines the success of delivering products to the customers and the place of the company in the market. The marketing orientation consists of the following elements: customer orientation, competition orientation, and interfunctional orientation. George at ASDA has more customer orientation. Consequently, it tries to diversify its products and create them according to customers’ tastes and interests. Customer orientation has an important role as it provides long-term profitability and sales. Moreover, it increases the performance of George at ASDA as a large number of customers demand the constant innovations in products and change management process. Additionally, such kind of marketing orientation involves the emphasis on the target marker, learning its feedbacks, and improvement product, distribution, promotion, and price strategies. Task 2. Product Development and Market Research 2.1. Identification of the Product and the Role of Market Research on its Development Recently, George at ASDA has presented a new line of women’s clothes. Consequently, the target customers for the product are females. This product was implemented due to spring time and desire women to change their wardrobe. As a result, the dresses and blouses are bright and colourful that proves the fact that spring is approaching and new tendencies are in fashion. It means that George at ASDA conducted market research to understand what colours, styles, and silhouettes they should add to their new collection of women’s clothes. As the company took into consideration the customers’ tastes and interests, the new product would provide high sales and profitability. Consequently, market research is necessary for those individuals who are going to implement new product as it helps identify the specific details about customers, competitors, and tendencies in the market. Market research presupposes gathering the full information about the place of the product. As a result, it is the basement for avoiding the possible risks and hazards. 2.2. Types of Market Research One can distinguish the following types of market research: primary research, qualitative and quantitative research, and secondary research. George at ASDA has performed the primary research to determine the key customers and their needs. This type of market research helps specify the product qualities and adapt them to customers’ demands. George at ASDA has also performed qualitative and quantitative research to understand customers’ perception of company’s products, their feelings, likes, dislikes, and their demands. It means that the company conducts testing to receive qualitative and quantitative information from the customers. Nevertheless, the organization has not performed the secondary research as they are unnecessary for their activity. The primary research helps determine the style of clothes, tendencies in colours, and silhouettes. The qualitative and quantitative researches help define the future profitability and sales of the new spring line of women’s clothes. 2.3. The Limitations of Market Research Without a doubt, any market research has its limitations. First, there are budgetary constraints. Gathering and processing data belong to very expensive procedures even for such successful company as George at ASDA. Consequently, the company can avoid such expenses using the secondary sources that are less reliable. Another limitation is related to time. Any marketing research demands time and efforts. As a result, the improvement of position in the market is based on the quick decisions. Any market research is long-lasting. Another limitation is the reliability of data. Not all information received from the customers can be reliable. As a result, it is crucial to orient on the competitors and tendencies in the market. George at ASDA can avoid these limitations planning time, costs, and efforts to perform the diverse kinds of research. Task 3. Marketing Mix 3.1. How the Marketing Mix Is Coordinated by Business A strong marketing mix consists of the following components: price, place, promotion, and product. Price strategy is one of the key strategies of George at ASDA as it influences the customers’ attitudes and behaviours. Spring blouses and dresses for women belong to the products that can vary in their prices. However, when it comes to the new collection of women’s clothes, the prices are high. The items from new spring line cost from $10 to $500. However, when the season is coming to the end, George at ASDA suggests the flexible system of reductions that attract more customers. It is evident that the company has its pricing strategy that is adapted to a specific market. In this case, George at ASDA tries to reach females that are the most numerous group of customers. George at ASDA belongs to the company with the moderate prices. Consequently, it is related to mass market. Place strategy is another important component of the marketing mix that helps determine the most favourable locations for carrying business profitable. The new spring collection of women’s clothes is sold in the stores of the UK. However, George at ASDA suggests the online shopping as the most convenient means. Using the company’s website, the customer can find the suitable item of her size, colour, and style. Moreover, the website of George at ASDA provides the online users with the store locator that can help find the stores of George at ASDA easily. The largest number of stores is concentrated in London. It is obvious that the city is the most profitable location as it attracts many tourists and lovers of shopping. However, the customers of Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Edinburgh, Bristol, Nottingham, York, and other smaller cities and towns can afford the new spring collection of women’s clothes of George at ASDA, as well. The new product of the company is spring collection of women’s clothes that responds to the customers’ interests and needs. The collection includes blouses and dresses with bright and colorful prints that mark that spring is in the air. One can say that the products of this collection will be in the high demand among the female customers. George at ASDA pays much attention to the quality of their items as women are concerned about this. Moreover, the company provides the available system of returns and exchanges, and it is convenient, especially for those individuals who buy online. George at ASDA orients on the following features of its product: quality, universality, style, fashion, and tendencies in the market. It means that George at ASDA builds its product strategy according to the wants, requirements, and needs of the female customers, considering that they are very demanding and capricious. Promotion is a part of the marketing of George at ASDA. When they have to deal with implementation of new products, promotion is the best way to achieve the success and increase the market share. Internet advertisement is the most practised by this company. George at ASDA puts the necessary information regarding a new collection on its website. It uses such social media as YouTube, Instagram, and Facebook to reach its customers who are the frequent users of them. Moreover, the organization uses print media and the official website to inform the customers about its innovations and product implementation. The promotion takes place when the product is launching as it is the best time to attract customers’ attention and provoke their interest. Consequently, George at ASDA should improve its advertisement constantly and be creative in the ways of reaching customers. One recommends the application of public relations as the effective way of promotion. 3.2. The Managerial Implications of the Marketing Mix The managerial implications of the marketing mix of George at ASDA are the following: market orientation, strategic orientation, and organizational involvement. Market orientation is the implication for determining the price of the items of the new spring collection. Strategic orientation is the managerial implication for predicting the success of the new product in the market. Moreover, it is the basement for planning the promotional activities and finding new locations for the spring collection of women’s clothes. Organizational involvement is another implication for fulfillment of price, product, place, and promotion strategies. One can also refer employees in regard to implications as they are responsible for achieving the target strategies. As George at ASDA is a productive and profitable company, it encourages employees to work better and show the high performance. Performance is the implication for finding the effective promotional strategies, improving the product quality, and putting the new product in many stores. Task 4. Marketing Strategies 4.1. Corporate Strategy of George at ASDA The corporate strategy of George at ASDA is based on the business ethics, social responsibility, mission, purpose, and values corresponding to the customers’ needs. Such trategy intends to focus on the customers, shareholders, colleagues, and operating model. This marketing strategy helps fulfil company’s mission that is to be the best retailer in the UK. The company does it by means of the effective marketing policy that benefits succeeding and growth. The vision of the organization is to save customers’ money providing high quality at the reasonable price. George at ASDA fulfils it with the help of product and price strategies. The values of the company are the following: putting the customers first, caring for the employees, and striving to be the best. George at ASDA fulfils its values conducting market research and developing new products. The objectives of the company are to exceed customers expectations providing them with the most qualitative and unique items. The strategic direction of George at ASDA is to win the international market, and online marketing can help do this. 4.2. The Importance of Monitoring Activity Monitoring of marketing is important to George at ASDA as it helps determine the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen strategies. Moreover, monitoring of marketing helps record and report progress toward goals. One recommends the application of Balanced Scorecard and Business Intelligence System to do it more effectively. Monitoring also presupposes the evaluation of the company’s financial resources. Monitoring of the performance is done through the innovative technologies and management information systems that make the process quicker and more effective. The monitoring activities of George at ASDA are based on SWOT-analysis, PESTEL analysis, and 5 Porter’s model. Such techniques help identify the gaps in marketing activities, plan new opportunities, and avoid the possible threats. The evaluation and control of marketing policy belongs to the essential tasks of managers. Consequently, they bear responsibility for making it frequent and effective. 4.3. The Evaluation of Actions The marketing actions of George at ASDA are effective and strategic, especially when they deal with product development. For example, the company always follows fashion and seasonal tendencies and reflect them in its products. The organization uses its human resources productively. For example, it conducts training and learning to retain them. Moreover, George at ASDA provides the career promotion and bonuses for the high performance and creativity. The marketing actions of the company are related to the expansion. The domestic expansion is done with the help of opening new stores, while the global expansion is done with the help of online shopping. It is evident that currently, company’s marketing activities are successful, and monitoring activities benefit them. Raising brand awareness is done through advertisement and public relations. For example, the website of the company is available to every customer. It is recommended to improve the distribution strategy as most stores are located in the big cities. In conclusion, one should say that marketing of George at ASDA is strategic, effective, and correspond to the company’s mission and values. Product development is one of the main objectives of the organization that is done with the help of market research. George at ASDA uses primary, qualitative, and quantitative research to reach its customers. The marketing mix of the company is fulfilled in the full measure. The product strategy is based on the development of new items. The price strategy presupposes studying customers’ opportunities. The place strategy is related to finding new locations. The promotion strategy refers to creating positive brand name, favourable reputation, and image in the market. The marketing strategies are successful as they are based on corporate strategy, social responsibility, and business ethics. George at ASDA is the example of the effective marketing that is the strength of the company. Moreover, the company demonstrates that is ready to develop and move forward.

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A NextGen Blog post by Johanna Mitra, Stony Brook University. All Photos © Alison M. Jones, unless otherwise noted. This is the latest post to our NWNL NEXTGEN BLOG series. Since 2007, NWNL has supported watershed education with college internships and blogging opportunities. This NWNL NEXTGEN BLOG series posts students’ essays; sponsors a forum for our student contributors; and invites upper-level students to propose work focused on watershed values, threats and solutions. Johanna Mitra is currently an undergraduate student at Stony Brook University. She is majoring in ecosystems and human impacts on them, with a focus on wildlife conservation. She is minoring in geospatial science. This is the final part in her 4-blog series on migratory birds and the “Flyways of the Americas” that follow our NWNL case study watersheds. As the last post in this “Flyway of the Americas” series, this blog covers the Central Flyway, a migratory corridor stretching one million square miles across the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and all the way down to the Gulf Coast.1Ducks Unlimited Each year, its rivers and wetlands host as many as 380 species of migratory birds as they travel between their breeding and wintering grounds.2Bird Life International Nebraska’s Platte River, a tributary flowing from the Colorado and Wyoming Rocky Mountains across the Great Plains to the Missouri River, is directly within the Central Flyway. Every spring, it is the home to “one of the great mass migrations on the planet,” as half a million sandhill cranes arrive there to rest and feed before continuing their migration northward.3Rosen, Jonathan In 2017, NWNL led an expedition to the Lower Platte River Basin to document this migration and explore how sandhill cranes, like other species in the region, depend on the river’s resources. During the course of the expedition, NWNL heard about research and birding experiences from Dr. George Archibald, a leading expert in cranes and co-founder of the International Crane Foundation, as well as Brice Krohn, President of Crane Trust. As the Platte River prepares for a busy 2021 migration season, it’s important to understand just how vital this river is to the Central Flyway and the birds that use it. What makes the Platte River the ideal migratory stopover? Known as the river that is “a mile wide and an inch deep,” the Platte’s braided riverbed creates the ideal “staging area,” or mid-migration rest-stop. By keeping to the Platte’s shallow waters at night, sandhill cranes can avoid predators. In the morning, the adjacent wetlands and nearby croplands offer ample opportunity for feeding.4National Wildlife Federation Because the many birds that stop here during migration season have already traveled hundreds of miles and likely will travel hundreds more, access to food is a top priority. By feeding on leftover corn from the fall harvest, sandhill cranes are able to gain an additional 20% of their body weight, enough to fuel them the rest of their way up north.5Miller, Matthew L. The sandhill cranes that come to the Platte River every year make up 80% of the total sandhill crane population in the world; but they’re not the only crane species to use the Central Flyway.6Miller, Matthew L. In his 2017 lecture at the Crane Trust, Dr. George Archibald explained that North America’s only other crane species, the endangered whooping crane, also makes a rare appearance in this river basin. Archibald states that what was once a population of only 15 whooping cranes in 1940 has now increased to about 350 individuals, all of which fly through Nebraska at some point during the migration season.7Archibald, George Other endangered and threatened bird species utilize the Platte River too. Interior least terns and piping plovers nest on the river’s sandbars and shoreline. The more sedentary greater prairie chickens roam the river basin’s grasslands, performing their unusual and thumping mating dances at the same time as the crane migration.8National Wildlife Federation Threats to the Platte River and Sandhill Crane Migration Unfortunately, today’s Platte River habitat is only a fraction of its original size. Over time, the construction of dams and reservoirs along its 310 miles has altered its flow and the river basin itself.9Buckley, Emma Brinley The staging area for sandhill cranes used to be around 200 miles long; but it’s a very different story today.10Rosen, Jonathan During Brice Krohn’s interview with NWNL, he recalled how much wider the river was when he visited as a young boy: “It was 80 miles wide here at its chokepoint, but now their flyway is only 50 miles wide.”11Krohn, Brice Dr. Archibald also mentioned that “one of the great dangers to the sandhill cranes is if we lose the water of the Platte River.” This is a growing threat, as climate change alters precipitation patterns in the region.12Archibald, George. Since human activity and infrastructure have already significantly impacted the river’s flow, Dr. Archibald considers it “extremely important to make sure that the Platte River continues running.”13Archibald, George. Also due to climate change, there is concern that the sandhill cranes will lose their main food source in this river basin – waste corn. As temperatures continue to rise and droughts in corn-growing regions become more frequent, corn yields will decline and farmers run a higher risk of “bad crop years”.14Harvey, Chelsea This translates into less waste corn at the end of the season. As a result, farmers might be prompted to grow alternate crops that fare better in the changing climate. Dr. Archibald believed “Should there be a change in agricultural practices, the food that cranes depend upon may be gone tomorrow.”15Archibald, George The sheer number of cranes feeding on farmland can also cause conflict with the farmers themselves, especially when the birds begin tearing up planted crops and eating growing corn seedlings instead of waste corn. To combat crop destruction, the International Crane Foundation developed a non-lethal and non-toxic product called “Avipel”, designed to deter the sandhill cranes from feasting on new seedlings.16Beilfuss, Rich The scale of the sandhill crane population in the Platte River each year is a sure sign of the region’s resiliency. Crane Trust’s rough estimates for 2017 were of 600,000 sandhill cranes, which increased to 700,000 in 2018. More recent population estimates made using survey data from the Crane Trust and other agencies suggest that at the peak of 2019’s spring migration, there could have been as many as 1.27 million sandhill cranes in the Central and North Platte River Valley combined.17Caven, Andrew You can follow the Crane Trust’s annual sandhill crane count for 2021 on their continuously-updated website. With the help of dedicated organizations like the Crane Trust and International Crane Foundation, the Platte River will remain the site of one of the greatest migrations in the world. Tourist visits during this migration are an important element of fiscal support for these two organizations. The Future of the Flyways of the Americas Each year, billions of birds rely on the rivers of all four flyways – the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central and Pacific – and their associated wetlands and streams; yet these waterways face mounting pressure from human activity and climate change. As a new US Administration steps into office, indications are that watershed conservation may become a greater priority, as it recognizes the invaluable role of migratory birds in our economy, culture and environment. In describing the sandhill crane migration, Brice Krohn said, “Even if folks aren’t really into birds, the sheer spectacle of their migration is very special.”18Krohn, Brice This sentiment is true of migrations across all the world’s flyways. It’s a truly amazing feat of endurance that wouldn’t be possible without our freshwater resources. Archibald, George. “Lecture at the Crane Trust & Visitor Center.” NWNL Expedition at the Crane Trust, March 22, 2017. Accessed on Feb 9, 2021 by JM. https://nowater-nolife.org/george-archibald-on-cranes/ Beilfuss, Rich. “Notes from the President – See a Sandhill? Thank a Farmer!” International Crane Foundation, July 6, 2020. Accessed on Feb 9, 2021 by JM. https://www.savingcranes.org/notes-from-the-president-see-a-sandhill-thank-a-farmer/ Buckley, Emma Brinley. “Platte River Timelapse.” NWNL Expedition at the Crane Trust, March 21, 2017. Accessed on Feb 8, 2021 by JM. https://nowater-nolife.org/platte-river-in-timelapse/ Caven, Andrew. “Sandhill Crane Counts 2020 – Week 5.” The Crane Trust, March 12, 2020. Accessed on Feb 15, 2021 by JM. https://cranetrust.org/news-events/the-prairie-pulse.html/article/2020/03/12/sandhill-crane-counts-2020-week-5 “Central Americas Flyway.” Bird Life International, n.d. Accessed on Feb 7, 2021 by JM. http://datazone.birdlife.org/userfiles/file/sowb/flyways/2_Central_Americas_Factsheet.pdf “DU Projects: Central Flyway.” Ducks Unlimited, n.d. Accessed on February 6, 2021 by JM. https://www.ducks.org/conservation/where-ducks-unlimited-works/waterfowl-migration-flyways/du-projects-central-flyway Harvey, Chelsea. “Rising Temperatures Could Cut Corn Production.” Scientific American, June 12, 2018. Accessed on Feb 15, 2021 by JM. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rising-temperatures-could-cut-corn-production/ Krohn, Brice. Interview for NWNL Expedition at the Crane Trust, March 24, 2017. Accessed on Feb 9, 2021 by JM. https://nowater-nolife.org/central-platte-river-basin/ Miller, Matthew L. “Platte River Sandhill Cranes: Enjoying North America’s Greatest Bird Spectacle.” The Nature Conservancy, March 3, 2014. Accessed on Feb 8, 2021 by JM. https://blog.nature.org/science/2014/03/03/platte-river-nebraska-sandhill-cranes-birding/https://blog.nature.org/science/2014/03/03/platte-river-nebraska-sandhill-cranes-birding/ “Platte River.” National Wildlife Federation, n.d. Accessed on Feb 8, 2021 by JM. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Wild-Places/Platte-River Rosen, Jonathan. “Cranes on the Platte River.” National Audubon Society, February 2013. Accessed on February 7, 2021 by JM. https://www.audubon.org/magazine/january-february-2013/cranes-platte-river

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How to develop and organize paragraphs is a problem that plagues many beginning college writers. How do you start a paragraph? How can you help your reader understand the main idea? How do you know when you’ve included enough details? How do you conclude? You might also wonder when you need to break a paragraph and start a new one or how help your reader transition from one idea to the next. (For more on methods of development, see “Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development,” later in this “Drafting” section of this text.). What Is a Paragraph? Let’s begin by defining this concept of the paragraph. A paragraph is a group of sentences that present, develop, and support a single idea. That’s it. There’s no prescribed length or number of sentences. Paragraphs rarely stand alone, so most often the main topic of the paragraph serves the main concept or purpose of a larger whole; for example, the main idea of a paragraph in an essay should serve to develop and support the thesis of the essay. (For more on thesis statements, see “Finding the Thesis” earlier in this “Drafting” section of this text.) Similarly, the main idea of a paragraph in a letter serves the overall purpose of the letter, whether that purpose is to thank your Aunt Martha for the thoughtful birthday sweater, or whether the purpose is to inform a local business that you’re dissatisfied with the quality of a product or service that you purchased. The job of the topic sentence is to control the development and flow of the information contained in the paragraph. The topic sentence takes control of the more general topic of the paragraph and shapes it in the way that you choose to present it to your readers. It provides a way through a topic that is likely much broader than what you could ever cover in a paragraph, or even in an essay. This more focused idea, your topic sentence, helps you determine the parts of the topic that you want to illuminate for your readers—whether that’s a college essay or a thank you letter to your Aunt Martha. The following diagram illustrates how a topic sentence can provide more focus to the general topic at hand. Think about some places where you might commonly find general topics presented with more focus, perhaps in news stories, textbooks, or speeches. The topic of a news story might be a deadly forest fire that’s burning out of control, while the focus of the topic might be about careless humans. The topic of a chapter from a medical text might be phlebotomy (the practice of drawing blood from a patient), while the focus of a section of that chapter might be about safe disposal of used needles. Maybe the topic of a persuasive speech is organic produce, while the focus of the speech is about the importance of supporting local organic farms. Most topics are expansive, so they require more focus—whether in a thesis statement or a topic sentence—to provide a narrower view of the broader subject. This narrower and more focused view also often seeks to persuade the reader to see things from the writer’s perspective. While we’re on the subject of speech class, let’s talk about how the presentation of topics in an academic essay differs from the presentation of topics in a speech. Beginning speech writers often use obvious verbal signposts to announce main ideas, transitional moments, or concluding thoughts. For example, it would not be uncommon for a student in a college speech class, while delivering a speech, to say, “First, I will explain . . .” or “The first topic I will cover . . .” or “Next, I will tell you about . . .” or “In conclusion, as I have demonstrated . . . .” And while these methods for announcing a topic may be common and accepted practices in some college speech classes, they do not suit the expectations of your audience for an academic essay. With an oral presentation, the audience can’t see how the speech will unfold, but with written text, readers can see the size and shape of the document that they’re reading, so they don’t need as much help navigating. So how can you correct this common problem? It’s quite simple actually. Just remove the verbal signpost that announces your position, remove the first person “I,” point of view and simply state the position or topic (see the “Point of View” section in the “Writing about Texts” portion of this text). Here’s an example: Speech-like announcement of a topic: First, I will explain that while it’s a common belief that use of cell phones causes lower levels of concentration and focus, cell phone use does have a place in the classroom and smart phones should be considered a valuable educational tool. Improved presentation of a topic: While it’s a common belief that the use of cell phones causes lower levels of concentration and focus, cell phone use does have a place in the classroom, and smart phones should be considered a valuable educational tool. Placement of Topic Sentences What if I told you that the topic sentence doesn’t necessarily need to be at the beginning? This might be contrary to what you’ve learned in previous English or writing classes, and that’s okay. Certainly, placing topic sentences at or near the beginning of paragraphs is a fine strategy, especially for beginning writers. If you announce a topic clearly and early on in a paragraph, your readers are likely to grasp your idea and to make the connections that you want them to make. Now that you’re writing for a more sophisticated academic audience though—that is an audience of college-educated readers—you can use more sophisticated organizational strategies to build and reveal ideas in your writing. One way to think about a topic sentence, is that it presents the broadest view of what you want your readers to understand. This is to say that you’re providing a broad statement that either announces or brings into focus the purpose or the meaning for the details of the paragraph. And if you think of the topic sentence as the broadest view, then you can think about how every supporting detail brings a narrower—or more specific—view of the same topic. With this in mind, take some time to contemplate the diagrams in the figure below. The widest point of each diagram (the bases of the triangles) represents the topic sentence of the paragraph. As details are presented, the topic becomes narrower and more focused. The topic can precede the details, it can follow them, it can both precede and follow them, or the details can surround the topic. There are surely more alternatives than those that are presented here, but this gives you an idea of some of the possible paragraph structures and possible placements for the topic sentence of a paragraph. Consider some of the following examples of different topic sentence placements in a paragraph from a review essay of the beloved children’s book, The Cat in the Hat, by Dr. Seuss. Paragraph structures are labeled according to the diagrams presented above, and topic sentences are identified by red text. Topic Sentence-Details-Topic Sentence A good children’s book requires an exciting plot and a problem with which children can sympathize. In The Cat in the Hat there is plenty of action, depicted in the wild antics of the cat, and later in the amazing but dangerous and messy tricks of Thing 1 and Thing 2. All this excitement and action naturally draws children into the story and keeps the plot moving forward at a pace that maintains their interest. There is also tension to be resolved. The fish senses danger and constantly warns the children not to participate in the cat’s perilous stunts. And later, as the mother’s return becomes more imminent, the children begin to heed the fish’s warning and finally wish to contain the chaos and clean up the mess, but how? While this plot is fantastic enough to fuel any child’s imagination, it also contains a problem with which any child can relate: a mess and the threat of a parent’s disapproval. The careful balance of action, tension, and relatability is what makes this book an enduring childhood favorite. The careful balance of action, tension, and relatability is what makes Dr. Seuss’s The Cat in the Hat an enduring childhood favorite. In The Cat in the Hat there is plenty of action, depicted in the wild antics of the cat, and later in the amazing but dangerous and messy tricks of Thing 1 and Thing 2. All this excitement and action naturally draws children into the story and keeps the plot moving forward at a pace that maintains their interest. There is also tension to be resolved. The fish senses danger and constantly warns the children not to participate in the cat’s perilous stunts. And later, as the mother’s return becomes more imminent, the children begin to heed the fish’s warning and finally wish to contain the chaos and clean up the mess, but how? While this plot is fantastic enough to fuel any child’s imagination, it also contains a problem with which any child can relate: a mess and the threat of a parent’s disapproval. You can relocate the topic sentence to the end here, and you’ll have an example of the Details-Topic Sentence method of organizing the paragraph. In The Cat in the Hat there is plenty of action, depicted in the wild antics of the cat, and later in the amazing but dangerous and messy tricks of Thing 1 and Thing 2. All this excitement and action naturally draws children into the story and keeps the plot moving forward at a pace that maintains their interest. The careful balance of action, tension, and relatability is what makes Dr. Seuss’s The Cat in the Hat an enduring childhood favorite. There is definitely tension to be resolved here. The fish senses danger and constantly warns the children not to participate in the cat’s perilous stunts. And later, as the mother’s return becomes more imminent, the children begin to heed the fish’s warning and finally wish to contain the chaos and clean up the mess, but how? While this plot is fantastic enough to fuel any child’s imagination, it also contains a problem with which any child can relate: a mess and the threat of a parent’s disapproval. Implied Topic Sentences Now that you’re getting used to the idea that the topic sentence doesn’t necessarily need to be placed at the beginning of the paragraph, what if I told you that, sometimes, the topic sentence doesn’t need to be stated at all? It’s true! Eliminating the topic sentence isn’t always the best strategy for beginning writers, but it can be effective, and it’s a pretty common strategy among professional writers. It’s also worthwhile to note that many instructors will prefer an explicit topic sentence over an implied one, just as many will prefer an explicit thesis over an implied one. When in doubt, ask your instructors about their preferences in areas such as these. One area where you’re likely to find implied topic sentences is in narrative essays. In narratives, as in novels or other works of creative writing, readers often prefer to glean the meaning from the text rather than to have it thrust upon them. Writers also often prefer to imply themes and ideas rather than spelling it out for their readers. There are also times when your main idea will be obvious enough without having to come out and state your topic sentence. If you’re not sure about whether or not an implied topic is working in a paragraph, write an explicit topic sentence for the paragraph. Read the paragraph with and without your new explicit topic. Does addition of the explicit topic improve the clarity of the paragraph or essay? Share the essay with a couple of friends or classmates and get some second opinions. Consider the following paragraph from an essay titled “The Bothersome Beauty of Pigeons,” by author and Boise State writing professor, Bruce Ballenger. It’s important to note that this is a personal narrative essay rather than a more traditional academic essay, but it the paragraph provides a good example of an implied topic. In this essay Ballenger takes the time to consider the beauty of pigeons, a bird that’s usually thought of as nothing more than a nuisance. Just prior to this paragraph, Ballenger talks about how he used a fake owl to scare away pigeons on his property. He goes on to explain My pigeons moved next door where an elderly couple feed them bird seed and have the time and willingness to clean up after their new charges; so it seems, in this case, things have worked out for everyone. But the large flocks still haunt the piazzas in Florence and Venice, the squares in London, and similar places in nearly every city across the globe. Despite their ability to distinguish between a Van Gogh and a Chagall, pigeons still deposit droppings that deface the great marble statues and facades–the works of art and architecture that are part of our human heritage–and yet people still buy bags of seed for about a dollar and pose for photographs, drenched in doves. Meanwhile, officials in these cities continue, sometimes quietly, to wage war against the birds (“Introduction”). Here, Ballenger seems to be saying that in spite of the attempts of so many to rid themselves of the pigeons, others are still drawn to them and will feed them and encourage them to come back. His main idea seems to be that the battle against pigeons is a losing proposition, but he doesn’t come out and say so. His message in this paragraph is implied. Do you think this paragraph would be improved with an explicit topic sentence? As you write and revise your own paragraphs, these will be important questions for you to consider about your own writing. Characteristics of a Good Topic Sentence If a reader or teacher comments that your paragraph lacks unity, you probably need a better topic sentence (or maybe you don’t have one yet). So, how can you spot a good topic sentence when you’ve written one? A good topic sentence might meet the following criteria: - Signals the topic and also the more focused ideas of the paragraph - Presents an idea or ideas that are clear and easy to understand - Provides unity to the paragraph (so it’s clear how all supporting ideas relate) - Omits supporting details - Engages the reader There’s no right order in the writing process for identifying or writing the topic sentence of a paragraph. Some writers begin drafting a paragraph with a main idea already in mind and then decide how to support it. Others begin writing about details, examples, or quotations from sources that they feel somehow relate to what they want to say, writing for a while before deciding what the main idea is. Most writers rely on a variety of strategies that they have developed through trial and error. So don’t let the lack of a main idea hold you back from getting out what you want to say. Write for a while, and a main idea will surely emerge. Here are some exercises to help you practice identifying and developing topics and topic sentences. Identify the Topic and Focus Choose a piece of writing, perhaps an essay or some news articles provided by your instructor, and for each paragraph identify (1) the topic and (2) the more focused idea. Remember, the topic sentence applies more focus to the broader topic to help narrow the scope of the paragraph. For example, the topic of a paragraph might be school lunches. The more focused idea of that same paragraph might be the idea of having students plant school gardens as a way to help incorporate more fresh produce in the menu. Ask Readers to Find the Topic Sentences Ask someone to read your essay and for each supporting paragraph, ask your reader to underline the most likely topic sentence. If your reader can’t find a topic sentence, ask him or her to write a topic sentence for that paragraph. Ask a Readers to Share Their Expectations Provide a reader with a list of your topic sentences, without the paragraphs that they belong to. Ask the reader what he or she thinks each paragraph is about and what kind of supporting details or discussion he or she would expect to see in the paragraph.

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There is the belief of a free market without any interference with the motive of profit-making. It is, however, hard to find a state that operates within this definition. Total capitalism is not practical due to its flaw in the current world. However, it is still in practice in society, pushing the agenda for development and change.HistoryCapitalism dates back to the ancient era of humankind. Back then, life was simple and arranged. The society depended on simple means of survival for food and resources. In this simple way of life, decisions came through a form of leadership that governed people’s actions. The barter system was born under this system. It was where people had choices and options. The system made the exchange of commodities a possibility. However, the system had its challenges, which later the people become aware of. The differences in the value of goods sparked a debate among people who didn’t agree in terms of good equality and value.Advancements in society ushered the new slavery system. During the period, leaders and the serfs took charge of the decision making. Therefore, the masters took control of the factors affecting the rate of production. There was an accumulation of wealth through the serfs. The slaves toiled the soil when cultivating to create wealth.Opposition among the slaves who didn’t like the harsh treatment grew. Their agitation for equality and better treatment led to the drafting of new agreements and ground rules. The agreement saw the serfs become entitled to part of the farm produce. The results of this agreement led to the development of a feudalism state. The feudalistic state saw the growth of the masters into a Lord. The slaves turned into serfs.Europe added to the definition of capitalism through the rise of Mercantilism. This new form of capitalism helped them spread to different parts of the globe. Mercantilism led to the growth of the Ancient Roman Empire. The practice included the supply of a nation with resources. In return, the state became under the Roman Empire while diminishing its independence. The growth of the Roman Empire led to the growth of Mercantilism. The expansion of Mercantilism diverted into the current economic practices defined under capitalism. The term describes the controlled economies of the Great Powers experienced in the First World War. Despite the nature of the situation describing the nature of a free market, there is a level of government control. The state plays a role in determining the allocation of credit and investment.Components of CapitalismProperty Rights: The definition refers to the private ownership of property. In this essence, property refers to the factors of production. Property ownership gives the proprietor sole control over the various factors of production. The proprietor gains control of the commodities in production. Hence, the proprietors carry out decision making on the nature of goods to produce, the manufacturing process, and the market. The profit accrued by the proprietor includes the rent from the use of land, labor payments, and interest on capital. There is also the dividends gained through the exchange of skills.Co-ordination Structure: Through co-ordination, the prices of commodities are determined. Furthermore, there is the influence of market forces with demand and supply. The prices end up high or low with the forces of demand and supply. The prices also influence the decisions of both individual buyers and sellers. There was a referral to the system in place as ‘Invisible Hand’ by Smith. In the economic system, there does not exist any interference by the state. The system ensures the proper performance of economic activities and attaining objectives part of the state.Motivational Structure: The market propels the motivation for material incentives. The suppliers gain the economic incentive of offering the right kind of profitable commodities.Decision-making Structure: There does not exist any centralized economic decision-making protocol. The decentralized nature of the decision-makers directly influences the market prices. Therefore, private entities carry out decisions. The decisions include the type of goods to be produced, the process, and the market.Information Structure: The information structure, it forms part of a decentralized nature. The decentralized form is due to the horizontal channels for existing information. The forms add to the development of options are shared through the different agents. The options end up with the states who apply at a similar rank.The Workings of CapitalismBasing on the work of Smith, a capitalist state works through the power envisioned in the ‘Invisible Hand.’ The theory of ‘Invisible Hand’ defines operations in a free market. The theory marks the exchanging nature of the commodities. The exchange includes a price determined through the interchangeable agreement of both parties. Below is the comprehensive list of the advantages and disadvantages of capitalist economics essay. The kind of demand from the consumers for the different products causes a direct effect. The effect applies to the allocation of resources to reach a maximization of the commodity. Profit is the material gains from the production of the goods. The system ensures the presence of temporal shortcomings and overflow. In case of the presence of excess demand that leads to an undersupply, the economic market prices soar. Each customer possesses purchasing power and willingness to out-maneuver the other in a price war. The high prices correspond with the suppliers to the situation with a large supply of goods to create a balance in the market. The case is also capable of a market that exhibits excess supply. However, economical prices tend to fall with each supplier. The fall is due to the race to attract more customers from their competitors. If prices are low, consumers become highly likely to demand more. The push leads to the restoration of equilibrium.Basing on the model by Adam Smith, there is the identification of the following:There exists an owner economic class. This means the production is owned by a selected few who can afford them. The category forms part of the upper-class groups as envisioned by Marx.The working-class system. The laborers take part in wealth creation through the production of commodities. In return, the working class earns wages with the capitalists. The group does not own any ownership of the factors of production, which Marx refers to as the lower class.The firms aim to maximize profit. It makes it an economic motivation for the production of the commodities: The capitalists make a judgment of the market while adjusting the output. There is the realization of the greater chance of making it profitable.A pure capitalist economy shows no interference by a governing body. The lack of interference often affects the growth of any state. Therefore, the market becomes free of all the decisions. The market adjusts its system with the remaining part of the equilibrium.Performance Under CapitalismWhen analyzing the performance as per the individualistic state, it involves evaluating the nature of economic growth going by the rare of performance:Economic EfficiencyEconomic effectiveness reflects on the capability of accomplishment of a task with the least resources on different levels as needed. The performance criteria review the state of the economy response with resource allocation. The resource ends up in maximizing the production of commodities while taking into consideration the welfare of individuals. An efficient state has the creation of high levels of GDP. The GDP encourages innovation and allowance of freedom of choice by individuals.Economic StabilityA couple of factors necessitate the determinants for the stability of a state. These factors include the rates of inflation, unemployment, and general growth. When operating in free space, stability becomes inconsistent due to cases of rising and falling nature of inflation in addition to growth.Income DistributionCapitalism offers a different generation of income, which is part of the economy. Income distribution is by the expertise and competence of the individual possesses. Individuals that possess skills and qualifications are in addition to capital resources. The value of the market receives high incomes. However, the lower incomes come with allocations to persons who possess related skills and resources.Economic GrowthThis refers to the measurement of the rate of growth in an economy. The growth also increases in terms of GDP. A capitalist economy shows slow economic growth. The increasing rate of the GDP makes the economy grows spontaneously. There exists the rising and falling with the business cycle. The imbalance leads to regressive economic growth with instability. Furthermore, it causes the economy to go into recession.Advantages of CapitalismIndividualism refers to any economy with resources and firms which are privately owned with the free market. This usually involves different government interventions. The interventions lead to the formation of regulations for different aspects of the economy with the protection of private property. There are various benefits accrued from such an economy.State involvement and interventions remain limited to different issues that cause intervening by the government. Some negative effects of intervention include corruption, poor circulation of information, and a lack of self-interest within the market. All these vices do not exist in the economy of a capitalistic state. Hence, it gives individual incentives to work hard to achieve the best.The economy depends on the push factor by the individual. No limitations exist with the acquired wealth by an individual in accumulation. The progression shows the growth of the state of the economy.Creative destruction is a function of capitalism. There is a powerful influence practiced with capitalism in case firms do not conform to the current changes in the modern world. The firms end up outdated and inefficient. Customers possess the purchasing power and make decisions on what commodities to select. There is a short term problem that comes with inefficiency, such as unemployment. The new state allows for a shift in terms of resources such as capital and labor. Therefore, it leads to the formation of new industries.Capitalism allows for individualistic choice for commodity purchase and job creation. The distribution of resources becomes possible based on consumer choice. The choice is while bearing in mind that the market is in a more productive and consumer-friendly manner. The wide variety of choices by the consumers also impacts the quality of the goods. High competition leads to high-quality goods.There is also the inclination of individualism firms to production with effectiveness. The inclination is through cutting down costs while improving efficiency. Consequently, they are preventing the losses related to the industry. The losses depict high competition in improving the economy.Related industries show effective correspondence to changes with the consumer’s desires. The change improves the economy leading to increased efficiency. Attempts exist to ensure a high level of productivity. There is the provision of financial incentives to workers by firms as a means of improving the nature of self-interest with the firm’s activities. The move becomes advantageous at the global level, with these countries becoming an exemplary, innovative front. Therefore, it improves technology and other implications for productive changes.Improvement of the proficiency of the firm leads to an increase in the skills of people. The people go through the social class with the increasing wealth. In the process of making wealth, there is the improvement of skills for the workers. Therefore, it leads to an increase in output from the manufacturing firm.The progress creates an incentive for the workers to work hard with interest in achieving more in life. The increase in profit gains with the economy and industry allows for the expanding wealth and resources. The resources later benefit the firm and thus improves the economy through an increase in the rate of foreign investment.There is a certain level of freedom of choice for purchase and engagement. The freedom comes with the little level of intervention for all the activities.The promotion of trade between states and individuals leads to mutual gains with the economy.Increasing profit margins becomes the focus of the state. The production caters to meeting the customers’ needs. The needs cause a large supply of commodities leading to diversification of the brands. The diversification allows for customer individuality and distinction, thus catering for the related changes with the desire for specific commodities between the high and low social classes.Disadvantages of CapitalismThe capitalist state gives the consumer all the power in the economy. People are gaining incentive to work harder to achieve more leads to achieving dominance with others in the economy. The lack of government intervention has various shortcomings witnessed in an economy.The dominance of the economy forms part of the chosen few. There is the recycling of wealth with a small party that gains an economic monopoly with the lack of government control. The instance occurs when governing rules are limiting. The rules limit the flexibility of money flow between different classes. There is the exploitation of labor. The cause leads to revolt. Revolt strikes the market negatively. The impact affects the economy through the disruption of production.The market focus on profit and demand leads to negative economic externalities. Externalities include pollution, which is ignored based on the issues with the economy. This further leads to a critical situation for the reduction of the money supply for the economy for resolving the various issues.Companies that benefit from the monopolies in the early market development phase push out the smaller companies. This is because of the high level of economic competition that they might not produce.Changes in CapitalismThe current world it’s hard to find a state that has pure capitalism. The fact is because the various capitalist government does not practice individualism to the core. A pure state exhibits no government intervention. The forces of demand and supply majorly depend on the individuals.The advent of private ownership with profit-driven motivation proves that such an economy is competitive. The level of competition breeds the question of why it is hard for a government to practice pure capitalistic space. It also necessitates the question of why there has never been a pure capitalist state before.There is an observation over the years that individualism passes through the various phrases. The phases enforce the capitalist economies to adjust the rules which they abide by. The changes make the capitalist state to practice pure socialism or pure individualism.Private OwnershipPrivate ownership forms part of the essential factors with the capitalist state. It adds to the competitive nature of the economy. Various changes with the shares of public and private ownership change the capitalist system. A state-owned entity that possesses a significant share for the current property will be no longer fall under the classification of the system as a pure capitalist.Working ParticipationThe capital owners, inclusive of partners, proprietors, and shareholders, becomes a reward from their profits. Workers earn their wages differently from their profits. The high rate of profit margins from a firm reflects the higher the level of returns for the shareholders, proprietors, and partners. The other wages for the workers remain part of the fixed aspect despite the profit fluctuations. Self-interest allows people to increase the profit margins for firms. Thus, the forms operate with the forces of a capitalist state. There are considerations that can be made of the evolving nature from the original form.In case of changes currently faced, the worker’s income becomes dependent on the firm’s profits. The wages act as part of the self-motivation increasing level of interest. The increase in motivation leads to high-profit margins for firms.Government InterventionFiscal policies are part of the budget deficit with government expenditures with fewer government revenues. There is also government expenditure or taxes help in stimulating the economy. In case the aggregate income is becoming low, the same fiscal policy becomes part of the expansionary fiscal policy. This leads to an increase with the deficiency through the decreasing taxes or other increase with government expenditure. In case the aggregate income becomes high, which forms part of the actual income is above the potential income, there are the appropriate fiscal policy forms part of the fiscal policy. There is a decrease in deficiency, which leads to an increase in taxes or decreasing government expenditure.Welfare: The 1930s and 1940s saw the political agenda became dominated by the workers. There is the development of the capitalist economies for a safety net. The net included government-funded programs, including the public welfare, establishment of an extensive set of regulations. It also included other unemployment insurance affecting all other aspects of the economy. The safety net frequently related to capitalist economies globally because it makes it an available form of security for the working class.Minimum Wage Laws: There is the enforcement of the minimum wage laws by the government, which helps in keeping the businesses with the operations. There is the wage rigidity which is caused by the government, leading to the prevention of wages from failure to balance the equilibrium levels. There is a set of a legal minimum of the wagers with the minimum-wage laws which firms are liable to pay the workers. Because of the passage of the Fair Labor Standard Act of 1938, there is the U.S federal government provides the enforcement for a minimum wage that usually has between the range of 30 and 50 percent that takes care of the average wage in the sector of manufacturing. For part of the employees, there is the minimum wage, which does not bin. this is because they earn above the minimum. Despite some workers with the unskilled labor force, there is the raising of the wage for the workers. The rise in wages is above the equilibrium level. There is a reduction in the quantity of labor that firms demand.ConclusionThe years have been a change in the individualistic state. It began with the barter system that grew to the slavery structure. The structure followed by the Feudalism that paved the way for Mercantilism, which gave birth to individualism. There was a suggestion by the school of economics for the removal of the government role from the system. However, the role remains with the protection of individual rights with the provision of public goods and services. Throughout history, it reveals the necessity of government and its expanding role. Without government interference, there would be a failure of the entire structure. There is the development of individualism over the years with the government in mind. The form of government involvement with the nature of nationalization, fiscal policies, welfare, and minimum wage laws leads to the addition of the development of capitalist nature.In the current world, there is no practice of it in a capitalistic state. However, it forms part of a mixed economy. This economy is common with the former capitalist states such as the United States, where the state makes the decisions.Some shortcomings relate to the nature of individualism. The shortfalls include negatives such as pollution, disproportionate distribution of wealth, and income. With this state, it reduces non-renewable resources, high levels of unemployment, and instability because of the dynamic nature of capitalism. There are other economic motives for the firms for gaining profit that leads to the misappropriation of scare resources.Despite the constant conflicts witnessed between the upper and lower classes, there is still space for the capitalist economic system in the current world. The survival of the capitalistic nature in the modern world leaves space for the upper class in society. The economic state refers to their desire to remain in control with the means of production. This amasses much more wealth. There are cases of exploitation between the different economic classes with the upper class benefitting from the expense of labor from the lower class and ways of self-seeking. This is because people are on a mission to seek their self-interest, despite the effects of the actions it has on others. The capitalist system provides for means of suppressing the working class and keeping up with the nature of the bourgeois, which represents a dominant economic stance in society.

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There has always been questions about international students or foreign students. The problems they face, criterias or requirements needed in becoming one and the solutions to some problems encountered by these students This post is going to address all of that and also inform you on the statistics of some countries where the rate of international students are on the increase It will also give you information on studying in the US, UK and China. All you need to know about these countries. Definition of International Students: According to OECD, foreign students or international students are, “those who receive their prior education in another country and are not residents of their current country of study”. Using this definition, an international student are those students coming from another country with the aim of obtaining and educational degree in a country. We’d take a look at the challenges international students face and their solutions below. Challenges International Students Face Traveling to a foreign country could be frightening especially when you have never been to that country before. So what would you do if you are preparing to study abroad, what are the challenges you might encounter as an intending international student. 5 major challenges would be addressed and the solutions to these would also be provided. - Feeling Homesick - Cultural Shock - Problems Integrating 1. Feeling Homesick Leaving home to a distant country has it’s pecks, the excitement that follows finding yourself in a new environment with a lot of people you haven’t seen in your life but there’s always this feeling that erupts after staying away for a while. Studying international isn’t a few months program but could take years before returning home and because of the long absent from home, one could become homesick. Missing home, which includes family, friends and partners you left behind. Solutions to Feeling Homesick - Communicate often to your loved ones. You could use the social media, video call and always check up on them. Dropping texts too could help a whole lot. - Most universities offer professional counseling services, make use of them. They help you get occupied with social activities and also connect you with people who would make your stay fun filled Students traveling from a country that speaks one language and moving over to another with multiple languages could get discouraged, confused, and could develop a low self esteem keeping to his/herself most of the time because of the inability to express. Treats such as difference in culture, local slangs and accents affects these students and it could take some time before they would adapt and learn the language of that country. So what should these students do? Solution to Language The challenge of language is a problem most universities try to tackle leading to the operations of language support services. You could research about this service providers in your school and get their services. They help in teaching and guiding you through the process 3. Cultural shock Cultural shock is the physical or emotional discomfort people may suffer when they move to live in a country with a lof of differences from their country of origin. This shock can come in various ways including : - Sadness or loneliness - Aches and pains - Mood changes or depression - Loss of identity - Feeling of paranoia Solution to Cultural Shock The solution to this problem is to know the country where you intend studying in. Know their culture and differences between yours and theirs and prepare yourself to adapt to changes that comes with a new environment This is a major problem most students face, in as much as studying in most countries like the UK are expensive. Also the lifestyle you would have to adjust to, could also be expensive. Changing your wardrobe and getting groceries in order to survive in that country could use a lot of funds. So what should these foreign students do? Solutions to Finance - Getting part time jobs: luckily most countries support this type of system especially for international students. This would help them pay most of their bills and also take care of themselves - Find a university job shop in your choosen university. There should be one around that would help you get jobs around the school environment and also get paid for your services. - Social media comes in handy when searching for jobs. You could see one around your locale and apply online too. - Countries like the UK have a student discount system where you enroll and get discounts on all your purchases. Such discount system is the NUS card usage. Purchasing this card would give you a lot of discounts when paying for your megabus ride, online shopping and so on. 5. Problems Integrating Socializing with strangers especially people with different cultural and academic backgrounds could be problematic. Some students live within their cultural group, looking for people with same beliefs, ideologies and culture. Solutions to Problems Integrating Foreign students should join student clubs, make contact with different people irrespective of their backgrounds. Also get in touch with the university Students Union for help to get started. Factors that Affect the Flow of International Students The mobility of foreign students are affected by various factors which are: - The economy of the destination country - The educational system and structure, - Political influence - Visa and immigration policies of the destination country These factors play a major role in the rate at which students from other countries migrate to a country. Statistics of International Students In 2020, there was a competition among nations to attract international students in the context of Covid 19 and the US presidential elections. A pre-election survey poll indicated that a quarter of prospective international students were more likely to study in the US if Biden is elected as the president of the US. Australia has by far the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by large margin, with international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. The greatest percentage increases of the number of foreign students have occurred in New Zealand, Korea, the Netherlands, Greece, Spain, Italy and Ireland. It is projected that the number of international students will reach 6.9 million by 2030, an increase of 51%, or 2.3 million students, from 2015. As of 2020, the top 9 countries for foreign students enrollment are: - US – 1,075,496 - UK – 551,495 - Canada – 503,270 - Australia – 463,643 - France – 358,000 - Russia – 353,331 - Germany – 302,157 - Japan – 228,403 - Spain – 125,675 China would have been among viewing they had a total of 500,000 students in 2019 but due to the effects of Covid 19, they had no foreign student. In 2020, the US and the UK got a total of 40% of international students. Requirements to Become an International Student Studying in a foreign country comes with it’s requirements and they vary from country to country but below are the general requirements for international students - Language tests: English speaking countries adopt this requirement to test your communication skills and also your proficiency in English language - Student visa: this varies because of the course of study and the type of school. These determine the type of visa that’s going to be issues to the student, either a F-1 visa or a M-1 visa. Economic Impact of International Students The availability of foreign students in a country boosts its economy in a large scale and also create employment opportunities. In the US, their economy grew a 12% increase in dollars and a 8.5% job support. Statistics shows that the US economy got a total of $26.8 billion and 340,000 jobs creation due to the presence of international students. You can also checkout the cheapest countries for international students International Students in the UK In 2018/2019, there were 485,645 international students studying in the UK, 143,025 of these were from the EU and 342,620 were non-EU. The total international student number increased by 5% between 2011/12 and 2017/18. Culturally, the UK is very diverse and welcoming of people from all around the world and this shows in the number of students coming in from other countries of the world 6 tips for international students moving to the UK - Plan your funding - Research scholarships - Organize your student visa - Prepare for British life - Sort your student accommodation - Makes sure you’ve got health insurance Remember we talked about getting part time jobs while studying? Well I the UK, the average part time weekly wage is £112.20 a week but the top 15% students take home more than £200. Students in the east of England earn the most, at £131.70 per week on average. On average students need between $1,300 – $1,600 for living expenses per month of study (that’s depending on if you decide to live inside or outside London). International Students in the USA The US has the world largest international student population, with more than 1 million to broaden and get more enlightened educationally. Nearly 5% of all students enrolled in the higher-level education in the USA are international students and the numbers still keeps increasing. The international education in the US has grown from when it started in the mid 1950’s with only 35,000 students. International Students in China China has a total of 500,000 per year of international students and their quality of education is one of the best with high standard facilities. 100 higher education institutions presently in top rankings created by Times Higher Education and Top University. Is living in China expensive you may ask. Below are some layouts on the living conditions in China Tuition fees are from $2,500 and $10,000 per year Their living expenses so depends on the environment you find yourself. In Beijing, an average of $1000 to $1200 per month. Shanghai, an average of $850 – $1200 per month. Accommodation is not also much. Student residence halls are on an average of $150 – $400 per month. Renting a flat are $300 – $1,000 per month for a on bedroom apartment depending on the city and location of the apartment. Living with a Chinese family are between $350 and $550 per month. The cost of food is from 1 to 7 USD. The Effect of Covid-19 on International Students in China In 2020, at the emergence of the corona virus pandemic which emanated from Wuhan, China affecting the world economy and almost crippling most country’s economy. It affected all the sectors of the world’s industry, starting from the aviation industry to the educational sector. The Chinese educational sector could not record any international students last year, 2020 due to the ongoing pandemic, thereby losing $20 million from this sector alone. In comparison to 2019, where they recorded a total of 500,000 international students making China the fourth country with the highest international students gotten. With the unlocking of the economy gradually and the opening up of some states in China, it is estimated that the rate of international students would increase by 10% You can visit here to get more international students informationShare and Help us Reach out to Other Students

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Fruit should be eaten in moderation on a ketogenic diet. Most fruit is not keto friendly because it’s too high in carbohydrates and fructose/sugar, which spikes blood sugar. Additionally, fruit sugar (fructose) has to be processed by the liver and can slow down ketone production and stimulate fat storage (lipogenesis). Table of contents - Here is the nutritional content of keto friendly fruit - If you thought fruits were the perfect low-carb health food read on… - But I digress, back to the keto diet and fruit - Fruit can contribute to a fatty liver - But wait, the fructose found in fruit is natural sugar, that’s good for you right? - Fruit and the keto diet are not a good combination - Here is a technique to get back into ketosis in 24 hours. - Stay away from high fructose corn syrup - A banana raises blood sugar more than a chocolate bar (video) - Why sugar is bad for you - The problem is we eat fruit too much and too often - Conditions and/or people that should limit fruit intake: - Fruit and keto: It’s not all bad - Active kids that maintain a lean body-weight can eat fruit without any problems - In summary - If you have kids, give them whole fruit, not the fruit juice - If you are looking for a helpful keto diet beginners guide please reference this source. Here is the nutritional content of keto friendly fruit Blueberries and grapefruit are borderline keto-friendly as their carbohydrate count is a little high. Fiber helps slow down the rise of blood sugar, so the higher the better. The glycemic index measures how fast a particular food raises blood sugar. |Fruit (1 cup)||Grams of carbohydrates||Fiber content (grams)||Glycemic index| If you thought fruits were the perfect low-carb health food read on… First of all, let me clarify, this is not an anti-fruit rant. The keto friendly fruits listed above should be part of your keto diet food list (In moderation). I chop up a little fruit and put it in my kefir almost everyday. Fruits do exactly what they were intended to do. They have historically been used to fatten up man and animals before winter. Fruits were intended to be eaten only seasonally when they became ripe in the fall. Bears eat a lot of berries to increase their fat stores before hibernation. Bears begin eating in the spring by gorging carbohydrate-rich berries and other foods to put on weight and can gain approximately 20-30 pounds of body fat per week. Bears live off of their own fat while hibernating. Kind of similar to a human eating a ketogenic diet and fasting. On a side note: many people worry about increased cholesterol when they go on a Ketogenic Diet. Hibernating bears also have high cholesterol levels. Due to the fact they live off their own fat while hibernating, a bear’s cholesterol levels are more than twice what they are in summer. Interestingly though, a bears show no signs of hardening of the arteries or the formation of cholesterol gallstones. Maybe human medical doctors can learn something from bear physiology when they are hibernating in relationship to cholesterol and heart diseased. But I digress, back to the keto diet and fruit The primary energy substrate in fruit is fructose. Three recent clinical studies, which investigated the effects of consuming sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup clearly displayed that high consumption of these sugars increases the risk factors for cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome, if untreated usually leads to type 2 diabetes. The ketogenic diet has been shown to reverse metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Here is a good explanation of the keto diet if you’re not sure what it’s all about. “Under normal conditions, between 30 and 50% of ingested fructose is turned to glucose and high fructose also stimulates glycogen production”Fructose in perspective- National Library of Medicine Most fruit is not keto friendly because the fructose signals the liver to stop producing ketones. In other words, fructose signals the storage of energy which is the opposite of what you want to do when your goal is to burn fat. The liver stores energy as liver glycogen and frequent snacking and/or a high carbohydrate diet keep the liver constantly full, so when it encounters fructose it turns it to fat and triglycerides and accumulates fat inside the liver itself. The MRI of a fatty liver usually shows that is enlarged. That’s one of the ways a ketogenic diet heals a fatty liver, it empties the liver of liver glycogen and forces it to burn its fat inside the liver. But wait, the fructose found in fruit is natural sugar, that’s good for you right? That’s a complicated question. The problem with fructose is that it must be metabolized by the liver and isn’t used for immediate energy by our cells. Like any simple sugar, it’s a toxin in high amounts and the liver has to metabolize it into fat and stores that fat in the liver and creates triglycerides. The role of fructose inside the liver is complex. One of the negative by-products is raising triglycerides and uric acid. Excess fructose also increases free radicals and inflammation, which can oxidize, glycolate the cholesterol and contribute to cardiovascular disease. Fruit and the keto diet are not a good combination On the ketogenic diet the liver is needed to make ketones. If the liver is full of fructose it won’t make ketones. All is not lost though, if you have fallen out of ketosis because you ate fruit or another sugar: Here is a technique to get back into ketosis in 24 hours. Too much fructose can also cause triglycerides to build up in liver cells and damage liver function. Triglycerides released into the bloodstream can contribute to the growth of fat-filled plaque inside artery walls. Free radicals (also called reactive oxygen species) can damage cell structures, enzymes, and even genes. I recommend an excellent lecture available on Youtube by Robert H. Lustig, MD, UCSF Professor of Pediatrics in the Division of Endocrinology called: Sugar: The Bitter Truth. Fructose is not keto friendly because it is known as a simple sugar. It is a single sweetening molecule known as a monosaccharide. Fructose is up to twice as sweet as sucrose (table sugar). It’s not the exact same thing as high fructose corn syrup. Stay away from high fructose corn syrup High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) contains 42-55% fructose and 45-58% glucose. HFCS is commonly found in soda pop and other sweetened products and in this day and age, no one considers HFCS a healthy sweetener. Excessive fructose is toxic to the liver in a similar way that alcohol is. High fructose corn syrup and corn gluten can be converted into ethanol alcohol in 3-5 days. The other problem with fructose is that it suppresses the hormone leptin. Leptin is the hormone that signals to you the feeling that you are satiated (full) and don’t need to eat anymore. The study referenced here on PubMed show a 30% reduction in leptin after eating a fructose sweetened meal. The hormone leptin gives you satiety and makes you feel full. The study summarizes that “Diets high in fructose consumption could lead to increased caloric intake and ultimately contribute to weight gain and obesity.” Additionally, researchers at Yale discovered that leptin was released in lesser amounts when people consumed fructose as opposed to glucose. So if you snack on a banana, for example, you will still be hungry and probably want to eat something else. A banana raises blood sugar more than a chocolate bar (video) All fruit sugar (fructose) works the same in the body, whether it comes from corn (syrup), sugar cane, beets, strawberries, bananas, or honey. The ratios are just different. For example, a cup of chopped tomatoes has 2.5 grams of fructose, a can of regular soda pop contains 26 grams, and a super-size soda has about 63 grams. Even honey isn’t as healthy as people think. It (honey) has about the same fructose/glucose ratio as high fructose corn syrup. Eating fruit and trying to stick to a keto diet will be next to impossible. Your liver will remain full of glycogen and you will rarely be in fat burning state of ketosis. The problem is we eat fruit too much and too often As the human species evolved on earth we primarily ate fruit in the fall when it became ripe. We didn’t eat fruit all year long like we do today. Remember the story about the bear. We didn’t hibernate, but humans needed to fatten up before the winter, so that way if we ran out of food, we could live off of our accumulated fat stores. Yes our ancestors were quite often in a state of ketosis. The fruit became ripe in the fall, just when we needed it. We only ate fruit seasonally. Without fruit in the fall, the human species might have perished like the dinosaurs. For thousands of years, we consumed approximately 16–20 grams per day. Now, we are seeing a huge increase in fructose consumption of about 85–100 grams of per day. The average middle-aged adult never stops eating long enough to empty the liver of its glycogen stores, so the excess fructose is converted to fat and triglycerides. Besides those that are on a ketogenic diet, there are those that fit into the category of a group of people that would be better off eating only keto-friendly fruits. Conditions and/or people that should limit fruit intake: - Low carb dieters - Fatty liver disease - IBS (irritable bowel syndrome) - Overweight or overfat - Type 2 diabetic - Metabolic syndrome - Insulin resistant Fruit and keto: It’s not all bad OK, so fruit has evil fructose, but it has other beneficial nutrients also. To come to the rescue of fruit, I will contend that fruit does have a lot of amazing antioxidants and other nutritional benefits. Fruit contains, fiber, phytochemicals, micronutrients, flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, vitamin C, folate and some fruits are high in prebiotics. Also, fructose doesn’t have as high of a glycemic load as other sugars, so it doesn’t create as big of an insulin spike. Additionally, this article on how to strengthen your immune system shows that fruit can actually give it (immune system) a boost and lessen the impact of infections. Eating the entire fruit with the skin and fiber it is much more healthy than a candy bar. Of course, if you drink “fruit juice” you are removing all the good part of the fruit and leaving mostly the sugar (fructose). Remember my comparison of fructose to ethanol? If you wouldn’t give your children vodka, you shouldn’t give them fruit juice. Admittedly, that comparison is a little bit extreme, but I am trying to drive my point home. Active kids that maintain a lean body-weight can eat fruit without any problems For the general, healthy population, eating fruit occasionally is fine. Some fruits are better than others, remember over-ripe fruit has more sugar in it than ripe fruit. Fruit would benefit and active people with healthy body weight and healthy metabolism would do just fine by eating fruit in moderate amounts, occasionally. Don’t peel that apple and only partially peel that orange before you give it to your child. The white fleshy material between the orange and the skin is called the pith. The apple skin and the orange pith contain citrus pectin which has a ton of nutritional benefits including prebiotic fiber that will help your child’s digestion and strengthen his immune system. Yes you can have some keto friendly fruit, but eat in moderation and make sure to account for the carbohydrates in your total daily carbohydrate count. Additionally, if you hit a keto plateau, fruit might be one of the first things you eliminate. If you have kids, give them whole fruit, not the fruit juice If you follow a ketogenic diet and love fruit there is some good news. Remember keto works best as long term diet. Over time as your insulin resistance heals, and as you get closer to your target weight, you’ll be able to incorporate more fruit into your keto diet.

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Learning How to Make a Game With Scratch is a very interesting and rewarding process. With the advent of mobile games, people all over the world are trying to take advantage of this huge game industry by developing and selling new games. Different platforms and operating systems are sometimes designed differently, but they are all based on the same basic concepts. You need to learn to write code in a minimal language, especially when you want to customize the appearance. Programming is the foundation of game development. This is how you can learn how to create a game from scratch through programming. This guide will take you through some basic principles of game development. It shows you the general steps you need to take to understand how to create your own game and explains the different programming languages used to create games. On different platforms Finally, if you really want to learn how to create a game from scratch, here are some other things you need to know. - 1 Game Development With the Scratch: Game Design - 2 What Are the Steps Taken While Making a Game in Scratch? - 3 What Languages Should I Learn to Make Games? - 4 How to make a mobile game from scratch? - 5 Use Game Engine to develop Games from scratch. Game Development With the Scratch: Game Design Before getting into hands-on games, it is important to consider the difference between game development and game design. Please note that you need two people to learn how to create a game by yourself. Simply put, video game design is the artistic creation of games. Game developers spend time thinking about new aspects of their games. Explore what the game should look like, how it responds to specific conditions, and what needs to be created. So the game is optimal. On the other hand, the game developer or programmer is responsible for writing the code needed by the game to accomplish what it should do. In the rest of this tutorial, we will focus on the operating method part of development, but remember that you must design the game before programming. In addition, the game designer and developer can be the same person. When you make a simple game, the development and design process can go hand in hand. What Are the Steps Taken While Making a Game in Scratch? Developing your own game can be daunting at first. You may want to quit your job and give the job to a game development expert, but my advice is not to do this, you should learn the basics of game development. It’s not as difficult as you think. This is a very general walkthrough that will guide you through the game. Although this process is different from the type and platform of the game you are trying to create, you will understand the basic stages of the work. Step 1: Do Research And Determine Your Game The first thing to do when developing a game is to decide which game to play. Research and learn the skills and functions required to create this game. If you really want to learn how to play, I will provide you with some introductory techniques before you continue. For example, if you want to develop a 2D RPG, what is Unity? What’s your job? I suggest you read our article. If you say, “No, I mean this is not a game, I think it’s more like a puzzle game or a word game”, then you are learning how to combine the mobile game of your choice! He has a lesson to learn. In this course, you will learn how to make a simple game without coding. But no code is always a good idea. It is always better to do this with coding than with normal games. Step 2: Process The Design Document When you design a game and decide on its appearance, you need to create a design document. For most people, the project document is a general description of the game’s appearance and what you need to do to create it. When creating your design document, keep the following in mind: - skills are available for you to use. If you don’t have the relevant skills, the event may quickly touch your wallet because it is recruiting people. - The language you will use. By defining this, you can limit your creation to a certain extent. - How to see/how to act. - If you want to update and add new content in the future. If your answer is yes, please consider how to do it. After completing the project documentation, all you have to do is to start programming! Step 3: Software Requirement And Initial Level of Software Knowledge Before entering the world of game programming, you need to decide whether you need this software. Developing simple mobile games does not require such complicated software. In most cases, you can use code editors and compilers to complete your work. However, more advanced games may require very powerful software, such as 3D modeling and image editing programs. Advanced software can be expensive. Please note that playing complex games requires a computer with a high-quality processor and sufficient memory for the software to run comfortably. Step 4: Starting Game Development On Scratch! After downloading the required software, you can start the game coding process. Although more complex games require a game engine, simple mobile games do not. Just decide which language you want to write the game in and start! Before you start developing the game, you can check your favorite game engine. For newbies developing games from scratch, Unity 3D is usually preferred. You can choose Unreal Engine for advanced large projects. Step 5: Test Your Game And Start Marketing! After finishing the game, all that is left to do is to test, promote and sell it! The first thing you should do is to test your game and fix errors. This process can be time-consuming, so be prepared to spend hours testing. Marketing is a very special topic. If you are new to marketing, we recommend that you hire a marketing consultant, because getting people to buy your game is a very difficult step, so you can start with the following options: - Website builder, many people can buy and download your game. - Make packaged copies of games and distribute them to various game stores and other retailers. - If you created a game for a mobile device, please download it from the Apple App Store and Google Play Store. These are just a few possibilities. If you are not sure how to best market your game, an expert can talk to you. What Languages Should I Learn to Make Games? How to make a game in scratch? The meaning of this problem, in general, is to learn the software. You can create simple mobile games in multiple programming languages. If you are proficient in a programming language, then you may know enough about creating mobile games. However, more complex games designed for computers or game consoles require more knowledge of programming languages and how to use them to create games. Here are some languages you can use when creating your own game: before proceeding with additional training. Swift is a relatively new programming language designed for use on the iOS operating system. It aims to make iOS games and applications easier. It quickly became popular with programmers who wanted to create games for the first time. If you are interested in learning game coding for iOS devices, I suggest you learn Swift Programming. Yes, you can create iOS games or apps without any programming knowledge. But in terms of customization, writing your own game can provide you with more freedom and flexibility. If you want to continue developing Swift and learn how to use it while building your own iOS apps, please check out the Learn Swift programming language tutorial to get started. C language (C, C#, and C++) is most commonly used for advanced game and software development. In fact, most desktop and console PC games are created using C language or a combination of multiple languages. Quite complex and difficult to learn, I don’t recommend starting with these languages unless you take the game very seriously and don’t plan to turn it into a profession. If you want to learn to use the C language, you can take the “Use Unity to Make Your Own Game” course. This programming guide teaches basic C# skills, with an emphasis on game development. How to make a mobile game from scratch? The world of mobile games is constantly evolving every day. Mobile games sell better than PC and console games and have become an important part of daily life, especially for those who play games. Go home on this popular day. , People who already want to make mobile games can use this time as their own opportunity. - Make a plan, - choose a game engine that suits your plan, - learn a suitable programming language, - start your project, - prepare images for your game, - custom games. Use Game Engine to develop Games from scratch. How to make a game on scratch? The answer to this question is generally answered by the game engine. Most game developers now develop their games on a game engine with a large number of libraries and tools. This also applies to mobile games. The game engine is more useful than the other and has a wealth of tools to make the work of mobile game developers easier. Let’s take a look at these three tools: When it comes to mobile games, people think of Unity today. Unity provides mobile game developers with a wide range of resources and convenient tools that distinguish it from many game engines. free. Of course, if you want to publish your game, you must pay a certain fee before publishing. You can also publish your game without paying, you will only see the word “Made with Unity” in the post. It is also difficult to find free Unity tutorials online. For example, there is free educational content created by Youtuber Brackeys. You can see their summary here. Like Unity, Unreal Engine is one of the industry’s leading game software. Most of the things you can do with Unity can be done with Unreal Engine. However, Unity uses C# as its scripting language, while Unreal Engine uses C++. For those who want to develop games, both are free software. You can also find free tutorials on games made with Unreal Engine to make you think.

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What Is a Bank Run? – How Bank Runs Happen ? A bank run occurs when a large number of customers of a bank or other financial institution withdraw their deposits simultaneously on fears that the bank will become insolvent. Bank runs happen when a large number of people start making withdrawals from banks because they fear the institutions will run out of money. A bank run is typically the result of panic rather than true insolvency. As more people withdraw their funds, the probability of default increases, prompting more people to withdraw their deposits. In extreme cases, the bank’s reserves may not be sufficient to cover the withdrawals. With more people withdrawing money, banks will use up their cash reserves and ultimately end up defaulting. the clients keep the cash or transfer it into other assets, such as government bonds, precious metals or gemstones. When they transfer funds to another institution, it may be characterized as a capital flight. As a bank run progresses, it generates its own momentum: as more people withdraw cash, the likelihood of default increases, triggering further withdrawals. This can destabilize the bank to the point where it runs out of cash and thus faces sudden bankruptcy.To combat a bank run, a bank may limit how much cash each customer may withdraw, suspend withdrawals altogether, or promptly acquire more cash from other banks or from the central bank, besides other measures. A banking panic or bank panic is a financial crisis that occurs when many banks suffer runs at the same time, as people suddenly try to convert their threatened deposits into cash or try to get out of their domestic banking system altogether. A systemic banking crisis is one where all or almost all of the banking capital in a country is wiped out. The resulting chain of bankruptcies can cause a long economic recession as domestic businesses and consumers are starved of capital as the domestic banking system shuts down.According to former U.S. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke, the Great Depression was caused by the Federal Reserve System, and much of the economic damage was caused directly by bank runs. The cost of cleaning up a systemic banking crisis can be huge, with fiscal costs averaging 13% of GDP and economic output losses averaging 20% of GDP for important crises from 1970 to 2007. Several techniques have been used to try to prevent bank runs or mitigate their effects. They have included a higher reserve requirement (requiring banks to keep more of their reserves as cash), government bailouts of banks, supervision and regulation of commercial banks, the organization of central banks that act as a lender of last resort, the protection of deposit insurance systems such as the U.S. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and after a run has started, a temporary suspension of withdrawals. These techniques do not always work: for example, even with deposit insurance, depositors may still be motivated by beliefs they may lack immediate access to deposits during a bank reorganization. A bank run triggered by fear that pushes a bank into actual insolvency represents a classic example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. The bank does risk default, as individuals keeping withdrawing funds. So what begins as panic can eventually turn into a true default situation. That’s because most banks don’t keep that much cash on hand in their branches. In fact, most institutions have a set limit to how much they can store in their vaults each day. These limits are set based on need and for security reasons. The Federal Reserve Bank also sets in-house cash limits for institutions. The money they do have on the books is used to loan out to others or is invested in different investment vehicles. Because banks typically keep only a small percentage of deposits as cash on hand, they must increase their cash position to meet the withdrawal demands of their customers. One method a bank uses to increase cash on hand is to sell off its assets—sometimes at significantly lower prices than if it did not have to sell quickly. Losses on the sale of assets at lower prices can cause a bank to become insolvent. A bank panic occurs when multiple banks endure runs at the same time. The stock market crash of 1929 precipitated a spate of bank runs across the country, ultimately culminating in the Great Depression. The succession of bank runs that occurred in late 1929 and early 1930 represented a domino effect of sorts, as news of one bank failure spooked customers of nearby banks, prompting them to withdraw their money. For example, a single bank failure in Nashville led to a host of bank runs across the Southeast. Other bank runs during the Depression occurred because of rumors started by individual customers. In December 1930, a New Yorker who was advised by the Bank of United States against selling a particular stock left the branch and promptly began telling people the bank was unwilling or unable to sell his shares. Interpreting this as a sign of insolvency, bank customers lined up by the thousands and, within hours, withdrew over $2 million from the bank. An uncontrolled bank run can result in a bank’s bankruptcy or when multiple banks are involved, a banking panic, which at its worst can lead to an economic recession. A bank may try to avoid the negative effects of a bank run by limiting the amount of cash a customer can withdraw at one time, temporarily suspending withdrawals altogether, or borrowing cash from other banks or the central banks to cover the demand. Today, there are other provisions to protect against bank runs and bankruptcy. For instance, the reserve requirements for banks have generally increased and central banks have been organized to provide quick loans as a last resort. Perhaps most important has been the establishment of deposit insurance programs such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which was set up during the Great Depression in response to the bank failures that exacerbated the economic crisis. Its aim was to maintain stability in the banking system and to encourage a certain level of confidence and trust. The insurance remains in place today. US Economy Collapse, What Would Happen and How to Prepare Your Survival Guide to an Economic Collapse If an economic collapse occurs, it would happen quickly. No one would predict it. The surprise factor is, itself, one of the causes of a collapse. The signs of imminent failure are difficult for most people to see. Most recently, the U.S. economy almost collapsed on September 17, 2008. That’s the day the Reserve Primary Fund broke the buck. Panicked investors withdrew a record $140 billion from money market accounts where businesses keep cash to fund day-to-day operations. If withdrawals had gone on for even a week, the entire economy would have halted. That meant trucks would stop rolling, grocery stores would run out of food, and businesses would shut down. That’s how close the U.S. economy came to a real collapse, and how vulnerable it is to another one. How Close Are We to a Total Economic Collapse? Any of the following seven scenarios could create an economic collapse. If the U.S. dollar rapidly loses value, it would create hyperinflation. A bank run could force banks to close or even go out of business, cutting off lending and even cash withdrawals. The internet could become paralyzed with a super-virus, preventing emails and online transactions. Terrorist attacks or a massive oil embargo could halt interstate trucking. Grocery stores would soon run out of food. Widespread violence erupts across the nation. That could range from inner-city riots, a civil war, or a foreign military attack. It’s possible that a combination of these events could overwhelm the government’s ability to prevent or respond to a collapse. In March 2019, the Federal Reserve warned that climate change could threaten the financial system. Extreme weather caused by climate change is forcing farms, utilities, and other companies to declare bankruptcy. As those loans go under, it will damage banks’ balance sheets just like subprime mortgages did during the financial crisis. A study by Pennsylvania State University predicted that extreme weather in North America will increase 50% by 2100. It will cost the U.S. government $112 billion per year, according to the U.S. Government Accountability Office. Natural disasters could cause a localized collapse. If the 2020 polar vortex breakup had lasted weeks instead of days, cities would have shut down. Munich Re, the world’s largest reinsurance firm, blamed global warming for $24 billion of losses in the California wildfires. It warned that insurance firms will have to raise premiums to cover rising costs from extreme weather. That could make insurance too expensive for most people. Some believe the Federal Reserve, the president, or an international conspiracy are driving the United States toward economic ruin. If that’s the case, the economy could collapse in as little as a week. The economy is run on confidence that debts will be repaid, food and gas will be available when you need it, and that you’ll get paid for this week’s work. If a large enough piece of that stops for even several days, it creates a chain reaction that leads to a rapid collapse. How to Prepare for an Economic Collapse Protecting yourself from a collapse is difficult. A catastrophic failure can happen without warning. In most crises, people survive through their knowledge, wits, and by helping each other. Here are six steps you can take now to prepare for a potential collapse. Make sure you understand basic economic concepts so you can see warning signs of instability. One of the first signs is a stock market crash. If it’s bad enough, a market crash can cause a recession. Keep as many assets as liquid as possible so that you can withdraw them within a week. As for cash, it may not be useful in a total economic collapse because its value might be decimated. Stockpiles of gold bullion may not help because they would be difficult to transport if you needed to move quickly. In a severe collapse, they may not be accepted as currency. But it would be good to have a stash of $20 bills and gold coins, just in case. During many crisis situations, these are commonly accepted as bribes. In addition to your regular job, make sure you have skills that you’d need in a traditional economy, such as farming, cooking, or repair. Learn how to be a prepper on a budget: What will happen if the economy collapses? No one really knows, but your everyday prepping is something you can do to prepare for economic collapse and many other catastrophes. The good and happy news is that the preparations you make to today will help insulate you whether you face a job loss or whether the economy just goes into a recession or inflation goes out of control. Remember that creativity will go far for you in an economic collapse. Prepare for an economic collapse now while things are still good. Insulate yourself from an economic collapse by reading more…Carnivore’s Bible Make sure your passport is current in case you’d need to leave the country on short notice. Research target countries now and travel there on vacation, so you are familiar with your destination. Keep yourself in top physical shape. Know basic survival skills, such as self-defense, foraging, hunting, and starting a fire. Practice now with camping trips. If you can, move near a wildlife preserve in a temperate climate. That way, if a collapse occurs, you can live off the land in a relatively unpopulated area. Protect your home with a new fully automatic standby generator. Maintain your security system, lighting and air conditioning to keep your family or business safe and comfortable through any power outage Enjoy the total peace of mind that comes with knowing you have a constant and reliable power supply for your home or business in with a standby generator from Alternate Power Solutions. From everyday necessities like heating, cooling, refrigeration and lights, to daily essentials like cooking, laundry or kids bath times. Power outages are occurring more frequently than ever and lasting longer with devastating effects.Stand up to unpredictable weather and unforeseen outages with the most trusted name in residential standby power with backup generators for homes. If the power ever goes out, your General standby generator goes on – automatically – protecting you and your home 24/7. READING ARTICLES IS NOT ENOUGH. YOU ABSOLUTELY NEED THIS BOOK TO UNDERSTAND WHAT IS HAPPENING IS YOU ARE TO SURVIVE WHAT IS COMING.

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Way back in 2018, California’s Building Standards Commission swore in a new piece of legislation completely unique to any previous law in the United States. In an effort to draw 100% of state electricity from renewable resources, the government mandated that solar panels would be required on all new residential buildings with 3 stories or less. Flash forward to 2020, and law is now in effect. In this article, we are going to fully outline the state solar requirements for commercial and residential development. After an in depth view of the new AB-178 California solar mandate, we will outline other state solar laws and cover a few frequently asked questions. Cal Solar Inc is a full-service, large-scale solar developer in Los Angeles, Oakland and San Diego. For those looking for answers about California’s new solar requirements, we are here to help. California’s Solar Mandate: Assembly Bill 178 As of Jan 1, 2020, solar panel requirements are now officially being enforced on all new structures built in the state of California. Governor Gavin Newsom has signed in Assembly Bill 178 (AB-178), which outlines the new photovoltaic (PV) requirements. In his letter to the California State Assembly, Newsom cited that residenices with solar panels “are more resilient to power outages, have increased value, and save the property owner more than $15,000 in energy costs over 30 years.” The combination of these financial benefits and the environmental advantages of solar power has allowed this new law, commonly known as “California’s Solar Mandate,” to be implemented without much major resistance. Even so, some skeptics believe that wind power and other alternative energy sources may be more cost effective than solar power. Residential Solar Development Requirements The California solar mandate enforces that solar panels are required on all single-family residences and multi-family residences up to three stories high. This means that all apartment buildings, no matter how wide, will require rooftop solar panels, so long as it is less than four stories. How many solar panels are required on residences in California? Solar panel systems are meant to be installed at a large enough capacity inorder to cover a building’s approximate annual electricity consumption. Naturally, this is challenging to calculate exactly when you are building a brand new property, which no one has ever lived in before. For this reason, most builders estimate a building’s average electricity consumption based on the square footage of the floor plan. As a general rule of thumb, most builders use an estimate of 2 watts of solar power per square feet. This means that for a 2000 square foot residence, 4,000 watts (or 4 kilowatts) of solar capacity needs to be installed (2,000 * 2 = 4,000). Of course, there are many more factors to consider when looking at larger residences and multi-family units. The number of bedrooms, tenants, and building shape must all be considered as well. Ulitmately, the exact number of solar panels is going to be The amount of solar needed is based on an Energy Design Ratio (EDR). A home’s schematic design can be tested on state-approved software for all new construction. Solar Panels on Additional Dwelling Units (ADUs) In an effort to help pay the mortgage or accommodate extra family members, may California properties have 2 or more structures with people living inside. Most commonly an additional dwelling unit (ADU), also known as a carriage house, granny flat, and more, is added with a seperate entrance atop the garage or elsewhere on property. Importantly, California’s Title 24 Building Energy Efficiency standards also apply to any ADUs on the property. This means that newly constructed additional residences on a property are also required to have photovoltaic solar panels. Due to their size, a carriage house is only likely to have the minimum amount of solar energy capacity required at about 8 panels for buildings that are less than 1000 square feet. Commercial Solar Development Requirements Currently, there are no statewide rooftop solar requirements for commercial buildings or residential buildings with greater than 3 stories. This means that new residential apartment highrises are currently not required to include solar panels in the building process. However, this may change in the near future. The Colorado Building Industry Association has begun discussing a possible commercial solar mandate for large buildings beginning in 2023. The effort has been criticized by those who believe it will add additional costs and praised by those who see the long-term financial benefits of mandated solar energy. State Funding for Additional Requirements Thanks to the Constitution of California, states are required to reimburse school districts and local agencies for certain costs mandated by the state. For this to be initiated, statutory provisions have established the procedures to enact the reimbursement payment. However, this law has been created with no reimbursements currently mandatory for solar expenses. Alternatives and Add-ons for Required Rooftop Solar What is important to understand is that the state of California only entacts mandated solar requirements in an effort to reduce monthly costs and increase quality of life for its residents. By adopting emission-free electricity, photovoltaic solar panel systems are one of the best ways to generate clean, renewable energy. With that in mind, there are a few add-ons and alternatives property and business owners can adopt in order to reduce the size or eliminate the purchase of a rooftop solar system. Adding a Solar Battery for Electricity Storage For those looking to maximize their energy independence, solar batteries can be added to PV systems in order to store excess electricity for later use. In doing so, property owners can use less overall utility power to maximize their savings on electricity bills. Plus, in areas prone to natural disasters like wildfires, utility power may be cut entirely to prevent damage to the grid and buildings attached to it. With a solar storage battery, a residence or commercial building can operate “off-grid,” completely independent of utility fed power. If solar storage is part of a building’s PV system, then the required system size can actually be reduced by 40% or more due to its energy efficiency. This can help property owners cut down on required roof space as well as grid dependency. Adoption of Onsite Energy Efficiency Improvements Whereas PV systems are supposed to be designed to cover 100% of a buildings electricity consumption, the required installation capacity can be lowered by adopting other onsite energy efficiency improvements. Building owners can reduce the size of their PV solar panel arrays by adopting thermal solar power, installing certified appliances, using green building materials or adopting other energy efficiency initiatives. Signing Solar Panel Leases If upfront costs are the primary barrier to entry in building a residnece structure with solar panels, then property owners can instead opt into a solar panel lease. There are many companies in California that will lease solar panels to property owners so that monthly utility costs can be reduced without having to invest any capital upfront. Of course, solar panel leases are great for easily getting started with solar energy generation. However, new developments are much more likely to include solar panels as part of the “whole package,” and essentially treat the photovoltaic system as if it were such another part of the building. Over the course of its lifetime, owned solar panel systems will generate more ROI then any solar panel lease. Properties Exempt from Mandatory Solar Requirements Of course, with every law, there are some exceptions. The solar requirements enforced by California are not a true “mandate,” in that there are a few types of new property developments that are exempt from the new photovoltaic system requirements. Rebuilding Efforts After Wildfires, Floods, and Other Natural Disasters In late 2019, an important exemption was granted under the imposing new state solar requirements in response to wildfires, floods and other natural disasters. It has been decided that properties and community buildings that have been damaged in catastrophes are not required to include solar panels in any efforts to partially or completely rebuild structures. This was implemented in the sense that getting back to normalcy is more important than adopting new practices for those affected by a natural disaster. Community Solar Project Participants Additionally, some housing developments may sidestep rooftop solar projects if there is an associated community solar initiative available. What this means is that solar panels do not need to be installed on roofs in areas with little sunlight, too much shade, or other specific setbacks (like over the top HOA’s). Instead, together the local utility and the California Clean Energy Commission (CEC) can approve a shared community “solar garden,” in which residentas draw their electricity. Here, large arrays of solar panels are installed off-site with members of the new community purchasing their power from the large, collective installation. Every kilowatt hour of electricity purchased from the community solar project is then credited towards the property’s power bill, in the same way it would be if the solar panels had generated the electricity directly on site. Areas with Low Electricity Rates or Poor Solar Access Although California is nationally recognized for its sunny reputation, there are still some parts of this massive state that simply aren’t conducive to solar energy. In areas without enough direct sunlight, local board approval can be achieved to build structures without photovoltaic systems. As the state’s compass is still aimed towards renewable electricity, many of these areas can subsequently make an effort to adopt wind, geothermal, or hydroelectricity in place of photovoltaics. Furthermore, areas with exceptionally low electricity rates may be able to apply for exemption. This applies to temporary structures, remote job sites, or other areas that do not incur normal, daily electricity usage. If a building is erected without any intention to connect it to the utility grid, then solar panels are not required. Although, for off grid buildings, most sustainable, remote living environments utilize some form of solar energy. Although most correctional facilities are normally above three stories, they are also specifically exempt from Calfironia solar requirements. This means that jails and any other correctional institutions are not required to have solar panels installed whenever new buildings are erected. WIth that being said, the state has made a number of efforts in adding green energy production systems in an effort to reduce operating costs of many correctional facilities. Past Solar Requirements for California Buildings Before AB-178 was sworn in, the state of California had already been making green strides towards a future with solar energy. A few other other major oridiances that have been enforced in the Golden State. - Since Jan 1st, 2014, all new Californian residneces and commercial buildings have been required to have a “solar ready roof.” - Since Jan 1st, 2017, every residence or commercial building below 10 stories in San Francisco has been required to have PV solar panels or solar water heaters. - Solar “zones,” most commonly on roofs, must be clearly identified in construction plans. Solar zones are required to take up no less than 15% of the roof area. Essentially, California is a leading example of how purposeful legislation can lead to rapid renewable energy adoption. With a new generation designing only solar ready roofs, the record-setting mandates in San Francisco and statewide paved the way for AB-178 to be enacted. How long is the California solar mandate going to be required? Currently, AB-178’s photovoltaic standards are legally mandated until January 1st, 2023. Although evaluation will be analyzed by energy experts, the residential solar mandate is likely to be renewed as solar capacity increases nationwide. In 2023, the mandate may even be updated with new commercial solar (buildings larger than four stories) requirements. Does California offer a solar tax credit? For mandated PV requirements, building owners and business owners are still eligible for the federal solar investment tax credit to lower the overall cost of installing a system. The tax credit is applied to a fixed percentage of the total cost of the solar energy system. In 2020, all properties are eligible for a tax credit towards 26% of the system cost, which drops to 22% in 2021. Beginning on January 1st 2022, a 10% credit is only available on commercial systems. How are California’s new solar requirements being enforced? In order to erect a new structure, construction companies must certify the building plans with local community ordinances. At this level, exemptions for the PV mandate can be explored. If a property is found to not be exempt from the requirements, then the local jurisdiction and electricity utility are required to approve the solar energy system along various stages of installation. Are any properties exempt from California’s solar mandate? Yes, as we have explored above, there are certain exceptions to California’s solar requirements. New buildings larger than 3 stories are not required to have solar energy systems installed. Additionally, shaded properties, low electricity-use areas, financial barriers, and Does California’s solar mandate make it more expensive to build A house? Yes. As solar panels are required on every new structure, this will increase the overall building costs of any residence or commercial building in California. Fortunately, most purposefully built structures that have solar panels as a standard feature occur less associated expenses than putting solar panels on an existing structure. The New York Times has estimated that California’s solar mandate will add $8,000 to $12,000 to the cost to build a residence. Who finances mandated solar installations in California? Like any other appliance in a residnece, the building owner will be responsible for financing the solar panels. In most cases, the additional cost to install solar panels will be lumped into the monthly mortgage payments. For residential instances, this adds an average of $40 per month to the mortgage. However, on that same property, the solar panels will save approximately $80 per month on normal electricity expenses. For larger residences and commercial buildings, the average savings increase exponentially as solar panels save building owners from higher-tiered utility billing rates. Who maintains a building’s rooftop solar in California? The owner of the building is responsible for maintaining a rooftop solar system in the state of California. Thankfully, one of the best things about solar energy is that the systems used to create it require very little maintenance. With that said long dry spells can leave solar panels with soot to be cleaned and both internal and external forces can cause components like inverters and wiring to require replacement. Damages to panels may be covered by manufacturers or craftsmanship warranties. Otherwise, repairs for solar energy systems may be covered by some property insurance policies. Are batteries required for solar panel installations in California? No, batteries are not required for solar energy installios in California. However, residneces can reduce their required PV capacity by adding a battery for solar energy storage. What is a solar ready roof? After a “solar ready roof” was required for any new construction in California, this let many people owning what a “solar ready roof” actually was. By definition, a solar ready roof Is a specifically designed structure to easily accommodate solar panels. This means that it should be south facing, have plenty of available space, and contain minimal obstructions. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has put together this overview for solar ready roof guidelines.

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Single Edge Nibble Transmission protocol, more commonly known as SENT (SAE J2716 JAN201604), has long been used by the Automotive industry to report low-speed sensor data to the Engine Control Unit (ECU). SENT was developed because the environment in a car was too noisy to transmit high resolution (10- or 12-bit) sensor data vertically on a 5 V bus. Instead, sensor signals are transmitted as a series of pulses, with data measured by falling-edge to falling-edge times. Information lies within the width of the pulses. Later specifications of SENT introduced Fast and Slow Channels to designate different streams of information carried within the same messages. To address the exponential increase in the number of sensors within a single vehicle, Infineon specified SENT Short PWM Code (SPC), a half-duplex variation of SENT that allows a single "master" microcontroller to manage up-to-four "slave" sensors on the same wire. SENT SPC achieves this by introducing a new element into the SENT frame definition: the Master Trigger Pulse (MTP). This application note describes the SENT SPC protocol and demonstrates how to use an oscilloscope to verify a consistent Master Trigger Pulse (MTP) length. Note:Step-by-step procedures for using the Teledyne LeCroy serial trigger and decode options shown here can be found in the SENTbus Trigger, Decode, Measure/Graph and Eye Diagram Instruction Manual on our website. How SENT SPC Works The SENT physical layer consists of a signal line, a +5 V supply voltage line, and a ground. A level of < 0.5 V on the signal line represents a logic-low, while > 4.1 V is a logic-high. The MTP is the key to managing SENT SPC traffic. Each sensor is assigned a unique MTP length, which acts like an address. The controller interrogates a sensor by emitting a logic-low MTP of the requisite length, then relinquishes the line for the sensor to reply. Only the sensor interrogated is expected to reply. The microcontroller can interrogate different sensors by varying the length of the MTP. While current implementations usually follow a “round robin” interrogation, with sensors 0 through 3 polled in order (0,1,2,3…), it is entirely possible for any sequence to be established (e.g., 0,1,0,2,0,3…). Because the pace and order of transmission is determined by the controller, SENT SPC enables engineers to design systems where information can be requested at specific times or with different frequencies, unlike SENT’s continuous broadcast. The controller can interrogate sensors with higher priority more often, such as a temperature sensor in the carburetor whose value changes frequently, and sensors with lower priority less often, such as a presence sensor for an airbag whose value changes infrequently. By reducing redundancies in ECU design, SENT SPC also coincidentally helps to lower costs, making it an attractive proposition for everyone in Automotive manufacturing. While the MTP makes it rather easy to identify from which sensor a message originates, as with any pulse width modulated system, there is still the problem of verifying that the MTPs remain within tolerance. Recent SENT protocol specifications have allowed for considerable flexibility in the frame length and definition, particularly in how many nibbles constitute the payload, what bits it contains, and how the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is computed. One could easily identify more than 100 unique configurations if taking into account the 15 different frame formats and various checksum that are permitted. Serial decoding to identify and debug CRC errors is essential to verifying the proper functioning of any SENT system. Adding new sensors on the bus can also be challenging if they are using different Tick Times (TT), the SENT clocking mechanism. At this time in the evolution of SENT SPC, nobody seems to know if a mixed-TT (heterogenous) network is feasible or even useful, so we will not address it further here. SENT SPC Frame Structure The frame begins with the Master Trigger Pulse, which acts like an address. Each sensor (0 through 3) is assigned a unique MTP length, which is defined by the specification as a multiple of the Tick Time; for example, the MTP of sensor 0 must be between 7 and 15 ticks. Following the MTP is a latency prior to the sensor reply. In Teledyne LeCroy decoders, this time is shown as the Sensor Response Time. Otherwise, there are no structural differences between a message broadcasted continuously by a SENT sensor and a message emitted upon request by a SENT SPC sensor. The following fields are present in all SENT frames, although their length may vary. The Synchronization Pulse (SYNC) establishes the Tick Time "clock" used to recover the number of ticks−and therefore nibbles and words− represented by the length of the data pulses. TT is always computed at 1/56th of the SYNC length. The Data payload contains the actual information. This may be anywhere from five to eight nibbles, each representing four bits of data. Each nibble starts with a logic-low period of at least 5 ticks, followed by a logic-high period representing the encoded data value: 12 ticks for binary 0000, 13 ticks for binary 0001, up to 27 ticks for binary 1111. In Teledyne LeCroy decoders, SENT nibbles can be decoded individually or grouped into 8-bit words. The first nibble is a Status and Communication Nibble that consists of four bits of additional information used by the CRC: Bit 0 Start Bit Bit 1 Serial Data Bit Bit 2 Optional Slow Channel Data Bit 3 Optional Slow Channel Data The final nibble of the payload is always a Cyclic Redundancy Check to confirm that the clocking is working correctly. Different CRC methods have been defined in each version of the specification. In the 2010 and 2016 SENT specifications, an optional Pause Pulse (PP) separates message frames. In earlier specifications, this separator was known as the Interframe Gap. DATA (5 to 8 Nibbles) ID0=7 to 15 ID1=15 to 28 ID2=28 to 49 ID3=49 to 82 Each nibble min. 5 ticks logic-low plus 12 to 27 ticks logic-high Verifying the Stability of the MTP As the proper functioning of the MTP is key to the health of a SENT SPC system, we will demonstrate several approaches to using an oscilloscope equipped with serial decoder software to confirm it remains within the tolerance you have set. This same approach can be used to confirm that the sensor response time occurs within limits, another key indicator of proper system functioning. examples here show the steps as they would be performed using the Teledyne LeCroy SENTbus TDME software. Decoding the MTP Length The width of the MTP is recorded in the SENT SPC decode table for each SENT SPC frame. In the example below, there are four slave sensors on the same wire each with a different MTP length. Their MTP lengths have been entered into the corresponding four ID fields on the SPC setup tab so that the frame source sensor is identified: ID 0 is 16 μs, ID 1 is 32 μs, ID 2 is 58 μs, and ID 3 is 97 μs. Decoding the length of the MTP indicates whether the MTPs are matching the expected lengths on an instance by instance basis. This is a good start for confirming the functioning of the MTP but will not provide a measure of its stability over a long duration. Statistical Analysis of the MTP Stability Teledyne LeCroy TDME packages allow for specialized serial protocol measurements to be made directly on the decoded information, such as the decoded MTP length. Using the ColToValue measurement (included with SENTbus TDME), the decoded MTP length can be “passed through” and displayed in one of the oscilloscope parameter slots, and by turning on Statistics, the mean, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation of that value can be displayed. Histicons can also be enabled to quickly histogram the distribution of the measured values right on the Measure table. Note that there are four distinct peaks in the histicon, which is expected given the four slave sensors in this system. However, the statics readout shows a mean MTP of 50 μs, which does not correspond to any of the sensors in this system. A mechanism is needed to isolate the traffic from each slave sensor. This can be done by filtering the result table ID column to contain only a single value from 0 through 3, which limits the results to only traffic from that one particular sensor. As seen from the result table in the image below, the decoder is now only decoding frames with ID 0, where the MTPulse value is around the expected 16 μs. The measured values displayed in the statistics readout from P1 will now give us a sense of the variability of the MTP for ID 0 in this acqusition. The mean value is right around 16 μs as expected, with a standard deviation of 38 ns. Tracking the MTP Temporal Stability While a parameter with statistics can provide a sense of the variability and dispersion of the MTP, it does not provide any insight into what the cause of that variability might be. A track math function shows how the measured MTP is changing over the time of the acquired waveform. The example below does not show any clear temporal trend; however, if one did exist, the fact that the track is time correlated to the acquired waveform would provide valuable insight into the root cause of the variability. For example, if there was a periodic behavior, the frequency of that oscillation could be used to determine if something nearby in the system was coupling in to the SENT SPC bus. If there was a spike in the track, that could be correlated to the activity of another signal which is affecting the MTP. Time Correlating the MTPs of All Sensors Most Teledyne LeCroy oscilloscopes are equipped with four serial decoders which can be used to simultaneously analyze the stability of the MTP for four SENT SPC sensors. The example below shows the same process as above applied to a different sensor in each of the four decoders, resulting in time synchronized measurements and tracks for each sensor. Pass/Fail Testing the MTP Stability Pass/Fail testing on the ColToValue parameter(s) can be used to automate MTP stability testing over multiple acquisitions by creating a parameter compare criteria to test the MTP values against a tolerance range stated in either absolute or percent terms. The tolerance range can be manually assigned or can be calculated using the measured mean and standard deviation. The oscilloscope can perform a variety of actions if a failure occurs, such as: stopping the acquisition or saving a LabNotebook so that the failing data can be captured and better understood.

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- reset yamaha receiver - scto grotesk b - keb hana bank singkatan dari - Tls marketing sdn bhd vacancy - Alpacas for sale in ohio - Cap agde weather - Easiest bach pieces - Rap songs 2002 Frequently Asked Questions. Multimedia Gallery. Park Passes. Technical Announcements. Employees in the News. Emergency Management. Reflectance spectra of minerals, mineral mixtures, rock coatings, liquids, frozen volatiles, organic compounds, manmade materials, vegetation, and other biological materials. You can download the main spectral library. Maps of hyperspectral imaging spectrometer data used to identify and characterize mineral deposits, vegetation, and other land surface features. Geological Survey scientists and partners have created an onsite, time-saving technique for building inspectors to ascertain whether vermiculite insulation contains amphibole asbestos. The findings are featured in the April 2 edition of American Mineralogist. Commercially produced vermiculite insulation from Libby, Montana, contains trace levels of asbestiform amphibole, which is known to cause asbestos-related diseases. When vermiculite insulation is found in a building, evaluation for its potential asbestos content traditionally involves collecting a sample from an attic or wall and submitting it for Skip to main content. Search Search. Spectroscopy Lab. Spectral Library. USGS Digital Spectral Libraries Reflectance spectra of minerals, mineral mixtures, rock coatings, liquids, frozen volatiles, organic compounds, manmade materials, vegetation, and other biological materials. You can download the main spectral library Spectral Library. Spec Lab Web Archive. Terrestrial Material Maps derived from imaging spectroscopy Maps of hyperspectral imaging spectrometer data used to identify and characterize mineral deposits, vegetation, and other land surface features. Hyperspectral Maps. Date published: June 12, Date published: October 22, Date published: April 5, Clark, Roger N. View Citation. Ong, C. Year Published: Characterizing the source of potentially asbestos-bearing commercial vermiculite insulation using in situ IR spectroscopy Commercially produced vermiculite insulation from Libby, Montana, contains trace levels of asbestiform amphibole, which is known to cause asbestos-related diseases. Introduction: Every element and subsequent atom associated emits light; also know as electromagnetic radiation, when in an excited state. Analyzing this emitted light can give insight to the makeup and characteristics of them. The light given off by an energetically excited atom is not a continuous distribution of all possible wavelengths, but rather consists of a few wavelengths giving a series of discrete lines. Niels Bohr explained the discrete spectrum of hydrogen? Normally the electron in the hydrogen atom is located in the first energy-level. When a hydrogen atom atoms gains energy, the electron moves from a lower energy-level to one of higher energy. The energy gained by the atom is exactly the amount of energy needed to move the electron from the lower energy-level to the higher energy-level. With its electron in a higher energy-level, the atom is now in an unstable, higher energy, excited state. The tendency is for electrons to occupy the lowest level available. So shortly after gaining the energy, the electron returns to a lower energy-level. Energy must be given up when this occurs, and the energy is lost as light. Each line in the emitted light of hydrogen represents the movement of an electron from a specific outer level to a specific inner one. We judge this emitted light against the electromagnetic spectrum with a spectrometer. A spectrometer is an instrument that gathers light particles photons and is able to determine the chemical make-up of the source. A spectrometer breaks up a beam of light into its component colors. Usually it uses a prism or a diffraction grating. Light goes in as a beam of white light and is split into a rainbow. Particular atoms generate light at particular frequencies colors and so can be identified in the lab. The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. This range extends from sub-radio waves to gamma rays. Visible light falls within this spectrum. The Balmer-Rydberg formula is used to describe the emission lines of hydrogen across the entire spectrum and not just visible light. The purpose of this laboratory experiment is to see the emitted wavelengths of elements through a spectroscope and calculate the wavelengths with the Balmer-Rydberg formula. Then with the calculations, relate them to the atom. Spectroscopy Lab Report I believe that with the correct calculations and comparisons the wavelengths, each emission line will be able to be determined. Experimental The procedures as per the lab manual page Grossie, Underwood, were to first calibrate our spectroscope with helium. Looking at helium through the spectroscope, the emission lines where seen and recorded. That data was then put into Microsoft Excel and put into a graph. From the graph a formula was extrapolated. The spectroscope was used to observe and record the fours spectral lines of hydrogen.Not a MyNAP member yet? Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book. Looking for other ways to read this? To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Get This Book. Unfortunately, this book can't be printed from the OpenBook. If you need to print pages from this book, we recommend downloading it as a PDF. Visit NAP. Looking for other ways to read this? No thanks. Atomic Spectroscopy Survey. Page 60 Share Cite. Page 61 Share Cite. Page 62 Share Cite. Page 63 Share Cite. Page 64 Share Cite. Page 65 Share Cite. Page 66 Share Cite. Login or Register to save! Stay Connected!This is a significant difference when compared to infrared IR for. Infrared spectra can be obtained from samples in the solid, liquid, solution or gas phases. Absorption, emission, and scattering of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared. Demonstrator's shown you but you've forgotten. Tasks of the analytical lab. You may remember that we heated cyclohexene in the presence of a black. Report Number: Jxxxx. Since that report, our laboratory has analyzed over oilfield samples for. Infrared spectra recorded in the laboratory should be labeled with your name, the date. IrAnalyze is an optimal tool for IR spectrum interpretation. Organic Chemistry Laboratory Website. Report: Analyze the IR spectrum. Infrared spectroscopy lab report name: 1 - lab cover sheet from psych at the focus. Students work in pairs; report due at the end of lab bring printed cover page. If a lab report is due, you will. Infrared spectroscopy measures the absorp. Your report must be typed single-spaced using point Times New Roman or equivalent font. Name of Laboratory. Also, IR spectroscopy was. Both the fundamental spectrum and the overtone spectrum in your lab report. The following questions in the results and conclusions section of your lab report. Learn more at. You will identify your unknown by its boiling point and IR spectrum. Milk samples for this experiment are kept in 50 mL centrifuge tubes in a small portable rack. You will need to justify your calculations in your lab report. This paper details. I: model and laboratory measurements — Niro et al. In the lab, FTIR and Raman instruments provide high quality, accurate data and consistent reporting for material identification and characterization. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is based on the response of atoms to exposure to. Healthcare training and clinical application of medical infrared imaging, has announced. Pressures, and then decide which data are best suited for reporting the.Can an element be identified by its visible spectrum? If the visible spectrum of an element was observed the element can be identified. Well, the element can be identified by looking at the colors of light it emits once exited and its spectral signature. I researched a spectroscopy because I want to know what it means. Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. I also researched how can an element be determined by the colors of light it emits once exited and its spectral signature because I wanted to learn how an element can be determined by the colors of light. I researched this chart because I want to see and learn how color light and spectral lines correspond with each element. This chart showed how the color light lines correspond with each element. It had several of colors and lines. According to Materials and Methods On the first spectroscopy, I saw several colors. There were only six colors which were brown, violet, green, blue, and purple. On the second chart, there were blue and green were on the left side and violet and brown were on the right side. Qualitative Observations, there were few of the lines were blurry cannot even see them very good and There was a rainbow in the second spectral tube. There was no graph on this lab. In conclusion, the first chart that had five colors was compared to the visible spectrum that the elements showed the only one that matched up was Nitrogen. On the second element that was determined is Hydrogen by looking at the visible spectrum and the chart. The element was still identified which means that the hypothesis was supported. In discussionthe findings meant that was a good way to identify an element but I had some issues on it during this lab. I found a systematic error during this lab. I will have to turn off the spectral tube and light. I also would have to replace the spectroscopy. After that, I will redo materials, methods, and data of summary. Overall, I hope this step will fix a systematic error. The findings meant that was a good way to identify an element but I had some issues on it during this lab. When I took the spectroscopy and looked through the spectral tube, there were five colors, which were only purple, blue, green, violet and brown on in the spectral tube. When I kept looking through the spectral tube twice and three, most of the colors were blurry and fat. I could not even see the visible spectrum very well. So this was the systematic error that was found during this lab. How do I fix it a systematic error? I could not even see the visible spectrum very well; I will have to turn off the spectral tube and light. After that, I will redo materials and methods and data of summary. What is spectroscopy. How can an element be determined by the colors of light? Spectral lines 1 - periodic table. Phoenix: Retrieved from. If the visible spectrum of an element was observed, then the element can be identified. The hypothesis was supported because an element was identified after observing the visible spectrum. The hypothesis was supported for the most of time because after observing the visible spectrum an element was identified.During these challenging times, we guarantee we will work tirelessly to support you. We will continue to give you accurate and timely information throughout the crisis, and we will deliver on our mission — to help everyone in the world learn how to do anything — no matter what. Thank you to our community and to all of our readers who are working to aid others in this time of crisis, and to all of those who are making personal sacrifices for the good of their communities. We will get through this together. A lab report describes an entire experiment from start to finish, outlining the procedures, reporting results, and analyzing data. The report is used to demonstrate what has been learned, and it will provide a way for other people to see your process for the experiment and understand how you arrived at your conclusions. To write a good lab conclusion in science, start with restating the lab experiment by describing the assignment. Next, explain what you were trying to discover or figure out by doing the experiment. Then, list your results and explain how they confirmed or did not confirm your hypothesis. Additionally, include any uncertainties, such as circumstances beyond your control that may have impacted the results. Finally, discuss any new questions or discoveries that emerged from the experiment.Atomic Emission Spectra Lab Article Edit. Learn why people trust wikiHow. This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. Explore this Article Outlining Your Conclusion. Discussing the Experiment and Hypothesis. Demonstrating What You Have Learned. Wrapping Up Your Conclusion. Finalizing Your Lab Report.Know that infrared IR spectroscopy is best for identifying the presence or, more importantly, the absence of functional groups. A cursory understanding of ultraviolet UV spectroscopy and its association with conjugation will suffice. Nuclear magnetic resonance NMR spectroscopy—specifically, proton 1 H NMR— also helps us figure out the arrangement of functional groups. The MCAT can test the chemical shift of deshielded protons, which will be downfield, or toward the left of the spectrum. Make sure that you can interpret peak splitting, which is due to interference from neighboring hydrogens, and peak integration, which is proportional to the number of magnetically identical hydrogens. Spectroscopy is often tested on the MCAT in the context of experiment-based passages. This chapter focused on one method of identifying compounds based on structural characteristics and interactions with electromagnetic energy, but spectroscopy is not the only method for characterizing organic molecules. In the next chapter, we explore another side of laboratory techniques: separation and purification schemes. These utilize chemical differences between molecules to allow us to isolate and describe them. It contains a number of peaks that can be used by experts to identify a compound. Certain bonds have characteristic absorption frequencies, which allow us to infer the presence or absence of particular functional groups. Molecules with O—H include alcohols, water, and carboxylic acids; the carboxylic acid O—H peak will be around cm —1. Molecules with N—H include some amines, imines, and amides. Conjugation shifts the absorption spectrum to higher maximum wavelengths lower frequencies. It is useful for determining the structure connectivity of a compound, including functional groups. Deshielding moves a peak further downfield. IR spectroscopy measures absorption of infrared light by specific bonds, which vibrate. These vibrations cause changes in the dipole moment of the molecule that can be measured. Once the bonds in a molecule are determined, one can infer the presence of a number of functional groups to determine the identity of the molecule. The smaller the difference in energy between the two, the longer the wavelengths that can be absorbed by the molecule. NMR measures alignment of the spin of a nucleus with an applied magnetic field. It is most often used for identifying the different types and magnetic environments of protons in a molecule, which allows us to infer the connectivity backbone of a molecule. The units for chemical shift with a standardized NMR spectrum are parts per million ppm.

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Like most other commodities in the markets, crude oil prices have routinely experienced wild price swings alternating between times of great shortages, high demand and high prices and periods of oversupply, low demand and depressed prices. These so-called crude oil “Price Cycles” tend to last several years, depending on variables such as oil demand, volume of oil drilled, processed and sold by the major producers. Since the early days of commercial production in Baku, Azerbaijan, these price swings have been triggered by economic and political events, technological advancements and changes within the petroleum industry, and continue to influence prices in the present day. Crude Oil Price History: 1861-Present Source: IG Group 1800-1869: Early black gold rush The modern oil industry traces back its roots to Baku where the first commercial refinery was established in 1837 to distil oil into paraffin for heating and lighting purposes. The first modern oil well was sunk in Baku in 1846 and reached a depth of 21 meters. The single oil field accounted for more than 90% of global production, with most of the oil finding its way to Persia (present-day Iran). Several commercial oil wells soon followed: - Bucharest, Romania--1857 - Ontario, Canada--1858 - Pennsylvania, USA--1859 Pennsylvania was the epicenter of the first black gold rush, producing nearly 50% of the world’s oil. Prices shot up rapidly from $0.49 per barrel in 1861 to $6.59 a barrel in 1865, representing a massive 1,245% climb in the space of just four years. 1870-1913: The auto revolution Whereas some economists contend that the modern oil industry only took off after WWII with the creation of the Marshall Plan - part of which was an agreement for a Free On Board price for all players - others argue that the incorporation of Standard Oil Co by John D. Rockefeller in 1870 in Ohio was the true launchpad for the industry. Related: Uber To Offer On Demand Employment Standard Oil quickly rose to prominence over the next two decades, driving down prices and buying up the competition. The company was so successful that it controlled nearly 90% of refined oil in the United States by 1890. As production continued to expand both in the US and in Russia, global oil prices fell from an average of $2.56 a barrel in 1876 to just $0.56 in 1892. This was further accelerated with the launch of the first commercial cars in Germany and the US in 1896, a technological revolution that would fuel unprecedented growth for the industry. 1901-1911: Rise of the oil majors Many of the modern oil majors can trace their origins to the early 20th century. - The discovery of oil at Spindletop, Texas, led to the creation of Texaco and Gulf Oil in 1901 - Increasing competitive pressure led to Shell and Royal Dutch merging in 1907 to form Royal Dutch/Shell - BP, formerly known as the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, was incorporated in 1908 following the discovery of oil in Iran - Chevron, Exxon and Mobil (now Exxon Mobil) came into being in 1911 after the split of Standard Oil Co following an antitrust ruling by the US Supreme Court The seven oil majors went on to control 85% of the world’s oil reserves during their golden years in the 1970s. 1914-1949: Oil discoveries, wars, crises The discovery of oil in Cushing, Oklahoma, in 1912 is considered an important milestone for the US oil industry because the region grew to become one of the most important oil fields in the country. Notably, it also became the settlement point for the West Texas Intermediate (WTI) oil price, a leading global oil price benchmark. The next four and a half decades were a turbulent period marked by a series of major wars and economic crises, all of which would have an important bearing on oil prices. First was WWI (1914-1918) which drove up global demand for oil that more than doubled oil prices from $0.81 per barrel in 1914 to $1.98 by the end of the war. Demand continued to grow even after the war ended mainly fueled by the ever-increasing popularity of the automobile and a gasoline shortage in the US west coast. At first, prices surged to $3.07 per barrel before retreating and stabilizing around $1.61 as production increased. Around this time, oil companies started researching other applications for the commodity including commercial production of plastics. However, prices remained relatively low despite the extra demand created by these applications mainly due to a combination of stiff competition and plentiful supply. Meanwhile, major oil discoveries elsewhere continued to keep the markets awash with the commodity including Venezuela, Iraq, the USSR, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf of Mexico. The discovery of oil in East Texas in 1930 was one of the major highlights of this period because it helped create an oil glut that happened to coincide with the Great Depression that consequently depressed prices from $1.19 in 1930 to $0.65 in 1931. It took the intervention of the Texas Railroad Commission which enforced production quotas to stabilize prices and prevent further declines. Just like WWI, the beginning of WWII in 1939 also helped drive demand and goose prices. However, the effect was less pronounced this time around due to bountiful global supply. Nevertheless, the war made governments acutely aware of the need to control reserves, and it would clearly show in their actions over the next couple of decades. 1950-2003: Battle to control production The ending of the second world war would usher in a period whereby many countries made concerted efforts to hold sway in global oil production, with several governments nationalizing their oil infrastructure. Between 1950 and1960, Iran, Indonesia and Saudi Arabia all partly nationalized their oil industries. The Suez crisis of 1956-57 saw Egypt seize the Suez Canal through which nearly five percent of the world’s oil flowed. However, it was the US and USSR that would emerge as the biggest heavyweights in terms of production control. In the late 1950s, the USSR started to flood the market with cheap oil leading to price cuts by the majors in a bid to remain competitive. In response to these developments, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela teamed up and formed OPEC as a means to lower competition between their countries and also as a means to have a bigger impact in controlling supply. OPEC went on to expand its membership over the next two decades with UAE, Libya, Indonesia, Qatar, Nigeria, Algeria, Gabon and Ecuador joining the organization. Between 1960 and 1976, most of these countries took control of their oil reserves by buying out or forcibly taking shares from the oil majors. The US and the USSR continued to throw their weight around but soon the influence shifted to OPEC. In 1973, OPEC members embargoed countries supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur war. Consequently, oil prices shot up to levels never witnessed before, from $2.48 per barrel in 1972 to $11.58 by 1974 and even higher in parts of the US. Related: SoftBank Reeling After Questionable WeWork Investment It was around this time when oil was discovered in the North Sea in a region controlled by the UK and Norway. Oil from this area is referred to as Brent crude and is used alongside WTI to benchmark prices. Iran sharply cut production during the Iranian revolution (1970-1980) and also during the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988 leading to a spike in prices to $36.83. However, prices fell again due to demand shocks as well as increased production by the USSR, which became the world’s largest producer in 1988. Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, leading to the Gulf War. This created a major supply shock that led to prices shooting up from $14.98 per barrel before the war to $41.00 in September 1991. The 1990s witnessed wild price fluctuations. The Soviet Union fell in 1991, precipitating the collapse of the Russian oil sector with production halving over the next decade mainly due to reduced investments. However, global demand also tumbled in 1997 due to the Asian financial crisis but managed to recover by the turn of the century after the region’s economic outlook improved. 2003-Present: Hydraulic fracturing and a changing landscape This next decade witnessed some of the most spectacular explosions in oil prices. The US invaded Iraq in 2003 leading to supply uncertainties. This was further compounded by massive demand growth by Asia and China. Consequently, prices jumped from $28.38 per barrel in July 2000 to $146.02 in July 2008. From here prices fell due to the global financial crisis of 2008 before staging a comeback. The Arab Spring of 2011 created supply shortages and helped push prices to $126.48 per barrel. Technological advancements in recent times have significantly altered the global oil landscape. Hydraulic fracturing has pushed the US to the top of the pack once again, reducing the influence of OPEC and depressing prices. Flooding of the market by US shale has led to a sharp drop in global oil prices, from $114.84 per barrel in June 2014 to $28.47 in January 2016. OPEC has tried to ameliorate the glut by teaming up with non-OPEC countries such as Russia to implement production cuts. Consequently, prices have recovered somewhat but have never approached levels seen in the past decade. With the US now acting as the new ‘swing producer’ OPEC’s influence and ability to control prices is likely to remain diminished. The unresolved trade war between the US and China as well as geopolitical uncertainty in Iran, Syria and other countries has helped goose prices from their 2016 lows of below $30 per barrel to $54.70 in October 2019. But with continued high levels of shale production and a weakening global economy, prices are expected to remain subdued with prices projected to average $66 a barrel in 2019 and $65 a barrel in 2020. By Alex Kimani for Oilprice.com

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Critical Thinking. Analytical Models. Descriptive examples This paper represents an updated version of the one published on the 15th of April 2020. To download the document, please visit the homepage. As SARS-COV-2 spreads throughout the world, businesses are gearing up to adapt. More than ever, we need to become skilled in creative problem-solving. To try and do our bit to help, we have created a compact, practical, business survival toolkit which provides analytical tools to structure your thinking/planning and examples of organisations that have successfully adapted to rapidly changing external conditions, so that you can future-proof your business in the challenging weeks and months ahead. We propose to you three main analytical models, that will help you navigate through the current challenging situations. To better understand these models, we selected for you several examples that illustrate how businesses can become resilient, innovative, and adaptive. 1. Ask the Right Questions and Adapt for Resilience In contrast to single-loop learning (which is often used for predictable and stable environments), which asks people how to do things right, double-loop learning asks what the right things are. Double-Loop Learning is associated with a far more fundamental question, which invites us to reconsider our basic assumptions and think beyond acting within simple patterns. Picture source: https://doublelooplearning.co.uk/about/ TIPS: Single-loop learning stands for optimisation and efficiency, while double-loop learning stands for adaptation and resilience. Read more: Argyris C., ‘Teaching Smart People to Learn’, Harvard Business Review, May – June 1991 2. Identify Your Core Competencies To become resilient, it is important to understand your core competencies. Core competencies are those things that you do for your customers better than your competitors. Knowing these allows you to ask yourselves how they could be transferred into new, more distant marketplaces. It is time to adapt, not optimise. Core competencies have three primary characteristics: “First, a core competence provides access to a wide variety of markets […] Second, a core competence should make a significant contribution to the perceived customer benefits of the product… Finally, core competence should be difficult for competitors to imitate.” Prahalad, C. K. & Hamel, G., 'The Core Competence of the Corporation', Harvard Business Review, May-June 1990 TIPS: Consider asking and involving your employees, customers, suppliers, etc. in identifying your core competencies. Read more: Prahalad, C. K. & Hamel, G., 'The Core Competence of the Corporation', Harvard Business Review, May-June, 1990 3. Use Associative Thinking Whilst managers are good at using a better understanding of their core competencies to identify opportunities that are cognitively close to their business, managers need to learn to recognise similar underlying patterns in distant markets and make the cognitive leap. What core competencies do you have that are transferable to other markets? For example, FujiFilm applied the Ansoff Matrix to leverage their photographic film knowledge to enter new medical and telecom devices markets. TIPS: check out the response from the defence and automotive industries in producing medical equipment for healthcare systems. Gavetti, G., ‘The New Psychology of Strategic Leadership’, Harvard Business Review, July-August 2011 HBR Video on The Explainer: Core Competence [link: https://hbr.org/video/5146717725001/the-explainer-core-competence] 4. Make sense of where you are and identify suitable practice The Cynefin Framework It provides a framework for defining the nature of the problem, adding new dimensions for sense-making other than the usual tendency to simplify, standardize and create best practices. In a crisis, adopting a simple approach may push the business into a chaotic space, where recovery is very expensive. TIPS: check out Dave Snowden’s video for how to use the framework. Read more: Cynefin St David’s Day 2019 articles on Cognitive Edge blog [picture source] Becoming resilient beyond COVID-19 [examples] - Banca Transilvania has leveraged its powerful brand in a nationwide campaign meant to encourage customers to buy from local producers. The campaign #CumparaDeLangaTine/ #BuyFromProducersNearby in which bank employees talk about their favorite products and local shops promotes local businesses from bakers and flower shops to producers of handmade Christmas decorations. - Entrepreneurs with experience in the IT sector and multinational companies and returned migrants have created online and physical food hubs helping local producers – from vegetable farmers to craft beer producers – to sell their products online and deliver them directly to customers’ doors. Online and physical markets such as Legume Verzi, Made in Cluj, and Sat pentru Oraș reunite local producers from the surroundings of the two of the largest Romanian cities – Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca. - Romanian start-up from the MedTech sector XVision which uses AI algorithms to analyse lung X-rays offered its services pro bono to help speed up the diagnostic processes that assist radiologists in detecting medical afflictions created by the new coronavirus. - Fitbit has found new uses for its technology in the context of a decline of wearables by partnering with Stanford Innovation Lab to explore data points provide by its devices in order to help researchers detect and trace the spread of COVID-19. - The model of Kurzarbeit– promoted by business associations and companies in Germany has been adopted in Romania and other European countries consisting of a state-funded program that helps companies retain employees who can work reduced programs while part of their salary (up to 80%) is covered by state-funded schemes if certain conditions are met and companies benefiting from this program have seen their returns diminished during the coronavirus pandemic. - Farmec Cluj has leveraged its core competence in Over The Counter (OTC) pharmaceuticals and FMCG healthcare products to launch hand sanitizer brands, supplying first-line health care workers and other public servants. Aware that this crisis presents an opportunity to familiarise customers with their products and embed new brands to grab market share. Cosmetic Plant and Dacia Plant have also launched new hand sanitizer brands. - Taparo, a Romanian group specialized in producing furniture, has adapted several production lines and has become a leader in the production of surgical face masks, answering to the national need of basic medical equipment. - In a time when airports and the aeronautic industry have registered financial losses, AirportLabs, an IT start-up (company) from Cluj-Napoca, has increased its revenues by digitalizing various European airports and make more efficient the existing processes and procedures. - Understanding their core competencies and using associative thinking, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies like Pfizer, BioNTech and Moderna, have used their capacities and cutting-edge knowledge in treating other maladies for developing in a record-time highly efficient vaccines against Covid-19. - VentilaTM project is connecting medical professionals and academics using 3D technologies provided by a start-up based in Timisoara to produce ventilators. Can somebody use this experience, beyond the COVID-19 crisis, to create value and enter new markets? Early Learning from Corona situation - The end of Retail? After huge growth in online shopping will we go back to the traditional shops? Retailers will find innovative ways to leverage their core competencies or wither and die. - Property value. Do we need to be in the office, the gym, or the mall physically? Gyms & trainers using online platforms to offer interactive classes and provide new services such as nutrition and well-being services e.g. 7 Card opened an online video hub for fitness and leisure activities. Companies like Emag are looking at office space more carefully, as remote working is having a positive impact on productivity for them. How many physical spaces will be replaced by Zoom, Skype, WhatsApp, Signal, Hangouts, etc.? See how 8x8.vc are defining this crisis as an opportunity to create demand. - Try new things. Viziere.ro is a national platform aggregating competencies and resources for the production and distribution of face shields. Similarly, the University of Hull is working with a local moulding company to produce essential face shields to protect medical staff. Can any of those involved use this experience, beyond the COVID-19 crisis, to create value and enter new markets? - Technology enables the associative leap. Giants like Apple and Google developing apps to trace the spread of infection, as a means of establishing credibility in new medical markets. Streaming is turbo-charging the convergence of tech & globalisation around media channels like TV. Communicate with customers - Use online platforms in order to connect customers to better leverage the existing use of core competencies. Eg. online baking courses delivered by bakery shops, wine tasting courses, online cooking shows delivered by restaurants, online tours and materials promoting holiday destinations. Hatfield House Bar in Belfast started delivering draught beer directly to their customers’ front door, as have producers of bio/organic food. - Explore new types of products to keep your customers loyal. e.g. vouchers, membership cards, etc. - Ask Customers to help you identify core competencies and where associative product and market opportunities could be leveraged. - The commitment shown during the crisis represents an opportunity to reach beyond price if you can connect your brand(s) to customers' intrinsic needs, beyond any transactional value. - Give. If you are able to help customers in a time of need it is likely to be unusual and may be transformational. Many will not forget…. How we can help you? In this recession survival kit, we have shown how the use of 4 analytical models together can inform your decision making and enable you to thrive. Transilvania Executive Education encourages and enables interconnected thinking and nurtures responsible leadership. We help companies and businesses to employ models of critical and analytical thinking and apply them locally in order to become more resilient and adaptive in the face of complex challenges. TEE team [Andrew Taylor, Andreea Vornicu, Bianca Opris, Ovidiu Oltean] Useful websites to continue the research: Hull University Business School Special Webinar Series on COVID19 impact

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Has your past dieting caused metabolic damage? In the blog post we’ll go over what metabolic damage is, why it happens and the 3 steps to take for how to reverse a damaged metabolism. How Does Metabolism Damage Happen? Metabolic damage occurs when our body’s metabolism (essentially how our bodies utilize energy) has adjusted into “survival mode” from periods of intense restriction, exercise, and/or stress. It’s actually better described as ‘metabolic acclimation’ because it has acclimated or gotten used to the new ‘norm’ of energy utilization it is experiencing. Our bodies are actually highly sophisticated “machines”. When fuel (calories from food) is scarce it becomes more efficient at utilizing the energy it does have. Think of it this way: when you open a new tube of toothpaste you use it without thought, right? You have enough. It’s easy to get out and you go about your teeth brushing effortlessly. But when you get down in the tube you have to start to really squeeze it out and you’ll make do with less toothpaste for each brushing. You’re acclimating to the resources you have to get the job done. Our bodies do the same thing with energy. Our bodies are resilient and when energy intake is low it will fight to keep us alive by slowing our metabolism (burning less calories) and ‘holding’ onto energy on our bodies in the form of energy storage (weight gain). This is similar to that toothpaste analogy, you use less to do the same amount of work when resources are scarce and want to keep as much toothpaste (energy for your body) in the tube as possible. Signs Of Metabolic Damage One of the most common signs of a damaged metabolism is the phenomenon of “plateauing”. What I mean by this is you feel like you’re doing ALL of the things: eating “right”, increasing your physical activity, etc. but you’re not seeing “results” of weight loss. Other common symptoms of a slow metabolism are feeling fatigued much of the time, decreased muscle mass, increased fat mass, experiencing extreme hunger, and irregular menstrual cycles. What Causes Metabolic Damage To Happen? Metabolic damage, or rather acclimation, can happen any time that our bodies don’t get enough energy for long periods of time (not just a day of being sick and not being able to keep anything down!) such as if we’re stranded in the desert, are experiencing food insecurity, or most commonly, from placing ourselves on diets. When we go on a diet, detox, cleanse or “lifestyle, yes, there is likely short term “success” (meaning weight loss). However, as our bodies begin to realize that the decreased resources (energy/calories) are not going away our bodies begin to adjust our metabolism to burn fewer calories and save as much of the energy (such as stored fat) that they do have as possible. Ever wonder why you start a diet and see “results” at first but then hit a “plateau”? This metabolic acclimation is why. Your body is literally trying to save you! In an effort to keep you not only surviving but also thriving, your body will not only try to keep as much energy on as possible but it will try to store MORE. Why? Because it wants to be sure that should a period of decreased resources (fuel/calories/energy) happen again that it’s prepared and has enough reserves. This is why most dieters not only gain back any lost weight but actually gain back MORE and in the long run wind up weighing more after the diet than they did before. As frustrating as this can feel in the moment it’s not out of spite or due to a lack of willpower. Your metabolism works this way to protect you; to keep an adequate amount of fuel (that’s stored in both muscle and fat!) for times of need. I discuss this more in my blog post on the set point weight theory but essentially our bodies have a predetermined “set point” range. This is where our bodies want our weights to be and they work, kind of like a thermostat, to keep our bodies within this range by making adjustments as needed. Now, we don’t get to just decide what this set weight will be. That’s determined by a mix of genetics, environment and lifestyle. Think of it like this: a German shepherd and a chihuahua are both dogs but have drastically different body types. The same goes for humans. (Except we are much more accepting of dog body diversity than humans… thanks to diet culture and unrealistic standards of beauty!) If you’re struggling with the idea that we may not be able to just decide we want to lose weight and still kinda want to pursue it but also want to be free from dieting be sure to check out my blog post on wanting to eat intuitively and lose weight. Real Life Example Of Metabolic Damage And Acclimation Here is a real life example: the famous show, The Biggest Loser, had contestants who manipulated their intake and exercise to unattainable amounts in everyday life and subsequently lost weight quickly for the show. Essentially, they went on a fad diet and exercise routines. While, yes, many contestants did initially lose weight many of them regained it and then some. You can clearly see metabolic damage happening in the data gathered during a 6 year Biggest Loser contestant follow up. Their energy intake was not statistically significant from their baseline (pre-show) intake however their resting energy expenditure (REE), or in other words how much energy their bodies burned, was on average 692 calories less per day. That’s a 27% reduction in the amount of calories their body was able to burn. In order for contestants to continue their weight loss and/or maintain it they would have needed to increase their physical activity and continue to do so due to the metabolic acclimation that occurred. The effect of dieting goes beyond just our weight and what our bodies might look like. When we continually weight cycle aka ‘yo-yo’ diet and have our weights go up an down (Just like the contestants did when they lost then regained weight) we are placing our bodies at more risk for chronic disease, high blood pressure, lessening bone density, and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). Another reason why metabolic damage can occur is due to stress. Whether from outside factors such as intense exercise or from dieting (is IS stressful!), stress can also cause our metabolism to change. Stress increases our level of cortisol, which is the hormone that our metabolism responds to to protect our bodies’ functions. When dieting with low calories, we increase our bodies’ cortisol, leading to weight gain or loss. By monitoring our calories and not ‘trusting’ our bodies’ needs through intuitive eating, we are placing more stress on our bodies. One study showed that even just monitoring your food intake, not necessarily restricting it, can lead to increased stress! Is Having A Damaged Metabolism Reversible? Yes! One study showed that women who were experiencing amenorrhea (loss of periods) due to insufficient intake increased their resting energy expenditure (i.e. their bodies utilization of fuel/calories) as a direct result of increasing their intake of calories. Essentially, when their bodies didn’t have to work as hard at “penny pinching” the little amount of calories they got they were able to actually burn more of them and reverse some of that metabolic damage. A common analogy for metabolism is that it’s like a fire: the more fuel you give it the bigger it gets. That’s kind of what we are seeing here. There is research to support that strength training and high intensity interval training (HIIT) are ways to improve your lean body mass, which in turn can improve/speed up your metabolism. These exercise methods, while intuitively eating and taking rest, can help improve your overall metabolism. The key with this, however, is to first get your body to a place of adequate nourishment THEN add this in.. and don’t over do it! More is not always better. Doing too much high intensity exercise can actually cause metabolic damage by increasing cortisol, like we discussed above, and possibly causing an excessive calorie deficit (taking away from that fire’s fuel). How Do You Fix A Damaged Metabolism? There are several steps that you can start taking today in order to repair and fix a damaged metabolism. Step #1: Increase Your Energy Intake This is by far the most important of these 3 steps! First you must start increasing your intake. There are a few different methods that you can use to do this such as “reverse dieting” or going “all in”. Essentially, reverse dieting is a more calculated approach where you gradually increase calories whereas with the all-in approach you’re immediately and likely drastically increasing your caloric intake. I talk more about the “all-in” approach, which was actually created as a way to treat hypothalamic amenorrhea, in my blog post about how to regain a healthy period. The way that I teach how to do this in The SociEATy is based on the “compound effect”. Start by asking yourself what is one thing that I can do today to work towards increasing your intake? Maybe you add some extra peanut butter to your toast. Maybe you go out for the milkshake when your friend asks which you previously would have said no to because you would have thought it was too many calories. I believe in this “snowball approach” because it creates sustainability. When I was going through the process of fixing my own damaged metabolism one day I was all excited about eating ALL of the food and then the next day I’d be in panic mode and resort back to my restrictive eating patterns. Going from one extreme to the other terrified me and I believe ultimately set me back. On the flip side, when I tried reverse dieting and being more calculated I found that I was actually just “staying safe” within my disordered eating. It’s like I was putting a cap on how much I could eat and was saying “It’s okay to eat more but only XYZ more”. The thing with fixing a damaged metabolism is that we can’t say “okay this will be enough!” only our bodies can do that. While, yes, it’s true that the faster you can increase your intake the faster you’ll likely reverse a damaged metabolism, we must also think about our mental health, wellbeing and stability. What I’ve found with my “snowball approach” is that sometimes you just need to dip your toes into the water to get acclimated. And then it starts to snowball as you gain confidence in yourself and with the process and actually wind up moving faster overall. I don’t think there is a right or wrong and the rate at which everyone’s snowball will grow is different. The snowball approach is simply what I’ve found to be the most effective and so have members of The SociEATy. If you are struggling with an active eating disorder it is important to chat with a dietitian for help. There is something called “refeeding syndrome” that can happen with sudden, drastic changes in intake when working to overcome an underfed state. This can be a very serious issue that may require medical attention and oversight may be needed as intake is increased. Step #2: Reduce Excessive Physical Activity If we’re trying to give our bodies more energy it is important not to be burning it all off with excessive exercise. If you continue high levels of physical activity then it’s kind of just like a dog chasing its tail. Personally, I took a total step back from exercise when I was repairing my metabolic damage. This allowed my body not only to get to a more nourished state faster but it also helped to improve my relationship with exercise. After my few months off of exercise (just stretching, yoga and light walks) I no longer saw it as a way to “earn” or “burn off” my food. Rather, I saw it as joyful movement and something done to honor my body. Taking time off from exercise does not mean that you won’t get to a place of having a healthy exercise routine again! Today I love moving my body! I’m totally one of those 5am workout call goers who springs right out of bed. I love it! But it’s not out of punishment or an effort to force my body to be something it isn’t. It’s an enjoyable celebration of what it can do. Now I know we talked earlier about how high intensity exercise and strength training can actually increase our metabolism? Remember too much of a good thing is too much of a good thing. Reducing physical activity in the short term, especially high intensity interval training, can also improve your cortisol levels and in turn improve a damaged metabolism. I’d suggest taking time off to first get your body to an improved metabolic state THEN adding it in… with rest! Step #3: Focus On Additional Lifestyle Interventions Our bodies are impacted by how we live our lives. So focusing on things like reducing stress, staying hydrated, implementing gentle nutrition, improving body image, getting enough sleep, etc. Believe it or not our bodies are impacted by ALL of these things! And that body image one? That’s key! I mean, the reason why we damaged our metabolism in the first place by dieting is probably because we were in a state of negative body image, right? A Final Note On How To Reverse A Damaged Metabolism By beginning to repair our relationship with food, exercise, and our bodies we can not only reverse a damaged metabolism but also find our set point weight, improve our relationship with food, have regular periods, improve body image, reduce stress and be overall healthier and HAPPIER as a result. Our bodies are resilient and we are able to work and overcome the challenges that come with an acclimated metabolism. You are not damaged goods because of an acclimated metabolism - your body is doing the best it can to survive while getting you through a stressful season of life. Treat it well through eating intuitively with well-balanced meals, exercising to honor your body, and creating healthy habits to last a lifetime and your body (and metabolism) will thank you. What are your thoughts on the topic of a damaged metabolism? Share in the comments! Other Posts You Might Like: Need more guidance? Be sure to checkout my YouTube channel for more tips to help in your intuitive eating journey and take the no food rules quiz which will tell you what's holding you back from truly finding food freedom and give you customized resources (and a workbook!) to overcome it! This blog post was written by Colleen Christensen, RD and researched and written with the help of Amy Sharn, MS, RDN, LD.

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Bangladesh occupies an area of 144,863 km². The hilly areas cover about 17,342 km² mostly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts districts, Chittagong, Habigonj and Moulvibazar. Hills constitute about 12 per cent of the total area of Bangladesh. Chittagong Hill Tracts districts alone covers 13,184 km² which is about 9%. Based on geology and landform, the hills of Bangladesh may broadly be subdivided as: High hill ranges (about 70%) and Low hill areas (about 30%). The high hill ranges, about 200-1,000 m above mean sea level (msl), are steep to very steep hills and usually have a rather youthful soil mantle ranging from a few cm to several metres in thickness over bedrocks. In contrast, the low hill areas, about 15-200 m above msl are nearly flat or rounded topped and usually have old and deep soil. The whole hilly region receives more than 2000 mm precipitation annually about 80% of which receives in 4 months (June-September) and the region was covered by tropical climax forest with diversified flora and fauna just a century back. Due to human pressure, the deep forests were deforested to denuded hills. Moreover, introduction of tillage cultivation practices and uses of chemicals a good number of indigenous flora and fauna have lost their habitats. One of the important aspects is that waterbodies viz. natural lakes (Haors) and sea are adjacent to the hills which greatly influence the hydrological cycles and flora and fauna of both hills and the water bodies. The folded ranges, the extension of Arakan and Lusai Hills, are very important for the coast of the Bay of Bengal, their existence is essential to protect the coast line as well as the forest flora and fauna. However, a large part of hilly areas are under state forest and some are under tea and rubber plantation. In the remaining part, Jhum (shifting cultivation following slash and burn method) is being practiced by the tribal people, especially in Chittagong hill tracts and locally in other areas. Jhum involves clearing of forest land after several years (4-5 years) of fallow. But now the fallow period has been reduced further to 2 years due to non-availability of land. This exposure of land has increased the chance of soil erosion and further degradation of land. In May 9, 2009, the massive land-sliding blocked the flow of the river Sango and in 29th July, 10 people were killed due to land-sliding in the Bandarban Hill District. The Jhum crops include early summer highland rice, maize, cotton, sesame, turmeric, ginger, banana, chilies and vegetables etc. Locally plantations of pineapple and orange also occupy small areas. Vegetables, tobacco and wetland rice are the major crops grown in the valleys, and adjoining plains. Every year more and more land is becoming denuded due to unplanned agricultural expansion. Surface run-off is the main cause of soil resource loss and land degradation. A continuous process of soil and nutrient loss is going on all over the Hill soils under high rates of precipitation. The process is accelerated by the open cultivation system on steep to very steep land. In the greater district of Sylhet, growing of pineapple in the hilly areas is causing extensive erosion. The plants are grown in rows which are mostly oriented vertically down the slope. The inter-row spaces are clear-tilled by hoeing leaving the loosened soils highly vulnerable to sheet and gully erosion. In Chittagong Hill Tracts, soil erosion is mainly due to shifting cultivation. The worsening soil fertility of hill soils becomes more serious if the faulty cultivation goes on unabated. Due to mono-cropping and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers especially in tea plantation, the soil fertility has been declined. Despite introduction of 17 high-yielding clones the yield of tea has not been increasing for last 10 years. Moreover, the catchments are being raised by expanding paddy cultivation and the total peripheral tea has lost their root zone and thus declining the total area at an alarming rate. The density of population of the hilly region has been increasing at an alarming rate and the present cultivation practices have been deteriorating the soil fertility and nutrient status. Biodiversity is in a great threat. Many of flora and fauna are endangered. Therefore, food chain as a whole is disrupted. The overall human activity needs immediate attention to restore the food chain, restore the eco-partners, pollinators, tree crops especially for timber, fruits, soil conservation and soil creation, wind protection, habitat for associate flora and fauna etc., and for restoration of hydrological cycle to revive the perennial streams. High water table indicator flora e.g. wild banana, ferns, zinzibers, canes and bamboos etc. should be re-established. Right plant (crop) at right place according to their habit and habitat is needed be cultured. Due to lack of sufficient green coverage, the perennial streams are drying up in the dry season. As a result, there has been prevailing a great water crisis in the hilly zones of Bangladesh. Upland dams are causing detrimental effects changing the ecological conditions, reducing surface area, blocking the seepage water flows (capillaries) by continuous impediments. Moreover, after heavy torrential rainfall, the dams become a great risk for the downstream dwellers. The reservoirs made by the dams in the hilly regions are not so productive for fish culture due to high depth. Most of the crops especially the fruits like jackfruit, citrus and lemons, litchi, Kao (Garcinia) and pineapple etc., and vegetables are seasonal; harvested in summer/wet monsoon. It is very difficult to manage the crops due to poor post harvest facilities and transportation. A huge quantity of summer crops is being damaged every year due to above reasons and the farmers do not get their price. Post harvest management of crops needs utmost attention. In most of the hilly regions of Bangladesh, indigenous and migrant people along with Bangalees are living there maintaining their own food habits. Many indigenous tribes consume locally grown herbs and spices for food and medicine. In contrast, some of the tribes and migrant laborers are habituated with excess drinking of locally made wine and with smoking and chewing tobacco. In most cases, they spend their whole weekly income within 4-5 days and remain hungry and suffer from malnutrition. These people need motivation and sustainable supply of necessary and healthy foods. Multidisciplinary action is needed for improvement of the agro-economic conditions of the hilly regions of Bangladesh. Selecting the target households, farmer’s community based organization development, setting of social, agricultural and environmental baselines, choosing of right crops and right cultural practices for a specific agro-ecological zone, bio-diversification with long-term adapted species, varieties bringing more species under cropping culture according to their habits and habitats, improvement of hydrological cycles and to keep the water tables up for reviving the perennial stream by establishing appropriate plant species, uses of organic fertilizers and pesticides to restore flora and fauna especially, the mycorrhiza, eco-partners and pollinating agents etc., and to protect the soil and water bodies from pollution from conventional use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Identification of specific requirements of target households in each region, provision of seed and planting material to encourage diversification, provision of advice on improved technology and practices, provision of farm machinery to ensure use of technology to boost up production, , identification of best local practices, awareness raising of social and economic issues related to food security for all members of disadvantaged households, provision of training, awareness raising on nutritious food and health related issues, monitoring yields and environmental impacts, monitoring the social well being of target households, monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of the actions on well-beings of households and reporting for widespread dissemination of the results of these actions. Land and environment degradation remain an important problem because it’s adverse effect on agricultural production. Inappropriate agriculture practices, particularly in areas with fragile ecosystems increase the loss of productivity of resource-poor farmers. There are strong, direct relationships between agricultural productivity, hunger, and poverty. Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diet and under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm income. Farmers should be made aware of and encouraged to adopt improved agricultural practices and soil conservation measures to enhance productivity, which are- Habitat Restoration and Permaculture: The prime and foremost important activity is to restore the habitat to create the climatic conditions for reviving hydrological cycles through trans-evaporation, surface and underground water flows and to keep the ground water table up. To do this, action will be taken for planting evergreen and deciduous trees at a proportion of 4:1 according to their habit and habitat. Crops will also be chosen and planted preferring mixed plantation method according to their habit of co-existence and long run adaptation. Improved Jhum and use of improved germplasm: Jhum is likely to continue as a fundamental land use system in the region. Improving the sustainable management of the natural resources in this area must therefore consider sustainable alternatives within jhum farming. An improved jhum can be created by selectively weeding the fields and enriching them by planting species that increase the rate of return of organic matter to the soil and have some commercial interest for the farmer (such as commercial bamboos and various leguminous shrubs). Repeated campaigns with field demonstrations are needed to show them that adoption of improved varieties will better suit their needs Conservation of soil moisture: The Hill farmers of Bangladesh generally cultivate their crops under rain-fed conditions. The average yield is low in most cases because of their inadequate knowledge about appropriate sowing time under rain-fed cropping system. In Bangladesh, November-December is the best planting time for winter vegetables in the plains but it is too late for hilly areas. In hilly regions, suitable slopping lands are available for early sowing, usually in October. If crops are planted in October, both higher yields and market prices will be obtained. Zero-Tillage Practice: A cultural practice like zero-tillage is one of the most important factors for higher crop production in rain-fed agriculture especially in hill regions. Zero tillage enhances and sustains farm production by conserving and improving soil, water and biological resources. Essentially, it maintains a permanent or semi-permanent organic soil cover that protects the soil from sun, rain and wind and allows soil micro-organisms and fauna to take on the task of “tilling” and soil nutrient balancing – natural processes disturbed by mechanical tillage. Zero-tillage is reported to give significantly higher yield of maize, ginger, cowpea and Mukhi Kachu in hill slopes. Moisture Conservation: Mulching is one of the most important cultural techniques for higher production in rain-fed farming systems. Erosion, declining soil fertility, and increased emergence of weeds affect production when fallows are shortened. Mulching will help prevent soil degradation and excessive weed emergence. This technique can be used by farmers growing ginger and taro in hilly areas of this region. The use of mulch safeguards the topsoil against excessive soil temperatures and favors seed germination. Use contour plantation: The common practice in the Hill Tracts is to plant crops up and down the slopes which facilitate soil erosion with the onset of heavy rains. However, planting should be made along the contours to prevent soil loss. Use of cover crops and Use of strip cropping: Row crops (erosion permitting crops) such as rice, tobacco, maize etc are not effective as soil conserving crops (erosion resistant crops) such cowpea, black gram, groundnut etc. Using legumes in the existing cropping system will provide better cover and protection to soil by way of minimizing the impact of raindrop erosion and acting as an obstruction to runoff. Cover Crops and strip cropping should be practiced immediately to control erosion. Crop Rotation and use of balanced fertilizers: Mono-cropping of erosion permitting crops accelerate soil and water loss year after year. Intercropping erosion permitting and erosion resistant crops or their rotation are very effective for soil and water conservation. Erosion resistant crops should be sown in time to develop adequate canopy by the time of peak rate of runoff. Better crop rotation and organic manures should be applied to improve the nutrient status of the soil. Improvement in soil structure improves the rate of infiltration leading to reduced runoff. Crop diversification: In the face of shrinking natural resources and ever-increasing demand for larger food and agricultural production, agricultural diversification is the best method for future of agriculture. Crop diversification from low value to high value crops; from water loving crop to water saving crop and from single crop to multiple/mixed crop can provide adequate income and employment to the farmers. Such high value crops can overcome problems of transportation and low input use when markets are developed. Improved Family Nutrition – The widespread occurrence of malnutrition and poor diet leads to shortened lifespan and lower agricultural productivity. By improving the nutrition of the entire family overall community health and productivity will result. The most direct means of improving family nutrition is through community diet education coupled with teaching the skills needed for low cost production of fruits and vegetables in a home garden. Regeneration with Diversified Flora and Fauna: As the tropical climax hill forests have some unique behaviour, they need special care to re-establish. Absence of eco-partners i.e., the pollinators, recycling agents, food chain producers and consumers etc., the diversity and productivity of the forests have been reduced significantly. It is therefore, essential to re-establish the forests according to habit and habitat of indigenous flora and fauna and in this process the foods for all dwellers including the ethnic tribes can be secured. Sustainability of the action: There is a natural reluctance among farmers to change their farming systems that have been well adapted for generations. However, as circumstances have changed (population increase, land degradation, etc.) the farming systems have to be changed. Farmers need all the support that science and cooperation can provide, but it must be carefully integrated into the farmers’ environment. Increasing crop production in sustainable ways, introducing erosion control measures or improving the long-term productivity of the land (such as organic manures fertilizers, etc.) involve direct costs or indirect costs, such as that of family labour. It may also be difficult to sustain or small farmers if there are few short-term benefits as the crop response occurs over many years. Therefore, the constraints exerted on families may be considerable, in particular for those living at little above the subsistence level. Only those practices that give a quick, visible difference or significant cash return should be recommended. Farmers will not pay for inputs unless they are reasonably sure that their produce can be sold at a profit. Nor will they accept conservation measures unless the long-term advantages will accrue to them. However, the transportation to reach the market and infrastructure are very poor in this area. An agricultural marketing specialist should work with farmers, cooperatives, and Gram Panchayats/local administrative bodies to develop access to existing markets. The long-term sustainability of these measures will depend upon how useful the local communities feel these measures are compatible with their everyday lives. Given the rising prices of agricultural commodities, the economic justification for adopting improved practices will likely remain for a long time. Awareness and capacity building seem to be important measures for helping sustainability. The main threats to the sustainability are population pressure and scarcity of agricultural land. This problem should have to be met primarily by the villagers themselves although external agencies can extend a helping hand. It is therefore essential to take appropriate measures to make understand the people of the hilly regions of Bangladesh that the diversified flora and fauna are the part and parcel of our life and they are highly important for our climate. We should respect the diversity of the nature, and diversity is the basis for survivility. Latest posts by Dr. Mohammed Ataur Rahman (see all) - Ecosystem Management is the Key to Reduce Climate Impacts and Food Security - December 23, 2020 - Ecosystem Management is the Key to Reduce Climate Impacts and Food Security - December 23, 2020 - Climatic Adaptation and Sustainability of Rice in Bangladesh - September 5, 2020

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24/7 writing help on your phone Gadgets like portable games can have a negative impact on an individual’s health. Technology is an integral part of our day-to-day lives. People all over the world rely on it for things like communication, organization and employment. Not a day goes by when you don’t encounter someone talking on his cell phone, tapping away on a laptop or listening to an MP3 player. While this technology is impressive, there are certain drawbacks in areas like health, public safety and education that should be addressed. Being aware of these dangers can help diminish or reverse these drawbacks. * There is no question that cell phones have become a staple of modern society. Even young children use them, much to the chagrin of their parents or teachers. A common belief is that cell phones can cause adverse effects like brain cancer. However, a study by the World Health Organization (WHO) concluded that this is not true. Regardless, there are other hazards. According to the WHO, mobile phones are a serious problem when driving, increasing reaction time between 0.5 and 1.5 seconds. This short span of time can make a world of difference when avoiding a collision. They further state drivers on a phone have trouble judging speed and staying in their lanes. Even hands-free headsets pose a distraction. The WHO concludes that drivers who talk on their cell phones are four times more likely to get in an accident. * According to the website Healthy Hearing, one-third of teenagers own an MP3 player, such as an iPod. Dr. Craig Kasper, Director of Audiology at the New York Otolaryngology Group, warns that these devices can cause ear damage if used improperly. If the volume is too high or if the individual listens for a long time, hearing damage can happen. Also, earbuds are more dangerous than regular headphones. Healthy Hearing recommends that listeners keep the volume below 70 percent and limit listening time to between 60 and 90 minutes. If you want to listen indefinitely, turn the volume down to 50 percent Physical Injury and Obesity * Hand-held video game consoles are very popular in the developed world. While they can be entertaining, excessive play can be detrimental. One problem is video game addiction, which can be disruptive to a person’s psychological health. Other reported issues include seizures, neck pain, wrist pain and repetitive strain injury. Prolonged use also contributes to a sedentary lifestyle, resulting in obesity. * Text slang, such as “ur” instead of “you’re” is commonly used through cell phone texting. However, a recent study shows that kids and teens are actually letting these obscure abbreviations seep into their normal writing. A recent study by Pew Internet in 2008 revealed that 50 percent of students use informal slang in their assignments. Furthermore, 38 percent admit they have used abbreviations in their schoolwork like “LOL”, which stands for “laugh out loud”. Additionally, 25 percent say that they use emoticons such as “smiley faces” in formal writing. The problem has become so apparent that some U.S. politicians are concerned that the English language and sentence structure is being twisted, negatively affecting students’ learning. The Disadvantages of Gadgets on Students Modern technologies like television and computers provide identifiable educational advantages, such as greater access to information and more compelling presentations of that information. Over-use of technology, though, especially such gadgets as cell phones, iPods and video games, presents a whole range of problems which may interfere with a student’s ability to learn and attend to lessons. 1. Social Networking 2. Students who use their computers or cell phones to participate in social networking sites may post material considered inappropriate by school authorities. They may also develop an unfavorable reputation based on those pictures or comments. Pictures of misbehavior can adversely affect their chances of getting into the university of their choice or of getting a job. * It is easy to become addicted to gaming, texting, talking on the phone or socializing online. Some students may attempt to do this in class, which disrupts their learning, and at home it detracts from study time. Kids putting in long hours on their gadgets will give less attention to assignments and may be irritable when they are away from their gadgets. They might also sleep less, which can slow down their thinking the next day. * In the past, children and young people filled up their free time by reading books, socializing, or engaging in active, creative play. A fixation on gadgets reduces participation in of all these, especially the aspect of creativity. Digital worlds can be vast, but they are always structured, not requiring the imagination and inventiveness of unstructured play. Some children become less creative and less able to entertain themselves. * Persistent use of high-tech gadgetry can lead to a slew of health problems for young and old alike. A sedentary lifestyle discourages exercise and encourages obesity. The back-lit screens used for computers, iPhones and video games can cause eye problems. Walking around everywhere with music blaring directly into your ears brings on headaches and hearing difficulties. The net effect of all these things, plus the pressure of immediate responses to everything, can become stressful. The Negative Impacts of exposure of electronic devices and gadgets to children These advantages may not be obvious or observed in short period of times. However there are some impacts on the usage of the electronic devices and gadgets games. According to the sources from a survey of Kaiser Family Foundation, children are spending an average of more than 7 hours per day on the electronic device which includes television, electronic games, internet and some mobile devices. These data show that, kids today are easily used up more than 50 hours weekly, which means the time consume is more than working hours of an adult, if we take an average of 8 hour per days for 6 working days. Surveys showed that these young kids know how to play with the smart-phone, make a mobile phone calls and even open internet browsers on their own without any aid. However, on the same survey found that there are lesser kids on the same age range know how to tie a shoelace without help or swim unaided. A concern on children may be fluent in technical driven skillset rather than real-life practical skills. The devices and games tend to keep the children out of touch of reality. It is important to children to spend some time for outdoor activity with family and friends. The times spent on the devices may curb some outdoor activities. When the children play violent games for a long period of time, they are tends to be more aggressive, and they are more prone to confront their elderly and teachers. This may not be a good sign, and may let the children easily involved in fighting and verbally scolding with peers. If children spend too much time on the devices, this may affect their studies and school achievements. The more time the spend they are more crazy after the devices and affects their concentration and focus in their school works. The addiction of games may also make them get used to the sedentary lifestyles, and develop unhealthy lifestyle and poor time management and poor eating habits. Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. W.H.O. has defined adolescents as individuals aged between in 10-19 years. It is the most fertile and most vulnerable segment. Time management is of paramount importance, especially for the overall growth and development of adolescence. The study was conducted on 400 students in the age group of 10-19 years showed that adolescents spend more of the time in personal cleanliness, playing games and watching television. They did not spend any time meditation or remembering God, moral teachings, caring for old persons, and family, patriotic and national values. There is an imperative need to have a strong need based action programme at the level of – Family/Parents/Teachers in schools & community for guiding the adolescent regarding proper time management. Management means getting things done with optimal resources. It has been a very important tool in the present world to solve any problem to achieve any success or to have the maximum benefits after putting in minimum inputs. In the modern era time is very precious and its proper management of time is the key to success. Recently it has become even more important and complicated after the introduction of modern scientific techniques, gadgets, especially computers. Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. W.H.O. has defined adolescents as individuals aged between in 10-19 years. Not gold but men can make a Nation great & strong” and adolescent is the largest and most rapidly expanding segment of our country. It is the most fertile and most vulnerable segment. Need less to point out that time management is of paramount importance, especially for the overall growth and development of adolescence in our country. Children Spending Time with Gadgets Gadgets have taken the much cherished time and space which was meant for the parents. Children are hooked on to the gadgets and they have no time for other pursuits. Parents also regularly bring new gadgets for their children in keeping with the peer pressure and giving in to the demands. Should we pamper our children with gadgets? How to curb this menace? Read on. My son loves video games. He always wants the latest games as soon as possible. There is also a lot of peer pressure for him to get these gadgets. I feel I am spoiling him by getting him the gadgets he wants. Should I give in to him when he comes up with something new that he just must have? Today, children are a demanding lot. Every day there are more and more exciting gadgets to acquire. Mobile phones, video games, I pods, computers, music systems, there are newer models available by the day. Sometimes, by the time you get around purchasing something, it is already obsolete. In this scenario, how much should we pamper our children? Why Children Tend to Spend More Time with Gadgets? At the outset, as a working mother, you are probably already erring on the side of indulgence. Working mothers tend to feel guilty about their absence from home and are more likely to give in to their children’s demands. Giving in is also easier, since with a dual income, a home with working parents tends to have greater disposable income. Your son’s wants might not seem difficult initially, but be aware that as he grows, the things he craves will get bigger and more expensive. Should Working Mothers Get Gadgets for Kids? You need to ask yourself if your son really needs the new gadget he craves. Will the amount you spend on it make you uncomfortable? You will know in your gut whether your child should have the latest version of a video game. If you decide against buying the new gadget, you need to talk to him about why he should not have it. Compare the cost of that gadget to a poor man’s income. Put its cost into perspective for him. Ask him to buy it out of his own savings! How to Handle Peer Pressure in Case of Purchasing Gadgets? If it is peer pressure that is making him desire this new item, you need to have a long, hard look at his friends. It is natural that your son will have a need to be liked by his peers and fall in with their behaviour patterns. Ideally, his group should have a positive influence on him and should have values similar to his own. He should choose his friends wisely. It is very tough to stand up to peers. Your son will need your affection and guidance. It has been observed that those children who have either low self-esteem or low confidence are more likely to succumb to peer pressure. Therefore you need to build on his own confidence. It is extremely helpful if he develops personal interests outside of the group. How Does the Usage of Gadgets Affect Children? Sometime, we as parents fail to notice the impact the gadgets have on the development of the child. The child gets hooked on to the gadgets and hardly has time for other things in life. He fails to pursue his interests. Suddenly when these gadgets are taken away from them, they feel restless and irritated. Gadgets bring about behavioural changes in the child. The child prefers to be lonely but with his gadget. So what is the solution? Do we give in to the demands? How to Monitor Child’s Gadget Usage? It is high time now to monitor your child before it is too late. Giving in to demands sometimes is okay but there needs to be a good reason for it. The child should be monitored for the hours spent on gadgets and a time should be fixed for this. Giving in to peer pressure should also be avoided.The best option for you as a parent is to talk to him a lot so as to prevent him from feeling isolated. You could also encourage him make new friends. Let him enjoy the beauty and marvels of nature by taking him out on a picnic or for trekking. All of this takes time and patience. So just take it easy. You can prefer the above ways to make sure that the child is spending less time with gadgets. You can also introduce him to other things. Get him involved and interested in hobby classes so that his attention is diverted and his time is spent fruitfully. With that aspect in mind an attempt was made to carry out a cross section study through the medium of schools, in the adolescents. They were simply asked questions to describe their daily work schedule in relation to their life style and various routine activities If you’re like many mothers of tweens or teens, you probably often find yourself gazing at the faces of your beloved children — as those faces are bathed in the flickering light of the television or the cool glow of the computer. Observing their glassy-eyed stares, it’s hard not to wonder (and worry), What is this screen time doing to their development? We’ve all heard the recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics: just one to two hours a day of “quality” electronic entertainment for children over 2. Yeah, right. In 2010, a study in the American Journal of Epidemiology reported that most adolescents spend an average of 25 to 30 hours per week watching TV and using computers. And while half of parents surveyed in a 2010 study said they always or often set limits on screen time, 18 percent of their kids really disagreed. “It’s getting more complicated to measure how much screen time kids are getting,” notes Lisa Guernsey, author of Into the Minds of Babes, a book about children’s use of electronic media. “We’re no longer talking about the TV in the den that parents can turn off. These days, many teens and tweens have smartphones, laptops, tablets, and iPods that they carry with them.” When you add up the total time kids spend on their electronic devices, you arrive at a truly staggering number: The average American between the ages of 8 and 18 spends more than seven hours a day looking at a screen of some kind, reports a Kaiser Family Foundation study. “When we conducted a similar survey five years before, we thought children’s screen time couldn’t rise any higher,” says Donald F. Roberts, Ph.D., a Stanford University communications professor who coauthored the study. “But it just keeps going up and up.” Scientists are now beginning to tease out the effects of all this electronic engagement. Too much screen time may be linked to an increased incidence of risky behaviors, and more social network activity seems to correspond to mood problems among teens. But there’s good news, too. Moderate computer use may be associated with the development of some cognitive and social skills. Here, a closer look at the cons and then the pros of screen time. 👋 Hi! I’m your smart assistant Amy! Don’t know where to start? Type your requirements and I’ll connect you to an academic expert within 3 minutes.get help with your assignment

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IN 1972, ALEXANDER HAMILTON HELPED FOUND the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures and constructed the nation’s first industrial park at the Great Falls of New Jersey’s Passaic River. There, a succession of industries utilized the river’s energy to build everything from textiles to steel, Colt pistols to locomotives. These companies capitalized on nature. They depended on energy generated by the Passaic and saved money by dumping waste directly into the river. Externalizing natural resource costs led to lower prices and greater profits, at least for a time. Those companies have since vanished, but the steps they took to produce cheap goods left a lasting legacy; the river is now one of the most polluted waterways in America, transformed from a symbol of American entrepreneurial spirit into a Superfund site. Many Americans now buy their food from the same stores that sell them tube socks and lawn chairs, but cheap food comes at a cost, one that’s hidden from most consumers. Helping the public understand the consequences of their purchases is perhaps the greatest obstacle to mending our broken food system. Everything costs money. You pay at the checkout stand or you pay in other, more oblique ways. External costs are hard to see. In fact, sometimes they’re only visible to future generations. Just ask anyone living in central New Jersey. IN 1833, A BRITISH ECONOMIST NAMED WILLIAM FORSTER LLOYD introduced a principle: if a community shared a common resource like a pasture, and if farmers were motivated by self-interest, they’d prioritize their individual short-term needs over those of the group, grazing their animals as much as possible to get the maximum benefit from this shared resource until no grass remained. Nearly 150 years later, Dr. Garret Hardin further popularized a concept, which he termed the Tragedy of the Commons, saying, “an unmanaged commons in a world of limited material wealth and unlimited desires inevitably ends in ruin.” The same can be said for our food system. Basic economics teaches us that supply feeds demand, and that producers grow what consumers want. For the past fifty years, what consumers have wanted is increasingly cheaper food, and the food industry has proven staggeringly efficient in meeting that challenge. Not long ago, people spent nearly 30% of their disposable incomes on food. Today that number is under 10%. We’ve grown accustomed to markets that efficiently deliver goods at the cheapest price, but what if the “cheap” food we’re buying isn’t really cheap, but instead the trigger for long-term consequences consumers pay for elsewhere: to clean up waterways polluted by factories and agricultural runoff, to pay higher healthcare costs that treat uninsured workers, to pay taxes that support social services for workers who cannot afford to raise their families? When you add these health, social and environmental costs back into the price of cheap food … it suddenly isn’t so cheap after all. “At some point, we have to recognize that what we pay for food at the supermarket counter is not the true cost,” noted Fred Kirschenmann, Distinguished Fellow at the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture. “But determining the true cost of cheap food will be difficult given the food industry’s lack of transparency.” Dr. Garret Hardin might’ve called this conundrum the Tragedy of the Supermarket. We live in a world where two economies operate in parallel. The first is extractive. It depletes our natural resources for the sake of production, taking without giving back. Conventional agriculture would be an example of an extractive industry. Farmers who once grew for nutrition now grow for yields, planting commodity crops that depend on fertilizers and pesticides while using practices that deplete topsoil. The second type of economy is generative. In this economy, people work together to conserve and even generate new resources. They create, restore, and sustain. They build community. “That’s the future we’re moving toward,” Kirschenmann predicts. “We’ll probably go through a painful transition — some of us will continue to insist on using the extractive economy to enhance our own personal wealth — but when the ecosystem services of our natural communities and the social services of our communities can no longer support us, the world is going to become increasingly dysfunctional.” HOW DID CHICKEN COME TO BE CHEAPER, pound for pound, than bread? The answer has everything to do with how most chickens are now raised. In fact, the ubiquity of chicken as a relatively inexpensive global source of protein serves as an apt metaphor for the downfall of an industrial food system. Pasture-raised poultry lead healthy lives with ample time spent outside. When chickens are organic, their feed is grown without the use of synthetic pesticides. Factory-farmed poultry, on the other hand, are raised in intensely crowded conditions, usually inside warehouses. Their feed is made from crops, like corn, that depend on industrial farming practices whose pesticides and fertilizers degrade our biodiversity, soil, and water. Waste from factory-farmed poultry operations often pollute groundwater and waterways and contribute to aquatic dead zones. They can also emit huge amounts of ammonia into the atmosphere, which affects the air we breathe and contributes to climate change. Meanwhile, crowding poultry into warehouses increases the likelihood of sickness and infection, which often requires the use of preventive antibiotics. When humans eat industrially grown chickens, they can develop infections resistant to these very same antibiotics, which can lead to serious health problems. Our own taxes help support many of these farming practices through agricultural subsidies. When you add up all these hidden costs, cheaper chicken isn’t so cheap after all. Yet it isn’t so simple to place blame. Food producers are stuck in an economic system that only rewards companies that provide us food at the cheapest price. Walk down the aisle in any supermarket and you’ll find that this story repeats, from carrots to peas, milk to cheese. Even with breakfast cereal. Our food system has two prices: the one you pay now, and the one society collectively pays later. At some point we need to ask ourselves… Why do we support such a destructive system? As Patrick Holden, founding director of the UK’s Sustainable Food Trust, notes, “The food we eat is cheap because it’s a commodity grown in a completely rigged economic system. If you grow food in a way which exploits natural capital, diminishes soil fertility, causes emissions that lead to climate change, pulverize biodiversity, and causes rainforest destruction, you don’t pay for any of that damage. However, farmers who deliver positive benefits to health and the environment, create jobs, reduce emissions while building soil carbon, and produce food which coexists with biodiversity get no financial reward. How can consumers break up such a “rigged” food system? To start, they can become more aware of what things really cost. “Smart” shoppers reward themselves by looking for the best deal. When they see two similar products, they resort to purchasing decisions based on “value”, which they define as the cheapest price. What if “value” was defined not in terms of cost but in terms of human, social, or environmental values that benefit all of us and contribute to the world we want to see? With that in mind, the Sustainable Food Trust has defined six straightforward ways both consumers and producers can help build a more equitable, sustainable food system. rBST IS A SYNTHETIC GROWTH HORMONE used to increase milk production by dairy cows. A number of well-documented consequences of its use—ranging from increases in clinical mastitis to infertility in dairy cows exposed to these hormones—led a host of nations to ban its use, including Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, and all 27 member countries of the European Union. Today, the US is the lone remaining country in the developed world that still permits its sale. While the FDA maintains that “no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rbST-treated and non-rbST-treated cows,” consumers have already learned about rBST’s ill effects. They read news articles, noticed the strange term written on a milk carton, or overheard a conversation at a farmers’ market. In short, consumers became educated, upped their food literacy, and reached their own conclusions about which milk to buy. Want proof? Scan the refrigerated case at Costco, Safeway, Walmart, Kroger, Publix, and a hundred other supermarkets: you won’t find any milk made using rBST. Consumers learned a simple term, paid a little extra at the cash register, and shifted an entire industry through the power of words. “For decades consumers walked down the supermarket aisle, encountering brand after brand, only seeking out the ones they were loyal to,” observes Ken Cook, co-founder and president of Environmental Working Group. “What we’re seeing now is a different kind of habit-forming among consumers. They’re starting to ask questions. They don’t necessarily seek out their favorite brand. Instead, they consider other factors: ‘Didn’t I read somewhere that this food might lead to concerns about allergies in my family?’ ‘Didn’t I hear that if I buy this food I’m going to be contributing to pollution?’ When provided with tools and knowledge that demystify the food industry, consumers can make value-based choices that force industries to change their practices, just as we’ve seen with cage-free eggs, antibiotics in meat, and rBST milk. IN GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAINS, FOOD BUYERS base their purchasing decisions on finding the lowest price. To achieve profits within this model, producers concentrate on higher yields. Transactions in this “high yield / low cost” paradigm mostly happen against the backdrop of opaque (or blind) supply chains; buyers see commodities at low prices while any associated externalities that negatively impact livelihoods, the environment, the welfare of workers, and our climate remain hidden. If purchasers could identify the various costs associated with cleaning up polluted water, safeguarding the health of food chain workers toiling in dangerous conditions, or simply the economic losses felt by rural communities negatively impacted by the industrialized food system, our food would undeniably cost more, but how much more? True cost accounting represents an attempt to identify these external costs, then factor them into the price of food to make both food companies and consumers aware of the “long tail” that results from purchasing decisions based on a “high yield / low cost” model. It may also help to explain why a dozen eggs from pasture-raised chickens are closer in true price to a dozen eggs from a factory farm. Until true costs are made visible, getting consumers to pay more for real pastured eggs, organic produce, or grass-fed beef will remain a challenge. Unfortunately, the cost of data collection required to inform true cost accounting is prohibitive. In the interim, technology can help bridge this knowledge gap by linking otherwise discreet networks across supply chains. For instance, highly sophisticated remote sensing devices can track a wealth of data on food, moving from seed to field to harvest to truck to cold storage to truck to aggregator to truck to processor. This approach, generally referred to as blockchain, integrates data moving through multiple companies and their dedicated technology platforms to make food supply chains traceable. Unfortunately, determining who pays to build this data-integration infrastructure, install and maintain precious sensing devices, and determine who ultimately owns the information that’s captured remains a mystery. One benefit from assembling value chain awareness tools may be the increased literacy of food purchasers. By surfacing data on a wide range of subjects, from regenerative agriculture to biodiversity, equity to the circular economy, purchasers will be better equipped to ask suppliers the right questions, and reward producers who utilize more sustainable practices. By participating in a more connected market, producers will be empowered to deliver high quality goods at a fair price. They can therefore support both the communities where food is grown and the global marketplace. Additionally, by becoming a partner in a mutually beneficial value chain, food purchasers can source ingredients that champion a food system aligned with their values – even when ingredients come from halfway around the world. A connected market is a mindful market. Produced by Laura Howard-Gayeton Written, directed, illustrated, and narrated by Douglas Gayeton Edited and animated by Pier Giorgio Provenzano The series introduces viewers to the terms and principles that enable them to be more responsible, sustainably-minded consumers. For this series, we’ve worked closely with hundreds of thought leaders from every aspect of our food system to explain the real cost of cheap food, we’ve explored concepts like GMO and Organic, and we have discovered solutions to such challenges as food waste and seafood fraud. By learning these key principles, consumers can do their part to fix our food system. True Cost Accounting By considering all the external costs factored out of the cost of food, an economic principle called true cost accounting helps consumers understand the real cost of the food they buy. The Story of an Egg Can learning the meaning of a single term actually help change the food system? David Evans and Alexis Koefoed think so. These poultry farmers explain the real story behind such terms as “cage free, “free range” and “pasture raised” so that consumers can make informed decisions when they go to their local supermarket. Nearly 80% of the antibiotics in this country aren’t used on people. They’re used on animals, animals we eat. And most of them aren’t even sick. Bill and Nicolette Niman share their insights on the growing movement to remove sub-therapeutic antibiotics from American beef. A Tale of Two Chickens A short film for the Sustainable Food Trust that explains the real cost of cheap food by explaining what happens when you live in a world where bread is cheaper, by the pound, than chicken. Narrated by Nikki Silvestri. Hog Farms in Arkansas What happens when a factory hog farm that produces enough waste as a small town — with none of the waste management infrastructure costs — appears in a rural community in Arkansas? Agricultural Runoff in Iowa In 2015, the Des Moines Water Works, Iowa’s largest water utility, filed a lawsuit in federal court against upstream drainage districts in three counties, citing that for years fertilizer runoff on agricultural land had leached into local waterways and polluted the drinking water of nearly 500,000 Des Moines residents. The case was a test. Could a federal law, the Clean Water Act of 1972 and its provisions for safe drinking water (SDWA), be used at the local level to compel farmers to change their farming practices? Would the Environmental Protection Agency join the fight? Please share your comments and questions and get a response from a real person!

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As part of a transnational partnership between the Royal Agricultural University (RAU) and Shandong Agriculture University (SDAU) that pivoted to online elarning due to the global plandmeic, Lecturers delivered 45-minute interactive sessions to students using Zoom, the well-known video conferencing tool. Since June 2020, three successful online cohorts have taken place. It is fundamental to acknowledge the differences between teaching in a face-to-face and online capacity, that distance learning “…cannot be the same as teaching in a walled classroom” (Morris, 2021). A significant part of the transnational online pivot involved training staff on how to use Zoom effectiely for pedagogy. What about the students? In September 2021, a Lecturer reported that a student had disrupted the class by not putting the microphone on mute. Initially, this ‘pedagogical incident’ could be explained as showing a need for greater online classroom management and/or student behaviour. However, I asked myself, “Have we created an opportunity to support students on how to behave in an online classroom, have we assumed they know how to use Zoom?“. Perhaps the teacher-centrered approach needed to be transformed into a student-centred approach. As a result, four critical questions were asked 1.How can we support students to make the most of their interactive sessions in Zoom? 2. How do students know how to behave in an online classroom setting? 3. How do students know how to use Zoom? 4. How can we support students whose first language may not be English with technology-enhanced transnational learning (TETL?) Asking the four questions above, led to three further questions: 1.What is literacy? 2. What is Zoom Literacy? 3. When does knowing how do use a tool become literacy? Perhaps literacy “…has become a process of commodification in which literate learning is entangled with commodities” (Mills, 2015: p2). A strategy we explored was the use of breakout rooms in Zoom to facilitate an escape room. What is an escape room? Escape rooms (ERs) can be defined as “…live-action team-based games in which players encounter challenges in order to complete a mission in a limited amount of time” (Veldkamp, van de Grint, Knippels & van Jooingen, 2020). Escape rooms are nothing new. They are popular in education Sanchez & Plumettaz-Sieber, 2019 in Veldkamp, van de Grint, Knippels & van Jooingen, 2020). One of the core benefits of breakout rooms is that the “allow[s] groups of one or more participants to break out into any number of smaller Zoom meetings from within the initial Zoom meeting (Stanford University Teaching Commons, n.d.). It can be argued that an escape room is a type of game. Embedding gamification is also nothing new in education. There are a number of advantages to using games, for example, games can provide an opportunity to “increase both engagement and motivation” (Kim, Song, Lockee & Burton, 2018: p5). In 2021, a presentation was delivered at the University of Kent Digitally Enhanced Education Webinars entitled Indiana Jones and the Temple of Zoom. A Transnational Online Pivot Adventure which explored the idea of online classrooms being like ‘digital temples’ and Learning Technologists like ‘Digital Archaeologists’. This blog post is a development of this as the next transnational adventure. In the film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Indiana Jones faces a series of ‘tombs’ that he needs to break out of by solving problems. From the ‘Temple of Zoom’ to the ‘Breakout Tomb’. In our escape room, students are faced with different situations that they may face in an interactive session in Zoom. A PowerPoint file with animated content was shared to created a multimodal experience. Students need to answer the questions correctly using chat and find the code to ‘escape’. A password-protected blog post was created. Once students escaped, they could download a digital badge and had an opportunity to access a Microsoft Form to evaluate their escape room experience. In October 2021, a presentation was delivered at CARNival, an event entitled Raised Voices: Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN) Online Conference, 2021 to discuss the escape room approach in the transnational context. In terms of what Zoom Literacy could be, perhaps it could be made up of different dimensions of practice. For example, using non-verbal feedback or agile stationary could be a form of artifactual literacy which can be defined as an approach that “…examines objects and their meanings in everyday life and also acknowledges the situated nature of texts in places and communities” (Pahl & Rowsell, 2011: p130). What is important to note is that “Some stories are more powerful than others in that they are more visible” (Pahl & Rowsell, 2011: p129). Zoom is not immune from digital inequalities. From Teaching to Transgress to Technology to Transgress & Progress (hooks, 1994). It is important that we must not view the online classroom as a digital “mini-kingdom” with unequal power relationships, particularly if the online classroom is designed to be an interactive environment (hooks,1994: p17). If it is true that “every object tells a story”, then every online classroom has a narrative too (Pahl & Rowsell, 2010). Perhaps one aspect of the narrative was the Chinese character transforming the escape room into an opportunity for into digital storytelling. Curating the virtual support presence – It is a good idea to adopt a team teaching approach. More than one Lecturer/Learning Technologist provides the students with more support and workload can be shared e.g. one person shares screen while the other monitors the chat. Planning for breakout rooms or ‘tombs‘ – Breakout rooms need to be planned in advance either by pre-assignment with student emails or in a manual capacity. If the group has a large number of students, then manual breakout rooms can be the best approach in a synchronous capacity. Second language awareness – creating a document with core vocabulary and phrases to support students with understanding, particularly if the topic involves specialist terms of reference. Involve students in the development of their own Zoom Literacies – create an ice breaker activity proving students an opportunity to decide their on ground rules and expected behaviours in online settings. Be open to exploring a range of tools and approaches – another interesting tool is Twine “…an open-source tool for telling interactive, nonlinear stories” (Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation, n.d. ). Could students co-create collborative and interactive fiction? Agile Stationary (2021) (Online) Available at: https://agilestationery.com/ [Accessed 11 September 2021] Alice Veldkamp, Liesbeth van de Grint, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Wouter R. van Joolingen (2020) Escape education: A systematic review on escape rooms in education in Educational Research Review, Volume 31, 100364 (Online) Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1747938X20300531 [Accessed 11 September 2021] Dundee & Angus Convention Bureau (n.d.) Raised Voices: Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN) Online Conference, 2021 (Online) Available at: https://www.conventiondundeeandangus.co.uk/attending/conferences/carnival–raised-voices-collaborative-action-research-network-carn-online-conference-2021 [Accessed 11 September 2021] hooks, B (1994) Teaching to Transgress Education as the Practice of Freedom (Oxon & New York: Routledge) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. 1984 [film]. Steven Spielberg. dir. Paramonun Pictures & Lucasfilm Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation (n.d.) Twine (Online) Available at: https://twinery.org/ [Accessed 24 September 2021] Kim, S, Song, K, Lockee, B & Burton, J (2018) Gamification in Learning and Education Enjoy Learning Like Gaming? (Switzerland: Springer International Education) Mills, K, A (2015) Literacy Theories for the Digital Age: Social, Critical, Multimodal, Spatial, Material and Sensory Lenses (New Perspectives on Language and Education (Bristol, Buffalo & Toronto: Multilingual Matters) Morris, S (2021) Humanizing Digital Pedagogy: the Role of Imagination in Distance Teaching. https://www.seanmichaelmorris.com/. Digital Pedagogy Blog [blog] Available at: https://www.seanmichaelmorris.com/humanizing-digital-pedagogy-the-role-of-imagination-in-distance-teaching/amp/ [Accessed 3 March 2021] Pahl, J & Rowsell J (2010) Artifactual Literacies: Every Object Tells a Story (Language and Literacy Series) (Amsterdam & New York: Teachers College Press) Pahl, K & Rowsell, J (2011) Artifactual Critical Literacy: A New Perspective for Literacy in Berkeley Review of Education, 2(2) (Online) Availbale at: Education https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6s0491j5 Stanford University Teaching Commons (n.d.) Successful Breakout Rooms in Zoom (Online) Available at: https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/news/successful-breakout-rooms-zoom [Accessed 11 September 2021] Thoretton, M, Leonard A-L, Mathieu, Maria (2015) Historic Tale Construction Kit (Online) Available at: https://htck.github.io/bayeux/#!/ [Accessed 30 September 2021] Zoom Video Communications (2021) Non verbal feedback and meeting reactions (Online) Available at:https://support.zoom.us/hc/en-us/articles/115001286183-Nonverbal-Feedback-During-Meetings [Accessed 11 September 2021]

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From an operational standpoint the Central Pacific Railroad (CP) disappeared long ago and existed as a separate corporate entity only briefly before joining the Southern Pacific. However, it holds an important place in American history by helping establish the Transcontinental Railroad in conjunction with the Union Pacific. When the two railroads met at Promontory Summit, Utah on May 10, 1869 the country was finally linked with ribbons of steel, thus opening the West to commerce, trade, and settlement. This story is a fascinating tale of extreme hardship, determination, and virtually impossible odds. The project was similar to reaching the moon a century later; no one believed it could be done until it actually happened. What's more, these men did it in a mere six years, hacking out new rights-of-way by hand. To read more about this arduous journey please click here for an article regarding the Transcontinental Railroad. In many ways, Central Pacific's endeavor was the more difficult as it had to build through the formidable Sierra Nevada Mountains. One man knew it could be done, Theodore D. Judah, although he would fail to see "his" railroad completed. Today, the route he chose remains in general use under successor Union Pacific. The idea for what became the Transcontinental Railroad began long before the Civil War's outbreak. According to the book, "The Northern Pacific, Main Street Of The Northwest: A Pictorial History" by author and historian Charles R. Wood in the spring of 1853 Secretary of War Jefferson Davis (who later became president of the Confederate States of America) dispatched survey crews west of the Mississippi River in an effort to find suitable corridors to the Pacific Coast. There were a total of eight different options put forth running various parallels from north to south. However, with the ongoing issue of slavery Congress could not decide on which. That all changed when Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States on November 6, 1860. Southern states immediately began to secede, starting with South Carolina on December 20, 1860. As a result, Northern congressmen and senators had the freedom to choose whichever route the wished and settled upon the central option. This corridor had originally been conceived by noted engineer Greenville Dodge who believed departing from Omaha, Nebraska Territory was the most logical given its gentle grades along the Platte River nearly all the way into Colorado/Wyoming. From there, a meeting point with the Central Pacific would be established somewhere between Utah Territory and the Nevada/California state line. Collis P. Huntington, Railroad Promoter And Part Of The Central Pacific's "Big Four" Leland Stanford, Central Pacific Financier And Part Of The "Big Four" Mark Hopkins, Last Member Of The Central Pacific's "Big Four" The Pacific Railroad Act was passed through Congress during the spring of 1862 (the House passed the bill on May 6th by a 79-49 margin while the Senate did the same on June 20th by a 35-5 margin) and signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 1st. This legislation officially called for the creation of the aforementioned Union Pacific and provided the already-chartered Central Pacific (CP) with land grants and subsidies. In his book detailing the Transcontinental Railroad's construction, "The Men Who Built The Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869: Nothing Like It In The World," author Stephen Ambrose points out the Central Pacific would likely never have existed without the tireless efforts of Theodore Judah. While the so-called "Big Four" (Collis P. Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Leland Stanford, and Charles Crocker) are credited with financing and constructing the CP, Judah laid the groundwork. As early as 1859 he began lobbying Congress to fund a railroad over the Sierra Nevada's Donner Pass, the only natural passageway through this otherwise impenetrable granite wall. Congress, even then, was excruciatingly slow at accomplishing anything and initially Judah struggled to make headway. He finally caught a break in 1860 when he opened what was dubbed the "Pacific Railroad Museum" inside the Capitol building to promote the venture. It was unveiled to the public on January 14th that year. Not surprisingly there were many doubters and Judah was severely handicapped by not having the necessary survey maps and charts to convince naysayers. He wasted little time correcting this wrong and immediately sailed back to California with wife, Anna, and set about surveying the route on his own. It crossed the only natural passageway through the Sierras, Donner Pass, at an elevation of 7,056 feet and covered a total of 115 miles from the San Francisco Bay to Nevada state line. While in San Francisco he wrote up a lose incorporation for the "Central Pacific Railroad Company of California" on November 1, 1860 but finding no support in that town traveled to nearby Sacramento. There, he found four local business owners eager and willing for just such a railroad; Charles Crocker, Collis P. Huntington, Mark Hopkins, and Leland Stanford. With their monetary backing the group officially incorporated the Central Pacific Railroad of California on June 28, 1861. It was directed to "construct a railroad and telegraph line from the Pacific coast, at or near San Francisco, or the navigable waters of the Sacramento River, to the eastern boundary of California." With the passage of the Pacific Railroad Act the CP adopted the agreement on October 7th and formally accepted it through the Department of the Interior on December 24th. To aid in their efforts, Central Pacific was provided ten alternate sections in government land grants for each mile of track laid (or roughly 6,000 acres). According to the book, "Union Pacific Railroad," by historians Joe Welsh and Kevin Holland, an amended Pacific Railroad Act of 1864 increased this figure to twenty alternate sections (or around 12,000 acres for every mile completed). Additionally, there were federal loans varying from $16,000 to $48,000 per mile, depending on the topography's ruggedness. As part of the deal, CP was required to complete 50 miles within its first two years, 50 miles each year thereafter, and be completed entirely by July 1, 1876 or lose its rights to these incentives. In John Stover's book, "The Routledge Historical Atlas Of The American Railroads," the author notes that between 1850 and 1871 the U.S. government offered railroads 170 million acres of land to construct 80 different projects. Over this time about 131 million acres were actually used, which constituted 18,738 miles of new lines. The Central Pacific scheme was made more difficult by the simple issue of keeping the enterprise properly supplied with materials. Whereas Union Pacific could simply deliver rails, tie-plates, spikes, and other needed products right no site this wasn't possible at CP aside from wooden ties which could be hacked out of local forests. Such things, which also included cars and locomotives, had to be transported in ocean-going vessels all of the way around South America's Cape Horn to reach California. According to the book, "Railroads In The Days Of Steam," the arduous journey covered roughly 15,000 miles. This issue was resolved by Huntington; for his many faults he kept ships, sometimes dozens at a time, regularly dispatched to the west coast. CP's groundbreaking took place on January 8, 1863 at K Street in Sacramento along the Sacramento River waterfront. Despite the great anticipation brought about by this event, behind the scenes a great tug-of-war ensued between Judah and the "Big Four." He was highly critical of their leadership and disliked everything they did, from managerial decisions to monetary expenditures. Eventually, the "Big Four" were successful in pushing out their chief engineer (who also sat on the board). In a last-ditch attempt to save what he fervently believed to be "his" railroad, Judah sailed to New York City on October 3, 1863 hoping to find a financial backer who could buy out Stanford, Huntington, Leland, and Crocker. That person turned out to be none other than Cornelius Commodore Vanderbilt, the noted tycoon who was piecing together what later became the powerful New York Central System. It is unclear how truly interested the Commodore ever was in Judah's undertaking but, regardless, nothing came of it. During his trip the engineer came down with a fever and died in New York on November 2, 1863. Afterwards, the project continued to languish for months until, finally, the first section from the waterfront to nearby 21st Street in Sacramento was completed on October 26, 1863. Just a few weeks later on November 10th, CP's first locomotive, the 46-ton, 4-4-0 Governor Stanford (an 1862 product of the Norris Locomotive Works, this machine is preserved today at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento), made its first run over this trackage. Brian Solomon points out in his book, "Southern Pacific Railroad," the CP initially received little funding from the successful "Big Four" and by 1865 had just 35 miles opened to Auburn. Afterwards, the pace quickened and they eventually did contribute a substantial percentage of their personal wealth to the project. To help speed construction through the Sierras more than 14,000 Chinese immigrants were hired. With few mechanical devices then-available all grading, tunneling, fills, bridge components, and other aspects required were built by hand. In July of 1867 rails reached the summit of Donner Pass but the work was slow, tedious, and extremely difficult. This was made all the more problematic by several bad winters that decade. The right-of-way roughly followed the North Fork of the American River as it passed through Colfax, Dutch Flat, and Emigrant Gap before reaching Summit Tunnel (tunnel #6) near present-day Norden. As its name implied, this bore was right at the summit of Donner Pass and the longest of the fifteen bores needed to scale the mountains (excluding snow sheds); it was 1,659 feet in length, as deep as 124 feet, and required a year to complete (August, 1867). It sat a 7,042 feet above sea-level and was been blasted out of the mountain using nothing more than picks, shovels, black powder, nitroglycerin, and considerable sweat and blood. It had so delayed work that grading crews pushed ahead into Nevada months. Once the tunnel was finally finished, crews raced across northern Nevada, following the Humboldt River part of the way. The project then entered Utah where a famous feat of railroading has never since been duplicated. As Earl Heath describes the story in an article from the January, 1943 issue of Trains Magazine entitled "Track-Laying Extravaganza," Charles Crocker bet Thomas C. Durant (Union Pacific's vice president and general manager) that his crews could lay 10 miles of track in a single day. CP's end-of-track was then at Corinne, Utah, just 14 miles from the agreed-upon meeting point, Promontory Summit. The attempt was first made on April 27, 1869 but two miles into the race a locomotive derailed. So, they tried again the next day. A 7:15 AM the following morning crews of Irish, African-American, Chinese, Native American, Mexican, French Indiana, and other European backgrounds set out to achieve the impossible. Despite individual rails weighing upwards of 560 pounds the men began moving so fast they were laying down nearly one new mile every hour! When the work concluded at 7 PM that evening they had laid 10 miles and an additional 56 feet of new railroad. The work was of such high quality a locomotive operated over the new track at 40 mph! Interestingly, Mr. Ambrose's book notes that as far as anyone knows, Durant never paid the $10,000 bet. Finally, amid a large, staged event during a major ceremony the railroads met at Promontory Summit, Utah took on May 10, 1869. Numerous photos were taken, many now quite famous, depicting Central Pacific 4-4-0 #60, "The Jupiter," and Union Pacific 4-4-0 #119 facing coupler-to-coupler and surrounded by large crowds. Interestingly, Central Pacific's role in the annals of history more or less fades away following this milestone in American history. One of the last notable projects it completed as an independent system was reaching Oakland/San Francisco. As an arm of the "Big Four" the Central Pacific became part of their much larger plans and was swept up into the new Southern Pacific (via lease) on April 1, 1885. It subsequently remained a corporate entity until June 30, 1959 when the fabled corporation was finally dissolved. While improvements and other upgrades to the original Donner Pass alignment have taken place over the years much of CP's original line remains in use under successor Union Pacific today.

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With icy conditions, slick surfaces and freezing temperatures, technological innovation is especially important for the athletes and organizers of the Winter Olympics. From an all-weather torch to a souped-up bobsled, check out some of the many inventions the Games have inspired. An All-Weather Torch For the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, the National Research Council of Canada developed a special Olympic torch for that year’s relay (a tradition since 1936). It resembled Calgary’s most recognizable landmark, the Calgary Tower, and bore the Olympic motto, “Faster, Higher, Stronger.” Designed to be especially lightweight, the torch was powered by a special fuel in order to ensure that the flame would stay lit in all weather conditions during the 88-day, 18,000-kilometer trip across Canada. Wind Tunnel Testing When the difference between winning and losing an Olympic medal comes down to hundredths of a second, it’s all about aerodynamics. Canadian speed skaters like Catriona LeMay Doan (a 2002 gold medalist in Salt Lake City) used a 2- by 3-meter wind tunnel developed by Canada’s National Research Council to test the aerodynamic capability of their racing suits. When Canada’s alpine racing team–dubbed “the Crazy Canucks”–dominated the sport in the late 1970s, skier Steve Podborski used a wind tunnel to test his equipment; he won the 1980 bronze medal at Lake Placid. The Triumph of the Metal Ski In 1950, American engineer Howard Head introduced an aluminum-alloy ski that made turning much easier for recreational skiers. Emile Allais, a former world champion skier from France, used his knowledge of Head’s advances to design a riveted aluminum ski for Rossignol. At the Squaw Valley Winter Olympics in 1960, Frenchman Jean Vuarnet won the downhill gold medal on Allais’ ski, and the metal ski gained instant credibility among world-class racers, coaches and dealers. Head kept working on his ski in order to reduce vibrations in the metal, and earned international respect when the Swiss national team began using Head skis in 1963. Introducing Large Ski Boots Fed up with traditional leather skiing boots, Bob Lange of Dubuque, Iowa wanted to create a boot that would make things easier for amateur skiers like himself. In 1963, he introduced Lange ski boots, the first fiberglass boots with lace closures. Incorporating advice from the Canadian National Ski Team, Lange improved his boot and made it good enough for racers. At the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, five gold medals were won in Lange boots, and the company went on to dominate the ski equipment industry. Instant Video Replay Debuts in Olympic Figure Skating At Salt Lake City in 2002, instant video replay technology made its debut in Olympic figure skating. That year’s scandal involving judging misconduct in the pairs skating competition led to the replacement of the traditional 6.0 scale with the less subjective International Judging System (IJS). Under the new system, a “technical specialist” uses instant replay to identify and evaluate each skating element (for example, the exact foot position in takeoff and landing of a jump). Judges then review (if necessary) the video to confirm the technical analysis and come up with a final score. The Arrival of the Zamboni The 1960 Winter Games at Squaw Valley, California saw the first Olympic use of the ice resurfacing machines invented and produced by Frank Zamboni. After creating the ice resurfacer for his family-owned rink in 1949, Zamboni gained great exposure in the early ’50s, when Olympic champion skater Sonja Henie bought a machine to travel with her. Zamboni’s invention–still the standard for ice resurfacing machines–was able to shave a surface of ice, remove the ice shavings and wash the ice to create a perfect slick surface for Olympic skaters and hockey stars to strut their stuff. Luge Star Gains Edge with Aerodynamic Footwear Georg Hackl of Germany won a silver medal in his Olympic debut in Calgary, then went on to win gold in 1992, 1994 and 1998. In Nagano, Hackl turned heads with new aerodynamic yellow booties, drawing protests from the Canadian and American luge teams. Before the Salt Lake City Games–where he would attempt to become the first Winter Olympian to win four consecutive gold medals–Hackl teamed with chassis and aerodynamics specialists from German automaker Porsche to design a better, faster sled to aid him in his quest. This special sled proved not to be quite enough, as Hackl finished second to Italy’s Armin Zoeggeler. Recommended for you Revamped Clap Skate Leads to Faster Times At Nagano in 1998, 18 speed skaters beat the old Olympic record (set in 1994 by U.S. skater Dan Jansen) for the men’s 1,000-meter event. Their secret? Clap skates, a revamped version of an old skate with a hinge that connected blade to boot and allowed for more speed. Dutch skaters–who drove the clap-skate resurgence and won gold and silver in the 1,000-meters that year–also attached adhesive rubberized strips to their racing suits in order to cut down on wind resistance, a bit of new technology approved by the International Skating Union only the week before the Nagano Games started. The Games in Living Color The connection between the Olympic Games and television began with the 1960 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, when CBS paid just $50,000 for broadcasting rights. The 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France, were the first Winter Games to be broadcast in color. (The opening ceremonies of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo appeared in color, but little of the rest of the events.) From Grenoble, ABC also provided the most extensive satellite coverage of any Olympics yet, including some live daytime coverage and the rest same-day coverage. Artificial Ice Transforms Bobsleigh Event The 1964 Winter Games at Innsbruck, Austria marked the first time that artificial ice was used to construct the track for the Olympic bobsleigh event. The sport of bobsleigh, which began as a leisure activity for the rich, truly began its transition into an elite sport in the 1950s, when a key rule change limited the total weight of crew and sled. The transition from natural ice tracks to artificial ice (as well as the use of high-tech fiberglass and steel sleds) have made bobsleigh conditions more controllable and eliminated much of the danger that characterized early competitions. Instant Replay is Born During the men’s slalom skiing event at the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California, officials were uncertain whether one of the skiers had missed a gate. They turned to members of the CBS television team and asked if they could review a videotape of the race to confirm what had happened, inspiring CBS to invent the now-widespread “instant replay.” The Squaw Valley Games were the first Olympics to be televised–CBS paid $50,000 for the U.S. broadcasting rights–and the first to use computers to tabulate event results. Advances in Olympic Timing Technology At the 1948 Winter Games in St. Moritz, Swiss watchmaker Omega first used its cellular photoelectric eye to measure timing in Olympic events such as skiing; it was water-resistant and used infrared technology that was immune to the effect of the sun’s reflection. In 1980 at Lake Placid, Omega’s Game-O-Matic technology revolutionized the timing of alpine skiing by immediately calculating and displaying a skier’s current ranking as soon as he crossed the finish line. In Albertville in 1992, Omega introduced their Scan-O-Vision photo-finish system, which digitally measured time to the nearest one-thousandth of a second. Canada’s Super-Powered Snowboards Just in time for the Vancouver Winter Olympics, Canada’s snowboarders are getting new boards, developed by Apex Composites through Own The Podium, a program aimed at helping Canada become the top medal-winning nation in 2010. Carbon-fiber composite plates set between the new board and its bindings reportedly allow athletes to be more “in touch” with the snow and make cleaner turns, among other benefits. With faster-than-ever times leading up to the Games–including World Cup victories in all three men’s races, with six medals overall–Canada’s snowboard alpine team is hoping to bring home some hardware in Vancouver. Automatic Starting Gates Debut in Olympic Skiing The 1956 Winter Games in Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy saw the Olympic debut of starting gates in alpine skiing events. Before that time, timekeeping had been a relatively simple affair involving two synchronized stopwatches, one at the start and one at the finish. The new starting gates used an acoustic sound (buzzer) and optical signal–similar to a traffic light, it changed from red to orange to green–to automatically trigger the official start time, and skiers were required to set off between a half-second before and one second after the acoustic signal. Making Snow at the Olympics Over the years, warm weather has threatened more than one well-planned Winter Olympic Games. (Faced with a lack of snow in Innsbruck in 1964, the Austrian police carved out mountain ice to build luge and bobsleigh tracks and carried 40,000 cubic meters of snow to form the alpine ski slopes.) The 1980 Winter Games in Lake Placid saw the first Olympic use of machines to make artificial snow, in order to guarantee favorable conditions for all events. Artificial snow proved more resilient than natural snow, and held up better in rainy or warm weather. To prepare for the 2010 Games, Vancouver organizers used state-of-the-art equipment to turn 95.3 million liters of water into snow, then stockpiled it in nearby mountains (along with piles of natural snow) in order to have it on reserve. The Biathalon Goes Wireless In the Winter Olympic sport of biathlon, a combination of cross-country skiing and rifle shooting, athletes count on the calculation of “split times”–how long it takes them to complete a short section of the race course–to find out where they stand in the race and help coaches strategize. Coaches used to take these calculations manually, by stopwatch. But in the Salt Lake City Games in 2002, the biathlon went wireless: Splits were beamed from a transponder strapped to an athlete’s ankle (similar to those used by marathon runners in the Summer Olympics) to a coach’s computer, where software instantly determined the split time.

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- Constipation in cats is rarely serious, but some cases require veterinary attention. - Kidney disease, obesity, or poor nutrition could play a role in constipation. - Most cases of cat constipation are mild and can be managed with outpatient care. - In more severe cases, surgery or hospitalization may be required. - Plenty of water, a healthy weight, and a high-quality diet can help prevent cat constipation. Even the most adorable pets require some dirty work, and when it comes to cats, that dirty work includes keeping the litter box clean. Scooping poop is by no means a pleasant task, but the state of your cat’s litter box can provide insight into his health. For example, you might notice that there isn’t anything to scoop for several days, which could mean that your cat is constipated. Yes, like people, cats can get constipated. While most cases of cat constipation aren’t particularly serious, there are times where the condition requires veterinary attention. Here’s everything you need to know at cat constipation, including causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention. What is Cat Constipation? If your cat is constipated, it means he isn’t pooping regularly or he’s having difficulty emptying his bowels. Cats typically defecate one to three times per day, so if you notice that it’s been more than a day or two since new poop has appeared in the litter box, it’s time to start really watching your cat’s bathroom habits for further symptoms. A cat who occasionally goes a day or two without defecating shouldn’t cause much worry, but if the lack of feces is ongoing and you start noticing further symptoms—like your cat straining to go without success or crying as he uses the litter box—it could indicate that a bowel obstruction has become severely impacted and that it’s time to visit your veterinarian (1). In extreme cases, untreated constipation can be fatal. Causes of Constipation in Cats Feline constipation is usually idiopathic, meaning there is no identifiable cause, says Dr. Karlin Erk, an emergency veterinarian at The Center for Animal Referral and Emergency Services in Langhorne, Pennsylvania. “However, there are certainly factors that can contribute to constipation, including disease and nutrition,” he says. For example, constipation is common in older cats with chronic kidney disease. “The kidney insufficiency causes subclinical dehydration, and this draws water out of the colon just like all other tissues in the body,” Erk says. “The result is hard and dry fecal material that is harder to excrete.” Obesity can also play a role in constipation. A 2019 study of 189 cats admitted to veterinary emergency rooms found that older, overweight cats with chronic kidney disease or previous episodes of constipation were more likely to be constipated (2). Improper nutrition, prior pelvic fractures, and megacolon (a pathologic distention of the colon) can also contribute to cat constipation, Erk says. Other possible causes of cat constipation include traumatic injury, infection, adverse reaction to medication, lack of access to drinking water, intestinal tumors, neurologic disease, and metabolic abnormalities (1). Cat Constipation Symptoms If you think your cat might be constipated, there are symptoms you can observe. Straining to defecate and pain while defecating are the most common signs of constipation, Erk says. Other cat constipation symptoms may include: - Fecal material that is hard, dry, or abnormally large - Small amounts of diarrhea (a cat can pass liquid around an impacted mass, but not the mass itself) - Blood in stool - Loss of appetite - Litter box aversion Diagnosing Constipation in Cats If it’s been more than a couple of days since you’ve scooped fresh poop from your cat’s litter box, or if you’ve seen other signs of constipation, it’s time to visit the veterinarian for an official diagnosis. Constipation is usually diagnosed through a combination of the cat’s history and clinical signs, a thorough physical and rectal exam, and X-rays, Erk says. Your veterinarian may also feel your cat’s abdomen to determine whether the colon contains hard stool. Diagnosis may also include blood tests, ultrasounds, and urinalysis to rule out a urinary tract infection—a condition that often presents like constipation, but is much more dangerous, especially for male cats (1). Cat Constipation Treatment Luckily, most cases of cat constipation are mild and can be managed with outpatient care. “This includes the administration of an enema, subcutaneous fluids (fluids given under the skin), changes in diet, and stool softeners,” Erk says. These treatments are relatively inexpensive, he says. Unfortunately, more serious cases often require hospitalization. “At this point, the cat would be given intravenous fluids and anesthesia for manual removal of the impacted fecal material,” Erk describes. In the most severe cases, the colon can be irreversibly distended and damaged, which would require surgical intervention. Though some pet parents might think that a belly massage could help break up a blockage, Dr. Sarah Wallace, a veterinarian based in Washington, D.C., says that this is not the case and a cat constipation massage should never be attempted. “We can feel if there are feces in the intestines causing a blockage, but we never want to massage that area,” she says. “It doesn’t break things up or get them moving. Imagine a rock is in your intestines. If you start massaging it, it’s just going to rub against the sides of intestines around it, causing more discomfort and not solving anything.” Common Medications for Cat Constipation Medications that veterinarians rely on when treating cat constipation include lactulose, a non-digestible synthetic sugar that acts as a stool softener. “Lactulose works by pulling water into the intestines, which makes it easier for things to move,” Wallace explains. Another is Miralax, an over-the-counter laxative and stool softener. Miralax is available in a powder, which Wallace says works much like lactulose. Though pet parents may be able to get Miralax over the counter, Wallace asserts that they should not administer it before consulting with a veterinarian. Cost of Treatment The cost of treating constipation varies, depending on the diagnosis and which course of treatment is chosen, as well as geographic location. “For less severe cases, which require an exam and maybe some medications, fluids, or an enema, I’d estimate between $400 and $500,” Wallace says. “In instances where it’s been about a week since the cat has defecated and is severely dehydrated, treatment could require a laxative and anesthesia so that the veterinarian can manually remove stuck fecal matter, as well as fluids. Any procedure with anesthesia is going to be pricier—in the $700 to $1,200 range.” In some cases, procedures will need to be repeated to ensure the cat’s system is clear, meaning that costs can stack up pretty quickly, Wallace adds. She also says that surgical intervention for a distended colon would be between $5,000 and $6,000. Home Remedies for Cat Constipation Home remedies, like stool softeners and changes in diet, may relieve cat constipation, but like Wallace mentions above, Erk cautions that pet parents should never administer home remedies before checking in with their veterinarian. “Cat owners should always have their pet evaluated before trying any home remedies, specifically because of the risks of delaying appropriate care or mistaking constipation for other potentially life threatening situations, like a urinary blockage,” he says. Wallace says that the best thing that cat parents can do at home to combat constipation is to ensure their cat is drinking enough water. “The number one thing I recommend to patients is a kitty water fountain,” she says. “Cats like drinking running water better than still water.” If that doesn’t work, or a water fountain isn’t in your budget, Wallace also suggests adding either low-sodium chicken broth or a bit of tuna juice to your cat’s water. “It flavors it and they’ll drink more because it tastes good,” she explains. Another remedy Wallace mentions is psyllium powder—a soluble fiber that can be added to a cat’s food as either a powder or a liquid. She also says that adding pumpkin to your cat’s food may help with constipation, as it adds both fiber and moisture. However, it’s not a given that your cat will actually eat it. “They have to like pumpkin, and we know that cats don’t eat anything they don’t like.” Wallace adds that exercise can also help get things moving, but only if the constipation isn’t too severe. How to Prevent Constipation in Cats While nothing is 100 percent preventable—especially when it comes to the notoriously unpredictable creatures that are cats—there are steps that pet parents can take to minimize the chance of their cat becoming constipated. “Preventing obesity and feeding a high quality commercial diet are most important,” Erk says. Wallace concurs, adding that exercise is key to helping a cat maintain a healthy weight, which helps prevent constipation. Increasing the amount of fiber in your cat’s diet can also boost the production of short-chain fatty acids, which stimulate colonic smooth muscle contraction, noted Dr. Susan Little while speaking at the World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings in 2011 (3). That being said, diets high in fiber can increase the amount of feces a cat produces, which can be counterproductive to decreasing constipation. She recommends a canned food diet, to ensure the cat is getting enough hydration. There is no one-size-fits-all solution, though. Your veterinarian can help determine the best diet for your cat. As previously mentioned, cats with untreated constipation may develop a megacolon, that is, a colon that is permanently distended and does not function properly. While megacolons are usually the result of constipation, it could be a congenital condition (4). Urinary blockages can sometimes present with similar symptoms as constipation, such as straining and vocalizing in the litter box. These are extremely dangerous for cats—especially male cats—and should be treated by a veterinarian immediately. Don’t miss the next pet food recall! Stay up to date with pet-related recalls and alerts so you can help keep your dog or cat safe.

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By Taniya Gaines As citizens we are electing leaders to have control of our lives and future generations to come. Voting is one of the most important rights and responsibilities we have as citizens of The United States. It took centuries for women, African-Americans, and others to finally get the right to vote. Here at East students were able to vote in our mock-election to learn/elect different candidates for our local/state government. Mr. Jason Taylor holds the mock-election at East. “I held the Mock Election because I wanted students to learn what it's like to participate in the electoral political process. Waiting until students turn 18 in order to teach about politics and voting is too late,” said Taylor. This is why we need more young people and minorities to vote. Young people are the future and we tend to be more creative and open-minded when it comes to making changes for society. There have been many systems put in place to keep minorities from voting, but they can’t let that stop them. Young voters need to educate themselves on political issues instead of not voting because they feel like their vote doesn’t matter. By voting you are allowing your voice to be heard. As young voters we account for 50% of the voting population but if only 20% are voting, a change will not happen. Fight against the odds and let your voice be heard! By Hana Nakayama The Intro to Music Technology class performed their first ever Electronic Music Showcase on Friday, November 2nd. Student wrote their own original electronic music and then played it for visitors during the showcase. Senior Khivon Manning reflects on his inspiration. He states, “I want something that I would listen to. I would listen to something I would like.” Fellow classmate Kameron Miles is excited about the class and thinks there are many benefits. He says, ““You get to let your creativity run wild.” Music teacher Mr. Weber teaches this new class and says, “It supports the needs of students who didn’t have the opportunities to be in music or band or didn’t know how to play an instrument. Also there were not that many electives offered. This class lets the students display their work and creativity.” This showcase allowed students to share their original compositions with guests, and play music that truly reflected their personalities and style. If you wish to know more about this class go to Mr. Weber’s room, A114 to find out more information. By Wilson Rivera East High School students plan to help out homeless teens in Rochester on November 16. To help out these teenagers The National Honor Society and the Lighthouse Committee, with help from The Center of Youth, is planning a “Sleep Out Rochester” event. Ms. Courtney, chemistry teacher and National Honor Society advisor explains why this project is important. She said, “It’s important because I know for a fact I had students who were homeless, and other students here could find themselves in that situation. So I think it’s important for us all to develop and awareness about the issue and the resources available to help.” From Wednesday November 7 through Friday November 16, there will be collection boxes in the main office and by scanning to drop off donations for things such as: new socks, underwear, t-shirts, winter clothes, deodorant, Teen-friendly, non-perishable foods and fast food gift cards. National Honor Society members will also be taking cash donations and checks payable to The Center for Youth or online donations at https://tinyurl.com/CFYEastNHS . This event was inspired by an event that is going on around the country called “Sleep Out America.” In this event people get sponsors and donations, and sleep outside during that night. All the money that people raise during is then sent to Covenant House in New York City to help support the homeless teens out there. Another event like this will be planned in spring, but until then save the date and help out any way that you can to make this service project a success. Your help would be appreciated. By Pipper Holmes We are happy to celebrate the retirement of two staff members this year. Congratulation to Ms. Maria Antonetti and Ms. Brenda Wilkinson. They have both dedicated a life’s work to the Rochester City School District and to our community. Ms. Antonetti has been in the district for 31 years. She describes her years here at East as “Amazing…a learning experience.” Before she came to East, she started off as an employee of Kodak. She figured out that she did not like that and wanted to “work with people.” It was hard for her in the beginning because she had to reconnect with the kids but that is what kept her going. “I love working around people. I love helping. My desire to help in whatever is needed. That could be interpreting for someone or just the first smile you see when you come in.” When asked what she will miss the most she said, “My colleagues, some students but most of all my friends.” She’s most looking forward to “when I walk out after 31 years!” I also had the chance to interview Mrs. Wilkinson. She has been a proud member of the district since 1988. She stared off in the library for 6 years because she loves books. When asked why she wanted to become a secretary she stated, “I love data entry and tracking down records." She has not had a worst day and she describes, “Every day is like my first day. Honestly it is like opening a new present every day.” Her happiest times here are when she gets to see the kids of children she taught. She says she will really miss the kids. "I love the kids and the work I do. It's really enjoyable. We are sad to see them go but we are happy for their next chapter. We at the Eagle Express want to wish them the best of luck and a happy retirement. By Zaire Briggs Many teachers feel like the new cell phone policy has impacted their classes in a positive way. English teacher Mrs. Price states, “I feel like it improved relationships and students are more focused on academics, and not on drama. Also it is one less thing teachers have to argue with students about.” English teacher Mr. Appleby agrees and states, “I don’t have to argue with students about their phones and they are not distracted. They are more social without their phones so they participate more.” The cell phone policy has also had a negative impact on some aspects of class though. Mrs. Price states, “In my bilingual classes we can’t use google translate without getting their chromebooks out and also I can’t text students during school to know where they are if they’re not in class.” Some students don’t mind the policy. Senior Shamika Coles states, “I was focused either way. My phone be dry 24/7 so having my phone taken is not a problem for me. To me there isn’t any negative outcomes.” She also states, “It doesn’t affect my grades because when we were allowed to have phones, we weren’t allowed to be on them in class.” Senior Nina Gambill was impacted differently by the policy. Nina states, “Yes it did help me focus more, but I feel like I’m doing the same with or without my phone and a negative outcome is it’s not very much organized.” Overall the cell phone policy didn’t really hurt anyone. Some students might have been angry about it at first, but it’s important to remember that it was put in place to help us all be better and grow as students. By Clairissa Moore If you ask any East High student their opinion on the food served in the cafeteria, their response will range anywhere from “okay” to “disgusting.” Bad cafeteria food is a staple in most high schools, but what many don’t realize is that it has an impact on our education. After all, people generally don’t want to sit and listen when they’re hungry. Chef Jeff Christiano, who has advocated for better food asks, “Could you imagine how much academic achievement would increase if students didn’t have to worry about what they’re eating?” Christiano, who feels very strongly about feeding us better says, “The solution is real food, cooked from scratch.” Chef Jeff stated he’d be happy to provide that for us, but unfortunately his hands are tied. RCSD is a 100% free lunch district, which means all our food comes from the government, and one school can’t have better food than the rest. If we get food made from scratch in a regulated kitchen, the entire district needs to have that too. So neither the cafeteria staff nor Chef Jeff can get us better food, but maybe we can. I can’t in good conscience suggest a hunger strike, especially considering students who get their only meals here. However, if enough of us contact organizations like the National School Lunch Program, the United States Department of Agriculture, or locally based government officials, and tell them of our problems, maybe we can change what goes on our trays. We really need to make a change to school lunches. This is a big problem in our public schools because Maslow's Hierarchy of needs shows us that we must first take care of basic needs, like nutrition, if we want students to reach their fullest potential. At the base Maslow’s Hierarchy is physiological needs. This includes air, water, food, shelter, clothes, and sleep. So let's go back to the lunches being nasty, state what the current lunches are like, and what students would prefer. Keep in mind that the food should be not only tasty, but healthy. If students don’t eat good, healthy food, they can't get to the other stages of Maslow’s Hierarchy. Students get very grumpy if they don't eat properly and when they get to their classes after lunch, they will not want to work or be able to maintain focus. Often these student behaviors can be very difficult for the teacher and stop other students from learning. Having unappetizing school lunch leads to students skipping school and leaving closed campus schools to get better food somewhere else. If kids start leaving the school they might not come back from going out because they feel like hanging out. Also if student start leaving school they most likely going to a fast food restaurant like McDonalds or Burger King. These companies will serve the student unhealthy food. Eating unhealthy can damage your brain. According to https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2016/may/five-ways-junk-food-changes-your-brain says that junk food or unhealthy food can cause inflammation in your brain. This website also says that junk food can shrink the brain learning abilities. By Shaffiria Dortch At East High School we have many different sports during the winter, including modified girls and boys basketball, modified coed swimming, modified wrestling, freshman basketball, J.V girls and boys basketball, varsity girls and boys basketball, varsity bowling, varsity cheerleading, varsity wrestling, varsity indoor track. In order to join one of the teams you will need to get requalified (or a “requal”) from the nurse, which means you will need an up-to-date physical from either the school nurse or you regular doctor’s office. You can only go during family group or during your gym period to get a requal from the nurse. Each sport will have practice at least 3 days out the week if not every day, and some of the sports will have practice on Saturdays. Practice will always be after school. For further questions, see Mr. Robinson the Athletic Director. By Kermarie Principe Caceres The schoolwide attendance drops when we get close to the winter months. This a problem that affects students and their education. Many students have to walk a long distance just to get to the bus stop and wait for the bus that might take a longer time than expected to get there. Meanwhile it’s snowing or temperature is dropping. This means that students would rather stay home if they don’t have their parent or a friend to take them to school than walk and wait outside in low temperatures. In my own personal opinion, I would rather stay home especially if I know that the bus takes longer than the expected five minute walk to the bus stop and having to stand there in the cold weather to wait for the late bus. While this might affect my education, it prevents me from getting sick since I’m not getting hit by the cold air mass. Other students can relate to this, especially the ones who don’t get transportation offered because they live close to the school. “I stay home because to take the bus, I have to do a 5-8 minute walk just to get to the bus stop where I wait 5 minutes in addition for the bus to arrive. In my opinion, this affects me educationally because when it’s colder I miss the most school days but by doing that every day I get sick more times that I can count. Which means it also affects my health,” said an anonymous East High student. In addition, the website ‘Education Next’ provides statements contributing to this problem, “While most absences are the result of illness or disengagement from school, some reflect the decision to stay home when the weather is bad, even though schools remain open.” By Lynnola Christman Archaeologists discovered that the oldest domesticated pumpkin seeds were founded in Oaxaca Highlands of Mexico. Pumpkins were originated in Central America about 7,500 years ago. In 1536, “the orange gourds” were first mentioned in Europe, where they were regularly grown. They were originally called “pumpions.” which came from the French word “pompon.” This is a reference to their rounded form and it eventually evolved to the name “pumpkin.” Northeastern Native American tribes grew squash and pumpkins. They brought the first settlers pumpkins as gifts and taught them the many uses for the gourd. European settlers continued to use the recipes, adding their own special spices. The pumpkin pie was developed 50 years after the first Thanksgiving in America. The way people originally made pumpkin pie might come as a surprise. European and Native Americans didn't have pie plates and mixers. So how did people make pumpkin pie? They used what they had. The shape of the pumpkin was a perfect pie plate. They didn't use crust, but they used the pumpkin itself as the “crust,” filled it with sweetened milk, spices and just put it into a fire. If you would like to speak to someone who made the pie, Cedric Scott actually made it himself! He brought it to school and some teachers tried it. Mrs. Vadala says, “The pie was delicious! Eating the pumpkin crust was surprisingly good.” If you’d like to make this for your family this Thanksgiving, you can find the full recipe at https://soufflebombay.com. It would make an interesting and educational additional to any Thanksgiving feast.

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Why is the X-ray pulsar J0537-6910 slowing down so rapidly? Pulsars are rapidly-rotating neutron stars, which are the collapsed cores of massive stars. They are extreme objects, more massive than the Sun yet no larger than a large city. Their densities are so high that a teaspoonful of neutron star material would have a mass of around 10 million tons (about the mass of a mountain on Earth), and their magnetic fields are hundreds of millions to trillions of times that of the Earth's. We observe pulsars due to beams of electromagnetic radiation that continuously stream from their magnetic poles. Though this radiation is continuous, we only observe it in pulses, giving rise to the name “pulsars”. This is because the magnetic field is not aligned with the pulsar's rotation axis and therefore, like a lighthouse, we only see that radiation once per rotation (or, for some pulsars, twice per rotation) as the beam intersects with the Earth. We currently know of around 3000 pulsars within the Milky Way and nearby galaxies. The majority of pulsars are observed using radio telescopes, however some of the most energetic pulsars also produce intense high-energy radiation in the form of X-rays and gamma-rays. Generally, we think of an object's luminosity as the total power of all the light it emits. But, we can also think of luminosity as the amount of energy of any form that an object emits, or loses, over time. As a spinning object slows its rotational kinetic energy decreases. Due to conservation of energy this kinetic energy must be dissipated or radiated away in some form. The rate at which the object's rotational energy decreases is therefore the same as the power it radiates, or in other words its “spin-down luminosity”. There is a huge reservoir of kinetic energy stored in a pulsar's fast rotation: if a pulsar spinning at 60 times per second were losing energy at the same rate as the Sun is through electromagnetic radiation, it would take somewhere around 600 million years to slow to a halt. Given the current energy consumption of humans on Earth, such a source could power our needs for around 10 sextillion (1022) years! However, by observing the change in rotation rate of pulsars we know that many are losing energy much faster than the Sun is, and very little of it is visible light. What form does that radiated energy take? We would like to know if a significant fraction of it is in the form of gravitational radiation. The pulsar known as PSR J0537-6910 is one of the most unusual specimens, or outliers, compared to the general population of known pulsars. Its name is based on its location on the sky in the “equatorial” coordinates used by astronomers, with a right ascension of 5h 37m and a declination of -69 deg 10 arcmin, and the pulsar is located in the Large Magellanic Cloud — a smallish “satellite” galaxy orbiting the Milky Way. PSR J0537-6910 is special since it is losing energy faster than any of the other known pulsars, with its “spin-down luminosity” being about 5×1031 Watts, or roughly 100,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. In addition to its prodigious luminosity, PSR J0537-6910 is seen to have prolific glitching activity; a pulsar glitch is a phenomenon during which the pulsar experiences a sudden slight increase in its rotation rate. Unlike most other pulsars, PSR J0537-6910 is not observed through pulses of radio waves, but is instead only observed via X-rays. X-rays do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere, meaning only space-based telescopes can detect them. The pulsar was discovered, and subsequently monitored, using an X-ray telescope satellite called the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) between 1996 and 2012 (at which point RXTE was decommissioned). In 2017, an X-ray telescope called the Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER), was installed on the International Space Station. Due to the interesting nature of PSR J0537-6910, it is a prime target for the NICER observing campaign. RXTE and NICER observations revealed the pulsar's unusually frequent glitching activity mentioned above and also provided intriguing evidence for how the star is losing energy between glitch events. A parameter known as the braking index tells how a pulsar slows down its rotation rate: different energy loss mechanisms that cause the slow-down give different values of the braking index. Values of 5 and 7 are expected for two different modes of gravitational-wave emission. In Figure 1, the NICER and RXTE observations suggest that the braking index may tend towards one of these values when there is a long time between glitches, meaning that gravitational-wave emission is a plausible explanation for the pulsar's slowing spin. Given the exceptional nature of this object, the LIGO Scientific, Virgo and KAGRA Collaborations, in conjunction with the NICER team, performed a search for a continuous gravitational-wave signal from the pulsar. We made use of the most recent data from the LIGO and Virgo observatories (known as the O2 and O3 data sets), which overlap with the NICER observations of PSR J0537-6910 since 2017. The NICER data precisely tracks the rotation rate of the pulsar between glitches. This allows us to coherently integrate the gravitational-wave data and produce the most sensitive search for any weak signal. In the search, we assumed two different models for how the gravitational waves could be emitted: one in which the pulsar has an asymmetry about its equator (e.g., a “mountain”), which would produce emission at twice the star's rotation frequency (and is the mechanism that would be expected for a braking index of 5); another in which there could be emission at both once and twice the star's rotation frequency. Along with gravitational-wave observations, we also presented X-ray measurements of the most recent glitches of the pulsar. We did not find any evidence for a gravitational-wave signal from the pulsar, but this null result still enables us to infer interesting information about PSR J0537-6910. Figure 2 shows the probability of different values of the star's ellipticity based on our data, where the ellipticity approximately describes the size of any deformation of the equator compared to the average radius of the star (roughly speaking, the height of the mountain). This probability distribution is consistent with an ellipticity of zero but also with small nonzero values, so we set an “upper limit” on its value. We set a 95% upper limit on the ellipticity of just over 0.00003, i.e., we are 95% confident that the ellipticity is below this value. This can roughly be translated as a mountain height of less than tens of cm, which is an impressive quantity to measure on an object over 160,000 light years (1.5 quintillion [1.5×1018] km) away. This upper limit is below what would be expected if all the star's spin-down luminosity were emitted via gravitational waves (known as the spin-down limit). It can be converted into an equivalent power radiated through gravitational waves, from which we can say that less than around 14% of the star's spin-down luminosity is going into gravitational-wave production. This means that more than ~86% of the spin-down energy loss is through other mechanisms; the prodigious magnetic field of the pulsar means that a major source of emission is through a mechanism known as magnetic dipole radiation and through accelerating charged particles to create a pulsar wind nebula. However, there could also be a different gravitational-wave emission mechanism at play: matter waves travelling around the surface of the star would produce gravitational waves at around 4/3 of its rotational frequency. These matter waves were not searched for in this work, but would cause a braking index of 7. Find Out More: - Visit our websites: - Read a free preprint of the full scientific article here. - Neutron star: Remnant of the supernova process undergone by a star with a mass between 10 and 25 times the mass of our Sun. Typical neutron stars have a mass of around 1-2 Solar masses and a radius of 10-15 kilometers, being some of the most compact objects ever discovered. - Continuous gravitational wave: This is a gravitational-wave signal that is always present and at an almost fixed frequency, unlike merging black holes systems for which the gravitational-wave signal is only visible in a detector for a short time and has a rapidly upwards sweeping frequency. See here for more details. - Equatorial coordinates: astronomers define the position of objects on the sky using the equatorial coordinate system. In this system an object's position is defined by its right ascension and declination, which are equivalent to a longitude and latitude on the sky based on a plane formed by projecting the Earth's equator onto the celestial sphere. - Large Magellanic Cloud: A dwarf galaxy companion to the Milky Way at a distance of 50,000 parsecs. Both the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are visible to the eye in the southern hemisphere. Figure 1: The braking index of PSR J0537-6910 as measured using X-ray data during the time intervals between each pulsar glitch. Red and black points are values from NICER and RXTE, respectively. As the time between each glitch increases, the braking index tends towards values close to 5 or 7. Figure 2: The probability distribution on the ellipticity of PSR J0537-6910 based on LIGO and Virgo data from the O2 and O3 observing runs. The two sets of curves represent the distributions obtained when making different assumptions about the orientation of the pulsar with respect to the Earth based on X-ray observations of a nebula surrounding the pulsar. Both cases give very similar results.

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An Interview with Fred Gould and Aaron Gassmann on the NAS Report on Genetically Engineered Crops The National Academies of Sciences recently released a study on the safety of genetically engineered crops on human and livestock health and the environment. While many folks wanted the study to take a firm stance on GE crops (e.g., “GE crops are bad,” or “GE crops are good”), the findings were much more nuanced than a firm stance would allow. For example, the study found no substantiated evidence that GE crops pose a greater risk to human, livestock, and environmental health than conventionally bred crops. However, it did find that overuse of GE crops resulted in damaging levels of insect resistance, and that there are no data showing that GE crops have increased crop yields over the past 20 years. Dr. Fred Gould, a professor at North Carolina State University and an Entomological Society of America member, was the chair of one of the committees that undertook the study and compiled the final report. He was kind enough to talk to Josh Lancette, discussing what the report means for entomologists and entomology as a whole, and explaining the need for nuance when discussing GE crops and the National Academies of Sciences report. Josh also spoke with Aaron Gassmann, an associate professor at Iowa State University who served as a reviewer of the report. Josh Lancette: What effects do you see this report having on entomological research trends or funding? Fred Gould: The report points out that as genetic engineering of crops becomes easier to do, it is likely that more smaller acreage crops will be engineered for resistance to insect pests. Entomologists will likely be involved in the development of these engineered crops and in testing the impacts of the engineered traits at the economic, ecological, and evolutionary levels. Entomologists know more than anyone else about which crops in which locations insect pest resistance will be most useful. Their voices need to be heard. More crops that are grown primarily in developing countries are likely to be engineered for insect resistance. This will probably result in more international opportunities for members of the Entomological Society of America, and may also result in opportunities for entomologists from other countries to train in the U.S. Another thing pointed out in the report is that when there are experiments on GE crops that produce equivocal results, there should be follow-up studies by trusted researchers, funded by trusted groups, to examine the question that needs resolution. The report uses the example of impacts of Bt corn on monarch butterflies to illustrate the utility of this approach. In that case, there were two early reports indicating that the Bt toxin in corn pollen might get on milkweed and be toxic to monarch larvae feeding on the milkweed. Follow-up research funded by a consortium of university, industry, and government groups was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and laid the controversy to rest. If other equivocal studies are done on other entomological topics, we may see more follow-up work of this kind. Aaron Gassmann: This report does a wonderful job highlighting the important role that GE crops have in agriculture today and will almost certainly have in the future. Because of this importance, hopefully, there will be more public sector funding for research on GE crops. JL: How do you think this report should advise legislative actions related to GE crops and/or entomology? FG: The report makes a strong recommendation that it is the product and not the process that should be regulated when it comes to new crop varieties. This recommendation has been made before, but our report provides approaches for using –omics technologies (e.g., genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) for setting up a tiered approach to regulation that would be more rational than the current system in which crops with similar characteristics are regulated very differently depending on the specific approach used in developing them. AG: I think it should be used as a resource — a comprehensive and objective review of the scientific literature — that can help in understanding the issues and current research on GE crops in agriculture. JL: Do you see it affecting entomology or entomologists in any other ways? FG: Debates about GE crops are not likely to go away. Entomologists who are comfortable interacting with the public and policymakers will continue to be needed in this area. AG: This report might serve to inspire scientists to work on research topics involving interactions between GE crops and insects. As I was finishing my PhD, I read the National Research Council report entitled Genetically Modified Pest-Protected Plants: Science and Regulation. That report was published in 2000, and was influential in my decision to pursue a career studying interactions between insects pest and GE crops, in particular the evolution of insect resistance to GE crops. JL: The report mentions that some folks wanted the report to take a firm side (e.g., “GE crops are bad,” or “GE crops are good”). Why do you think there are such strong pushes to take a side? FG: We had people tell us that the public really needs a clear answer: Are GE crops safe or not? Issues related to GE crops may be the focus of attention for some of us, but most people have a lot of other things on their minds and would rather not have to think hard about the details of a nuanced answer. Beyond that, the public has been hearing that these crops are perfectly safe and are needed to feed the world, and that these crops are increasing the rates of cancer and hurt farmers. They want a simple answer that they can trust. Our committee made a major effort to hear from people who have been making positive and negative claims about GE crops and foods so that in writing our report we could assure the public that we had listened to all of the voices on the issues related to GE crops. In total, we had 80 people give presentations and we received and read over 700 comments sent to us by the public. JL: The report is careful to avoid sweeping statements on GE crops (even calling such statements problematic). How can the public think about and discuss GE crops with more nuance than perhaps the current public rhetoric often has? FG: I wish we could have given a simple answer but like so many technologies, the safety all depends on the characteristics of the specific product and how it is used. Most people don’t believe simple statements that “guns are safe” or “guns are unsafe,” even though they hear such statements in the media. Most people would want to know what kind of gun and in whose hands. It’s no different with engineered crops. For our committee to make a simple up or down statement was not possible. And if we made such a statement, people would be right not to trust us. We have done something with our report to help the public access it that has never been done before with a National Academy study. We have an open access website where the public can listen to all 80 presentations heard by the committee. Beyond that, we have on the website a summarized list from the comments and questions received from the public. Any person who goes to the website can click on any comment/question on the summarized list and be taken to the place in the report that deals with that issue and see what specific studies we looked at to address the issue. Furthermore, knowing that some people don’t trust results of studies done by industry researchers or funded by industry, we have a list of over 900 references on our website that indicate the affiliation of the first author of each study. We also provide information on the funding sources for each study where such information could be found. We hope that this accessible website will enable the public to more easily see for themselves how the committee came to its conclusions. FG: Do you see scientific communities discussing GE crops in terms of sides (i.e., lacking nuance)? If so, how can scientific communities learn how to discuss GE crops with more nuance? JL: Our committee certainly heard very different views from groups of PhD research scientists. I’ve seen well-respected economists with strong disagreements about GE crops. One would like to think that if two researchers had the same data they would come to the same conclusion, but researchers, like regular members of the public, use their own value systems in assessing evidence. There is plenty of social science research showing this. So, how can we move past our proclivity to only look for evidence that reinforces our prior beliefs? I heard one person say that to do this you should find the smartest person in the room that disagrees with you and talk to her. Not a bad suggestion. All of our committee members were forced to do something like that, and I think it had a good impact. AG: Yes, the report covers a diversity of traits, such as insect resistance and herbicide tolerance, in addition to addressing both current and future GE crops. With such a broad spectrum of traits under consideration, broad generalizations are typically not possible. I think the key is to consider the specific trait and how it functions in an agricultural system. From there, one should consider the costs and benefits of a technology. This approach should lead to a more scientifically based and nuanced discussion of the issues surrounding a specific application of genetic engineering in agriculture. The best way to have a constructive, nuanced discussion is to focus on the scientific data that have been generated around GE crops. JL: What has been the response to the study and resulting report? FG: Given the controversial nature of GE crops, it is not surprising that diverse media outlets have framed our report in different ways. Some stories about our report start with headlines like “Genetically Engineered Crops Found to be Safe” while others point to the finding in our report that there are no data indicating that the use of GE technology over the past 20 years has increased the rate at which U.S. agriculture is increasing crop yields. Our committee has been delighted by the few media reports that really address the nuances in the report. JL: How can ESA use the findings in the report to better support and serve the needs of our members? FG: We worked hard to make our report accessible to anyone who has a reasonable Internet connection. As I mentioned before, it is easy to search our report to find out what the reasoning of the committee was in coming to its conclusions. Our committee hopes that the report will serve as a reference for starting more grounded conversations about GE crops and foods. I think everyone on the committee would be delighted to see more discussions on the topics we addressed. We examined a huge number of studies, but we likely missed some and may have misinterpreted others. It would be great if readers would push further into the literature than we did on specific topics. I think our report could easily be used as the focus of an entomology graduate student seminar course. AG: One role of a scientist is to interact with the public and increase public understanding of issues related to science and technology. This report provides a resource that scientists can use to increase their understanding of GE crops, and consequently should enable a better, more informed dialog with the public around issues related to GE crops in agriculture. JL: As a reviewer, do you think the report accomplished its goal of being objective? AG: Yes, I think this review is broad and comprehensive, and addresses data on GE crops in an objective manner. Read more at: Josh Lancette is Manager of Publications at the Entomological Society of America.

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On 16 November 1989, Kiribati Minister of Home Affairs and Decentralization Babera Kirata addressed the general forum at the Small Island States Conference on Sea Level Rise in Malé Island. Highlighting his nation’s concern over the emerging greenhouse effect theory, he stated: “Over the centuries, the question of a rise in sea level was never heard of. Our ancestors had lived happily for centuries on our islands, without fear that one day, our beautiful homes may be lost as a result of the deterioration in the environment. We in this present generation have inherited those small islands, and we are very proud to be owners of the beautiful homes, which our ancestors had secured for us… The groundwater would easily become saline, making it impossible to obtain potable water, and agriculture would be destroyed. The plankton upon which fish live on will disappear, and the livelihood of Kiribati people, who depend on fish, would be seriously affected. The effect of rising in sea level, accompanied by strong winds and high waves would be disastrous for Kiribati.” (Kirata 1989: 2–3) His remarks highlighted the intimate connection I-Kiribati (people from Kiribati) have with their land. Land in Kiribati defines one’s sense of personhood; it is as much a part of them as they are of it. When I-Kiribati are born, they are traditionally born on their land. They grow up and have families of their own on that land. When their time comes, their bodies return to the earth. Their spirits join the ancestors who have gone before, and together they watch over future generations of the land. Land, in Kiribati, cosmologically ties one’s past, present, and future together. If sea levels were to rise as predicted, the physical challenges for survival would be daunting. The problems associated with Kiribati identity and personhood could very well be insurmountable. Experts say that the tiny Pacific Island nations, which collectively account for a mere 0.0012 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, are the most vulnerable and would be the first to feel the full brunt of global warming (Singh 2007: 1). To date, Kiribati has experienced devastating king tides, prolonged droughts, extended periods of rain, and, more recently, unusual cyclonic activity in the doldrums of the Pacific. Iorita Toromon describes the night that Cyclone Pam arrived in Tarawa: “Yesterday and last night March 9, 2015, south Tarawa experienced strong winds with rough seas and high tides causing further destruction. Most of the seawalls, which were recently constructed, are now destroyed. Roads are covered with sand, gravel, and big stones from the ocean again. Residential houses along the coastal area are greatly affected by the strong waves too. Our lives are very threatened by sea-level rise, and we are worried about our future. Our wells, which are our only source of freshwater, have become salinized and are rendered unsuitable for drinking now. Our main food plants such as breadfruit and pawpaw are dying because of the ocean. Many workers do not want to go to work, as they stay home to rebuild seawalls from the rubble before the next high tide in a few days.” (Toroman 2015) She ends in fearful anticipation of the approaching king tide, an abnormally high tide that has become more powerful and brought greater devastation to all islands in Kiribati over recent years. She has great reason to worry, as her house was located on land that rose just a couple inches above the ocean during high tide. Most islands in Kiribati are thin strips of coral that rise, at most, only several feet above sea level. The lands I-Kiribati live on today are ancient barrier reefs that once surrounded high volcanic islands. Over tens of billions of years, these towering volcanic islands subsided below the ocean, leaving a thin barrier reef behind. Early settlers of these islands, some four or five thousand years ago, lived in a delicate balance between man and nature. They exploited their environment in its totality, and their cultures evolved in harmony with it (Macdonald 2001: 4–5). Very little has changed since then. I first went to Kiribati as a Peace Corps volunteer in 2000. I left home knowing very little about global warming, and when I arrived in Kiribati, I felt like I should have looked more into the subject. In my first letter home, I wrote this passage: “It’s so pretty here, but scary too. I heard about global warming, and I wonder if it is true. Being here sure makes it seem real. But, I guess I trust the US government. They wouldn’t send us here if they thought it was a problem.” I asked one of my Kiribati teachers about global warming, and he assured me that it was nothing serious. He said, “people have been saying that Kiribati would go under the ocean ever since the 1980s, and look, we are still here. So, Mike, don’t worry.” Over the past sixteen years, however, the growing devastation from the impacts of climate change has worried many in Kiribati. As a Peace Corps volunteer, I rarely heard any discussion about global warming in the village. Whenever I brought up the subject, close friends and family would laugh at the idea. Friends and adopted family members would reassure me that Kiribati was safe from drowning by pointing to rainbows (an almost daily occurrence on the equator), and saying things like, “See! There is his promise in the sky; we are safe!” I returned in May 2004 for work on my first master’s degree in on the growing HIV/AIDS prevalence rates and social stigma. Then, Tarawa was experiencing an unusually prolonged drought, and months before an exceptionally high king tide had washed over the land. The impacts of a rapidly changing environment were being felt. However, most people I talked with in this mostly Christian nation held onto the biblical teachings of faith and obedience. It wouldn’t be much longer before the evidence changed people’s minds about climate change. A ten-year time-lapse of a village adjacent to my host family’s community, Abarao Village, is provided to exemplify the damages experienced in Kiribati. Host family elders laughed at me when I asked them about moving away from Kiribati if the situation were to become worse. In response, I would hear a chorus of, “I am from Kiribati, my land is here, and I will not leave.” The connection they have to their land is so secure that even the encroaching tide may prove too weak to break this bond. On the other hand, Kiribati senior secondary schools graduate thousands of students each year. Of these, a handful will earn scholarships and continue their studies overseas. Some will continue schooling at local training institutions, and a few will find employment in Kiribati. The majority of graduates will return home. For this population, the opportunity to work overseas is an opportunity of a lifetime. In 2001, New Zealand began accepting up to seventy-five Kiribati citizens each year through its Pacific Access Category (PAC) migration scheme. To qualify for the lottery, citizens must meet certain age, health, and character requirements. If picked, lottery winners must then obtain a job offer from a New Zealand–based employer. When employment is secured, the individual and immediate family can migrate to New Zealand as permanent residents. In 2007, New Zealand implemented a new work-based migration scheme. The aim of the Regional Seasonal Employer (RSE) scheme was to fill labor shortages in the New Zealand agricultural industry. That same year, Ioane Teitiota, an RSE migrant worker, traveled to New Zealand with his wife. He worked in the agriculture industry while his wife worked in a rest home. During a 2011 routine traffic stop, Ioane was arrested when New Zealand authorities discovered that he had overstayed his work visa. Wanting only to extend his visa, he reached out to Michael Kidd, an Auckland-based attorney. His case took a significant turn when his extension was denied, and Kidd argued for his stay based on humanitarian criteria. Ioane’s case unexpectedly became a seminal case in the fight for climate refugee status (Weiss 2015). Ultimately, after a four-year battle, Ioane lost and was forced to return to Kiribati with his wife and three New Zealand–born children. In its final ruling, the court stated that “a ‘sociological’ refugee or person seeking to better his or her life by escaping the perceived results of climate change is not a person to whom Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention applies” (Buchanan 2015). While the world continues to argue over the legal definition of climatically induced migrants, former president of Kiribati, Anote Tong, works tirelessly to tell the rest of the world about the plight his country faces. In 2014, he purchased a 20-square-kilometer plot of land on Fiji’s Vanua Levu island for $8.77 million. The original purpose of the land acquisition was for agricultural purposes, but during a recent climate change conference in New Zealand, Tong stated that the land’s primary value was for international publicity and to give his people a sense of security: “People are getting quite scared now, and we need immediate solutions. This is why I want to rush the solution, so there will be a sense of comfort for our people” (Radio New Zealand 2016). Kiribati is just one of many nations on the frontlines of climate change. My friends and adopted family members in Kiribati have silently suffered losses of crops, houses, and villages. Climate change is already having an impact on the country. What happens in Kiribati and other frontline nations should be a wakeup call for the entire world, but unfortunately, few people know Kiribati exists. Despite this, I maintain hope that we will find ways to move beyond business as usual, not necessarily because we will want to but because we will have to. Buchanan, Kelly. 2015. “New Zealand: ‘Climate Change Refugee’ Case Overview.” Washington, DC: Law Library of Congress (accessed 16 April 2016). Kirata, Babera. 1989. “Kiribati Country Statement.” Presented at the Small States Conference on Sea Level Rise, 14–18 November, Malé (accessed 15 April 2016). Macdonald, Barrie. 2001. Cinderellas of the Empire. Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific. Radio New Zealand. 2016. “Kiribati Climate-Induced Migration to Start in Five Years.” RNZ, 16 February (accessed 16 February 2016). Singh, Shailendra. 2007. “Climate Change: South Pacific More Vulnerable Than Thought.” IPS, 22 February. Toromon, Iorita. 2015. Personal communication, 19 March.

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BOOK 2, CHAPTER 2 Rationalist philosophers think that we have ‘innate ideas’—ideas that we are born with, or which were stamped into our minds. I think I can explain how we have these ideas without having to say they are innate. If I can do that, then I think everyone will agree that we do not have innate ideas at all. Nature is too parsimonious to duplicate faculties. There would be no reason to put ideas of colour in our minds when we have the faculty of sight. The rationalists think that there are certain principles that are universally agreed to, and therefore that we must have been born with them. These ideas have ‘universal assent’. This idea of universal assent does not prove anything of the kind, if I can show that there are other ways we could have got these ideas. And I can. Worse, the rationalists’ own argument can be turned against them. If there is no such thing as universal assent, then there are no innate ideas. There are two propositions that everyone is said to agree to: “What is, is,” and “It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be”. The problem is, not everyone agrees to these two propositions—and therefore, these propositions show that there is no such thing as an innate idea. I think that most people have not even heard that “What is, is” and “It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be”. Children and idiots, for instance, do not know those propositions. And that is that! A single counter-example is enough to disprove this idea of universal assent and the idea of innate truths. It seems like a contraction to me to say that there are truths imprinted in our minds that we do not know about, or that there are truths we know but cannot perceive or understand. If imprinting means anything, it means that there are truths we know and perceive. If, therefore, children and idiots have souls or minds with those impressions upon them, they must perceive them. They must know and assent to these truths. Since they don’t, it is evident that there are no such impressions—it just doesn’t make sense to say that we possess some truth in our minds but do not know it. Minds are for knowing. Some rationalists will say that we have an innate capacity to know, and that this capacity for knowing is innate, and therefore that our ideas are innate. That is cheating. If we talk like that, everything a person ever comes to know through education and life was always actually innate, and, in fact, all the things she never came to know were innate, too. Let me be clear: if we know something, we know that we know it. We cannot have knowledge that is unperceived or not understood. To avoid this criticism, my opponents usually say that people know and assent to innate ideas when the are old enough to use reason. I answer: Rationalists must mean one of two things: either people become aware of these innate ideas when they start to think, or the use of reason helps them find innate ideas. If they mean that reason helps them discover these principles, their argument, clearly stated, is this: If reason discovers a truth, and if reason makes us firmly believe it, then that truth is an innate idea and was naturally imprinted on the mind. Universal assent, the characteristic of innate ideas, amounts to no more than this: innate ideas are those certain facts we conclude. That means that all the truths of mathematics, for instance, no matter how obscure, are innate. But how could reason be necessary to discover things that are supposed to be innate? Innate ideas are the very ideas that we are not supposed to need to discover. Innate means ‘No need to discover’! We may as well say that reason is necessary for the eyes to see. If we have innate ideas that we need reason to find, then we are really saying that we both know things and do not know them. The rationalist might say mathematical proofs and other truths are not obvious, and that makes them different from other innate truths. I agree! Maxims and mathematical demonstrations are different from each other. Math requires proof; maxims are obvious and do not require proof. But this makes the rationalist’s subterfuge clear: no reasoning at all is required for a priori truths, and math is not a priori. Limiting the innate ideas to the obvious destroys the bounty of nature that rationalists are so fond of. Rationalists say that we know innate ideas when we come to “when we come to the use of reason”. As soon as children become intelligent, they also know and assent to these maxims, in other words. This is false and ridiculous. First, obviously, a priori truths are not in the mind when we start to reason. Children learn to think long before they learn “It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be”. In fact, the illiterate and savages grow quite old not knowing that “It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be”. I do think that reason is necessary to discover ideas like these, but I do not think that these ideas arrive in the mind at the same time as the faculty of reason. What the rationalist really means is this: nobody knows a priori truths until after they learn to think. But that doesn’t prove very much. Even learning innate ideas at the same time as we learned to think would not prove that innate ideas are innate. If we started to speak at the same time that we learned these innate ideas, would rationalists say that speaking proved them to be innate? I agree that we do not know self-evident maxims until we begin to use reason. But I deny that they spring to mind when we start to use reason, and I deny that that would prove them to be innate. What we really mean when we say people “assent to these ideas when they come to the use of reason,” is this: Abstract ideas and general names come after children practice on more familiar and particular things, and after adults realize that their kids are capable of rational conversation. Obviously, this does not show that these abstract ideas are innate. The mind actually works much differently. First, the senses let in particular ideas and furnish the ‘empty cabinet’ of our minds or memories. The mind grows more familiar with the ideas bit by bit, and some get lodged in our long-term memory, and they get names. Next, the mind abstracts from the particular ideas and by degrees learns the general names of things. This is how the mind gets ideas and language, and gets the objects on which it uses its discursive faculty—the faculty that uses argumentation and logic. In a child, the use of reason become more and more obvious day by day as it learns about greater numbers of things. If we watch someone learning, though, we see that their ideas are not innate. Children learn about the things they see most often, and they learn that some things are alike and some things are different. They learn this even before they can speak or think—certainly about the things that matter to them, ideas like sweet and bitter. We assent to clear ideas, not ideas that are innate. A child does not learn that 3+4=7 until she learns about seven and equality. Once she knows these ideas, she will assent to the equation, but not because the idea is innate. She will assent because the idea is obvious and because she has learned what each of the terms means. Our minds move from the small to the large, too; a man knows that 18+19=37 in the same way that he knows 1+2=3, but a child learns one before the other, because the ideas of ‘eighteen’, ‘nineteen’, and ‘thirty-seven’ take longer to get to. The fact that propositions need to be heard and understood before being assented to shows that ideas are never innate. Most people do not know the innate ideas they are supposed to possess until they hear them proposed by someone else. Then they assent to them. Doesn’t this show that proposing an idea prints it clearer in the mind than nature did? If so, then a person knows a fact better after he has been taught it. If this is so, then it would be very unwise to make innate ideas the foundation of our knowledge, as rationalists want to do. Obviously, people first learn of these self-evident truths when they are taught them. Anyone taught them must know that he can no longer deny them—not because they are innate, but because they are true, and he could no longer think otherwise. To conclude, I agree with these defenders of innate principles—that if they are innate, they must have universal assent. If something is innate, then all people will assent to it. But, by their own confession, rationalists cannot hold that there are innate principles, because these ‘innate’ ideas are not universally assented to. People who do not understand and people who would understand but have not yet heard to propositions do not give their assent. Every person knows that she thinks, and what she thinks about. We think about whiteness, hardness, sweetness, thinking, motion, man, elephants, armies, and drunkenness. How do we get these ideas? Many people say that we get them stamped upon our minds before we are born. I think that what I have already said about this will be more accepted once I have proved my theory. Imagine the mind is a white piece of paper. How does it come to get ideas? Where do we get all the variety of human thought? In a word: experience. All our knowledge is about either objects of sensation or the operation of our own minds. That is all. These are the two fountains of our knowledge, and from them all ideas spring. First, our senses give our minds several different perceptions of things, according the the ways that things affect the senses. We have ideas of yellow, white, heat, cold, hard, soft, bitter and sweet, and all the other sensible qualities. External things give us these ideas. Most of the ideas we have come straight from our senses. I call this source of ideas, ‘sensation’. The other fountain from which experience furnishes the understanding with ideas is the perception of the operations of our own minds. This gives us another set of ideas, such as perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing, and so on. Every person has the source of these ideas within herself, in a kind of internal sense, which is similar to the external sense. So, since I call the other sense, ‘sensation’, I call this one ‘reflection’. By this, I mean the notice the mind takes of its own operations. These two, sensation and reflection, are the sources of all ideas. I include emotions, too, as a kind of reflection. The understanding has no other source of ideas. Nobody can find an idea within themselves that did not originally come from one of these two sources. Children do not come with innate ideas. They find them everywhere. When their eyes and ears are open, senses force themselves on the child. And if, for instance, a child were raised in a black-and-white world, she would have no more idea of scarlet or green than she has of the taste of an oyster or pineapple. We only get new ideas from new objects. The more things we encounter, and the more diverse they are, and the more we think about those things, the more ideas we get. The operations of our minds are plan and clear once we start to contemplate them, but it is easy to just go through life without stopping to think about how we think. We can spend our whole lives walking a clock every morning without ever wondering how it works. Our minds are just the same. Most children do not think about their own minds, and some people never stop to think about themselves. Youth is full of diversion and novelty, and it is only in old age that we have the time to think about thinking, and even then many do not. If you follow a child from its birth, you will find that it gradually awakens to the world as it experiences more things. After a while, it comes to know objects, then friends and strangers. And so, by degrees, the child enlarges, compounds, and abstracts ideas, and reflects on these operations. When do people start to have ideas? When the start to sense. An impression on some part of the body produces a sensation in the mind. These are the building blocks of perception, remembering, consideration, reasoning, etc. In time the mind comes up with new ideas: the ideas of reflection. Still, all the towers of intellect have their foundations in sensation and reflection. No matter where the mind wanders, it always started here. In this part the understanding is passive; whether it gets this foundation for knowledge is not in its power. Other sensations stick themselves into our minds, and no person is ever totally ignorant of them. The mind can simply neither forget nor ignore some simple ideas any more than a mirror can refuse to reflect. Though all the qualities of an object are mixed together in the thing itself, when they reach us, they enter the mind alone and unmixed. When I hold a candle, I sense many things from only one object: whiteness, coolness, softness. I see motion, and colour, and all of these ideas are distinct. The simple ideas, even though they are all mixed together in the same object, are as perfectly distinct as if they came from different objects. The coolness and hardness in one piece of ice is as distinct as the smell and the whiteness in a lily or the taste of sugar and the smell of a rose. Simple ideas each have a single uniform appearance or conception in my mind, and cannot be broken down into other ideas. These simple ideas come into the mind in only one of those two ways. The understanding can repeat, compare, and unite them and can create new and complex ideas, but it cannot create any completely new simple idea. Not even a genius can create a new simple idea; nor can a genius take one apart. The power of man is to compound and divide the material of in his mind, but he does not have the power to create new matter or to destroy even an atom of the ideas already there. Try to imagine a flavour you have never tasted, or a scent you have never smelled. Blind people have no ideas of colours, nor do deaf people have any idea of sounds. Once children begin to remember ideas, they learn to use signs, and when they learn to speak and make sounds, they use words to show others their ideas. Children sometimes learn words and sometimes make them up, as anyone who spends time with them will know. We do not have an infinite number of names, though, so we cannot create a new word for each particular thing. Eventually, we generalize and start creating general names by abstraction. The mind considers particular things away from their circumstances in time and place and so on. We take ideas from particular things and make them representatives of their kind through abstraction, then give them general names. So, we see that chalk is white and snow is white, so we come up with the idea of whiteness. We use these simple concepts to organize and sort real things. So far, we have only been concerned with the simple ideas that the mind receives passively. But the mind can frame and create new ideas from these building blocks by combining simple ideas, comparing them side by side, or by separating them from their accompanying ideas by abstraction. Combined simple ideas are ‘complex’ ideas. These are ideas like beauty, gratitude, a man, an army, and the universe. These are simple ideas all rolled together and baked into one big idea that we consider one thing and call by one name. This faculty of the mind is very powerful. The mind can build infinitely from the blocks sensation gave it. Still, all the ideas is builds with came from only two places: from things themselves and from the mind’s recombination of those simple ideas.

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Erskine - The Treason Trials of 1794 The 1794 Treason Trials, arranged by the administration of William Pitt, were intended to cripple the British radical movement of the 1790s. Over thirty radicals were arrested; three were tried for high treason: Thomas Hardy, John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall. In a repudiation of the government's policies, they were acquitted by three separate juries in November 1794 to public rejoicing. The treason trials were an extension of the sedition trials of 1792 and 1793 against parliamentary reformers in both England and Scotland. The historical backdrop to the Treason Trials is complex; it involves not only the British parliamentary reform efforts of the 1770s and 1780s but also the French Revolution. In the 1770s and 1780s, there was an effort among liberal-minded Members of Parliament to reform the British electoral system. A disproportionately small number of electors voted for MPs and many seats were bought. Christopher Wyvill and William Pitt the Younger argued for additional seats to be added to the House of Commons and the Duke of Richmond and John Cartwright advocated a more radical reform: "the payment of MPs, an end to corruption and patronage in parliamentary elections, annual parliaments (partly to enable the speedy removal of corrupt MPs) and, preeminently and most controversially, universal manhood suffrage". Both efforts failed and the reform movement appeared moribund in the mid-1780s. Once the revolution in France began to demonstrate the power of popular agitation, the British reform movement was reinvigorated. Much of the vigorous political debate in the 1790s in Britain was sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Edmund Burke is generally credited as being the father of the modern Conservative Party. In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government, because civilizations, including governments, are the result of social and political consensus. If a culture's traditions were challenged, the result would be endless anarchy. There was an immediate response from the British supporters of the French revolution, most notably Mary Wollstonecraft in her Vindication of the Rights of Men and Thomas Paine in his Rights of Man. 1792 was the "annus mirabilis of eighteenth-century radicalism": its most important texts, such as Rights of Man, were published and the influence of the radical associations was at its height. In fact, it was as a result of the publication of the Rights of Man that such associations began to proliferate. The most significant groups, made up of artisans, merchants and others from the middling and lower sorts, were the Sheffield Society for Constitutional Information, the London Corresponding Society (LCS) and the Society for Constitutional Information (SCI). But it was not until these groups formed an alliance with the more genteel Society of the Friends of the People that the government became concerned. When this sympathy became known, the government issued a royal proclamation against seditious writings on 21 May 1792. In a dramatic increase compared to the rest of the century, there were over 100 prosecutions for sedition in the 1790s alone, as you have probably gathered if you have read any of Curran's or Erskine's speeches. The British government, fearing an uprising similar to the French Revolution, took even more drastic steps to quash the radicals. They made an increasing number of political arrests and infiltrated the radical groups; they threatened to "revoke the licences of publicans who continued to host politicized debating societies and to carry reformist literature"; they seized the mail of "suspected dissidents"; and they supported groups that disrupted radical events and attacked radicals in the press. Additionally, the British Government initiated the Aliens Act of 1793 in order to regulate the entrance of immigrants into Great Britain. Essentially, the Aliens Act enforced that aliens be recorded upon arrival and register with the local justice of the peace. Specifically, immigrants were required to give their names, ranks, occupations, and addresses. Overall, the Aliens Act reduced the number of immigrants into Great Britain out of fear that one of them may be an unwanted spy. Radicals saw this period as "the institution of a system of terror, almost as hideous in its features, almost as gigantic in its stature, and infinitely more pernicious in its tendency, than France ever knew". The radical societies were briefly enjoying an upsurge in membership and influence. In the summer of 1793 several of them decided to convene in Edinburgh to decide on how to summon "a great Body of the People" to convince Parliament to reform, since it did not seem willing to reform itself. The government viewed this assembly as an attempt to set up an anti-parliament. In Scotland, three leaders of the convention were tried for sedition and sentenced to fourteen years of service in Botany Bay. Such harsh sentences shocked the nation. The government, frightened however, arrested six members of the SCI and 13 members of the LCS on suspicion of "treasonable practices" in conspiring to assume "a pretended general convention of the people, in contempt and defiance of the authority of parliament, and on principles subversive of the existing laws and constitution, and directly tending to the introduction of that system of anarchy and confusion which has fatally prevailed in France". Over thirty men were arrested in all. Of the people arrested were Thomas Hardy, secretary of the LCS; the linguist John Horne Tooke; the novelist and dramatist Thomas Holcroft (arrested in October); the Unitarian minister Jeremiah Joyce; writer and lecturer John Thelwall; bookseller and pamphleteer Thomas Spence; and silversmith and, later, historian John Baxter. After the arrests, the government formed two secret committees to study the papers they had seized from the radicals' houses. After the first committee report, the government introduced a bill in the House of Commons to suspend habeas corpus; thus, those arrested on suspicion of treason could be held without bail or charge until February 1795. In June 1794 the committee issued a second report, asserting that the radical societies had been planning at least to "over-awe" the sovereign and Parliament by the show of "a great Body of the People" if not to overthrow the government and install a French-style republic. They claimed that the societies had attempted to assemble a large armoury for this purpose, but no evidence could be found for it. They were charged with an assortment of crimes, but seditious libel and treason were the most serious. The government propagated the notion that the radicals had committed a new kind of treason, what they called "modern" or "French" treason. While previous defendants had tried to replace one king with another from another dynasty, these democrats wanted to overthrow the entire monarchical system and remove the king entirely. "Modern French treason, it seemed, was different from, was worse than, old-fashioned English treason."The treason statute, that of the Act of Edward III from 1351, did not apply well to this new kind of treason. The Attorney-General Sir John Scott, who would prosecute Hardy and Horne Tooke, "decided to base the indictment on the charge that the societies had been engaged in a conspiracy to levy war against the king, that they intended to subvert the constitution, to depose the King, and put him to death; and for that purpose, and 'with Force and Arms', they conspired to excite insurrection and rebellion" (emphasis in original). Initially the men were confined to the Tower of London, but they were moved to Newgate prison. Those charged with treason faced the brutal punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering if convicted: each would have been "hanged by the neck, cut down while still alive, disembowelled (and his entrails burned before his face) and then beheaded and quartered".The entire radical movement was also on trial; there were supposedly 800 warrants that were ready to be acted upon when the government won its case, and only Erskine stood between the government and a barbaric death. Hardy's trial was first; his wife had died while he was in prison, generating support for him among the populace. Thomas Erskine, defending again, argued that the radicals had proposed nothing more than the Duke of Richmond (now an anti-reformer) had in the 1780s and "their plan for a convention of delegates was borrowed from a similar plan advanced by Pitt himself". The government could provide no real evidence of an armed insurrection. The Attorney-General's opening statement lasted nine hours, leading the former Lord Chancellor Lord Thurlow to comment that "there was no treason".Treason must be "clear and obvious"; the great legal theorist Edward Coke had argued that treason was to be determined "not upon conjecturall [sic] presumptions, or inferences, or strains of wit, but upon good and sufficient proof". Part of Erskine's effective defence was to dismiss the prosecution's case, as it was based on "strains of wit" or "imagination" (a play on words of the statute itself). He claimed, as he had in the earlier trials, that it was the prosecution that was "imagining the king's death" rather than the defence, and you can read his speech below. Erskine opening in the case of Thomas Hardy7.83 MB Erskine speech in the case of Thomas Hardy - Part 27.15 MB Erskine speech in the case of Thomas Hardy - Part 37.37 MB Erskine speech in the case of Thomas Hardy - Part 47.45 MB Erskine speech in the case of Thomas Hardy - Part 57.33 MB Erskines final speech6.32 MB His cross-examination of the prosecution's spies also helped demolish their case; he "cross-examined these witnesses in a tone of contemptuous disbelief and managed to discredit much of their evidence", so they are well worth a read. After a nine-day trial, which was exceptionally long for the time, he was acquitted.The foreman of the jury fainted after delivering his verdict of not guilty, and the crowd enthusiastically carried Hardy through the streets of London. In his speeches, Erskine emphasized that the radical organizations, primarily the London Corresponding Society and the Society for Constitutional Information, were dedicated to a revolution of ideas, not a violent revolution—they embodied the new ideals of the Enlightenment. Erskine was helped in his defence by pamphlets such as William Godwin's Cursory Strictures on the Charge Delivered by Lord Chief Justice Eyre to the Grand Jury, 2 October 1794. John Horne Tooke John Horne Tooke's trial followed Hardy's, in which Pitt was forced to testify and admit that he had attended radical meetings himself. Throughout the trial Horne Tooke "combined the affectation of boredom with irreverent wit". One observer noted that when asked by the court if he would be tried "by God and his Country", he "eyed the court for some seconds with an air of significancy few men are so well able to assume, and shaking his head, emphatically answered 'I would be tried by God and my country, but—!'" After a long trial, he too was acquitted, and you can read Erskines powerful speeches here 6.89 MB and here6.67 MB, that led to John Horne Tooke's acquittal. All of the other members of the SCI were released after these two trials, as it became obvious to the government that they would not gain any convictions. John Thelwall was tried last; the government felt forced to try him because the loyalist press had argued that his case was particularly strong. While awaiting trial, he wrote and published poetry indicting the entire process. During Thelwall's trial, various members of the London Corresponding Society testified that Thelwall and the others had no concrete plans to overthrow the government, and that details of how reform was to be achieved were an "afterthought". This undermined the prosecution's claims that the society was responsible for fomenting rebellion. Thelwall was also acquitted, after which the rest of the cases were dismissed.

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CONCERNING SACRAMENTS 102. What is a sacrament? A sacrament is an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace. God gives us the sign as a means whereby we receive that grace, and as a tangible assurance that we do in fact receive it. (1662 Catechism) 103. How should you receive the sacraments? I should receive the sacraments by faith in Christ, with repentance and thanksgiving. Faith in Christ is necessary to receive grace, and obedience to Christ is necessary for the benefits of the sacraments to bear fruit in my life. (1662 Catechism; Articles of Religion, 28) 104. What are the sacraments of the Gospel? The two sacraments ordained by Christ, which are generally necessary for our salvation, are Baptism and Holy Communion, which is also known as the Lord’s Supper or the Holy Eucharist. (Articles of Religion, 25) 105. What is the outward and visible sign in Baptism? The outward and visible sign is water, in which candidates are baptized “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit” – the name of the Triune God to whom the candidate is being committed. (1662 Catechism, 1 Peter 3:21; Matthew 28:19) 106. What is the inward and spiritual grace set forth in Baptism? The inward and spiritual grace set forth is a death to sin and a new birth to righteousness, through union with Christ in his death and resurrection. I am born a sinner by nature, separated from God, but in baptism, rightly received, I am made God’s child by grace through faith in Christ. (John 3:3-5; Romans 6:1-11; Ephesians 2:12; Galatians 3:27-29) 107. What is required of you when you come to be baptized? Repentance, in which I turn away from sin; and faith, in which I turn to Jesus Christ as my Savior and Lord and embrace the promises that God makes to me in this sacrament. (Acts 2:38) 108. Why is it appropriate to baptize infants? Because it is a sign of God’s promise that they are embraced in the covenant community of Christ’s Church. Those who in faith and repentance present infants to be baptized vow to raise them in the knowledge and fear of the Lord, with the expectation that they will one day profess full Christian faith as their own. (Acts 2:39) 109. What signs of the Holy Spirit’s work do you hope and pray to see as a result of your baptism? I hope and pray that the Holy Spirit who indwells me will help me to be an active member of my Christian community, participate in worship, continually repent and return to God, proclaim the faith, love and serve my neighbor, and strive for justice and peace. (Hebrews 10:25; 12:14; 1 Peter 3:15; 1 John 1:9; 2:1) 110. Why did Christ institute the sacrament of Holy Communion? He instituted it for the continued remembrance of the sacrifice of his atoning death, and to convey the benefits the faithful receive through that sacrifice. (Luke 22:17-20; 1 Corinthians 10:16-17) 111. What is the outward and visible sign in Holy Communion? The visible sign is bread and wine, which Christ commands us to receive. (1 Corinthians 11:23) 112. What is the inward and spiritual thing signified? The spiritual thing signified is the body and blood of Christ, which are truly taken and received in the Lord’s Supper by faith. (1 Corinthians 10:16-18; 11:27; John 6:52-56) 113. What benefits do you receive through partaking of this sacrament? As my body is nourished by the bread and wine, I receive the strengthening and refreshing of my soul by the body and blood of Christ; and I receive the strengthening and refreshing of the love and unity I share with fellow Christians, with whom I am united in the one Body of Christ. (1662 Catechism) 114. What is required of you when you come to receive Holy Communion? I am to examine myself as to whether I truly repent of my sins and intend to lead the new life in Christ; whether I have a living faith in God’s mercy through Christ and remember his atoning death with a thankful heart; and whether I have shown love and forgiveness to all people. (1 Corinthians 11:27-32) 115. What is expected of you when you have shared in Holy Communion? Having been renewed in my union with Christ and his people through sharing in the Supper, I should continue to live in holiness, avoiding sin, showing love and forgiveness to all, and serving others in gratitude. 116. Are there other sacraments? Other rites and institutions commonly called sacraments include confirmation, absolution, ordination, marriage, and anointing of the sick. These are sometimes called the sacraments of the Church. 117. How do these differ from the sacraments of the Gospel? They are not commanded by Christ as necessary for salvation, but arise from the practice of the apostles and the early Church, or are states of life blessed by God from creation. God clearly uses them as means of grace. 118. What is confirmation? After making a mature commitment to my baptismal covenant with God, I receive the laying on of the bishop’s hands with prayer. (Acts 8:14-17; 19:6) 119. What grace does God give you in confirmation? In confirmation, God strengthens the work of the Holy Spirit in me for his daily increase in my Christian life and ministry. (Acts 8:14-17; 19:6) 120. What is absolution? After repenting and confessing my sins to God in the presence of a priest, the priest declares God’s forgiveness to me with authority given by God. (John 20:22-23; James 5:15-16) 121. What grace does God give to you in absolution? In absolution, God conveys to me his pardon through the cross, thus declaring to me reconciliation and peace with him, and bestowing upon me the assurance of his grace and salvation. 122. What is ordination? Through prayer and the laying on of the bishop’s hands, ordination consecrates, authorizes, and empowers persons called to serve Christ and his Church in the ministry of Word and Sacrament. (1 Timothy 1:5; 5:22; Acts 6:6) 123. What grace does God give in ordination? In ordination, God confirms the gifts and calling of the candidates, conveys the gift of the Holy Spirit for the office and work of bishop, priest or deacon, and sets them apart to act on behalf of the Church and in the name of Christ. 124. What are the three ordained ministries in the Anglican Church? The three orders are bishops, priests, and deacons. 125. What is the work of bishops? The work of bishops is to represent and serve Christ and the Church as chief pastors, to lead in preaching and teaching the faith and in shepherding the faithful, to guard the faith, unity, and discipline of the Church, and to bless, confirm and ordain, thus following in the tradition of the Apostles. (Titus 1:7-9; 1 Timothy 3:1-7; Acts 20:28) 126. What is the work of priests? The work of priests, serving Christ under their bishops, is to nurture congregations through the full ministry of the Word preached and Sacraments rightly administered, and to pronounce absolution and blessing in God’s name. (Titus 1:5; 1 Peter 5:1) 127. What is the work of deacons? The work of deacons, serving Christ under their bishops, is to assist priests in public worship, instruct both young and old in the catechism, and care for those in need. (Acts 6:1-6; 1 Timothy 3:8-13) 128. What is marriage? Marriage is a lifelong covenant between a man and a woman, binding both to self-giving love and exclusive fidelity. In the rite of Christian marriage, the couple exchange vows to uphold this covenant. They do this before God and in the presence of witnesses, who pray that God will bless their life together. (Genesis 2:23-24; Matthew 19; Mark 10:2-9; Romans 7:2-3; 1 Corinthians 7:39) 129. What is signified in marriage? The covenantal union of man and woman in marriage signifies the communion between Christ, the heavenly bridegroom, and the Church, his holy bride. Not all are called to marriage, but all Christians are wedded to Christ and blessed by the grace God gives in marriage. (Ephesians 5:31-32) 130. What grace does God give in marriage? In Christian marriage, God establishes and blesses the covenant between husband and wife, and joins them to live together in a communion of love, faithfulness and peace within the fellowship of Christ and his Church. God enables all married people to grow in love, wisdom and godliness through a common life patterned on the sacrificial love of Christ. 131. What is the anointing of the sick? Through prayer and anointing with oil, the minister invokes God’s blessing upon those suffering in body, mind, or spirit. (Matthew 10:8; James 5:14-16). 132. What grace does God give in the anointing of the sick? As God wills, the healing given through anointing may bring bodily recovery from illness, peace of mind or spirit, and strength to persevere in adversity, especially in preparation for death. All content Copyright 2015-2019 All rights reserved.

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By Nicky Milne PETORCA, Chile, June 3 — Walking along a cracked earth path in Chile's Petorca province, Catalina Espinoza points to a barren hill littered with dried shrubs and cacti — and to a nearby dry waterway. The city of Petorca, a three-hour drive north of the capital Santiago, sits in the heart of Chile's booming avocado industry, surrounded by rows of thousands of avocado trees. Its abundant produce helps make Chile the world's third-largest exporter of the popular fruit. But the bounty has come at a price, residents say — the drying of local water supplies. About 70% of fresh water used each year goes to agriculture, according to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Finding ways to reduce farming's share of the world's water, while still growing enough food to feed a rising population, will be crucial to preventing worsening hunger, particularly in the face of climate change, food experts say. But global trade in food — which is effectively trade in the water used to produce it — may also need reconsideration in an era of increasing water shortages, they say. In Petorca, in Chile's Valparaiso region, local people and small avocado farmers say the arrival of big commercial avocado companies more than a decade ago has led to increasingly severe water shortfalls. That is fueling tensions locally — and even led to death threats. "People here don't want our avocados to be exported because when they export our fruit they are exporting our water," said Espinoza, who lives on the edge of thousands of hectares of avocado orchards watered from reservoirs. With local water sources drying as a result of intensifying droughts and avocado irrigation, many villagers rely on water delivered by trucks twice a week. Graffiti on Petorca's streets reads: "Don't rob water." "There are people here who water their avocado plants every day, and we have to drink water from trucks that we don't even know is safe," Espinoza said. Gerardo Orrego, a small-scale farmer of walnuts and olives, said some farm families have been forced to abandon the area because of water shortages. "Small farmers cannot survive here," he said. "There's nothing for people to do. Many families have left." Rising global demand for avocados in Europe, the United States, and China has led to worsening tensions between Petorca's residents and big avocado producers over water rights, including how water is managed and how access to it is regulated. None of the region's big avocado producers, apart from one local grower, agreed to be interviewed by the Thomson Reuters Foundation about the situation in Petorca. But globally, fights over scarce water are on the rise, with the California-based Pacific Institute, which tracks water security issues, recording a surge in water-related conflicts from roughly 16 in the 1990s to about 73 in just the past five years. Avocado plantations spread in the distance behind reservoirs in Petorca region, Chile, December 9, 2018. Under Chile's 1981 Water Code, water in the country can be owned and traded as a commodity. The law allows individuals and private companies — including avocado producers — to request water rights that are then allocated by the government. Those granted rights are allowed to extract and use a certain volume of water. Lucas Palacios, Chile's vice minister for public works, stressed that water for human consumption is free in Chile, and guaranteed under the law. "Water isn't privatized" but instead is regulated, he told the Thomson Reuters Foundation in an interview in his office in Santiago. He said he recognised that what was happening in Petorca was "rather an inhumane situation" and said the government was working to improve the region's drinking water system so residents did not need to rely on trucked-in water. "But this will take time. It will take years," he said. And "it's important to note that the situation in Petorca is quite extreme" compared to others parts of the country, he said. Gimena Gonzalez, a resident of Petorca, Chile, pictured by the well on her farmland that is suffering from a lack of water, December 10, 2018. According to the mayor of Petorca, Gustavo Valdenegro, avocado trees have been planted "indiscriminately" in the region, with few limits and controls. Meanwhile, climate change has brought lower rainfall, exacerbating drought. When the big avocado firms appeared, starting around 2006, the "green gold" they cultivated initially was seen as a potential boom for Petorca, the three-time mayor said. "It was going to be the panacea. We were going to have a better life and better jobs," he said. But "at the same time, we had a tremendous drought and from then on conflict between the community and the big companies began", he said. Daniel Bosch, a big avocado producer and resident in Petorca, pointed out that the region was one of Chile's poorest before large-scale avocado farming arrived more than a decade ago. The avocado industry has brought much-needed economic growth and jobs to the former backwater, Bosch said, noting that, with avocado investment, "this area has improved considerably". But residents in the region's hard-scrabble towns said it is mainly the avocado producers who have grown richer, and that many of the jobs they have created are short-term employment, not the steady work locals had hoped for. As water resources in Petorca have come under increasing pressure, accusations of water theft by big growers have emerged. According to Chilean environmental group MODATIMA, big producers are using greater amounts of water than their allocations allow. Rodrigo Mundaca, an agronomist at MODATIMA, the Movement for the Protection of Water, Land Rights and the Environment, said some farms are quietly expanding their plantations ever closer to riverbeds, illegally draining river water. Others are drilling unauthorized groundwater wells, reaching deeper and deeper for scarce water, as wells owned by residents — who cannot afford to dig as deep — run dry, he said. Some big avocado companies also are building illegal water pipes to ensure they have enough water for irrigation, according to MODATIMA. A 2011 study by Chile's water authority, Direccion General de Aguas, using satellite imagery, showed at least 65 illegal underground pipes and systems delivering water from rivers to avocado orchards run by private firms in Petorca. "In Chile, water is not safeguarded as a human right," Mundaca said. Once he could swim in the local rivers, but for 12 years water has barely flowed in them, he said. Meanwhile, "the hills have been turned into orchards. The hills don't have water shortages," he pointed out. The campaign group has denounced water thefts and shortages in Petorca, including before a local court and in the international media. In 2017, that led to death threats, Mundaca said. "I've been threatened by phone twice," he said, noting that he no longer goes out alone, to try to protect himself. Human rights groups Amnesty International and Front Line Defenders have documented the threats. The Thomson Reuters Foundation contacted Cabilfrut, the largest exporter of Hass avocados in Petorca, and Chile's Hass Avocado Board, but both declined to be interviewed about the situation in Petorca. Chilean avocado grower Baika S.A. did not respond to email requests for comment. Bosch, the large-scale local avocado grower, said the government should build big reservoirs in Petorca, to catch and store more water to address local water shortages, particularly during the dry summer months. Daniel Bosch, an avocado producer and exporter, pictured in his home in Chile's Valparaiso region, December 10, 2018. Similar private reservoirs on avocado farms are what keeps water flowing to the trees in dry times, he said. "I have reservoirs of around 50,000 cubic meters [13 million US gallons]," said Bosch. "In winter, I fill them up. I retain the extra water, and I use it now in summer when I need it." Farmers in the area have been asking the government to build additional reservoirs for the past 50 years for the community's benefit, he added. Chile's new government, which came to office in March 2018, says it has stepped up efforts to monitor and regulate the use of water, including by using satellite imagery and drones. That has helped curb unauthorized water use, said Palacios, the national public works vice minister. "Never before have mass inspections been carried out on the scale that we have done in the Petorca region," Palacios said. "What that has done is precisely to discourage and prevent illegal (water) extraction, and of course, illegal wells." Last year, the ministry conducted 167 inspections, which have so far resulted in nine fines issued against companies for illegal water use. Companies are allowed to appeal the decisions. But Mundaca, of MODATIMA, said fines do little to stop the problem as companies see paying them as a normal cost of doing business. "We are not against avocados. We want avocados to reach markets in Europe and the United States," he said. "But [those] avocados should not be as a result of the systematic violation of the human right to water," he said. (Reporting by Nicky Milne, writing by Anastasia Moloney; editing by Laurie Goering and Belinda Goldsmith. Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, women's and LGBT+ rights, human trafficking, property rights, and climate change. Visit http://news.trust.org)

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How To Index and Slice Strings in Python The Python string data type is a sequence comprised of at least one individual characters that could comprise of letters, numbers, whitespace characters, or images. Since a string is a sequence, it tends to be gotten to in the very manners that other sequence-based data types are, through ordering and slicing. This instructional exercise will control you through getting to strings through ordering, slicing them through their character sequences, and go over some checking and character area techniques. How Strings are Indexed Like the list data type that has items that correspond to an index number, each of a string’s characters also correspond to an index number, starting with the index number 0. For the string Sammy Shark! the index breakdown looks like this: As you can see, the first S starts at index 0, and the string ends at index 11 with the We also notice that the whitespace character between Shark also corresponds with its own index number. In this case, the index number associated with the whitespace is 5. The exclamation point ( !) also has an index number associated with it. Any other symbol or punctuation mark, such as *#$&.;?, is also a character and would be associated with its own index number. The fact that each character in a Python string has a corresponding index number allows us to access and manipulate strings in the same ways we can with other sequential data types. Accessing Characters by Positive Index Number By referencing index numbers, we can isolate one of the characters in a string. We do this by putting the index numbers in square brackets. Let’s declare a string, print it, and call the index number in square brackets: ss = "Sammy Shark!" print(ss) When we refer to a particular index number of a string, Python returns the character that is in that position. Since the letter y is at index number 4 of the string ss = "Sammy Shark!", when we print ss we receive y as the output. Index numbers allow us to access specific characters within a string. Accessing Characters by Negative Index Number If we have a long string and we want to pinpoint an item towards the end, we can also count backwards from the end of the string, starting at the index number For the same string Sammy Shark! the negative index breakdown looks like this: By using negative index numbers, we can print out the character r, by referring to its position at the -3 index, like so: Using negative index numbers can be advantageous for isolating a single character towards the end of a long string. We can likewise get down on a scope of characters from the string. Let’s assume we might want to simply print the word Shark. We can do as such by making a slice, which is a sequence of characters inside a unique string. With slices, we can call different character esteems by making a scope of file numbers isolated by a colon When constructing a slice, as in [6:11], the first index number is where the slice starts (inclusive), and the second index number is where the slice ends (exclusive), which is why in our example above the range has to be the index number that would occur just after the string ends. When slicing strings, we are creating a substring, which is essentially a string that exists within another string. When we call ss[6:11], we are calling the substring Shark that exists within the string If we want to include either end of a string, we can omit one of the numbers in the string[n:n] syntax. For example, if we want to print the first word of string ss — “Sammy” — we can do so by typing: We did this by omitting the index number before the colon in the slice syntax, and only including the index number after the colon, which refers to the end of the substring. To print a substring that starts in the middle of a string and prints to the end, we can do so by including only the index number before the colon, like so: By counting just the file number before the colon and avoiding the subsequent record number with regards to the sentence structure, the substring will go from the personality of the list number called to the furthest limit of the string. You can also use negative index numbers to slice a string. As we went through before, negative index numbers of a string start at -1, and count down from there until we reach the beginning of the string. When using negative index numbers, we’ll start with the lower number first as it occurs earlier in the string. Let’s use two negative index numbers to slice the string The substring “ark” is printed from the string “Sammy Shark!” because the character “a” occurs at the -4 index number position, and the character “k” occurs just before the -1 index number position. Specifying Stride while Slicing Strings String slicing can acknowledge a third boundary notwithstanding two index numbers. The third boundary specifies the stride, which alludes to the number of characters to push ahead after the main character is recovered from the string. Up until this point, we have excluded the stride boundary, and Python defaults to the stride of 1, so that each character between two index numbers is recovered. Let’s look again at the example above that prints out the substring “Shark”: We can obtain the same results by including a third parameter with a stride of 1: So, a stride of 1 will take in every character between two index numbers of a slice. If we omit the stride parameter then Python will default with 1. If, instead, we increase the stride, we will see that characters are skipped: Specifying the stride of 2 as the last parameter in the Python syntax ss[0:12:2] skips every other character. Let’s look at the characters that are printed in red: Note that the whitespace character at index number 5 is also skipped with a stride of 2 specified. If we use a larger number for our stride parameter, we will have a significantly smaller substring: Specifying the stride of 4 as the last parameter in the Python syntax ss[0:12:4] prints only every fourth character. Again, let’s look at the characters that are printed in red: In this example the whitespace character is skipped as well. Since we are printing the whole string we can omit the two index numbers and keep the two colons within the syntax to achieve the same result: Omitting the two index numbers and retaining colons will keep the whole string within range, while adding a final parameter for stride will specify the number of characters to skip. Additionally, you can indicate a negative numeric value for the stride, which we can use to print the original string in reverse order if we set the stride to -1: The two colons without specified parameter will include all the characters from the original string, a stride of 1 will include every character without skipping, and negating that stride will reverse the order of the characters. Let’s do this again but with a stride of -2: In this example, ss[::-2], we are dealing with the entirety of the original string as no index numbers are included in the parameters, and reversing the string through the negative stride. Additionally, by having a stride of -2 we are skipping every other letter of the reversed string: The whitespace character is printed in this example. By specifying the third parameter of the Python slice syntax, you are indicating the stride of the substring that you are pulling from the original string. While we are pondering the significant index numbers that relate to characters inside strings, it merits experiencing a portion of the strategies that check strings or return index numbers. This can be valuable for restricting the quantity of characters we might want to acknowledge inside a client input structure, or contrasting strings. Like other successive data types, strings can be checked through a few strategies. We’ll first look at the len() method which can get the length of any data type that is a sequence, whether ordered or unordered, including strings, lists, tuples, and dictionaries. Let’s print the length of the string The length of the string “Sammy Shark!” is 12 characters long, including the whitespace character and the exclamation point symbol. Instead of using a variable, we can also pass a string right into the print(len("Let's print the length of this string.")) len() method counts the total number of characters within a string. If we want to count the number of times either one particular character or a sequence of characters shows up in a string, we can do so with the str.count() method. Let’s work with our string ss = "Sammy Shark!" and count the number of times the character “a” appears: We can search for another character: Though the letter “S” is in the string, it is important to keep in mind that each character is case-sensitive. If we want to search for all the letters in a string regardless of case, we can use the str.lower() method to convert the string to all lower-case first. You can read more about this method in “An Introduction to String Methods in Python 3.” str.count() with a sequence of characters: likes = "Sammy likes to swim in the ocean, likes to spin up servers, and likes to smile." print(likes.count("likes")) In the string likes, the character sequence that is equivalent to “likes” occurs 3 times in the original string. We can also find at what position a character or character sequence occurs in a string. We can do this with the str.find() method, and it will return the position of the character based on index number. We can check to see where the first “m” occurs in the string The first character “m” occurs at the index position of 2 in the string “Sammy Shark!” We can review the index number positions of the string Let’s check to see where the first “likes” character sequence occurs in the string The first instance of the character sequence “likes” begins at index number position 6, which is where the character l of the sequence likes is positioned. What if we want to see where the second sequence of “likes” begins? We can do that by passing a second parameter to the str.find() method that will start at a particular index number. So, instead of starting at the beginning of the string, let’s start after the index number 9: In this second example that begins at the index number of 9, the first occurrence of the character sequence “likes” begins at index number 34. Additionally, we can specify an end to the range as a third parameter. Like slicing, we can do so by counting backwards using a negative index number: print(likes.find("likes", 40, -6)) This last example searches for the position of the sequence “likes” between the index numbers of 40 and -6. Since the final parameter entered is a negative number it will be counting from the end of the original string. The string methods of str.find() can be used to determine length, counts of characters or character sequences, and index positions of characters or character sequences within strings.

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Sociology Journal Essay Sociology Journal Essay Sociology attempts to help explain how we work as a whole. I find it interesting that it emerged during the 19th century as a result of the development of a changing world and the new institutions and phenomenon's that surrounded it. It is also interesting that theories constructed almost 200 years ago still have some relevance today and some of the movements such as trade unions still exist today, even if they are not as influential as before. Although the paradigmatic thinkers of modernity were writing in different social and historical contexts, since the 19th century the pace of change has accelerated in all facets of life so our worldviews and the institutions that govern us will probably change will probably change even during our lifetime. This is in stark contrast to the stagnant premodern life described by sociologists and other disciplines. What I have also noticed is that the whole notion of modernity and sociology as a discipline is supposed to tell us about how we work as a whole society, however it appears quite Euro centric as all the thinkers are European and the revolutions and processes brought on by the 19th such as industrialisation, commercialisation, rapid urbanization and the decreasing importance of religion are very much specific to the European life experience at the time. Although this is changing now as the world is becoming increasingly global, non western worldviews and alternatives to the European sociological perspective would be interesting to examine to see if their diagnosis of modernity is different to the European one. Marx's attempt to explain modern society was very relevant to the time when he wrote. Even if some of his views are quite radical, romantic and utopian, he was very forward thinking. Rather than merely point out the problems of capitalism and the antagonistic relations between the capitalists and proletariat he also specified how the workers could change this class relationship. This lecture is more about Marx's general critique of modernity and capitalism rather than ways of solving the problem. Marx's theory of the alienation showing the human cost of capitalism has contemporary relevance. By drawing a contemporary parallel that I can relate to, this makes it easier to imagine the life of the industrial worker during the 19th century. Although the strands of alienation described essentially relate to industrial workers during Marx's time, I think that alienation of workers in some professions still does exist even though capitalism has progressed and the nature of work is always changing. Alienation of the individual from the object of their labour is evident in sweatshops such as Nike where the workers get paid minimally and cannot even afford a pair of the shoes that they produce. The alienation of the worker from their productive activity is also evident in factories today such as the automobile industry where workers are still designated specific monotonous tasks and bodily functions. Today, particularly in the Western world there has been a growth in service and professional sectors where some forms of alienation still exist, however alienation in mass production seems more relevant in developing nations with less regulations, such as China where there is a large manufacturing industry. Karl Marx Part II Although Marx's critique of Modernity was insightful, his account of how to overcome the problems of capitalism had some limitations. The utopian dimension of his thought and the fact that he overlooks the progressive qualities of capitalism are particularly evident. The idea that we can actively choose our future and influence history is appealing. However, abolishing private property and the division of labour would improve the inequality between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie but implementing such a thing is virtually impossible. As we have seen in Communist regimes during the 20th century, in practice such control of life impinges on the freedom of individuals and people are no better off than under the capitalist system. The idea that the revolutionary transformation into a communist society will eventually benefit everyone so it therefore is non-sectarian is false. Marx was clearly an advocate for the interests of the workers and despised the bourgeoisie and all institutions that supposed them. So I don't understand how he believed that his work in the Communist Manifesto was an objective scientific, standpoint when it was clearly ideological. The capitalist system and division of labour ensures that institutions are competitive and society to progresses. Today healthy competition under the capitalist system encourages us to work harder and constantly develop more efficient ways of producing and operating. The needs and wants of consumers are catered for and we have more choice. So although alienation has detrimental effects on the individual, the capitalist system has also benefited us. His prediction that capitalism would collapse is still yet to happen but it is possible that as we progress a different system could replace it, even if not in our lifetime. Nietzsche's critique on Enlightenment is quite difficult for me to grasp. I understand that he criticised democracy because of its egalitarian ideals that weakened the aristocracy but critiquing beliefs and ideologies without blindly accepting a particularly world view does not seem to be negative or unhealthy. The idea of a ruling morality or nobles who are naturally superior is elitist and Nietzsche is so specific in how they should be that I wonder if such extreme “healthy” free spirits exist. A class of moral individuals with new values and new ways of orienting ourselves in the world away, from the suspicion of the masses sounds like an interesting idea but with very few individuals, if any fitting the mould of the idea individual in Nietzsche's eyes, I don't understand how such a society could exist except on paper on in his head! Marx was also forward thinking and radical but his suggestions of overcoming the crisis he saw in modernity are easier to imagine than Nietzsche's ideal society. Nietzsche Part II The idea of the sickness of society is a theme that is particularly interesting in this lecture. Suspicion, doubt and skepticism, which are supposed to be the hidden results of Enlightenment according to Neitzsche, can also be positive. Previously in pre modern societies, people blindly accepted religion as the universal truth without questioning the possibility of alternatives, which seemed more harmful than anything. The Enlightenment period helped bring about the plurality of truths and interests and encouraged people to be critical and question things for themselves rather than passively accept the world for what it is. The idea of developing an elite group who rules to overcome the crisis of modernity is very different to Marx's egalitarian perspective but they are both radical in their views. If Nietzsche's answer is to turn against normality, reject the possibility of universal truths and be a cultural creative, then the fact that there is no single universal truth is a truth in itself. What does his idea of creativity mean? He does not seem to mean it in the conventional sense, when I think of someone creative, I think of someone artistic and often an individual who does not conform but a morally creative person seems somewhat harder to imagine, particularly if Nietzsche himself does not consider himself as one of these elite beings The vocation and choosing only one value sphere to orient your whole life around was Weber's answer to the loss of meaning and disenchantment in modernity. The idea that choosing a value sphere whether it be science, religion or art and not mixing it with any others seems quite radical. I don't understand why people can't engage in many vocations. It is very rare that an individual will orient himself or herself around only one vocation. Although individuals have the freedom and autonomy to choose their own vocation and orientation to life, the fact that Weber wants the self-disciplined individual to ignore all other value spheres seems to impinge on our freedom and restrict us rather than emancipate us from the iron cage of modernity. It seems contradictory that he calls modernity an iron cage of modernity because the loss of freedom and meaning yet his solution seems equally as restricting. The idea of the vocation seem requires a level of self-sacrifice that many would not be able to achieve. Even scientists today can involve themselves in many vocations; they could be a scientist as a profession, a sportsman, carpenter and musician in their leisure time and a parent in their private life. Weber Part II The postmodern self does not inhibit one view but rather we play with a plethora of ideas but we do not fully inhibit one. The Protestant work ethic seemed to be the reason that capitalism was successful. People worked hard, disciplined and saved their money, which in turn created more wealth but the thrifty work ethic has changed a lot since the early 20th century to one of mass consumption and little saving. The issue that we live in a rationalised modernity is very much part of democracy so although Weber was committed to democracy there was no place for an active civil society so his idea of democracy seems different to the postmodern concept of democracy. The crisis of social solidarity in modernity that Durkheim discusses seems a fair argument. The conscience collective that held organic solidarity together mainly though religion was no longer there. I just wonder if why we can't have many conscience collectives and social solidarities. Maybe I am getting confused but social solidarity seem to be some function such as religion, which keeps individuals connected somehow. Instead of the anomie forming, is it possible that we can just choose many smaller collective groups to orient ourselves with rather than one homogenous group? The idea that modern social solidarity was underdeveloped and lagging in modernity ignored the many new forces such as an increasingly diverse, cosmopolitan world where social solidarity was changing but possibly not underdeveloped. The idea of a moral education to seems rather radical. If it wasn't going to be implemented by state educational institutions I don't know how civil society could implement such a moral education that could radically transform the nature of individuality. The concept sounds very useful but could it really change the condition of anomie? The Frankfurt School The critique of the totally administered society seems to have some strength but the comparison between Capitalist, fascist and socialist systems seems quite extreme. The Frankfurt Schools critique on consumer culture is useful because to a great extent the individuality advertised in consumer goods is nothing profound and often we are led like sheep to believe differently. However, what we consume in mass culture often makes us feel safer conforming and consuming similar things to people who we affiliate ourselves with, such as a subculture. We often form our identities around groups we belong and this is often through how we consume. The culture industry has become somewhat conformist, bland, and safe and often promotes certain ideologies and values however, Adorno underestimates the intelligence and strength of the consumer of mass culture. Although we are part of this administered society most consumers are aware that mass culture often promotes certain values and stereotypes but we know not to take it too seriously. We are still able to enjoy popular culture without letting it brainwash us and destroy our individuality. On the other hand, the mass media does often promote some harmful stereotypes such as ones of Muslims in the media and often homogenises whole groups. This leads me to belief that there is some aspect of an administered society through the bureaucratic control over the institutions in out society that promote the interests of the powerful. However, Adorno and Horkhiemers claims are extreme and they ignore the positive progressive aspect of modernity. The idea of the Panopticon and its impact on the individual is quite distressing and disturbing. This is probably because Foucault's work is more recent than the previous thinkers and the idea of panoptic disciplinary power is so relevant and evident in today's society. The prevalence of video cameras in train stations, buildings, ATMs, shops and basically anywhere we go when we leave our homes is exemplifies that anyone could be watching us at anytime. This in turn does have a controlling effect on our behaviour because we know we could be watching at any time. Even from inside our homes we can become virtual prisoners of this panoptic power with phone tapping, the Internet and other modern technologies anyone can find out anything about us at anytime if they had the need to. The prevalence of this control is particularly evident in the workplace particularly call centres and offices with computers because every bit of work is monitored and recorded which is used to control the worker and ensure the worker works properly. Now we are so used to being monitored and watched, we may often forget and behave normally as if no one was watching. This could be a form of resistance of control. How can the autonomous individual be the outcome of productive power not a resistance of power. The idea that this power can only exist because of resistance seems fair in most cases but sometimes it seems we are being watched for the sake of being watched just so people have access to all aspects of our life even if we have no intention of resisting or engaging in deviant behaviour. Heller's diagnosis of a dissatisfied society seems quite correct. Our needs and wants are expanding and we do not have the resources to satisfy them all. However, the way in which Heller believes we should overcome this dissatisfaction seems elitist and not possible for everyone. What does turning our contingency to destiny really mean for the individual. Our freedom to choose our own destiny and realise our potentials is seems similar to Weber's idea of the vocation but even if we choose I'm not sure how this manages dissatisfaction. Capitalism, industrialism and democracy are all strong forces but their tendencies don't seem to be only conflicting. The mutual dependence of these institutions is prevalent because if it wasn't for industrialism, then capitalism would not have proliferated and the institutions of democracy with the self determining individual also makes room for the capitalists to succeed.

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The Tale of an Ungrateful City Jul 15, 2020 / Written by: Professor Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira A small town having all of the conventional characteristics of a small town: a central public square leading to a graceful church with stained-glass windows, a tower, bells, and a clock; across from the church, a water fountain; then, the homes, modest but comfortable; nearby, adjacent to one narrow street, an elementary school; then, more narrow streets, all of them blending into the peaceful green pastures at a distance; and not so far away, a dark forest, from which wild boars and packs of wolves come out with a certain frequency. She instructs with angelic tenderness and patience. She is tall, alert, modest, and unpretentious. A young shepherdess, who leaves early every morning to take her sheep to pasture. She is youthful, pure, loving, and at ease with isolation and prayer. He is not an inexperienced amateur, but a modest public servant, who is called from time to time to recruit the most courageous men in the small town and lead them into the dark forest to combat the voracious animals. It is a hard job indeed, consisting of long journeys and tiring vigils. He is between 20 and 30 years old, strong and powerful, a leader made for the job. His hair is thick and bushy; his walk, firm and heavy; his handshake, strong, enabling one to feel the calluses on his fingers. Early in the morning, one may see him coming back from a hunt, frequently carrying upon his shoulders a dead animal, still dripping warm blood. He is jovial and dedicated, and ever since he accepted the job, not a single wolf has come into the town, nor has a wild boar destroyed the crops. When he crosses the central public square, the comments that are made about him are not all identical. Some find him agreeable, appreciating his happy and youthful courage and his frank and masculine outlook. But others resent him. His presence in town makes them uncomfortable, especially when he recalls some of the unpleasant dangers he faces in the forest. The coldness with which he hunts, corners, wounds, and then kills animals blurs the vision of these persons, making it difficult for them to perceive the kindness of his soul. To see him happily carrying the blood-dripping body of an animal in the exercise of his brave profession, raises in the minds of some of his fellow residents the impression that he might be capable of spilling the blood of anything, even a human being. To sum the whole matter up, to some he appears to be the personification of masculinity, dedication, and talent; to others, he is a hideous image of fighting, violence, and war. The grandfather looks his role; having a long white beard, deep clear eyes, and shaky and bony hands. He is a little deaf. He is retired. He is between 50 and 60 years old, a little too fat, with beady eyes which move constantly. He is always changing the tone of his voice. At times it is serene; at other times, harsh; and at other times, almost whispering. He has traveled many places, analyzed many things, and become a little rich. He is the boss of the town, having solid contacts in all of the neighboring towns and villages. Through his hands pass all of the significant decisions, and everyone goes to him for advice about serious matters. By being in contact with him, everyone learns what is happening outside of the village and region. A bar, small and crowded, where a subject of conversation has been established, and ideas about it are passing from one table to the next. Everyone is talking about the main events of the year, and the conversation leads to the question of who is the most popular person in town? There are many opinions. Some say it is the beautiful young shepherdess. When she leaves with her flock, she appears to be going out to meet her enchanted prince, so graceful and delicate is she. When she returns slightly tired, she draws sympathy from all, as she symbolizes in a charming way the hardships of the pastoral work in which the residents of the region are engaged. Others choose the teacher. To them, she represents learning, wisdom, culture, the wonderful goods of the spirit, and the opening of new opportunities for future generations. She is more than an agent of economic production; she is a factor of human edification. To them, she is a shepherdess of children, which should be worth more than to be the shepherdess of sheep. They recall the tenderness with which she conducts the children toward the central public square, to lead them in prayer, with the sound of the bells announcing the end of the activities of the day. They also recall the way she leads, afterwards, the children in play, around the fountain, singing and skipping, before taking them back to their homes. Nobody knows with certainty whom to choose. There is not a person who fails to appreciate both of them. But soon the leaders of two trends of thought begin to appear, seeking the answer to a higher problem. Which is worth more: the prosperity symbolized by the one, or the knowledge symbolized by the other? And from another point of view, which deserves the greater honor: the grace of the shepherdess, or the sweet seriousness of the teacher? These are universal problems, problems of all times, which for this very reason arouse great interest. During a lull in the discussion, the voice of the grandfather is heard: “What about heroism? It too has its merit. It is a merit which we must take into consideration if we are going to be fair. We are talking about merits, aren’t we? As you all know, I was a soldier. I could feel the wonder of the wind that lifted our enthusiasm in the hours of combat. We fought hard so that the normal life of labor, prayer, study, and rest might continue: the shepherds leading their sheep to pasture, the teachers instructing their pupils, the wives preparing their homes for their husbands returning from work, and the churches raising prayers for the glory of God in the highest of heavens and for peace on earth to men of good will. We fought so that the principles of justice and charity, upon which the whole Christian order is based, would not be violated by an aggressor and enemy. Our souls became enlarged proportionately to the ideal for which we were fighting. Our temper became stronger than steel, and our courage greater than the wild boar or the voracious wolf. We would go forth happily to fight, to wound, and to kill, knowing that we might be wounded and even die. The ideal was everything. “Oh, how wonderful was that ideal, how beautiful the fight in its sacred grandeur.” The old man was standing up now. His deep voice could be heard in the silence of the room. No one imagined that such a frail figure could monopolize the attention of the participants in the room as he did. Then, the old man, becoming tired, sat down. His last words: “I propose that you go beyond the teacher and the shepherdess, and also consider if there is a place for the name of our hunter of wild beasts. Couldn’t there be a place of honor for someone who is a hero?” There was emotion and a certain uneasiness among the listeners. They recalled that some days ago the parish priest made a sermon in which he spoke about these words of Our Lord: “Greater love has no man than he lay down his life for his friend.” The debate continued, and the parties were still divided. But now everyone was either for or against the heroic guardian. Those who were against him no longer cared whether the shepherdess or the teacher won first place. All that they wanted now was to keep the guardian from getting the place of honor. But there were others who were convinced that it was indispensable to honor the hero. As was usual in that small town, when the time arrived to make the important decision, the businessman took the floor. Everyone turned toward him, and, little by little, that ever-changing voice began to be heard. He touched everyone’s heart when he enthusiastically praised the mission of the shepherdess. They were all convinced when he spoke about the importance of culture. And at last, as if pronouncing the final verdict, addressing himself to the old man, he said he respected him, but the days of fighting were gone. The world would one day proceed and indeed had already begun to fuse all religions, all races, and all peoples. Intelligent men could have nothing but horror for the spilling of blood. The fact that someone, upon being hired, had accepted the mission of killing wild animals, was a sad necessity, but to place fighting and the pretense of heroism on the same level with culture and economic production was an anachronism. The businessman concluded by proposing the removal of the name of the slayer from the list, but at the same time asked all to show their esteem for the old man by giving him a hand. Everyone clapped his hands. Only a few appeared unhappy. It was late, and they decided to leave. The next morning no one saw the hunter at the square. They didn’t see him any time after that either. He had decided to move to other lands, far away, to become rich doing something less dangerous. And the small town forgot about the incident. Next year the number of wild boars and voracious wolves increased a little. The year after that, their number increased still more. In the third year, the number of farms decreased. Some children had been made orphans and some families had become poor. The retired businessman complained: “How can one live in such a place?” And he moved away. As for the small town, it continued to decay and to die. What should this story be called? What title should be given to this article? “Peace, Culture, and Heroism?” Or maybe, “Ungratefulness and Punishment?” I don’t know. Maybe we could call it, “The Crime of the Villainous Demagogue.” Another idea, “The Hawks and the Doves;” perhaps this would be the best. The reader may choose for himself. The preceding article was originally published in the Folha de S.Paulo on May 10, 1970. It has been translated and adapted for publication without his revision. –Ed.

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A time line of Coronavirus developments to date Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses. They cause a range of illness ranging from the common cold and pneumonia to other severe diseases, such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV) and now 2019-nCoV, the current outbreak. 31 December 2019 | Cases of pneumonia in Wuhan, China, are first reported to the WHO (World Health Organization). During this reported period, the virus is unknown. The cases occur between 12 December and 29 December, according to Wuhan Municipal Health. A 34 year old doctor warning about an imminent outbreak is not believed and is warned by police against spreading fear. 1 January 1 2020 | Chinese health authorities close the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market after it is discovered that wild animals sold there may be the source of the virus. 5 January 2020 | China announces that the unknown pneumonia cases in Wuhan are not SARS or MERS. In a statement, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission says a retrospective probe into the outbreak has been initiated. 7 January 2020 | Chinese authorities confirm that they have identified the virus as a novel coronavirus, named 2019-nCoV by the WHO. 11 January 2020 | The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission announces the first death caused by the coronavirus. A 61-year-old man, exposed to the virus at the seafood market, died on 9 January after respiratory failure caused by severe pneumonia. 13 January 2020 | Thai authorities report a case of infection caused by the coronavirus. The infected individual is a Chinese national who had arrived from Wuhan. 6 January 2020 | Japanese authorities confirm that a Japanese man who traveled to Wuhan is infected with the virus. 17 January 2020 | Chinese health officials confirm that a second person has died in China. The US responds to the outbreak by implementing screenings for symptoms at airports in San Francisco, New York and Los Angeles. 20 January 2020 | China reports 139 new cases of the sickness, including a third death. The National Institutes of Health announces that it is working on a vaccine against the coronavirus. “The NIH is in the process of taking the first steps towards the development of a vaccine,” says Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 21 January 2020 | Officials in Washington state confirm the first case on US soil. 22 January 2020 | Wuhan closed off and quarantined. All routs in and out of the city via airport and railway stations or roads are closed trapping more than 11 million people inside the quarantine following news that the death toll from the Wuhan Coronavirus has risen to 17. Chinese authorities confirm at least 547 cases in the mainland. With food and medical supplies rapidly depleted grocery prices rocket to $9 USD for 1 KG of carrots. There are wide spread reports of local shops profiteering on essentials such as food, medicine and hygiene products. 23 January 2020 | At an emergency committee convened by the World Health Organization, the WHO says that the Wuhan coronavirus does not yet constitute a public health emergency of international concern. The Beijing Culture and Tourism Bureau cancels all large-scale Lunar New Year celebrations in an effort to contain the growing spread of Wuhan coronavirus. 26 January 2020 | The China Association of Travel Services reports that all tours, including international ones, will be suspended. 27 January 2020 | Viral videos on social media blame wild meat markets selling live animals as the root cause of the new strain of Coronavirus. In particular bat soup. A variety of social media posts all claim to be the true original host with animals from bats, aardvarks and wolves being blamed. Whilst the WHO are investigating the link between the outbreak and the live wild animals sold as food in these markets, non of the social media posts have been called credible. Miss informations, profiteering and sensationalism for financial gains are clearly surfacing on a terrifying scale. 28 January 2020 | Chinese President Xi Jinping meets with WHO Director General Tedros Adhanom in Beijing. At the meeting, Xi and the WHO agree to send a team of international experts, including US CDC (Center for Disease Control) and Prevention staff, to China to investigate the coronavirus outbreak. 30 January 2020 | The US reports its first confirmed case of person-to-person transmission of the Wuhan coronavirus. 31 January 2020 | WHO declares the Coronavirus outbreak as a global public heath emergency. The Donald Trump administration announces it will deny entry to foreign nationals who have traveled in China in the last 14 days. 1 February 2020 | Coronavirus spreads to the UK, the furthest infected country from China. Brits waiting to be eventuated from Wuhan to the UK caught in a dispute regarding a refusal to take relatives who did not carry a full British passport. This, according to reports by the BBC and Chinese media lead to dual nationality families being separated. Only 83 Brits were eventually transported to the UK and held in quarantine. Two people from the same family from the city of York and a third person were confirmed to have the virus. 3’700 international tourists including 61 infected with Coronavirus are quarantined at sea off the coast of Hong Kong en rout to Japan. They will remain in quarantine until 19 February 2020 at the earliest. 2 February 2020 | First death outside of China. A 44 year old male died in the Philippines. Ireland issues GPs with face masks and gowns as the governments asks Irish citizens in China to return home. Medics remind doctors and public that face masks will not prevent the virus. Only an air filtered breather covering the mouth and nose and air tight eye protection would be of significant benefit. Journalists in Wuhan show themselves wearing swimming goggles and two layers of different face masks under a scarf wrapped around the nose and mouth as their form of daily protection when in public spaces. Two British teenage boys accused of profiteering after making £10’000 GBP profit selling standard unfiltered face masks online. UK research labs where development towards 2019-nCov treatment is being conducted put under armed police guard. 3 February 2020 | China’s Foreign Ministry accuses the US government of inappropriately reacting to the outbreak and spreading fear by enforcing travel restrictions. The death toll of this New Coronavirus surpasses that of 2003 SARS coronavirus. To date there have been 360 confirmed fatalities in main land china alone. Surpassing the year long outbreak of SARS which killed 349 in China and 774 globally. New Coronavirus is confirmed in 25 countries. US confirms 11 cases of 2019-nCoV. A new hospital is built and fitted with 1’000 ned in Wuhan China in just 10 days as the WHO praises China for a rapid, robust and sophisticated response to the outbreak. 4 February 2020 | US is the only country not to quarantine repatriated citizens from China. All other countries enforce 16 day quarantine to wait out the 14 day incubation period. China and Europe accuse the US of attempting to use fear to crash the Chinese stock exchange. Reports of racially aggravated hate crimes against Chinese rise in Philippines, US, Canada and UK as authorities warn against far right groups “highjacking the outbreak to spread their hate”. 5 February 2020 | A 28 year old Canadian man was arrested and charged after forcing a plane to return to base by joking on a plane that he had 2019-nCoV to boost his social media and to create a “viral post”. A 31 year old woman in Austria sparked s police hunt after she escaped form quarantine infected with 2019-nCoV. 6 February 2020 | Chinese Stock Markets plunge heavily with China and Europe blaming the US for intentional fear mongering and failure to quarantine returning US citizens. Singapore confirms 33 cases of New Coronavirus. UK confirms third case of coronavirus was contracted in Singapore not China. Russia quarantines 144 citizens in Siberia. 7 February 2020 | First cure – A Chinese woman infected with the new strain of Coronavirus showed a dramatic improvement after she was given a heavy mix of anti-viral medications and HIV treatments, Thailand’s health ministry announced. A cruise ship docked in New York City is quarantined with 4 suspected infected passengers. The UK announces that 150 more citizens will be flown back from China and quarantined in Milton Keynes. The doctor that discovered the outbreak and tried to warn the public, and was subsequently disbelieved and warned by police against spreading rumours of a deadly virus – has died of New Coronavirus aged 34, his warnings, scientific findings and fears all proved to be correct. The death toll in mainland China reaches 724 with over 34’000 infected and the Chinese quarantine zone now covering an area home to more than 33 million people. Apple closes multiple stores in China to protect staff and customers from the outbreak. Since you’re here … … we have a small favour to ask. More people are reading Al-Sahawat Times than ever but advertising revenues across the global media industry are falling fast. And unlike many news organisations, we haven’t put up a total paywall. We want to keep our journalism as open as we can. So you can see why we need to ask for your help. Al-Sahawat Times’ independent, investigative journalism takes a lot of time, money and hard work to produce. But we do it because we believe truly ethical media and an unbias perspective really matters. “I appreciate there not being a paywall: it is more democratic for the media to be available for all and not a commodity to be purchased by a few. I’m happy to make a contribution so others with less means still have access to information.” If everyone who reads our reporting, who likes it, helps fund it, the future of ethical media and the futures of our staff and their families would be much more secure. For as little as £1, you can support Al-Sahawat Times and it only takes a minute. Thank you. This story is available on: APPLE NEWS | AL-SAHAWAT TIMES Talk to a journalist Follow Al-Sahawat Times ⬆️ Follow on Instagram ⬆️ Follow on Twitter ⬆️ Follow on LinkedIn ⬆️ Follow on Facebook ⬆️ Follow on YouTube Read it on FLIPBOARD

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The Nimrod Expedition (1907 – 1909). How the loss of Shackleton’s Socks changed the course of Antarctic History On December 6th, 1908, as Ernest Shackleton, Frank Wild, Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams scaled Antarctica’s Beardmore Glacier; Socks plummeted to his death, lost to one of the many crevasses that fractured the pathway to the polar plateau. He was the last to die, of the four ponies that had started the southern journey. Many of the unfortunate beasts had perished in Antarctica prior to the loss of Socks, and many more would die on subsequent expeditions, but the death of this particular pony would have ramifications that reverberate to this very day. With each step, each mile and each expedition, the explorers of the heroic age of Antarctic exploration, gradually unravelled the enigmas, of the mysterious white continent. Between the years 1902 and 1911, Antarctica was considered the last great prize in exploration worth striving for. To garner support, and more importantly funding, each expedition sailed with the promise of scientific discovery, but at the heart of all quests was the ambition to be first to stand at the South Pole. In 1901, Robert Falcon Scott’s DiscoveryExpedition, was the first to set off for Antarctica, with the intention of a ‘southern journey’. This was the term the explorers had coined for an assault on the South Pole. Scott’s effort commenced on November 2nd, 1902 and he took with him Third Officer, Ernest Shackleton, the expedition’s junior doctor and zoologist, Edward Wilson, and a party of sled dogs. The course of their intended route to the pole can be broken down into three basic sections. A journey of roughly 450 miles, across the Great Ice Barrier was the first obstacle, and though they knew not what lay beyond, once completed, the explorers would find themselves at the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. The crevasse ridden glacier was a 120 mile expanse that rose 7,200 feet, to the polar plateau, which was the last section of the journey. From here, a trek of over 300 miles separated the men from their goal. Continue Reading → Scott’s Ponies and Amundsen’s Dogs Immortalized. Southern Aeronautical Waypoints named in their honour. The names of the many great Antarctic explorers of the Heroic Age, are well known, widely documented and duly remembered. The feats of Amundsen, Scott, Shackleton, Worsley, Crean and Wild, to mention but a few, still evoke passion, admiration, pride and indeed much discussion and debate. The map of Antarctica is very much comprised of landmarks and features named by, or in honour of these great pioneers. As was the wont of the great explorers who first tread unseen lands, they named every natural anomaly they discovered, as they so wished. The names chosen tended to stem from the royalty of the day, expedition sponsors, previous expeditions, explorers and crew, and of course those near and dear to them. But nowhere, or no place on the vast white continent was named after the animals that played such a crucial role in each and every southern expedition. Nowhere that is, until one man decided to address the issue, and have the contributions of the canine and equine contingents remembered. Because international rules prohibits the naming of Antarctic landmarks after animals, Col. Ronnie Smith of the US Air Force, turned to an area of Antarctica that he was very familiar with – the skies above. Ronnie J. Smith was born of U.S. Air Force parents in Udine, Italy, and grew up in Baltimore, Maryland. He attended Loyola College (B.A.) and the University of Maryland. Ron entered the U.S. Air Force in 1983 to fly C-130 aircraft and has traveled the world as a professional aviator. After many years flying in the polar regions, he was selected to be the in-theater commander of Operation DEEP FREEZE, the DoD logistics support to the U.S. Antarctic Program from 2005-2008. “I can tell you that these men were quite an inspiration to me and many others who lived and worked in both north and south polar climes. We walk on their shoulders.” That was Ronnie’s thought on the men of the heroic age, in a correspondence, earlier this year. Of the animals that toiled alongside these men, Ronnie said in an article for Equus Magazine, “The animals never got their due credit. There’s a statue around here and there. And as a poet, I saw this as not just a heroic/romantic period of history, but one of neglect for the animals who made it possible for the success of the brave men. They literally could not have done it without the animals. They did not have the technology.” Continue Reading → On the Nimrod Expedition (1907-1909), Shackleton, Wild, Adams and Marshall had reached a new Furthest South record at latitude 82°17′S, on January 9th 1909, before electing to abandon their quest, 97 miles from the South Pole. Shackleton had astutely surmised that he and his team were capable of reaching the Pole, but would not have the provisions to survive the return trip. As it transpired Shackleton and Wild were extremely fortunate to make it back to Hut Point, on February 28th 1911, the day before their ship Nimrod was due to leave Antarctica. The departure was delayed, and rescue was raised for Marshall who had collapsed, around 38 miles from the hut, and Adams who had remained behind to care for him. Despite falling short of actually reaching the South Pole, Shackleton received much acclaim and recognition for his brave effort, and he had pioneered the route from the Barrier to the Polar Plateau, via the Beardmore Glacier. This seemed to be the catalyst for Scott’s decision to return to Antarctica with his Terra Nova Expedition (1910-1913), and he opted to follow in Shackleton’s footsteps, treading the same route, southwards, towards the Pole, and indeed by using ponies as a means of hauling supplies, just as the Irishman had. Scott’s assault on the South Pole was finally set in motion on October 24th 1911, when the Motor Party rolled out of Cape Evans with two motorised sledges, which carried vast quantities of supplies. On November 1st, Scott and the pony party would follow in their tracks, and the two groups were scheduled to meet beyond One Ton depot, at latitude 80° 30′ S. Meanwhile Roald Amundsen in his desperation to beat his rival Scott, to the accolade, had set off on from his base Framheim on September 8th, but the desperate, freezing conditions forced him into an inglorious retreat. The temperature had plummeted to -56º C. Amundsen had decided to pioneer his own route south, from his base in the Bay of Whales, and he would reach the Plateau by being the fist to scale the Axel Heiberg Glacier. Crucially, in terms of the ‘race’ Amundsen had elected to use dog teams instead of ponies, for hauling the sledge loads, and he did so with utter proficiency. The Last Place On Earth A Central Television Production, 1985 The story itself is long over a century old, and this television production has notched three decades since its first airing. This is the story of Scott’s Terra Nova Expedition, which was well under way, and southward bound, before Roald Amundsen announced his intention to beat them to the prize, and Scott suddenly found himself a contender, as well as an expedition leader. But most of all it is the tale of two groups of brave men who had ventured into the realm of the unknown, to claim the last place unknown to man – the South Pole. The Last Place on Earth is a 1985 Central Television seven part serial, written by Trevor Griffiths based on the book Scott and Amundsen by Roland Huntford. The book is an exploration of the expeditions of Captain Robert F. Scott (played by Martin Shaw) and his Norwegian rival in polar exploration, Roald Amundsen (played by Sverre Anker Ousdal) in their attempts to reach the South Pole. The series ran for seven episodes and starred a wide range of UK and Norwegian character actors as well as featuring some famous names, such as Max von Sydow, Richard Wilson, Sylvester McCoy, Brian Dennehy, and Pat Roach. It also featured performances early in their careers by Bill Nighy and Hugh Grant. Subsequently Huntford’s book was republished under the same name. The book put forth the point of view that Amundsen’s success in reaching the South Pole was abetted by much superior planning, whereas errors by Scott (notably including the reliance on man-hauling instead of sled dogs) ultimately resulted in the death of him and his companions. The Race To The South Pole. The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration is probably best remembered and recounted for its gruesome tragedies and not its glorious triumphs. The public outpouring of grief that followed the news of the deaths of Scott and his Polar Party, eclipsed the acclaim that Roald Amundsen had earned by not just becoming the first human to reach the South Pole, but to also survive and complete the effort, with an efficiency that has forever rendered the forlorn efforts of his rival, to be the subject of intense scrutiny. Scott and his four companions had also gallantly attained the Pole, but did so around 34 days after Amundsen, and all five men would die in wretched circumstances on their return journey. Amundsen would later convey the details of his successful quest in his book The South Pole, but it was the contents of Scott’s expedition journal that had captured the publics imagination. In defeat, failure and death, Scott’s memory and acclaim was better served than those of the victorious Amundsen. Amundsen first Antarctic venture was as first mate to Adrien de Gerlache, aboard the RV Belgica, on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition (1897–99), where he was among the first group ever to winter on the continent. In 1903 Amundsen led an expedition that would become the first to traverse the long sought after and fabled Northwest Passage, finally proving its existance, in the wake of countless failed and tragic crusades to do so. The expedition spent two winters on the ice of northern Canada, where they acquired invaluable skills in Arctic survival from Inuit tribes, most notably the wearing of animal skins and the use of sled dogs.* After this success Amundsen made plans to take an expedition to the North Pole, and borrowed the ship Fram, from Fridtjof Nansen. But in 1909, both Robert Peary and Frederick Cook made separate claims to have reached the North Pole, neither of which have ever been fully vindicated, but Amundsen, deeming the Pole conquered, set his sights on a new target – the South Pole. He did so in the utmost of secrecy, and even Nansen knew nothing of his intentions when Amundsen set sail from Oslo on June 3rd 1910. It was only when the Fram arrived at Madeira, that Amundsen told his crew of their destination, and he sent a telegram to Scott, informing him that the Fram was proceeding south. The race had begun.

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Professor DiLorenzo Explains the Real Cause of the War of Northern Aggression The Causes of the “Civil War” in the Words of Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis By Thomas DiLorenzo November 30, 2017 “When [the states] entered into the Union of 1789, it was with the undeniable recognition of the power of the people to resume the authority delegated for the purposes of that government, whenever in their opinion, its functions were perverted and its ends defeated . . . the sovereign States here represented have seceded from that Union, and it is a gross abuse of language to denominate the act rebellion or revolution.” –Jefferson Davis, First Inaugural Address, Montgomery, Alabama, February 1861. “That . . . the Union is perpetual [is] confirmed by the history of the Union itself. The Union is much older than the Constitution. It was formed, in fact, by the Articles of Association in 1774. It was matured and continued by the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It was further matured, and the faith of all the thirteen States expressly plighted and engaged that it should be perpetual . . . . It follows from these views that no State . . . can lawfully get out of the Union . . . and that acts . . . against the authority of the United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary . . .” –Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861. These two statements by Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis from their respective first inaugural addresses highlight perhaps the main cause of the War to Prevent Southern Independence: Davis believed, as the founding fathers did, that the union of the states was a voluntary union created when the free, independent, and sovereign states ratified the Constitution, as directed by Article 7 of the Constitution; Lincoln asserted that it was not voluntary, and was more like what future generations would come to know as the Soviet Union – held together by force and bloodshed. Murray Rothbard mocked Lincoln’s theory of the involuntary American union a “one-way Venus flytrap” theory of the union in his essay, “Just War.” Indeed, in the same speech Lincoln used the words “invasion” and “bloodshed” to describe what would happen in any state that left his “perpetual” union. His position was that after fighting a long war of secession from the tyrannical British empire, the founders turned around and created a nearly identical, British-style centralized state from which there could never be any escape. As important as this issue was, Jefferson Davis announced to the world that an equally if not more important issue was the attempt of the North to finally use the powers of the national state to plunder the South, with a protectionist tariff being its primary tool of plunder. As he stated in his first inaugural address, the Southern people were “anxious to cultivate peace and commerce with all nations.” However: “There can be no cause to doubt that the courage and patriotism of the people of the Confederate States will be found equal to any measure of defence which may be required for their security. Devoted to agricultural pursuits, their chief interest is the export of a commodity required in every manufacturing country. Our policy is peace, and the freest trade our necessities will permit. It is alike our interest, and that of all those to whom we would sell and from whom we would buy, that there should be the fewest practicable restrictions upon interchange of commodities. There can be but little rivalry between us and any manufacturing or navigating community, such as the Northwestern States of the American Union.” “It must follow, therefore, that mutual interest would invite good will and kindness between them and us. If, however, passion or lust of domination should cloud the judgment and inflame the ambition of these States, we must prepare to meet the emergency, and maintain, by the final arbitrament of the sword, the position we have assumed among the nations of the earth.” To put these statements into context, it is important to understand the North was in the process of more than doubling the average tariff rate on imports at a time when at least 90 percent of all federal tax revenue came from tariffs on imports. The rate of federal taxation was about to more than double (from 15% to 32.7%), as it did on March 2, 1861 when President James Buchanan, the Pennsylvania protectionist, signed the Morrill Tariff into law, a law that was relentlessly promoted by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party. (The Pennsylvania delegation was a key to Lincoln’s nomination. Before the Republican convention he sent a private emissary, Judge David Davis, to Pennsylvania with original copies of all of his speeches in defense of protectionist tariffs over the previous twenty-five years in order to convince the Pennsylvania protectionists, led by steel manufacturer/legislator Thaddeus Stevens, that he was their man. He won over the Pennsylvania delegation and he later appointed Davis to the Supreme Court). Ever since the Tariff of 1824, and the even more protectionist 1828 “Tariff of Abominations,” with a 48% average tariff rate, the South had been protesting and even threatening nullification and secession over protectionist plunder, as South Carolina did in 1833 when it formally nullified the “Tariff of Abominations.” The votes in Congress on these tariffs was completely lopsided in terms of Northern support and Southern opposition – although there were small minorities of Southern protectionists and Northern free traders, especially in New York City in the latter case. The South, like the Mid-West, was an agricultural society that was being plundered twice by protection tariffs: Once by paying higher prices for “protected” manufactured goods, and a second time by reduced exports after the high tariffs impoverished their European customers who were prohibited from selling in the U.S. by the high tariffs. Most of the South’s agricultural produce –as much as 75% or so in some years — was sold in Europe. South Carolina nullified the Tariff of Abominations and forced President Andrew Jackson to agree to a lower, compromise tariff rate that was phased in over ten years, beginning in 1833. The North did not yet have the political clout to plunder the South, an act that many Southern statesmen considered to be a gross violation of the constitutional contract that justified secession. But by 1861 the population growth in the North, and the addition of new Northern states, had given the North enough political power to finally plunder the agricultural South and Mid-West with protectionist tariffs. The Morrill Tariff had passed the House of Representatives during the 1859-’60 session, long before any Southern state seceded, and the writing was on the wall that it was only a matter of time before the U.S. Senate would follow suit. The Confederate Constitution outlawed protectionist tariffs altogether, calling only for a modest “revenue tariff” of ten percent or so. This so horrified the “Party of Great Moral Causes” that Republican Party-affiliated newspapers in the North were calling for the bombardment of Southern ports before the war. With a Northern tariff in the 50% range (where it would be after Lincoln signed ten tariff-raising pieces of legislation, and remained in that range for the succeeding fifty years) compared to the Southern 10% average tariff rate, they understood that much of the trade of the world would go through Southern, not Northern, ports and to them, that was cause for war. “We now have the votes and we intend to plunder you mercilessly; if you resist we will invade, conquer, and subjugate you” is essentially what the North, with its election of lifelong protectionist Abraham Lincoln as a sectional president, was saying. Neither Lincoln nor the Republican party opposed Southern slavery during the 1860 campaign. They only opposed the extension of slavery into the new territories. This was not because of any concern for the slaves, but was part of their strategy of perpetual plunder. Mid-West farmers, like Southern farmers, were harshly discriminated against by protectionist tariffs. They, too, were double-taxed by protectionism. This is why the Mid-West (called “the North-West” in the 1860s) provided serious antebellum resistance to the Yankee scheme of protectionist plunder. (The Mid-West also provided some of the most effective opposition to the Lincoln regime during the war, being the home of the “Copperheads,” so named as a slanderous term by the Republican Party). This opposition was watered down, however, when the Republican Party championed the policy of preventing slavery in the territories, preserving them “for free white labor” in the words of Abraham Lincoln himself. Mid-Westerners were as racist as anyone else in the mid nineteenth century, and the overwhelming majority of them did not want black people, free or slave, living among them. Lincoln’s own state of Illinois had amended its constitution in 1848 to prohibit the immigration of free blacks into the state, and Lincoln himself was a “manager” of the Illinois Colonization Society, which used state tax dollars to deport the small number of free blacks who resided in the state. White laborers and farm hands also did not want competition for their jobs by blacks, free or slave, and the Republican Party was happy to pander to them. Then there is the “problem” of slaves in the Territories inflating the congressional representation of the Democratic Party because of the Three-Fifths Clause of the Constitution. With more Democratic representation protectionist plunder would become that much more difficult to achieve. This strategy was explained in the Report of the Committee on Foreign Affairs by the Confederate States of America on September 4, 1861: “Whilst the people of the North-West, being like the people of the South, an agricultural people, were generally opposed to the protective tariff policy – the grand sectionalizing instrumentality of the North. They were allies of the South, to defeat this policy. Hence it has been only partially, and occasionally successful. To make it complete, and to render the North omnipotent to rule the South, the division in the North must be healed. To accomplish this object, and to sectionalize the North, the agitation concerning African slavery in the South was commenced . . . . Accordingly, after the overthrow of the Tariff of 1828 [i.e., the Tariff of Abominations], by the resistance of South Carolina in 1833, the agitation concerning the institution of Southern slavery . . . was immediately commenced in the Congress of the United States . . . . The first fruit of [this] sectional despotism . . . was the tariff lately passed by the Congress of the United States. By this tariff the protective policy is renewed in its most odious and oppressive forms, and the agricultural States are made tributaries to the manufacturing States.” Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address: “Pay Up or Die!” Abraham Lincoln’s first inaugural address was arguably the strongest defense of Southern slavery ever made by an American politician. He began by saying that in “nearly all the published speeches” he had made he declared that “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists.” I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.” He next quoted the Republican Party Platform of 1860, which he fully endorsed, that proclaimed that “the maintenance inviolate of the rights of the States, and especially the right of each State to order and control its own domestic institutions . . . is essential to that balance of power on which the perfection and endurance of our political fabric depend . . .” (emphasis added). “Domestic institutions” meant slavery. Lincoln then pledged to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act, which he in fact did during his administration, returning dozens of runaway slaves to their “owners.” Most importantly, seven paragraphs from the end of his speech he endorsed the Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which had already passed the House and Senate and was ratified by several states. This “first thirteenth amendment” would prohibit the federal government from ever interfering with Southern slavery. It would have enshrined slavery explicitly in the text of the Constitution. Lincoln stated in the same paragraph that he believed slavery was already constitutional, but that he had “no objection to its being made express and irrevocable.” In her book Team of Rivals Doris Kearns-Goodwin uses primary sources to document that the source of the amendment was not really Ohio Congressman Thomas Corwin but Abraham Lincoln who, after he was elected but before he was inaugurated, instructed William Seward to get the amendment through the Northern-dominated U.S. Senate, which he did. Other Republicans saw to it that the Northern-dominated House of Representatives would also vote in favor of it. So on the day he was inaugurated Abraham Lincoln offered the strongest, most uncompromising defense of Southern slavery imaginable. He effectively announced to the world that if the Southern states remained in the union and submitted to being plundered by the Yankee-dominated protectionist empire, then nothing would ever be done about slavery by the U.S. government. The U.S. Senate’s War Aims Resolution later echoed Lincoln’s words that the war was NOT about slavery but about “saving the union,” a contention that Lincoln repeated many times, including in his famous letter to New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley in which he said publicly once again that this purpose was to “save the union” and not to do anything about slavery. In reality Lincoln’s regime utterly destroyed the voluntary union of the founding fathers. By “saving the union” they meant forcing the South to submit to protectionist plunder, not preserving the highly decentralized, voluntary union of the founding generation based on such principles as federalism and subsidiarity. In dramatic contrast, on the issue of tariff collection Abraham Lincoln was violently uncompromising. “Nothing” is more important than passing the Morrill Tariff, he had announced to a Pennsylvania audience a few weeks earlier. Nothing. In his first inaugural address he stated in the eighteenth paragraph that “[T]here needs to be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority.” What could he have been talking about? What would cause “the national authority” to commit acts of “bloodshed” and “violence” against its own American citizens? Doesn’t the president take an oath in which he promises to defend the constitutional liberties of American citizens? How would ordering acts of “bloodshed” and “violence” against them be consistent with the presidential oath of office which he had just taken, with his atheistic hand on a Bible, just moments earlier? Lincoln explained in the next sentence: “The power confided in me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the Government, and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using force against or among the people anywhere” (emphasis added). The “duties and imposts” he referred to were the tariffs to be collected under the new Morrill Tariff law. If there was to be a war, he said, the cause of the war would in effect be the refusal of the Southern states to submit to being plundered by the newly-doubled federal tariff tax, a policy that the South had been periodically threatening nullification and secession over for the previous thirty-three years. In essence, Abraham Lincoln was announcing to the world that he would not back down to Southern secessionists as President Andrew Jackson had done by acquiescing in a negotiated reduction of the Tariff of Abominations (negotiated by Lincoln’s lifelong political idol and inspiration, Henry Clay, the author of the Tariff of Abominations in the first place!). He promised “violence,” “bloodshed,” and war over tariff collection, and he kept his promise. Thomas J. DiLorenzo is professor of economics at Loyola University in Maryland and the author of The Real Lincoln.

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Nazi war crimes in Ukraine Nazi war crimes in Ukraine. The International Military Tribunal that tried 22 Nazi defendants in Nuremberg in 1945–6 defined war crimes in traditional fashion as ‘violations of the laws or customs of war,’ including murder, the ill-treatment or deportation of civilians to slave labor, the murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war, the killing of hostages, and the plunder or destruction of property. It also introduced the unprecedented charge of ‘crimes against humanity,’ encompassing ‘inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war; or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds.’ On all those counts Nazi war crimes took a staggering toll during the occupation of Ukraine in 1941–4. Adolf Hitler, who regarded Jews and Slavs as subhuman, considered Ukraine and its people as resources to be exploited ruthlessly in the interests of German eastward expansion and world domination. His views were enthusiastically supported by top Nazi officials, notably Erich Koch, head of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Those officials overrode the objections of others, such as Alfred Rosenberg, head of the Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories, who favored the establishment of German dominance by means of concessions to the non-Russian Slavs. Nazi racial theory, the ideological basis for the criminal mistreatment of the Eastern European peoples, was openly expressed in such publications as the SS pamphlet Der Untermensch (1942). Following the invasion of the USSR in June 1941, the Germans took approximately 5.8 million prisoners of war, whom they held in open-air camps. Some 3.3 million perished as a result of deliberate starvation, neglect, physical abuse, and lack of international protection. More than 1.3 million prisoners of war died in approximately 160 concentration camps throughout Ukraine. Some escaped death by recruitment as concentration camp guards and, after the defeat at Stalingrad, in military and other formations. In occupying Ukraine the Germans were particularly concerned to exploit the country's agriculture and raw materials for the war effort, to recruit slave labor, and to crush popular support for Soviet or Ukrainian nationalist partisans (see Soviet partisans in Ukraine, 1941–5, and Ukrainian Insurgent Army). Numerous war crimes were committed in the effort to achieve those goals. By the autumn of 1941, serious food shortages were being reported in Kyiv and Lviv, but nothing was done to alleviate them: the provision of food to the army and the German population was seen as the overriding priority. General Walther von Reichenau wrote in November 1941 that feeding locals and prisoners of war was an ‘unnecessary humanitarian gesture,’ and a report of the German Economic Armament Staff dated 2 December 1941 advocated the ‘elimination of superfluous eaters (Jews and inhabitants of large Ukrainian cities such as Kyiv, which get no food rations at all).’ Urban dwellers were forbidden to change their places of residence or buy food in villages on pain of arrest and fine. Kyiv lost about 60 percent of its population, and Kharkiv lost about 80,000 persons to starvation. High-calorie foods were reserved for Germans. Ultimately more than 80 percent of the food that Germany took from the eastern territories came from Ukraine. The Soviet system of collective farms was left virtually unchanged under Nazi rule, with work norms and delivery quotas rigorously enforced. Draconian penalties, including execution, were inflicted on those who failed to deliver food to the occupation authorities. Village officials were held responsible for prompt fulfillment. According to a decree issued in Lubny on 8 April 1943, the penalty for delivering watered milk was confiscation of all the offending peasant's property. When Adolf Hitler demanded 3 million tonnes of Ukrainian grain in 1943, Erich Koch ordered that the task be carried out ‘without regard for losses,’ since the feeding of the Ukrainian civilian population was ‘of absolutely no concern.’ In late 1941, when it became clear that the conflict would be protracted, the Germans began to recruit workers (initially volunteers) from the local population for work in Germany. According to Alfred Rosenberg's decree of 17 July 1941 all inhabitants of the eastern territories aged 18 to 45 were obliged to work according to their abilities. By 20 October 1941 the Chernihiv city government was forcing men aged 16 to 60 and women aged 16 to 50 to register with the labor board on pain of being dealt with as saboteurs. By early 1942, concentration camps had been established for those avoiding labor, and the death penalty had been proclaimed for those refusing to work. As the war intensified, local officials were told to deliver specified numbers of workers, and the army was ordered to assist in roundups. In order to meet quotas policemen took to rounding up people at random on the streets as well as in workplaces and institutions. The standard punishment for those refusing to work was arrest and confiscation of property; by 1943, men and women aged 16 to 55 were being ordered to report to labor boards on pain of execution. Those transported to Germany were herded onto cattle cars with insufficient food and drink. Once there, they were underfed and exploited so mercilessly that, as a Krupp official noted in 1942, they lacked the strength to do their jobs. Of the total 2.8 million Ostarbeiter from the eastern territories, more than 2 million came from Ukraine. For those who assisted partisans (officially called ‘bands’ after August 1942 and so deprived of combatant status) the death penalty was proclaimed on 14 August 1941. In a circular of 16 September 1941 the commander in chief of the armed forces, Gen Wilhelm Keitel, ordered the ‘immediate use of the most severe measures’ to establish the authority of the occupation forces and prevent the spread of resistance. It became common practice for the Germans to take scores of civilian hostages, changed at intervals, in order to ensure the safety of their troops and prevent sabotage. Civilians were also shot in reprisal. In Dnipropetrovsk in December 1941, for example, 100 were killed for the attempted assassination of a German officer, and in the same month the Zhytomyr Generalkommissar ordered the shooting of 100 men and women for every killing of a Volksdeutsche. During the winter of 1941–2 in Kharkiv, 40 to 70 citizens were hanged every few days because of sightings of Soviet partisans; the corpses hung from balconies for days at a time. When dealing with villages suspected of harboring or assisting partisans, whether voluntarily or not, the Germans showed no mercy. Eyewitness testimony on the fate of Ukrainian villages during the occupation relates hundreds of instances of depredations carried out by punishment details. Typically the Germans would surround a village, shoot the inhabitants indiscriminately, drive some of them into buildings to be burned alive, subject others to public torture, and then loot and burn the village. As part of their systematic effort to exterminate the Jews of Europe (see Holocaust) the Nazis rounded up and killed Jews living in Ukraine. Since no extermination camps were built on Ukrainian territory (although 50 ghettos were established), the killings typically took place in the open. Among the sites in Ukraine where Jews were killed the most infamous was Babyn Yar in Kyiv. The city's Jewish population of almost 70,000 was machine-gunned there in the autumn of 1941, and the ravine was then used as a mass grave for two more years. In Lviv about 200,000 Jews perished in the Yaniv concentration camp during the occupation. The Germans' Romanian allies, who occupied Transnistria, also committed war crimes: some 200,000 residents of Odesa and the surrounding region were murdered in December 1941. In addition to human losses there was great destruction of Ukraine's cultural monuments and institutions during the German occupation. The losses suffered by the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR alone are estimated at 126 million rubles. The Germans destroyed 116 institutions of higher learning along with 8,104 schools (another 10,052 schools were partially destroyed). Many architectural monuments were leveled, as were 151 museums—museum exhibits commonly being either plundered or damaged beyond repair. More than 50 million books were burned or stolen; 634 print shops (77 percent of the Ukrainian SSR total) were ruined; and more than 200 theaters were destroyed. During their retreat from Ukraine the Germans followed a ‘scorched earth’ policy and destroyed everything useful to their enemies. According to recent Soviet figures a total of more than 5,265,000 civilians and prisoners of war were killed during the occupation of Ukraine. The figure presumably includes the 900,000 Ukrainian Jews whom Western scholars estimate to have been murdered. The Germans destroyed 714 towns and urban areas and 28,000 villages and farmsteads, and left approximately 10,000,000 people homeless. Total material losses have been estimated at a value of some 1.2 trillion prewar rubles. International Military Tribunal. Trial of the Major War Criminals (Nuremberg 1947–9) Kamenetsky, I. Hitler's Occupation of Ukraine, 1941–1944: A Study of Totalitarian Imperialism (Milwaukee 1956) Hilberg, R. The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago 1961) Kamenetsky, I. Secret Nazi Plans for Eastern Europe: A Study of Lebensraum Policies (New York 1961) Nimets’ko-fashysts’kyi okupatsiinyi rezhym na Ukraïni: Zbirnyk dokumentiv i materialiv (Kyiv 1963) Wytwycky, B. The Other Holocaust: Many Circles of Hell (Washington 1980) Ueberschär, G.R.; Wette, W. (eds). ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’: Der deutsche Überfall auf die Sowjetunion, 1941 (Paderborn 1984) Fedorov, O. et al. (eds). Vinok bezsmertia: Knyha-memorial (Kyiv 1988) [This article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 3 (1993).]

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Liver Disease Definition Liver disease can be inherited (genetic). It can also cause by various factors that damage the liver, such as viruses, alcohol use, and obesity. The liver is an organ about the size of a soccer ball. It is located just below the rib cage on the right side of the abdomen. And also, the liver is essential for digesting food and removing toxic substances from the body. Over time, conditions that damage the liver can lead to scarring (cirrhosis), causing liver failure, a life-threatening situation. But early treatment can give the liver time to heal. What are the Symptoms of Liver Disease? Liver disease doesn’t always cause noticeable signs and symptoms. If signs and symptoms of liver disease are present, they may include the following: - Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice) - Bloating and abdominal pain - Swelling in the legs and ankles - Skin itch - Dark-coloured urine - The pale colour of stools - And also Chronic fatigue. - Nausea or vomiting - Loss of appetite - And also, the tendency to bruise easily. What are the Causes of Liver Disease? Liver disease has many causes. Parasites and viruses can infect the liver, causing inflammation that reduces liver function. Viruses that cause liver injury can transmit through contaminated Blood or semen, water or food, or close contact with an infected person. The most common types of liver infection are hepatitis viruses and include: - Hepatitis A, B - And also, Hepatitis C. 2. Anomaly in the Immune System Diseases in which the immune system attacks certain parts of the body (autoimmune) can affect the liver. Examples of autoimmune liver diseases include: - Autoimmune hepatitis - Primary biliary cholangitis - And also, primary sclerosing cholangitis An abnormal gene inherited from one or both parents can cause various substances to build up in the liver, causing liver damage. Genetic liver diseases include: - Wilson disease - And also, Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency 4. Cancer and Other Tumors - Liver cancer - Bile duct cancer - And also, liver adenoma Here are other common causes of liver disease: - Chronic alcohol abuse - Fat accumulation in the liver (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) - Specific prescription or over-the-counter medications - And also, certain herbal compounds What are the Types of Liver Diseases? Next, we will analyze the significant liver diseases, presenting both their causes and symptoms and the associated treatments. 1. Viral Hepatitis - By viral hepatitis, we understand any liver inflammation due to colonization of the liver by one of the viruses responsible for hepatitis. A, B, C, D, and E. - Causes depend on the virus, although they include faecal-oral transmission (consumption of food contaminated with faeces from sick people) or contact with blood or body fluids. - And also, the severity depends on the causative virus. - However, symptoms generally consist of abdominal pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin), fatigue, nausea and vomiting, dark-coloured urine, joint pain, discomfort in the abdominal area, loss of appetite, intense itching the skin. - Viral hepatitis usually resolves without significant complications after a few weeks without the need for treatment, although in the case of hepatitis B, those affected will need lifelong treatment. - However, the most severe cases of viral hepatitis may require a liver transplant. 2. Liver Cancer - With its 840,000 new cases diagnosed each year, liver cancer is the seventh most common cancer globally. - It consists of forming a malignant tumour in the hepatocytes, and it knows that a significant risk factor is having suffered from viral hepatitis in the past. - However, it also appears in people who have never had liver disease, in which case the causes are not they are too light. - Excessive alcohol consumption, family history, and diabetes are other of the most common risk factors. - Liver cancer does not show symptoms until the liver involvement is excellent, at which point jaundice, weight loss, whitish stools, abdominal pain, vomiting, weakness and fatigue, loss of appetite, etc. are observed. - Treatment will consist of, depending on the nature of cancer and the person’s health, surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of several. - Although many times it is necessary to perform a liver transplant, which, with its 130,000 euros in cost and the more than 12 hours required to carry it out, is one of the most expensive procedures in the world of surgery. - Check Out: Eye Palette Write for Us, Submit Post, And Advertise with us, Guest Post, Contribute. - Cirrhosis is a chronic disease that appears when there is too much scar tissue in the liver due to alcohol excesses or hepatitis. - These scars appear when the liver tries to recover from injuries and, if they accumulate, they can make it difficult for this organ to fulfil its functions. - This situation has the same symptoms as the previous disorders, and the damage is irreversible. - However, suppose it detects in the early stages. In that case, measures can take (lifestyle change or pharmacological treatments) that slow down the disease’s progress to avoid resorting to a liver transplant. 4. Fatty Liver Disease - As its name indicates, this liver disease consists of an accumulation of fat in the liver, a situation that, as happened with cirrhosis, hinders this organ’s average performance. - Its most common cause is excessive alcohol consumption, although there are other triggers as well. - It has obesity, diabetes, hypertension, very rapid weight loss, liver infections, metabolic disorders, high cholesterol levels. - All these situations can cause the liver to accumulate more fat than it should. And it is more common than it seems. - And also, it estimates up to 25% of the population suffers from this problem in a more or less severe way. - In any case, in the vast majority of cases, the involvement is so small that there are no symptoms. - These appear in the most severe cases. If lifestyle changes do not work, it may be necessary to undergo medical treatments and undergo a transplant in maximum liver damage. - Hemochromatosis is a disease of genetic and hereditary origin in which the affected person absorbs more iron than the body needs. - It causes an excess of this mineral, which, to prevent it from circulating freely through the Blood, accumulates, to the heart and pancreas, in the liver. - This excess iron in the liver compromises its functionality. - As the accumulation progresses, liver failure may develop, an irreversible clinical condition that can only solve by performing a liver transplant. - To avoid this situation, those affected must undergo periodic Blood draws to restore iron levels, in addition to monitoring their diet. The Risk Factors of Liver Disease Factors that can increase the risk of liver disease are: - Excessive alcohol consumption - Type 2 diabetes - Tattoos or piercings on the body - Injecting drugs with shared needles - Blood transfusion before 1992 - Exposure to other people’s blood and body fluids - Unprotected sex - Exposure to certain chemicals or toxins - And also, family history of liver disease. Complications of Liver Disease Complications of liver disease are variable, depending on the cause of the liver problems. Untreated liver disease can progress to liver failure, a life-threatening illness. How to Prevent Liver Disease? Drink alcohol in moderation. For healthy adults, drinking in moderation means drinking a day for women and up to two drinks a day for men. Heavy or high-risk alcohol use is defined as more than eight drinks a week for women and more than 15 drinks a week for men. 1. Avoid Risky Behaviors - Use a condom during sex. If you get tattoos or body piercings, choose the place well; above all, cleaning and security measures. - And also, get help if you use illicit drugs intravenously and don’t share needles to inject drugs. 2. Get Vaccinated - If you are at higher risk or have already infected with the hepatitis virus, talk to your doctor getting vaccinated against hepatitis A and B. 3. Use Medications Wisely - Take prescription and over-the-counter medications only when you need them and in the recommended doses. Don’t mix drugs with alcohol. - And also, check with your doctor before mixing herbal supplements or prescription or over-the-counter medications. 4. Avoid contact with the Blood - Hepatitis viruses can spread by accidental needle sticks or improper cleaning of Blood or other body fluids. 5. Keep your Food Safe - And also, wash your hands well before eating or preparing food. - If you are travelling to a developing country, use bottled water for drinking, wash your hands, and brush your teeth. 6. Be careful with Sprinklers - Make sure to use these products in a well-ventilated area and wear a mask when spraying insecticides, fungicides, paint, and other toxic chemicals. - Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. 7. Protect the Skin - When using insecticides and other toxic chemicals, wear gloves, long sleeves, a hat, and a mask, so the substances absorb through your skin. - And also, keep a healthy weight. Obesity can lead to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Diagnosis of Liver Disease Discovering the cause and extent of liver injury is essential to guide treatment. Your doctor will likely start with a medical history and a thorough physical exam. The doctor may recommend the following: Blood Test: A battery of blood tests known as liver function tests can diagnose liver disease. Other blood tests may do to look for genetic conditions or specific liver problems. Imaging Tests: An ultrasound, CT scan, and MRI can show liver damage. Study of a Tissue Sample: Removing a tissue sample (biopsy) from the liver can help diagnose liver disease and look for liver damage signs. And also, liver biopsy usually uses a long needle inserted through the skin to remove a tissue sample sent to a laboratory for analysis. Treatment of Liver Disease - Treatment of liver disease depends on the diagnosis. - Some liver problems can treat with lifestyle modifications, such as stopping alcohol consumption or losing weight, usually as part of a medical program that includes careful liver function monitoring. - Other liver problems can be treated with medicine or may require surgery. - And also, treatment of liver disease that leads to or has ultimately led to liver failure may require a liver transplant. There are many stage 4 liver cancer trials being performed that may help us find a cure for the disease in future. When to See the Doctor Make an appointment with your doctor if you have persistent symptoms or signs that worry you. Seek immediate medical attention if you have abdominal pain so severe that you cannot sit still. Many liver diseases are manageable if you catch them early. Left untreated, however, they can cause permanent damage. If you have any liver problem symptoms or are at risk of developing one, make sure to check in with your healthcare provider for routine checkups and testing, if needed.

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In this Cisco CCNA tutorial, you’re going to learn about the final layer in the OSI model, which is Layer 1, the Physical Layer. Scroll down for the video and also text tutorial. Ethernet Connection Media Video Tutorial Great course, I highly recommend it. Instructor is very concise and the information flows smoothly through the sections. The labs provided are very helpful to understanding and reinforcing the material presented. Layer 1 – The Physical Layer OSI Layer 1 conveys the bit stream, meaning it puts the actual bits onto the wire. That could be electrical impulse over copper cables, light over fiber optic cables, or radio signals over wireless. It also takes control of the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data, including defining the cables that will be used, the interface cards, the Ethernet ports, WAN ports, and the physical aspects of the network. Layer 1 Connection Types for Ethernet - UTP Now, we're going to focus on the Local Area Networks. Our ethernet LAN connections can be carried over coaxial cable, which was the original implementation, but that's not used anymore. What we have nowadays are twisted copper pair cable, or fiber optic, or wireless. Starting off, copper cables should be used as Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables. They're commonly used to connect desktop computers to switches. The connector type is RJ-45 and the maximum length of the cable is 100 meters. Our standard UTP cables have gone through several different iterations. CAT5 was pretty popular not that long ago. We are up to CAT7 now, and CAT8 is in development. The difference between the CATs is the categories. The difference between the categories, well, newer categories have got support for higher bandwidth connections. Back when CAT5 first came out, we didn't have 10 Gb, 40 Gb, or 100 Gb Ethernet back then. So, a CAT5 was fine for carrying the maximum bandwidth connections that were available then. You still will find some offices have got CAT5 cable in there. If you want to carry 10 Gb ethernet, then the minimum is Cat6 cable. CAT5 and CAT5E can go up to 1 Gb Ethernet, CAT6 supports 10 Gb Ethernet. For the newer standards, they support 40 Gb and 100 Gb Ethernet. Now, I said they're standard because they're standardized, but they're not really in all that common implementation yet. They haven't been out for all that long. You'll find in a lot of enterprises now that they go up to 10 Gb Ethernet, but 40 Gb Ethernet and 100 Gb Ethernet are going to see more common deployment as time goes on. Straight-Through vs Crossover UTP Cable The next thing to tell you about is that the copper cables they can be either straight-through or crossover UTP cables. The receive and transmit wires can be wired to the RJ-45 connector as either straight-through or crossover. Straight-through cables are used to connect an end device like a PC or a router to a switch, so they're more commonly used. Crossover cables are used to connect devices together directly. They're most often used to connect two devices of the same type. For example, two computers to each other, or two switches to each other. Cabling two computers to each other is not a normal thing to do. It's not a very big network if you've only got two computers there. So, if you were in a pinch and you needed to copy some files from one computer to another, and you had no other way of doing it, you can connect them back to back with a crossover cable, and you could transfer the files that way. But we've got things like USB sticks nowadays, and in a normal office, we'll have a switch there that we could connect them through, so it's very rare that you would ever consider connecting computers back-to-back with each other like that. What is common though is connecting your switches to each other. Say, we've got our building at work. We've got the bottom floor and everybody in the bottom floor is connected to our bottom floor switch. Then, we've got the first floor and everybody on the first floor is going to be connected to our first floor switch. Well, we want our staff on both floors to be able to communicate with each other on their computers, so we're going to need to connect the switches together, as well. The standard way to connect two switches together is using a crossover cable. However, modern switches support Auto MDI-X where the receive and transmit signals are reconfigured automatically to get the expected result. So with modern switches, you don't have to use a crossover cable. You can use a straight-through cable as well and that will still work. Fiber supports longer distances and higher bandwidth than is possible with copper. The kind of places where you use fiber cable would be if you're connecting between two separate buildings within the same campus. Again, we're still talking about the local area network here. All of our PCs and local area network are going to be in the same building or within the same campus at most. When we are in a campus kind of environment, maybe a university and we want to cable our buildings together, typically, the connections between switches in different buildings we'll use fiber optic cables. Another reason for using fiber is for the switch to switch connections inside a building because we'll typically require higher bandwidth between direct connections between switches in the building and copper might not be able to connect. Single Mode vs Multi Mode Fiber With fiber, we've got two different types, Single Mode and Multi Mode fiber. Single Mode supports higher bandwidth and longer distances than Multi Mode, but it's more expensive. There are different standards for our fiber cable as well. On Multi Mode, you can see for 10 Gb Ethernet that it can go up to 400 meters. 40 Gb and 100 Gb Ethernet are supported on fiber as well. They are not supported on copper yet, and they can go up to 150 meters. Single-mode can go much further. It can go up to several kilometers, again, depending on the cabling type and the other physical hardware you're using. There's a lot of different types of fiber connectors, depending on the type of cable you're using, whether it's multi-mode or a single-mode, the kind of distance it's going over, as well. There are going to be different connectors there. Another difference between fiber and copper is the copper RJ-45 connector will plug directly into the switch, but fiber connectors they'll normally go into a transceiver, which then goes into the switch. You've got the switch with an open port in it, a small transceiver goes into the port on the switch. You should also choose the correct type of transceiver that matches the connector and the type of cabling that you're using. PoE Power over Ethernet Power over Ethernet (PoE) can be used as a convenient way to get the power down to your PoE capable devices, such as IP phones and wireless access points. In the example below, we've got an office and they've got IP phones on their desks, and they're using Wireless Access Points as well. The traditional way to have those on the network is that they would all be connected into a standard switch. If you're using a standard switch, it does not support Power over Ethernet so you're going to need to have power supplies plugged into all of your devices. Let's say we have 100 IP phones on the desks there, then every single one of those IP phones is going to have a network cable plugging it into the switch for the network connectivity. It's also going to have a power supply plugged in. However, there is a more convenient way that we can do this, and that is using a PoE Power over Ethernet switch. They look the same as standard switches, but they have the added PoE functionality. When you use a PoE switch, the power is sent down to the device over the standard network cable. So, it saves you from having to use a separate power supply for all of those different devices. When you do have an office that has got IP phones deployed in there, it is most often used that you're going to have a PoE switch there rather than standard switches. Another thing that you'll sometimes see with PoE that is not as common is if you're not using IP phones but you do have just Wireless Access Points there. If you've got a Wireless Access Point which is in a location where it's hard to get power to, for example, maybe it's in the roof in a warehouse, then what you can do is you can use a power injector. Rather than putting in an entire Power over Ethernet switch, and if you've already got a standard switch in there, what you can do is buy a power injector. The power injector gets plugged into power, and then it supplies Power over Ethernet over the Ethernet cable, towards the Wireless Access Point. That Ethernet cable can go up to 100 meters. Now, you can get power to a Wireless Access Point in a location that it would be normally difficult to get power to. Physical Layer: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/8866/physical-layer Cisco Networking: OSI Model Layer 1 – Physical: https://www.dummies.com/programming/networking/cisco/cisco-networking-osi-model-layer-1-physical/ Layer 1 Physical Layer: https://osi-model.com/physical-layer/ Text by Libby Teofilo, Technical Writer at www.flackbox.com With a mission to spread network awareness through writing, Libby consistently immerses herself into the unrelenting process of knowledge acquisition and dissemination. If not engrossed in technology, you might see her with a book in one hand and a coffee in the other.

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Download This Sample This sample is exclusively for KidsKonnect members! To download this worksheet, click the button below to signup for free (it only takes a minute) and you'll be brought right back to this page to start the download! Sign Me Up Dubbed the “unicorns of the sea”, Narwhals are strange and beautiful creatures with a long tusk protruding from their heads. They change color as they age. Newborns are colored blue-gray, juveniles are blue-black and adults are mottled gray. Old narwhals are nearly all-white. They spend their whole lives in the freezing Arctic waters of Canada, Greenland, Norway and Russia. See the fact file below for more information on the Narwhal or alternatively, you can download our 27-page Narwhal worksheet pack to utilise within the classroom or home environment. Key Facts & Information Etymology, Anatomy, and Habitat - Common Name: Narwhal - Scientific Name: Monodon monoceros - Type: Mammals - Diet: Carnivores - Size: 13 to 20 feet - Weight: Up to 1.5 tons - Conservation Status: Near threatened - The narwhal (Monodon monoceros), or narwhale, is derived from the Greek word for “one-tooth” or “one-horn”. It is a medium-sized toothed whale that possesses a large “tusk” from a protruding canine tooth. - The tusk is most commonly found on male narwhals. It is actually an enlarged tooth with sensory capability, having up to 10 million nerve endings inside. - Some narwhals have two tusks, while others have none. The spiraled tusk juts out from the head and can grow as long at 10 feet. - The narwhal is most closely related to the beluga whale. - Males can grow up to 6.2 meters – the average size being 4.7 meters – and weigh about 1,600 kg. - Females are smaller compared to male narwhals, with an average size of 4 meters and a maximum size of 5.1 meters and weigh around 900 kg. - A newborn calf is about 1.6 meters long and weighs about 80 kilograms. - A narwhal has a deep layer of fat, or blubber, about 10 cm thick, which comprises one-third of the animal’s weight and acts as insulation in the cold Arctic waters. - Narwhals have a mottled black and white, grey or brownish back, but the rest of the body is mainly white. - Newborn narwhal calves are pale grey to light brown, developing the adult darker coloration at about four years old. As these narwhals grow older, they will become progressively pale again. - The narwhal’s coloring gives researchers an idea about how old an individual is. Some may live up to 100 years, but most live to be 60 years of age. - Their most striking feature is undoubtedly their tusk. This long spiraled upper canine tooth is one of the two teeth narwhals have that grow out from the animal’s upper jaw and can measure up to 3 meters and weigh 10 kg. - The function of the tusk remains a mystery, but several hypotheses have been proposed. Many experts believe that it is a secondary sexual character, similar to deer antlers. Thus, the length of the tusk may indicate social rank through dominant hierarchies and assist in competition for access to females. - The tusk grows throughout a male’s lifespan but slows down with age. - Habitat requirements of narwhals are little known. The fact that they remain year-round in the Arctic waters, which are covered by sea ice for most of the year, makes the study of narwhal habitat somewhat difficult. - Narwhals generally spend winters – from November to April – in very deep, ice-covered waters where upwelling currents bring extra nutrients to the ecosystem. There, they spend much of their time in deep dives in search of food. - In July and August, narwhals disperse over a vast region farther north, in the Canadian High Arctic archipelago. These Narwhals group together in coastal areas, in bays, island passages and fjords with access to deep open waters. Behavioral Traits and Conservation Status - During their migration, hundreds, even thousands, of individuals may be seen traveling together, but otherwise, narwhals tend to remain in smaller groups – or social units – of about three to eight individuals once in their summering or wintering areas. - These groups often comprise of same-sex and similar-aged individuals as well as mixed age-sex groups. - Even though narwhals are capable of traveling for a kilometer or more between breathing breaks, they need cracks in the ice to access air. - Narwhals are fully equipped to deal with long periods without oxygen in a high-pressure environment. They have been known to dive to 1 500 meters deep, with dives lasting 25 to 30 minutes. - Narwhals blood and muscles can hold more oxygen than most mammals, even many other whales, and they rely on their high number of blood vessels between their heart and lungs. - Between dives, narwhals quietly spend long periods of time lying at the surface – a behavior called “logging” – while they breathe heavily to restore their oxygen in preparation for the next dive. - Also, since very little light shines in the depths under the ice, narwhals use sound to investigate their environment. This process is called echolocation, which is also used by bats at night. - The whales get information about their surroundings by emitting clicks and knocking sounds that bounce off objects in the water. The melon, a fatty bump on their forehead, is used to focus and amplify these sounds. The echoes are captured by their hollow lower jaw and transmitted to their ears. Their brains then analyze these signals to get an idea of what’s around them and its distance. This process works like a sonar. - Narwhals are gregarious, they live in groups and communicate with each other by using whistles, squeaky hinge-like sounds and many other noises, which they produce by controlling the air passages near their blowholes. - When socializing, males have been shown to use greater “vocabulary”, or a larger range of sounds, than females. - Recent data has estimated the Baffin Bay population to be between 60,000 and 80,000 individuals, while the Hudson population is comprised of about 5,000 animals. The number of individuals in the East Greenland population is about 10,000. These numbers demonstrate that the narwhal is not rare nor at risk, unlike what is commonly thought. Even so, there are potential threats to this highly specialized species. - Only Inuit may hunt narwhal for subsistence, and they do so within a quota, or maximum number of catches. Inuit hunters need an export permit to sell tusks internationally. - The narwhal is hunted because of its vitamin C-rich skin for a meal called “maqtaq” in Inuktitut, but also because of its tusk. Narwhal tusks are valuable items on national and international markets. - Greenland instituted a ban in 2006 of all narwhal product exports, but before this ban, the only tusks that could be purchased in the European Union were gathered through Greenland Inuit hunts. An estimated 400 to 600 narwhals are hunted each year in Canada, and more studies are needed to know if this level of hunting is sustainable. - Ocean contaminants might also be a threat to the species. Heavy metals and other pollutants like pesticides tend to accumulate in the narwhals’ blubber and liver. This could cause health issues for the narwhal and even to humans that consume it. - Climate change and its impact on sea ice and water currents could be detrimental to the narwhal due to the whale’s close association with ice. Both the disappearance and the increase of ice could have an impact on the species. - It is important to have the best information about the narwhal. The more we know, the more efficient our efforts will be towards the conservation of the “unicorn of the sea”. This is a fantastic bundle which includes everything you need to know about Narwhal across 27 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Narwhal worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about the dubbed the “unicorns of the sea”, Narwhals which are strange and beautiful creatures with a long tusk protruding from their heads. They change color as they age. Newborns are colored blue-gray, juveniles are blue-black and adults are mottled gray. Old narwhals are nearly all-white. They spend their whole lives in the freezing Arctic waters of Canada, Greenland, Norway and Russia. Complete List Of Included Worksheets - Narwhal Facts - Info Cards - Unicorn of the Sea - Word Connect - Word Finder - Narwhal Facts Page - Fact or Bluff - World of Narwhals - All About Narwhals - Tusk vs Small Head Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Narwhal Facts & Worksheets: /a> - KidsKonnect, July 26, 2018 Use With Any Curriculum These worksheets have been specifically designed for use with any international curriculum. You can use these worksheets as-is, or edit them using Google Slides to make them more specific to your own student ability levels and curriculum standards.

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12 Pieces of Health Advice that Makes No Sense Here's the age-old advice that you should ditch—and the tips that you should follow instead for optimal health. Feed a cold, starve a fever It’s a catchy little catchphrase, but it doesn’t withstand scientific scrutiny. Well, not all of it, anyway. Elroy Vojdani, MD, a functional medicine practitioner and the founder of Regenera Medical in Los Angeles, explains that the first part is sound. “When the immune system is battling an infection, it uses a tremendous amount of energy, and the calories from food intake can certainly help fuel the immune response and ensure a speedy recovery.” The second part, however, is where things go awry. “The amount of energy used to fight an infection goes up exponentially when a fever is involved,” says Dr. Vojdani. “You, in fact, need more calories to help keep up with the energy depletion of a fever.” The smart path, he says, is to consume healthy calories—but without overdoing it and stressing your intestinal tract. He suggests easy-to-digest, nutritious, and hydrating foods like bone broth, and adds that you should also make sure to drink plenty of fluids and get ample rest. Whatever you do, avoid these sneaky ways summer can make you sick. Take an aspirin a day to keep your heart healthy For decades, the medical community insisted that everyone over a certain age should ward off heart disease with a daily dose of aspirin because of its blood-thinning properties. It’s no wonder that so many people still believe that claim, despite new studies debunking it. According to one study of nearly 20,000 people from the United States and Australia published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2018, taking an aspirin a day does not prolong the lives of healthy, elderly people, and, in fact, it increases the risk of hemorrhage. Another study published in JAMA Neurology in 2019 found that daily aspirin use is linked to an increased likelihood of intracranial bleeding. For people who have had a stroke, heart attack or undergone a cardiac procedure, popping an aspirin a day might still be a good idea, but that should be determined by your doctor. You need to drink eight glasses of water a day While this isn’t a bad rule of thumb, it’s not 100 percent accurate either. How much water you really need is highly individualized and depends on body size, activity level, and even genetics since sodium levels in sweat differ from person to person, says Kylene Bogden, RDN, a Cleveland-based registered dietitian nutritionist who works with NBA athletes and is the co-founder of FWDfuel Sports Nutrition. Some people need less, but many people need more. How can you tell how much you need? “It’s about listening to your body and knowing how you feel,” says Bogden. “In regard to dehydration, are you going poop every day? Is your energy stable throughout the day without crashes? And if you’re highly active, do your muscles and joints feel good? That’s really how you gauge it.” It’s also important to note that you don’t have to get all of your water from straight-up water. Foods like watermelon and spinach are comprised of nearly 100 percent water. (Here are other hydrating foods to boost your water intake.) Brown sugar is healthier than white sugar All sugar, no matter the type, is equally problematic if you consume too much of it. “Brown sugar and turbinado (raw) sugar do have slightly fewer calories per gram and a small amount of minerals (mostly calcium and potassium) that are likely inconsequential,” says Dr. Vojdani. “They do, however, have an identical glycemic index to white sugar, meaning that they have the exact same potential to do harm to your metabolism.” He recommends sticking to sweeteners with a lower glycemic index, like coconut sugar, maple syrup, or agave syrup. And, in general, do your best to limit your sugar intake. The Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada recommends a maximum of 12 teaspoons of added sugar per day. Eating before bed makes you gain weight While studies have shown that regularly eating junk food or large meals late at night can indeed contribute to weight gain and other health problems, experts are rethinking their stance on more responsible nighttime snacking. Data suggests that small, nutrient-dense foods before bed can lead to positive physiological changes in terms of muscle protein synthesis and cardiometabolic health, according to an article published in Nutrients. If you’re hungry, Bogden suggests eating a snack that has a little bit of protein and a little bit of fat, and no added sugar—something like a handful of nuts, an apple with nut butter, or hummus with veggies. She also advises leaving at least an hour (ideally two) between your snack and your snooze. “There’s a saying, ‘Rest and digest.’ The gut needs to calm down, digest your food, and seal itself off before you sleep. [Otherwise] you’re half-digesting your food and then not sleeping because your body is struggling to do two massive tasks at once—digest and sleep—and you can end up sluggish and bloated the next morning.” To curb your late-night cravings, check out these healthy snacks. Don’t crack your knuckles—it causes arthritis Hearing that satisfying (or annoying, depending on your perspective) pop in your knuckles can’t be good for you, right? Well, it may not be good for you, per se, but experts agree that it doesn’t lead to arthritis. That “cracking” sound is actually caused by the bursting of gas bubbles in the finger’s joint fluid, according to Harvard Health experts. One study published by the journal Hand Surgery and Rehabilitation also found that knuckle-cracking didn’t negatively impact grip strength, something that had been an earlier concern. That said, there have been rare cases of tendon injuries and joint dislocations related to attempted knuckle-cracking. Gluten-free foods are healthier Gluten-free foods aren’t inherently healthier, and, in fact, they could be unhealthier than you think. “The majority of gluten-free replacement products at the supermarket are made with ultra-processed grains and powders and contain large amounts of stabilizers and gums, which are undoubtedly bad for you,” says Dr. Vojdani. “Be mindful of this and choose products that focus on whole foods rather than processed ones and you’ll be doing the gluten-free diet the right way.” By no means does everyone need to give up gluten, but if you think that you have celiac disease—in which the protein in wheat, barley, and rye causes gastrointestinal issues, joint pain, and fatigue—or a gluten sensitivity, talk to your doctor about being properly diagnosed and devising a healthy food plan. Dr. Vojdani adds that some people with autoimmune diseases might also benefit from a gluten-free diet and suggests following it for four to six weeks to see if there’s an improvement. You need to drink milk for strong, healthy bones It’s not necessarily milk that does a body good—it’s calcium, and you can get that from a variety of non-dairy sources (though a glass of milk is an easy way to get a large dose of it). “Needing to drink milk for strong bones because of the calcium content is just plain false. There are tons of foods that are rich in calcium outside of cow’s milk: almonds, broccoli, chia seeds, kale, beans, and lentils, to name a few,” says Dr. Vojdani. “Choosing vegan sources of calcium can add anti-inflammatory properties to your diet and have the added benefit of being environmentally friendly.” So how much calcium do you need? According to the National Institutes of Health, most adults need 1,000 milligrams per day. Women over 50 and men over 70, however, should get 1,200 milligrams, while children’s needs vary depending on their age, with those between nine and 18 needing the most (1,300 milligrams). If you notice any of these signs, you’re not getting enough calcium. If you drop food on the floor, it’s safe to eat as long as you pick it up within five seconds No matter how badly you want to eat that food you’ve dropped, you shouldn’t. It can be contaminated with bacteria the second it touches the ground, according to a study published in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology, and it will acquire more bacteria the longer it stays there. The researchers found that tile and stainless steel caused the most bacteria transmission, while carpet had a very low transmission rate. You can skip sunscreen if you have dark skin This advice is not only untrue but also very dangerous. Everyone needs to be smart about the sun and vigilant about sunscreen. While a higher concentration of the pigment melanin can block some UV rays and lessen your chances of developing a sunburn, according to the Canadian Cancer Society, you can still absolutely get skin cancer (and a sunburn). In fact, a 2016 study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology found that even though Caucasians are more likely to develop melanoma, African Americans are more likely to learn that they have it in its later stages and to die from it. (To protect your skin, check out these dermatologist-approved face sunscreens.) Detoxes are important to get rid of toxins and jump-start weight loss It’s the liver’s job to detox your body, and it can handle a little overindulgence. If you’re overindulging regularly, you’ll need a lifestyle change to make sure that it keeps working optimally. Plus, according to Johns Hopkins Medicine, detoxes and cleanses aren’t regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which means they haven’t been tested in clinical trials. A review of research published in the Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics found that many of the studies on detoxes that do exist employed flawed methodologies, had small samples sizes, or were performed on animals. But what about possible weight loss? While you may initially see some pounds come off, it’s likely due to the detox’s restricted calories, and as a result, the weight loss likely won’t last. Carbs make you gain weight All carbs are not created equal. Yes, some can contribute to weight gain—namely, refined carbs such as white flour, white bread, and white rice. But complex carbohydrates, found in foods like brown rice, oatmeal, and whole-wheat flour, can actually help you lose weight, according to a 2017 study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. In the study, participants who consumed whole grains burned around 100 more calories per day, as well as had increased metabolic rates and fecal energy losses, than those who consumed refined grains. Plus, “good” carbs contain fibre or protein and keep you full longer. Of course, you shouldn’t go crazy with the carbs (or most other foods), but if you stick to the daily recommended intake, you could reap the benefits of weight loss and improved overall health over time. Next, read up on the health mistakes people make every day.

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Listed below is the step by step procedure of chemoport insertion: A chemoport is an intra-dermal or sub-dermal line or access point made on the chest or arm of patients to assist intravenous (IV) chemotherapy. Chemoport involves placing a device under your skin that gives vascular access for IV therapies and injecting contrast materials for scanning tests. This placement provides easy access to your blood stream. A chemoport is also termed as mediport, cancer port or port-a-cath. Based on the patient's requirements and need, your doctor can use different types of chemoports. These types of chemoports vary in their length and treatment type. The various types of chemoports are as follows: The main reason of implanting a chemoport is to administer chemotherapy drugs into the patient's blood. If your chemo therapy is combined with radiotherapy (radiation therapy), double or multiple chemoports can be used for both the purposes, i.e., injecting chemo drugs as well as contrast substance. Various types of chemoports serve various requirements for cancer patients. Chemoport can be implanted as it contains the following benefits: Preoperative preparations consist of various steps that are important before implanting a chemoport device. Some aspects of your system can cause a bad influence on the chemoport implantation process. Therefore, it is necessary to make proper arrangements before placing a chemoport inside your body. Your doctor will carry out some blood tests in order to determine levels of hemoglobin, white blood cells, blood sugar and blood clotting time. Presence of infections within your body can also be verified using these blood tests. If any of the above abnormal conditions occur within your body, your doctor needs to delay the process of chemoport implantation. First, he/she will treat these health disorders and then proceed with the implants. It is mandatory to conduct a routine physical checkup before the placement of chemoports. This check-up includes monitoring your physical health condition as well as learning about your medical history. Discuss about all the types of medications you intake on a regular basis. If you consume anti-platelet medications, for example, aspirin, or blood thinning drugs like warfarin, you may be asked to discontinue them for some short period of time until the placement of chemoports. Although, patients who have coronary stems or metallic heart valves cannot discontinue the intake of these medicines even if it is asked for a short duration. For such individuals, oncologists use an alternative method to deal with this issue. Based on your medical history and other health conditions, doctor will decide the best type of chemoport to use for your case of cancer. As mentioned earlier, an intra-peritoneal port is usually used for abdominal cancer patients. Likewise, other types of chemoports can be used based on your health requirements and duration of your chemotherapy. He/she will also decide about the location of implant, i.e., to connect these ports to the veins of your arm or chest. Your doctor will educate you entirely about the procedure of chemoport fixation. He/she will also mention benefits and risks of this procedure. You are advised to follow all the preoperative instructions before you undergo this implantation. The most important instruction is regarding food and water intake. Patients should avoid eating or drinking any kind of food items for at-least six hours before the fixation process. However, you can drink water two hours before your surgery begins.Other requisites of preoperative care include time schedule of the implantation process. This schedule mostly depends on what type of chemotherapy one is undergoing. Some patients may require a short infusion whereas some can undergo chemotherapy for longer duration of time. Time of your chemotherapy is dependent on the type, extent, stage and other aspects of your cancer disease as well as the size of your body. Patients will be explained about all these points as well. Patients are advised to arrive 30 minutes earlier on the procedure day. Team of nurses and doctors will make necessary arrangements for chemoport implant. You will be taken to the surgical room. Initially your vitals will be monitored by nurses, that includes checking your blood pressure and glucose levels. Doctor/nurse will create an intravenous (IV) line around your arm. Chemoport placement procedure is performed under the influence of local anesthesia. Doctor will inject anesthesia on either your arm or chest or abdominal region which mainly depends on the location where your chemoport implant is being placed. Anesthesia is administered using the intravenous lines into this location. The procedure begins by making a cut on your skin which is about 3 cm in length. Also, a 5 mm incision is made at the lower region of your neck to get access to your vein. A port is implanted entirely within your body. A catheter is passed to this port and its other end is surgically inserted into one of the vein. The frontal side of the catheter contains a tube to carry chemotherapy drugs to the internal parts of your body and a cap at the end that provides a point of input to infuse these drugs. This part of the catheter acts as a portal which is left hanging outside your body. The position of the port placement is confirmed using a fluroscopy, a type of X-ray. It takes around 60 minutes for implementing the complete procedure of chemoport implantation. The removal process of chemoport is much easier and less painful compared to its placement process. The patient is given local anesthesia to numb the area before starting with the removal of chemoport. Initially your surgeon applies an anti-itch cream around your surgical areas. He/she then makes a small incision to surgically remove the catheter from your artery. He/she then puts some pressure for minimum of 7 minutes on that area to prevent further bleeding. The next step involves discarding the port from where it was fixed. This is done by cutting the sutures to remove the fittings. A similar pressure is applied to this area as well to ensure that the bleeding stops. After successful removal of the entire device, your surgeon sutures the inner and outer incisions by dissolving stitches. The entire chemoport removal procedure requires nearly about 30 minutes. A port placement surgery is an out patient procedure. Therefore, after the surgery, you will be taken to the general room to rest until the influence of anesthesia wears off. A physical routine check up will be conducted for you to ensure whether everything is fine. Any unnecessary health condition may call for corresponding treatment. Your doctor will prescribe antibiotics and pain killers to provide relief from the pain and other problems causing out of this process. Along with the medications, he/she will also instruct you about the time you must consume these medications. One of the most important step to follow during your post operative care is to maintain the hygiene around your implanted region. Make sure your keep the area of port clean every time before as well as after the chemotherapy process. The needle that gives access for infusion of chemotherapy drugs is usually covered with a cotton dressing to keep that site clean. The cotton dressing also help to maintain the needle in place. If a needle is not placed around your portals, one can take shower regularly. You can experience slight redness and tenderness around your surgical areas. However, it goes away within 24 hours to 48 hours after the surgery. Other issues like swelling and bleeding or drainage can also be seen from those areas. If these issues stay for more than 3 days, consult your doctor immediately. One can also experience unusual changes on their skin that have had an incision. Let your doctor know about all these abnormal changes. Make sure you keep changing your cotton dressing after some days. If your port was unused for more than seven days after the placement procedure, visit your doctor to ensure whether there is any wound condition occurring. Also, if the gap between each chemotherapy session is too long, take a follow up with your doctor every four weeks. These follow ups are conducted in order to clean your portals. Saline water is used to flush all the catheter tubes. They are then refilled with heparinized (adding a drug called heparin) saline to avoid blood from clotting in those areas. Your doctor will suggest you about the instructions and precautions to follow in the post procedure phase. You must avoid rigorous activities that include your arms or chest for minimum ten days at-least. Reduce activities that include excessive movement of your upper arm and chest repetitively. For example, swimming, lifting heavy objects, playing cricket (especially batting and bowling movements), exercising, etc. Performing such activities could possibly damage or break the catheter placed inside your body. Avoid excess consumption of fluid when you have a catheter placed inside your body. Failing to do so can block the catheter tubes. Ensure there is minimum contact with the catheter tube hanging outside your body to avoid the risk of infections. Also, close the cap of the catheter tube tight enough to avoid any air from entering into your body, especially your veins. Avoid the catheter tubes to develop any scratch or breakage. After removal of the chemoport, you are advised to rest for at-least three days until you totally recover. The areas of incision can be swollen during this period. They can also bleed for few hours. Your doctor will apply certain ointments in those regions where incisions were made. It can also be covered with a cotton dressing to avoid bleeding and infection. Doctor will prescribe you with pain-relief medicines if need be. It is advisable to avoid strenuous activities for few days until you recover totally. If you experience any abnormal situation during this period, visit your doctor immediately. Avoid sleeping on your chest. This can loosen up your stitches and can cause areas of incision to bleed. It also puts a pressure on your surgical section. The following risks and complications are likely to occur after implanting a chemoport: Mentioned below is a list of common risks and complication that may occur after the removal of chemoport. Major Surgeries in IndiaBreast Cancer Surgery

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The distribution of federal public lands across the United States. The vast expanses of America’s public lands, set aside to serve the national interest, have a complex and unlikely history that spans more than two centuries. In the United States, federally-owned public lands form the tapestry upon which so many recreationists depend, as do agricultural, extractive, tourism, and hunting industries that support local economies. Beyond that, these lands have unquantifiable cultural, scientific, ecological, and scenic values. As cyclists, public lands offer literally endless miles of trails, 4×4 tracks, and gravel roads that can carry us off the pavement, away from crowds, and into landscapes as quiet and remote as we may desire. The United States is globally unique with respect to the vast tracts of lands still remaining in the public domain, lands that are managed for a broad array of uses by various agencies and beneath a dizzying array of special designations and associated acronyms. However, political efforts to eliminate some or all of these public lands serve to highlight how we as recreationists cannot take these lands for granted. A late spring storm rolls through the Inyo National Forest Many of the direst and, direct threats to the future of public land that made news headlines over the past few years have subsided slightly. But these threats are all founded upon historically recurring ideas such as the wholesale transfer of federal public lands to states, the sale of some public lands to private parties and corporations, and less direct affronts like limiting or eliminating public participation in land management decision processes. The more that we, the general public and users of public lands, know about the history of just how this complex fabric of public domain lands came to be, the more effectively we can engage in dialogue about the current and future role and fate of such lands. Public federal lands in the United States constitute approximately 25% of the country’s land area. Most of this 25% is managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM; 10%), U.S. Forest Service (USFS; 8%), the Fish and Wildlife Service (4%), and the National Park Service (3%). The majority of these lands are located in the contiguous states west of the Mississippi River and in Alaska. Many individual states also have extensive landholdings, but most state-owned lands are not considered public lands as they are generally managed to generate revenue through leasing and outright sale. This article explores the origins of the two most extensive types of public lands – national forests and lesser-known BLM lands. USFS lands, totaling 193 million acres, were mostly established in a period of just 16 years spanning the turn of the last century. BLM lands, spanning 248 million acres, were not formally cemented as public lands until 1976. However, the history of how these millions of acres were set aside with the national interest in mind began more than two centuries ago when the federal government began selling and giving away its rapidly-growing territory. Massive wildfires in Idaho and Montana in 1910 helped build public and congressional support for the young USFS. Library of Congress Photo. Origins of Public Domain Lands The lands that so many of us cherish today as our federal public lands (as well as all other lands in the United States) were once the territories of hundreds of indigenous groups. Through relocation, forced assimilation, treaties, and genocide, lands were taken from these groups. Today, indigenous groups continue fighting to regain some of their ancestral lands – for the recognition and protection of sacred places, for water rights, for resources promised in treaties and court orders, for sovereignty, and for so much more. The carving up of the United States’ landholdings began shortly after the nation’s inception, and literally, thousands of Congressional acts and statutes in the subsequent 200+ years dictated the fate of these lands. The gridded Public Land Survey System was initiated in 1785 to aid in the disposal of these as unreserved, unappropriated, or vacant “public domain” lands. As the fledgling United States expanded through subsequent territorial acquisitions, the acreage of public domain lands grew exponentially. With this growth, Congress initiated an era of doling out land grants – giving away public domain lands to private parties – to establish sovereignty over its new territories and promote economic growth through expansion, settlement, and industrialization. The General Land Office was established in 1812 to oversee the continued disposal of public domain lands, and during the 19th century, a full 50% of the land area of the country was given away. An eighth of that land went to homesteaders, and another eighth went to railroads companies; agricultural, mining and logging operations also received substantial grants. Meandering through dirt roads in the Inyo National Forest Newly-formed states also received public domain lands, but extensive unappropriated lands remained within each state. The enabling acts agreed to by each fledgling state upon entering the Union articulated that the state would have no claim to or title over the remaining public domain lands within the state’s boundaries. In exchange, states were granted two one-square-mile sections within each 36-square-mile township across the state for schools. The 1841 Preemption Act also granted new states 500,000 acres of public domain land, and the 1862 Morrill Act granted additional acreage to aid in the establishment of state colleges. These state-owned lands have, in most cases, been subsequently managed to generate revenue either through leasing or outright sale. By the 1890s, most territories had become states, railroads cross-crossed the nation, easy-to-access mineral deposits had been claimed, readily-arable lands were being farmed, and the enthusiasm of westward expansion began to subside. However, hundreds of millions of acres of unappropriated lands remained in the public domain, mostly west of the Mississippi. Use of these lands for grazing, timber harvesting, and mining by both local residents and burgeoning corporate interests was minimally regulated. Extensive overgrazing, clearcutting of forests, illegal timber sales, and the fraudulent exploitation of mining and other land disposal laws became widespread. Irrigation surveys of the West led to concerns related to flooding and soil degradation resulting from the logging of forested headwaters. Large forest fires occurred regularly, and fears of a coming “timber famine” were fueled by the nearly-complete harvesting of the once-great forests of the Great Lakes region. An environmental movement grew in response, championed by influential sporting organizations and magazines such as the Boone and Crocket Club, Field and Stream, and American Angler calling for the preservation of streams and forested areas. A new idea began to take hold – the concept that some of the public domain lands should be preserved by the federal government for the broader benefit of the public. Growing out of this movement were the first national monuments and the majority of the national forest lands. The lands that have subsequently become managed by the Bureau of Land Management, however, remained in limbo and available for disposal until the 1970s. President Theodore Roosevelt and forester Gifford Pinchot were prominent proponents of preserving forestlands in the early 1900s (Library of Congress photo.) Creation of the National Forests The majority of the United States’ vast national forests were established in just 16 dramatic years following the 1891 “Forest Reserve Act.” In response to mounting concerns over the clearcutting of forests and the need to protect stream headwaters for irrigation and flood-control, Congress passed a bill giving the President authority to set aside federal “forest reserves” from public domain lands, thus protecting these forested lands from disposal. In addition to also providing management of the country’s important timber inventory, Interior Secretary Noble articulated that these forest reserves were to “preserve the fauna, fish, and flora of our country, and become resorts for the people seeking instruction and recreation” and preserve areas of “natural beauty, or remarkable features” and of “unique scientific interest.” Within days of the Act’s passage, President Harrison declared the first forest reserve around the periphery of Yellowstone Park. General Land Office field agents labored to identify forested watersheds across the West suitable for forest reserve designation, and by the close of the century, dozens of Reserves encompassing millions of acres had been established. Reception of these forest reserves was not entirely positive, however. After initially being entirely closed to all public entry pending new use regulations, Congress responded to an uproar of discontentment by opening the forest reserves to grazing, mining, and logging in 1897 under rules that were yet to be established. In 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt named the charismatic conservationist Gifford Pinchot as head of the newly-created U.S. Forest Service. The mission statement of the agency stated “all land is to be devoted to its most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people, and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies . . . where conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run.” The forest reserves were then renamed “national forests.” Pinchot lobbied Roosevelt to protect more of the forested West, and Roosevelt, an enthusiastic hunter and vocal conservationist himself, obliged. But western states protested, and in response, Congress passed an amendment within an appropriations bill stripping the President of his authority to establish new national forests within 6 western states. Roosevelt deemed it politically unwise to veto the legislation, so he asked Pinchot to direct his USFS staff to promptly identify all remaining areas suitable for national forest designation. After these staff outlined proposed forest boundaries on detailed topographic maps of those 6 states, Roosevelt declared 16 million acres of new national forest immediately prior to signing the appropriations bill. This bill brought the short era of national forest creation in the West to a close. Overgrazing was a widespread problem on public domain lands in the 1920s and 30s. Library of Congress Photo. The origins of the 25 million acres of national forests east of the Mississippi, from Minnesota to Alabama and Vermont to Florida, are starkly different. In most eastern states, these forests are the only significant areas of federal public lands, the vast majority of which were purchased by the federal government from private sellers with the explicit approval of the states. These forests were established to address both ecological and socio-economic concerns. Restoration of timber to clear-cut landscapes and abandoned farms, as well as protecting the watersheds of navigable streams, were the primary goals of these new national forests, and the USFS became the steward of a legacy of exploitive land-use practices. During the Great Depression, federal funds also were directed to purchase lands in need of restoration across Texas and the South to help stimulate local economies and to create recreational opportunities for populations living in more distant urban areas. Management goals for the national forests have evolved steadily over the last century. The initial focus on the protection of forest resources transitioned to facilitating timber production beginning during World War I and continued well beyond World War II. In the 1950s, USFS support for outdoor recreation increased as the American public became more mobile and leisure-minded. Conservation of wilderness areas also became a priority at the time. In 1960, Congress passed the Multiple Use and Sustained Yield Act, deeming the major uses of national forests to be of equal importance – outdoor recreation, grazing, sustained-yield timber production, watershed protection, and preserving fish and wildlife habitat. Mineral extraction, however, remained elevated above all other uses, and fighting wildfires continued to be a priority of the USFS. BLM signage in Nevada The leftovers – Bureau of Land Management lands At the close of the 1920s, 235 million acres of unappropriated lands remained in the public domain, almost exclusively west of the Mississippi. Most of these predominantly unforested lands were overgrazed and brought no revenue to the federal government, but subsurface mineral deposits were of unknown value. Ultimately, these acres became BLM lands, but it was not until 1976 that it became clear that these lands would be permanently held by the federal government. President Hoover, attempting to end the quandary of disposing of the remaining public domain lands, recommended to Congress in 1929 that these lands be given to the states. Congress agreed, but not wanting to give up potentially lucrative mineral deposits, articulated that the federal government retains ownership subsurface rights. Politicians from western states responded with dismay, insulted at being offered millions of acres of abused lands. States rejected the offer and instead insisted that the federal government rehabilitate those lands and begin managing grazing. Enjoying a lunch break while riding along Fossil Creek in Tonto National Forest. This section of Fossil Creek is protected by Wild and Scenic River designation, and recreational visitation is heavily controlled to minimize impact on the sensitive riparian ecosystem. Congress reacted by passing the Taylor Grazing Act in 1934, creating the U.S. Grazing Service to manage the vast rangelands “pending final disposal” of the land. In 1946, the BLM was created by President Truman by merging the long-standing General Land Office and the U.S. Grazing Service. The new agency was given control of 400 million acres of federal lands and nearly a billion acres of subsurface mineral rights and primarily supported and managed the livestock and mining industries. Multiple-use considerations and non-commodity land values like recreation, ecological characteristics, and scenic quality received recognition by the BLM in the 1960s and 70s, and the fate of these millions of acres finally became clear – the public did not want these lands sold off. A small shrub grows out of the Aiken Mine cinder field found in the Mojave National Preserve Following a mandate from Congress, the BLM had inventoried and classified its holdings to identify which lands were best suited for federal retention and which should be disposed of. Extensive public input revealed that almost unanimously, individuals, ranchers, and timber and mining companies all preferred federal ownership of the land. All parties believed they stood to gain more from public ownership than by being locked out by private ownership. The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 codified that the federal government would permanently retain of all remaining public domain lands managed by the BLM. The Act also repealed nearly 2,000 older land disposal policies and stated that “the public lands be managed in a manner that will protect the quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological, environmental, air and atmospheric, water resources, and archeological values . . . preserve and protect certain public lands in their natural conditions . . . provide food and habitat for fish and wildlife and domestic animals . . . [and] provide for outdoor recreation.” BLM lands have since been managed for multiple uses beyond the traditional commodity-based industries. A growing emphasis has been placed on recreation, and conservation has been prioritized, highlighted by the designation of millions of acres of BLM-managed National Landscape Conservation System lands and National Monuments. Lunar Crater, a dry lake bed and cinder cone field in Nevada The fate of state-owned lands What has become of the millions of acres of lands given to states upon entering the Union? Often referred to simply as “trust lands,” these holdings have been administered with notable differences in each state. Some states, such as Nevada, rapidly sold off most of their holdings after being granted statehood. Others have held onto much more of their trust lands as a source of continuing revenue for schools and other public institutions through leasing parcels for agriculture, timber, and mining or through outright land sales. Some states also manage portions of their lands for recreation as another way to stimulate local economies. But states are careful to note that the majority of these state-owned lands are not considered public, and it is not uncommon for public access to be restricted. Over the past century, support for transferring federal public lands to individual states has ebbed and flowed, particularly in the West, but the idea conflicts starkly with the intended purposes of these lands and with the goals of most states’ current land holdings. Riders immediately outside a small mountain town in Colorado and already immersed in National Forest lands. The Future of our Public Lands For more than a century, expansive tracts of federal lands have been set aside for the benefit of the nation as a whole rather than the benefit of a few, for conservation and preservation, and in response to, at times, widespread support for continued public ownership. These public lands, managed by numerous agencies with a multitude of goals, set the United States apart from much of the rest of the world where private land ownership dominates most countries. The future of America’s public lands depends more than ever before on collaborative planning and management with both local and national priorities in mind, ideally carried out aside from politics, socio-political boundaries, and historical norms. These priorities are diverse, ambiguous, and at times conflicting – grazing, mineral extraction, timber harvesting, habitat and ecosystem restoration, wilderness preservation, supporting native fish and wildlife, outdoor recreation, and more. The preferences of local residents and communities and the desires of recreationalists and conservationists living at a distance must be balanced and considered in concert with broader values and issues of national interest. But all these interest groups must understand that should these lands be transferred or sold to states or private parties, the lands will be forever lost from our public lands system, a loss that will be felt by many but will benefit few. This article originally appeared in the Spring 2019 issue of Overland Journal and has been slightly modified for The Radavist. Kurt Refsnider, Ph.D. is the Executive Director of the Bikepacking Roots non-profit and formerly a professor of geology. His passions and lifestyle are all all built around access to public lands, whether the purpose is for recreation, education, or empowering others. Despite having embarked on bikepacking expeditions on six continents, his favorite destinations are within the western U.S.

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Written by Karen Ritter, RN BSN Mesothelioma is a rare and aggressive cancer caused by asbestos. It forms when sharp, loose asbestos fibers become lodged in the lining of either the lungs or abdomen. These fibers irritate tissue, which becomes diseased. Most patients live for around one year after diagnosis, but treatment can prolong survival. FREE MESOTHELIOMA GUIDE Mesothelioma Packet includes: - 200+ pages about your diagnosis. - 3 books to improve your prognosis. - Wristbands to show your support. JUMP TO A TOPIC Important Facts About Mesothelioma - 2,500-3,000 cases each year in the U.S. - Two main types: pleural (80%) and peritoneal (20%) - Men = 77% of cases - Caucasians = 93% - Ages 55-84 = 80% - At-risk occupations = Military veterans, shipbuilding, construction, electrical work, automobile repair, mining and plumbing Asbestos Fibers Entering the Body Symptoms of Mesothelioma Some mesothelioma symptoms are similar to pneumonia, such as shortness of breath and coughing. People begin experiencing signs of mesothelioma 20-50 years after exposure to asbestos. OTHER COMMON SYMPTOMS Who Is at Risk? Exposure to asbestos is the only proven cause of mesothelioma. American industries adored asbestos because it was cheap and fire-resistant. Companies used the mineral to build homes, offices, ships, airplanes and automobiles. People exposed through their jobs face the highest risk of mesothelioma: - Construction and insulation workers - Military veterans - Pipefitters and plumbers - Automobile mechanics - Shipbuilders and shipyard workers Others at risk include: - Loved ones of a high-risk worker (secondary exposure) - Regular users of talc products (talc exposure) - Residents near asbestos mines and manufacturing plants (environmental exposure) Mesothelioma in the Military Military veterans make up an estimated 33% of mesothelioma cases. The U.S. military used asbestos in ships, aircraft, barracks and on-base housing. Types of Mesothelioma - Forms in the lining around the lungs - Main symptoms: Chest pain, pleural effusions (fluid buildup), coughing, shortness of breath - Treatment: Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy and tumor treating fields - Males = 81% of cases - Forms in the lining of the abdomen - Main symptoms: Abdominal pain, ascites (fluid buildup), weight loss - Treatment: Surgery, intravenous chemotherapy and intraoperative chemotherapy - Females = 44% of cases - Forms in the lining around your heart - Main symptoms: Shortness of breath, chest pain, irregular heartbeat - Treatment: Surgery and chemotherapy - 1% of mesothelioma cases Getting a Medical Diagnosis A biopsy is the only conclusive way to diagnose mesothelioma. A biopsy is a surgical procedure to remove tissue samples and test them for cancer. Unfortunately, this cancer can be mistaken for other diseases and often misdiagnosed. We suggest you visit a cancer center of excellence to go through a series of tests: - CT scan - PET scan Mesothelioma Stages and Prognosis There are four stages of mesothelioma. Each stage has a general prognosis, or life expectancy, based on past studies and data. Most mesothelioma cases are diagnosed in stage 3. The life expectancies listed below are based on median survival for pleural mesothelioma. These include patients who cannot have surgery, which lowers the median length. Peritoneal mesothelioma survival rates are usually longer than pleural mesothelioma rates. Many patients live five years or more after surgery. - Life expectancy: 20 months - Cancer is within the lining where it formed - Organs and lymph nodes not yet affected - Surgery is best treatment option - Life expectancy: 19 months - Tumors have spread beyond the lining - Nearby organs and lymph nodes at risk - Surgery remains an option - Life expectancy: 16 months - Cancer is no longer localized to the lining - Lymph nodes are affected by cancer cells - Surgery may involve removing the lung - Life expectancy: 11 months - Cancer has reached distant organs and areas - Patients may experience painful symptoms - Pain-relief treatment available Mesothelioma Treatment and Survival There are four main options for mesothelioma treatment: surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and radiation. Doctors often combine them to improve your survival time. Emerging methods include tumor treating fields, virotherapy and gene therapy. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved three therapies for unresectable mesothelioma: - Chemotherapy drugs pemetrexed and cisplatin - Immunotherapy drugs Keytruda, Opdivo and Yervoy - A tumor treating fields device called Optune Lua Surgery is the quickest way to remove mesothelioma tumors from your body. There are different surgeries for each type of mesothelioma, and they have different survival rates. Chemotherapy is a cancer-killing drug that looks for fast-growing cells. It’s the most-used treatment for mesothelioma. Chemotherapy on its own can extend survival by 6-8 months. Radiation uses high-energy beams to kill diseased cells. This method is primarily used for pleural mesothelioma. When used before or after surgery, radiation may improve survival. The FDA approved Opdivo and Yervoy together in October 2020 for unresectable pleural mesothelioma. The pair led to an average survival of 18 months since the start of treatment. The FDA also approved Keytruda for a small group of patients. Tumor Treating Fields Tumor Treating Fields The FDA approved the NovoTTF-100L System in May 2019 for unresectable pleural mesothelioma. It’s a tumor treating fields device, made by Novocure, and was renamed “Optune Lua.” When paired with chemotherapy, it led to 18 months median survival. Top Doctors and Cancer Centers for Mesothelioma Before beginning treatment, you should visit one of the top cancer centers of excellence. Speak to a mesothelioma specialist for a second opinion. You may learn about new treatment options. Some of the top cancer centers for mesothelioma are: - Brigham and Women’s Hospital (Boston) - National Cancer Institute (Bethesda, Maryland) - Baylor St. Luke’s Medical Center (Houston) - Mount Sinai Medical Center (New York City) - MD Anderson Cancer Center (Houston) - Moffitt Cancer Center (Tampa) - Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (New York City) VA Healthcare System for Mesothelioma Veterans with mesothelioma have three VA hospitals with dedicated mesothelioma treatment programs. Specialists from prestigious nearby cancer centers work at these VA hospitals as part of the VA healthcare system: - Boston VA - Los Angeles VA - Houston VA Get in Touch With an Expert Mesothelioma patient advocates dedicate their professional lives to helping people affected by asbestos diseases. They are the best asset for fighting your cancer. Their resources include: - Relationships with top cancer centers and mesothelioma doctors - Knowledge of mesothelioma and each treatment option - Ability to access travel grants, housing assistance and help filing VA claims Common Questions About Mesothelioma What causes mesothelioma? The only proven cause of mesothelioma is asbestos exposure. Loose strands of asbestos float in the air, invisible to the naked eye, and are easily inhaled or ingested. These fibers can travel into your lungs or abdomen and lodge into sensitive mesothelial linings, which causes cells to mutate and tumors to form. Is mesothelioma always fatal? Mesothelioma is an aggressive cancer that can spread quickly to vital organs, such as your lungs, diaphragm, heart or intestines. The average survival time for mesothelioma is 1-2 years, but medical advancements have improved the prognosis for many patients. Starting treatment immediately offers the best chance for beating this cancer. Who faces the highest risk of mesothelioma? Men ages 55 and older account for the majority of all mesothelioma cases. This is due to men working jobs that involved high risks of asbestos exposure. The occupations at greatest risk of developing mesothelioma are construction, electrical work, automobile repair, shipbuilding and military service. How many types of mesothelioma are there? There are three main types of mesothelioma: pleural, peritoneal and pericardial. The last one is very rare, accounting for around 1% of cases. Pleural mesothelioma, which develops in the thin lining covering your lungs, is the most common. Peritoneal mesothelioma, which forms in the lining around your abdomen, accounts for around 20%. How can you stop mesothelioma? The main way to stop the spread of mesothelioma is through multimodal treatment. The top three options are surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. Emerging methods include immunotherapy and tumor treating fields, which either helps the immune system fight mesothelioma or stops cancerous cells from replicating. Aggressive treatment often extends survival by multiple years. How do you know if you have mesothelioma? The primary symptoms of mesothelioma are pain, fluid buildup in the chest or abdomen, fever, weight loss, decreased appetite, fatigue, and difficulty breathing. Unfortunately, these symptoms are also features of the flu, pneumonia and COPD. If you have mesothelioma symptoms, visit a doctor immediately for testing. How many people get mesothelioma in the United States? There are around 3,000 documented cases of mesothelioma in the U.S. each year. This makes mesothelioma one of the rarest known cancers. It is four times more common in men than women, and it predominantly affects elderly Americans at an alarming rate compared to young adults.

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The Scientific Method is a way that Natural Scientists determine, test and prove their hypothesis. It is an organized way to prove or disprove a theory ("Scientific method," 2014). In the context of evolution, the question to ask is: is evolution true? The next step is to do some preliminary research in order to put the question in the form of a hypothesis. To do this, the background research aims to determine if there is any empirical evidence that may support the question. The other area to explore is to question what else may have contributed to the end result, if not the question that is being asked. The background research would examine if evolution is true, then is there perhaps another way that we could have arrived at this state without it? All of these questions are called into play during the background research. After the background research is conducted, there may have been several other questions that occurred that will help to form the hypothesis. In the case of evolution, the other questions may be: maybe instead of evolution, there was divine intervention that caused the events and changes. After the background research is conducted, the hypothesis is constructed. In this context, the hypothesis is: “evolution is true”. The hypothesis was constructed based on the evidence gathered during the background research. Now the goal is to determine whether this hypothesis is true, or false. To prove or disprove the hypothesis, an experiment, or many, are conducted in order to gather specific evidence about the hypothesis. In the case of evolution, there is evidence from many fields of natural science including paleontology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative embryology, comparative anatomy, physiology, biogeography, and geology.In the book “Why Evolution is True” (Coyne, 2009), the author, Jerry Coyne had evidence from all of the areas noted above to justify his hypothesis, which is, that evolution is true. In fact, he had an overwhelming amount of evidence to support his hypothesis and to write his book, his challenge wasn’t to find the data, but rather, to decide which of the data to include in the book as evidence. Coyne needed to pare down the voluminous amount of evidence that supports his hypothesis that evolution is true. His book is the result of his studies and analyses of the data. There may be other methods to study natural science, but they are likely quite specific to a particular field of study. There is not one single other structured method like the Scientific Method that provides the time tested, rigorous and organized way by which scientific data is analyzed in order to prove a hypothesis. Scientists from many fields including Albert Einstein have used the Scientific Method to prove their theories. The Scientific Method can be traced back to Aristotle. Darwin published a book in 1859 titled “On the Origin of Species” by Means of Natural Selection. In this famous book, Darwin described his theories about evolution and natural selection. The book created a furor with the conservative religious readers, who thought that this type of writing was blasphemous. However, Darwin’s work stand up today and the information in his theory about evolution has been proven over and again. Effectively, the theory is easy to understand -- it states that nature favors those that are able to endure, and therefore procreate, hence surviving whatever elements may cause extinction. He based his work on finches from the Galapagos Islands. In a paper titled “Climate Change May Have Spurred Human Evolution” (Irfan, 2013) Scientists were able to examine remains of plants, tools and other artifacts from the Olduvai Gorge in eastern Africa. The Olduvai Gorge was purposely chosen in because during a particular period, two hundred million years ago, and, for two hundred thousand years, the area in this land mass went through extreme and volatile weather conditions. The theory was that this type of climate change must’ve had a major impact upon evolution. Hence, the region was examined for clues about the evolution of human beings. During this time, it was the dawn of Homo Erectus. Prior to this, other species had populated the same region, and now a new species had emerged. The climate change that was occurring during this time allowed scientists to determine how this species needed to evolve in order to survive. The research conducted examined fossilized artifacts that were preserved in a way that made their structure telling of the types of changes that occurred. In doing so, it could be determined how the human species needed to evolve in order to survive. This gorge represented a closed ecosystem, and due to its optimum conditions, it sealed everything around it – in doing so, it recorded the events in chronological order with layers, like pages in a book (Irfan, 2013). The fossils that were examined were layered in a way so that scientists could determine the period of the occurances. The predominant argument presented in this paper is that Homo Erectus needed to adapt to the climate change in order to survive. In the gorge, the landscape continued to change from grasslands to forests and back again to grasslands. In doing this, it made agriculture very tricky for our ancestors to survive. In order to survive this climate change based on extremes in rain and aridity, Homo Erectus adapted to gathering food. This development of the brain was brought on by the ever-changing climate in the gorge. Other fossilized remains also showed that these extreme climate changes also caused changes in birds and reptiles due to selection pressures. This non-disputable evidence proved that back in those times, animals and organisms either adapted to be able to survive or perished. The paper provided additional evidence to support the argument by referencing other other scientific studies that have made a connection between brain development (evolution) and climate change. The paper also supports the compelling argument that our ancestors stayed in this severe climate and adapted to it,. Prior to this research, the evidence had pointed researchers in a different direction. Previously, it was believed (but not necessarily supported) that these earlier species dispersed to other areas on earth in order to survive. There have been many journals and other scholarly papers that hypothesized that Homo Erectus survived the harsh and extreme climate change in this region by migrating elsewhere. Now here was true evidence that these homonids stayed in this extreme climate change region and learned how to survive in it through the development of their brains. The development of their brains was an adaptation that was necessary to survive. The higher functioning brain enabled this specieis to survive. More evidence to support evolution was presented and analyzed in “Global Climate Changes Seen As Forces in Human Evolution” (Stevens, 1990). This paper was consistent in its findings. The points made in the paper supported the adaptation theory. It provided further evidence for its validity. This particular paper detailed the various phases that our human ancestors went through in order to develop higher functioning brains that ultimately led to the evolution of our current species, Homo Sapien. In this paper, the evolutionary branch that eventually led to our own human ancestors is compared with the robust australophithecines, which eventually became extinct due to its inability to adapt to the changing environment. This paper draws from research conducted by many Universities that specialize in the study of evolution, including Harvard, Johns Hopkins and the University of Cambridge in England. . Evidence is presented from many sources due to various studies that prove that a cooling period which occurred in Africa changed the climate and required our human ancestors to adapt due to the pressures of selection. This cooling period changed forests full of trees into grasslands that forced our ancestor tree dwelling species to become ground dwellers. It was no longer possible to live in trees, because the trees themselves had perished due to the harsh conditions of this cooling period. As a result, our ancestor species needed to adapt to this new environment, which meant surviving on the ground. Once on the ground, this Homo species learned that bipedal, erect walking, and, running was a much more efficient way to forage for food. In becoming bipedal, the species adapted further to this physiological change by recognizing that this mode of movement left two arms free to gather and carry the food necessary to survive. Now that gathering was the established method for attaining food, the species extended its range for foraging in order to increase the area from which to gather food. The expanded range exposed the species to new situations and climates, to which its brain grew in function in order to survive. Data provided in this paper drew from sources that discussed the life and extinction of the robust australophithecines versus the homonids that eventually evolved to become our ancestors, and eventually to become the species Homo Sapien. Data was cited that showed that the robust australophithecines lived for a million years before becoming extinct. Studies conducted revealed that this species lacked the ability to evolve in order to expand its range. Without an evolved brain with higher functioning capacity, it was not able to escape the harsh climate change that ultimately was its demise. Fossils revealed that this species existed on plants that left fossilized chlorophyll on its teeth. This was evidence that the species remained in place, endured the harsh climate changes and did not ever evolve to gather food – it ate only vegetation, as there seemed to be no evidence of any other form of nutrition. Data gathered also proved that this species lacked the larger, evolved brain that was necessary in order to gather food, and eventually hunt for meat. Due to these limitations, it was not able to evolve to the point of being able to procreate effectively in order for the population to survive the following waves of climate change. Selection pressures had forced this species into extinction. Contrarily, when the Homo species expanded its range, several benefits occurred, as told by the data: it was able to learn to hunt, therefore, adding much needed nutrition to its diet. This nutrition allowed the Homo species to have the vitality to devote more time to procreating and, for the duties of child rearing. In doing so, the Homo species was able to outlast, and hence survive the robust australophithecines because of the volume of population expansion that it managed. One species adapted and continued – while the other was not able to adapt and perished. Fast forward to many millions of years later, today our species has many environmental challenges. Scientists have confirmed that the earth’s temperature, on average is higher every year ("Climate effects on," 2014). It is not clear how this global warming trend will affect human evolution. There are already changes occurring in other species, such Polar Bears that live in very cold climates and survive by fishing in ice. Their environment is collapsing due to melting ice and only time will tell how much longer these animals can survive. It is clear based on natural selection, that if the Polar Bear is to survive, that it must adapt to its new climate. Adaptation is a process that requires changes to the genetic structure of an animal or organism. It is these changes in the animal’s or organism’s genetics that allow it to survive. A good example of this ("What is an," 2014) are the finches that Darwin studied on the Galapagos Islands. In his studies, Darwin noted that some finches had short beaks, while others seemed to have longer beaks. Yet, the finches all seemed to resemble each other. Upon closer examination, it appeared that the finches with the longer beaks had evolved, or adapted to their environment so that they could use their longer beaks to find and eat more bugs – hence surviving. In genetic terms, this change in the finches required a mutation of the genes in order for the change in appearance and in function to occur. It all starts with DNA ("What is dna," 2014). DNA stands for DeoxyriboNucleic Acid. There are four chemical bases, namely, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine that make up the DNA structure shown above. DNA is the genetic code that makes every organism and animal unique. DNA is located in the chromosome. There are twenty three pairs of chromosomes in each human cell. Genes are a combination of A, C, G and T, the four chemical bases noted above. The relationship between DNA, genes and chromosomes is depicted in this illustration ("What are genes," 2014). Each female has two X chromosomes, denoted as XX and each male has one X and one Y chromosome, denoted as XY. When a male and female mate, the result is a female, XX or a male, XY. Sometimes, abnormalities occur and children are born with different traits as a result of the pairing. A good example of this is the XYY male (Holland, 2013). Clearly, this is a genetic abnormality because males are supposed to have only one Y chromosome. When this occurs, the “XYY male” is different than the XY male. Whereas most people has forty six (46) chromosomes in each cell – or twenty three (23) pairs of chromosomes, the XYY male has forty seven (47) chromosomes in each cell. XYY males tend to be taller and usually have speech and learning difficulties as a result of the extra chromosome. They are usually sterile, and therefore incapable of passing on this genetic trait to offspring. There are many other types of genetic abnormalities, such as Down’s syndrome, where one simple coding error creates a baby that has many mental and physical limitations. The genetic code and structure needs to be precisely replicated in order to create a male or female with all of their twenty three pairs of chromosomes, fully intact.References Scientific method. (2014). Retrieved from http://libraryguides.unh.edu/content.php?pid=350369&sid=3969939 Coyne, J. (2009). Why evolution is true. London: Oxford Press. Irfan, U. (2013, January 02). Climate change may have spurred human evolution. Scientific American, Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/climate-change-may-have-spurred- human-evolution/?print=true Stevens, W. K. (1990, October 16). Global climate changes seen as forces in human evolution The New York Times, Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/16/science/global-climate- changes-seen-as-force-in-human-evolution.html?pagewanted=print Climate effects on human evolution. (2014). Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/research/climate-research/effects What is an example genetic adaptation?. (2014). Retrieved from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_an_example_genetic_adaptation What is dna. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.idna.in/About-DNA.aspx What are genes and genomes. (2014). Retrieved from http://genome.crg.es/courses/laCaixa05/Genomes/index.html Holland, K. (2013). Xyy syndrome. Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health/xyy- syndrome

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Myths about Entrepreneurs and Businessmen Reading time –10 minutes. Businessman and Entrepreneur is Not the Same This article is about entrepreneurship and the main characteristics of people in business and entrepreneurs. You will learn a few myths about business people. You will also realize what different roles businessmen and entrepreneurs have in the market and how they act to reach their goals. Moreover, you will learn about a few great online courses for entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs and businessmen have pretty many things in common. Have you ever wondered what the differences are between them? Entrepreneurs provide solutions for consumers, create jobs, and assist in developing a particular country’s economy. The businessman is responsible for a large part of the profits of his company. - Have you ever given it a thought that there is a subtle difference between a businessman and an entrepreneur, although these two terms are often used interchangeably? - Business people and entrepreneurs indeed have many similarities: both create jobs for unemployed, provide solutions to consumers, and contribute to the country’s economies; - However, their activities vary in many ways: a businessman starts his business from the existing idea, whereas entrepreneur builds on his unique idea or concept; business is profit-oriented, in contrast to an entrepreneur whose focus is on people (consumers, public, employees, etc.); a businessman sees the world as an opportunity to make his living, whereas entrepreneur instead seeks to serve the world; - If you understand the core differences between the two market operators, you can realize your talents and core competencies and capabilities and find a perfect fit for your employment. Want to break conventional life patterns and achieve everything you deserve? Enjoy our most in-demand quest that comprises recommendations from top global performers. Join us to become the best version of yourself with our in-depth course! - Ready to Become a Contributor? Want to charge $500+ per article? Build a legacy by contributing to our blog under YOUR NAME! Start creating your high-quality portfolio at Life Revival Universe. Our testimonials will help you get hired by the companies ready to pay top dollar for your knowledge and expertise. Take advantage of a limited-time opportunity to get published at Life Revival Community! Business and Entrepreneurship Definitions Companies are defined as organizations that engage in commercial, industrial, or professional activities. The term business also refers to an organization around a person who sells goods and services. Companies can operate as organizations with or without profit, carry out charity activities, or promote social responsibilities. The company’s size ranges from individual companies to international groups and from small companies to large corporations. The term “entrepreneur” derives from the French verb “entreprendre,” which means taking on risks to make profits. Although the concept of entrepreneurship has existed for centuries, classical and neoclassical economists have excluded entrepreneurs from their formal models. They assumed that perfectly rational actors use complete information, leaving no room for risk – discovery. Economists never had a standard definition of entrepreneurship. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that they incorporated entrepreneurship into their model of economic activities. What is a Business? Video Source: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/business.asp Schumpeter said that entrepreneurs, not just businesses, are responsible for creating new business models in search of profit. Kirzner saw entrepreneurship as the process leading to discovery, and Knight focused on entrepreneurs because he believed they were responsible for the risk premium in financial markets. All three thinkers were central to understanding the role of entrepreneurs’ “involvement in the development of the financial system and other areas of life.” Who is an Entrepreneur? Video Source: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/entrepreneur.asp Main Differences between a Businessman and Entrepreneur The words “businessman” and “entrepreneur” are often used interchangeably, and indeed, they have many similarities. Both businessmen and entrepreneurs create jobs, provide solutions for consumers and actively contribute to the economic development of a country. Yet, there are differences between the two types of activities. Businessmen work for a profit, whereas entrepreneurs are more concerned with changing the world. Most business people do business to make a profit, earn a living, achieve their financial goals, and become their own boss. In business, you are focusing on financial returns. Businessmen take calculated and managed risks as they cannot afford to lose money or suffer bankruptcy. That is why, in business, you always do the math calculations. In contrast, an entrepreneur is someone who conceives an idea or solution to a current problem that society is facing. An entrepreneur is an inventor of an idea, a creator of a new product. As entrepreneur, you strive to make a difference in the world, which is both your passion and ultimate goal. Entrepreneurs are like skydivers and often don’t care about losing time or money to pursue a passion. Entrepreneurs do their best by completing the things they love the most, which leads to great success. If you do this with love, joy, and passion, you will receive extraordinary rewards. Different Attitudes to Employees and Customers Entrepreneurs are employers and managers. They hire employees and workers to grow the business. These are friends and managers, but not employers or managers in the traditional sense of the word. These peers and people will never treat you like a machine, and they help you to grow. Entrepreneurs don’t see customers as their source of income but rather view them as sources of fulfillment. Customers are the lifeblood for you and your company. Entrepreneurs try to beat their competitors, but they also see cooperation, not competition, as a means to achieve specific goals. Most entrepreneurs need a good economy to succeed, especially in retail, franchising, and the financial sector. Losing money is one of the biggest worries for business people, but not for entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs don’t really care about money because they can always start over again. The Visions of the World Market Business people spend time on marketing campaigns to promote their products. They always look at the clock as they don’t want to fall behind the schedule. These people are fast and always busy. Business people see the world as an opportunity to make their living: they consider the world as a duty rather than a chance. Entrepreneurs resemble artists or scientists as they spend time perfecting their product. The product should be a masterpiece, and they need to bring it to the state of perfection. Entrepreneurs care about the success of their company and its stakeholders, such as employees, customers, families, friends, suppliers, partners, investors, etc. Entrepreneurs just do their job and let history determine their success. Both entrepreneurs and businessmen pay important roles in the economic development of their countries. Below you can see the Key Differences Between Entrepreneur and Businessman: Myths about Entrepreneurs All myths are partly true, and myths about entrepreneurs are not an exception. For example, entrepreneurs love to deal with the unknown. They take uncalculated risks to retain and consider resources. However, not every entrepreneurial venture is a real breakthrough in terms of new ideas. For the most part, entrepreneurs start businesses without revolutionary inventions: most of them adopt a mix-and-match approach. McDonald’s didn’t invent the cheeseburger, Starbucks didn’t invent coffee, and Google didn’t create the Internet, but these companies are entrepreneurial by their nature. Most entrepreneurs are young, inexperienced people who pursue their passions. Entrepreneurs often leave their home countries to gain valuable experience in their field of interest. They do extensive research before taking the first step to create a new concept or a product. However, they may take risks depending on the potential offers to raise capital. Funding is the most crucial prerequisite for the set-up of any enterprise, and entrepreneurs often start with sufficient money. Some entrepreneurs fail to raise enough capital from outside sources if they cannot prove their credibility. Being a Successful Entrepreneur Means to Have a Good Intuition and the Ability to Change Becoming an entrepreneur is not rocket science, but why do some entrepreneurs grow while others fail? Today entrepreneurs can raise funds thru start-up investments, venture capitalists, and even private equity firms. There is no single way to succeed, and entrepreneurs do not necessarily know whether a particular idea or innovation is viable or not. Successful entrepreneurs trust their gut instincts, make quick decisions, and follow a lengthy process of market research to implement their ideas into life. Entrepreneurs focus intensely on opportunities and do not bother about non-strategic activities and distractions. Entrepreneurs are positive thinkers: they tend to learn from mistakes rather than “crying over spilled milk”. It is about focusing on the important, and not just the urgent matters, including the ability to prioritize tasks. If you want to succeed in the business world, you have to accept that you may fail and that it may cause you a lot of suffering. I think it is better to recognize the mistakes, correct them and move on with your life. To lead a successful company, you need to think fast, stay open-minded, pursue an agile management style and embrace continuous learning while adapting new information as it becomes available. When something goes wrong, entrepreneurs are not afraid to change lanes and do something else. This may seem like a fickle change of heart to your employees, and it means acting quickly. The reward equation in the business world is linked to innovation. Business is a combination of innovation and risk-taking and the ability to adapt and change. You have to know who you are, talk to your customers, and interact with other players. Entrepreneurship does not occur in a vacuum; many role players influence its activities from the beginning of the life cycle. The success of the business in the complex ecosystem is directly related to an entrepreneur’s ability to solve problems and boost a company’s growth trajectory. Money Management Rules Successful entrepreneurs should be careful with money as it is funds that keep a company afloat. Moreover, it is almost always more challenging to raise capital than one thinks. So, you shouldn’t spend your company’s money prematurely, especially in case of a sole proprietorship, or make the wrong tax decisions. As entrepreneurs, we always want to have a full plate and still feel we can take on any task. But if we keep adding to our comprehensive range of dishes, they will eventually collapse under the weight of excessive pressure. Collaboration Within the Company is Sufficient Don’t let stubbornness stop you from asking for assistance. Don’t be afraid to assign tasks to an experienced employee who may complete the job better than you. It is essential for high growth and low growth potential companies, especially in their set-up stages. You never know when you might meet an ex-colleague or boss and seek their help. If you are on a dead-end road and need to discuss things, a professional network of industry veterans can help. Many entrepreneurs hire people with similar experiences, but the trick is to find qualified employees and treat them right. Otherwise, people get bored with you and do not treat you with respect. Musk wrote that it is essential to look at knowledge as a kind of semantic tree to make sure you understand all the details. You need to be aware of a company’s business plan, business model, and strategy before you get to other details. That’s not all Elon knows, but he realizes that it’s vital looking at all our knowledge as a kind of semantic tree and make it easy to understand, even if we don’t know some details. 10 Excellent Free Online Courses for Entrepreneurs Please note that some courses are offered weekly, while others are scheduled regularly. You can register for scheduled classes at any time of the year or take courses on an individual basis at a later date: - Essentials of Entrepreneurship: Thinking and Action - Developing Innovative Ideas for New Companies: The First Step in Entrepreneurship - Entrepreneurship 101: Who Is Your Customer? - Degreed’s Entrepreneurship Learning Pathway - How to Build a Start-up? - Thinking Outside the Box: Creative Entrepreneurship - DQ101: Introduction to Decision Quality - Design Thinking for Innovative Problem Solving: A Step by Step Project Course - New Venture Finance: Start-up Funding for Entrepreneurs - Fundamentals of Entrepreneurship: Pitching Your Business and Yourself Although an entrepreneur and businessman may seem to play similar roles, there is a significant difference. An entrepreneur becomes a businessman in the long run. The fine line between them both is that the entrepreneur is always the market leader, while the businessman is a market participant. There are 10 differences between businessmen and entrepreneurs: - The exclusiveness of the idea; - The way they treat employees; - The purpose of doing business; - The way they see the competition; - The degree of risks taken; - The way they treat customers; - What they think of money; - How they deal with time; - How they see the world; - How they define success. To sum up, the businessman focuses on coordination, cooperation, and resources, while the entrepreneur is a market participant and market leader in his own business. Your gut instincts, innovative approach, flexibility, efficient time management, and the right support system will help you become a successful entrepreneur. Most of us usually notice the similarities between both entrepreneurs and businessmen. Still, there are significant differences that we considered today. If you struggle between these two ways of career, you should, first of all, make yourself some acquaintances in both spheres. People can share some valuable tips and their own experience in various professions with you. Visit the courses or seminars to decide what interests and suits you best. For example, you can find some of them in the article above. No matter what option you choose, you should continuously develop your hard and soft skills. To lead a successful company, you need to think fast, stay open-minded, and embrace continuous learning while adapting new information. Also, don’t let stubbornness stop you from asking for assistance. It is essential for high growth. Join the list in the comments section below and add tips and tricks for money management, business administration, and financial planning.

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Nuclear Waste can be a solution not a problem Advanced Fast Neutron Reactors (AFR) are fast breeder reactors that can use nuclear “waste” for fuel — the spent nuclear fuel that has been discarded from conventional nuclear plants can power AFR’s, producing clean electricity while destroying radioactive waste. “Fast-neutron reactors could extract much more energy from recycled nuclear fuel, minimize the risks of weapons proliferation and markedly reduce the time nuclear waste must be isolated. “If developed sensibly, nuclear power could be truly sustainable and essentially inexhaustible and could operate without contributing to climate change. In particular, a relatively new form of nuclear technology could overcome the principal drawbacks of current methods—namely, worries about reactor accidents, the potential for diversion of nuclear fuel into highly destructive weapons, the management of dangerous, long-lived radioactive waste, and the depletion of global reserves of economically available uranium. This nuclear fuel cycle would combine two innovations: pyrometallurgical processing (a high-temperature method of recycling reactor waste into fuel) and advanced fast-neutron reactors capable of burning that fuel. With this approach, the radioactivity from the generated waste could drop to safe levels in a few hundred years, thereby eliminating the need to segregate waste for tens of thousands of years…” Smarter Use of Nuclear Waste size: 575 Kb – 8 pages By William H. Hannum, Gerald E. Marsh and George S. Stanford Fast Neutron Reactors — “Several countries have research and development programs for improved Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR), which are a type of Fast Neutron Reactor. These use the uranium-238 in reactor fuel as well as the fissile U-235 isotope used in most reactors. “Natural uranium contains about 0.7 % U-235 and 99.3 % U-238. In any reactor, the U-238 component is turned into several isotopes of plutonium during its operation. Two of these, Pu 239 and Pu 241, then undergo fission in the same way as U 235 to produce heat. In a fast neutron reactor, this process is optimized so that it can ‘breed’ fuel, often using a depleted uranium blanket around the core. FBRs can utilize uranium at least 60 times more efficiently than a normal reactor.” —Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors World Nuclear Association “The American Nuclear Society believes that the development and deployment of advanced nuclear reactors based on fast-neutron fission technology is important to the sustainability, reliability, and security of the world’s long-term energy supply. Of the known and proven energy technologies, only nuclear fission can provide the large quantities of energy required by industrial societies in a sustainable and environmentally acceptable manner. “Natural uranium mined from the earth’s crust is composed primarily of two isotopes: 99.3% is U- 238, and 0.7% is the fissile U-235. Nearly all current power reactors are of the “thermal neutron” design, and their capability to extract the potential energy in the uranium fuel is limited to less than 1% of that available. The remainder of the potential energy is left unused in the spent fuel and in the uranium, depleted in U-235, which remains from the process of enriching the natural uranium in the isotope U-235 for use in thermal reactors. With known fast reactor technology, this unutilized energy can be harvested, thereby extending by a hundred-fold the amount of energy extracted from the same amount of mined uranium. “Fast reactors can convert U-238 into fissile material at rates faster than it is consumed making it economically feasible to utilize ores with very low uranium concentrations and potentially even uranium found in the oceans.1–3 A suitable technology has already been proven on a small scale.4 Used fuel from thermal reactors and the depleted uranium from the enrichment process can be utilized in fast reactors, and that energy alone would be sufficient to supply the nation’s needs for several hundred years. “Fast reactors in conjunction with fuel recycling can diminish the cost and duration of storing and managing reactor waste with an offsetting increase in the fuel cycle cost due to reprocessing and fuel refabrication. Virtually all long-lived heavy elements are eliminated during fast reactor operation, leaving a small amount of fission product waste that requires assured isolation from the environment for less than 500 years.4 “Although fast reactors do not eliminate the need for international proliferation safeguards, they make the task easier by segregating and consuming the plutonium as it is created. The use of onsite reprocessing makes illicit diversion from within the process highly impractical. The combination of fast reactors and reprocessing is a promising option for reasons of safety, resource utilization, and proliferation resistance.5 “Reaping the full benefits of fast reactor technology will take a decade or more for a demonstration reactor, followed by buildup of a fleet of operating power stations. For now and in the intermediate-term future, the looming short-term energy shortage must be met by building improved, proven thermal-reactor power plants. To assure longer-term energy sustainability and security, the American Nuclear Society sees a need for cooperative international efforts with the goal of building a fast reactor demonstration unit with onsite reprocessing of spent fuel.” American Nuclear Society Position Statement Fast Reactor Technology: A Path to Long-Term Energy Sustainability size: 30 Kb – 2 pages Is nuclear energy renewable? Generally “renewable” relates to harnessing energy from natural forces which are renewed by natural processes, especially wind, waves, sun, and rain, but also heat from the Earth’s crust and mantle. And because it shares many attributes with technologies harnessing these natural forces — for instance, radioactive decay produces much of the heat harnessed geothermally, nuclear energy is sometimes classified with them. But there are other reasons to call nuclear energy “renewable”. In any nuclear reactor, the input fuel is normally uranium-235 (U-235) which is part of a much larger mass of uranium – mostly U-238. This U-235 is progressively ‘burned’ over about three years to yield a lot of heat. But about one-third of the energy yield comes from something which is not initially loaded in: plutonium 239 (Pu-239), which behaves almost identically to U-235. This is because the fission of U-235 causes some of the U-238 to turn into Pu-239, so about half of the U-235 used actually renews itself by producing Pu-239 from the otherwise waste material U-238. So, it’s partly Renewable in this situation. This raises the possibility of whether U-235 can be made fully Renewable. In fact, it can, by optimizing the process in another kind of reactor that can be configured to “breed” more Pu-239 than it consumes (by way of U-235 + Pu-239), so that the system can run indefinitely. While it can produce more fuel than it uses, there does need to be steady input of reprocessing activity to separate the fissile plutonium from the uranium and other materials. This is fairly capital-intensive but well-proven and basically straightforward. The used fuel from the whole process is recycled and the usable part of it increases incrementally. Apart from this, there is thorium, which is four times as abundant as uranium. Using a similar process to the breeder reactor, thorium can produce U-233, which is fissile. This process is not yet commercialized, but it works and if there were ever a pressing need for it, the development would be accelerated.—Sustainable Energy World Nuclear Association Future Nuclear Fission Power Plant Technology — Generation IV Scientists at Argonne National Laboratory are developing a new generation of Nuclear Reactors. The technology is called IFR which stands for Integral Fast Reactor. The technology is also called AFR which stands for Advanced Fast Reactor. Read what a nuclear physicist says about Integral Fast Reactors: Integral Fast Reactors: Source of Safe, Abundant, Non-Polluting Power by George S. Stanford, Ph.D. nuclear reactor physicist, now retired from Argonne National Laboratory after a career of experimental work pertaining to power-reactor safety. “There’s another huge benefit, of course. If nothing better comes along, the IFR can supply the world with pollution-free energy for thousands of years.” — George Stanford, Ph.D. Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool by David Baurac, director of public information for the Argonne National Laboratory. Argonne’s advanced fast reactor (AFR) has demonstrated its passive safety conclusively on a working prototype. “Back in 1986, we actually gave a small prototype advanced fast reactor a couple of chances to melt down,” says Argonne nuclear engineer Pete Planchon, who led the 1986 tests. “It politely refused both times.” Read more about Integral/Advanced Fast Reactors: Dr. Charles Till Nuclear physicist and associate lab director at Argonne National Laboratory West in Idaho. He is co-developer of the Integral Fast Reactor, an inherently safe nuclear reactor with a closed fuel cycle. “The radioactive isotopes in spent nuclear fuel are of two types: fission products and actinides. The fission products as a group have an effective half-life of about thirty years. It takes only about 500 years for their toxicity to drop below that of the natural uranium ore from which their parent atoms came. “The actinides, on the other hand, have long half-lives, and their toxicity level is orders of magnitude greater for millions of years. In preprocessing, the actinides are easily recovered and recycled back into the reactor. This reduces the effective lifetime of the nuclear waste from tens of thousands of years to a few hundred, and meanwhile, energy is generated by fissioning the actinides. “A repository is still needed, but its performance specifications can be much less stringent without the long-lived actinides. Furthermore, the repository’s capacity is increased substantially because the long-term heat source is eliminated. And the disposal site does not become a geological plutonium deposit, waiting to be mined by a would-be bomb-maker in the distant future, when the isotopic suitability of the plutonium for weapons will have improved considerably. “Nonproliferation: The nuclear materials in the closed fuel cycle cannot be used directly in weapons, because pyroprocessing is unable to separate pure plutonium. Instead, the plutonium is mixed at all times with uranium, other actinides, and fission products. The mixture is protected against theft or unauthorized diversion because it is dauntingly radioactive and must be handled remotely with sophisticated, specialized equipment. “Pyroprocessing systems are compact, and the fuel-cycle facility can easily be collocated with the reactor, all but eliminating the need to transport nuclear fuel.” Yoon I. Chang Adapted from a talk delivered at Argonne National Laboratory, Titled, Advanced Fast Reactor: A Next-Generation Nuclear Energy Concept Argonne National Laboratory, along with the Idaho National Laboratory (INL), is leading U.S. participation in the Generation IV project, an international effort to develop the next generation of Closed fuel cycle advanced nuclear reactors. With a robust R&D effort, most of those concepts could be developed and deployed by the year 2020. And each is aimed at meeting projected power needs in the mid-21st century. For example, several concepts—most prominently, the very-high-temperature gas-cooled reactor—have a higher output temperature and are therefore attractive for process heat applications. These concepts also would be well-suited to produce hydrogen in quantity and at an attractive price. Nuclear power currently is one of the most attractive means of large-scale production of hydrogen. Five of the six Generation IV technology concepts are being pursued at varying levels of effort based on their technology status and potential to meet program and national goals. Two are thermal neutron spectrum systems (Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) and Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)) with coolants and temperatures that enable hydrogen or electricity production with high efficiency, and three are fast neutron spectrum systems (Gas-Cooled (GFR), Lead-Cooled (LFR), and Sodium-Cooled (SFR) fast reactors) that will enable more effective management of actinides through recycling of most components in the discharged fuel. The U.S. is not currently researching the molten salt reactor (MSR). Japan is focusing on the sodium-cooled reactor (MSR), with its significant potential for recycling spent nuclear fuel in the near future. The six Gen IV reactor concepts are shown with illustrations: Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) features a fast-neutron-spectrum, helium-cooled reactor, and closed fuel cycle. Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) produces fission power in a circulating molten salt fuel mixture with an epithermal-spectrum reactor and a full actinide recycle fuel cycle. Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) features a fast-spectrum, sodium-cooled reactor, and closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertile uranium. Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) features a fast-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR) is a high-temperature, high-pressure water-cooled reactor that operates above the thermodynamic critical point of water (374 degrees Celsius, 22.1 MPa, or 705 degrees Fahrenheit, 3208 psi). Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled reactor with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, designed to supply heat with core outlet temperatures of 1,000 degrees Celsius, which enables applications such as hydrogen production or process heat for the petrochemical industry or others. INL team helps pave the way to Generation IV reactor “Fourth generation nuclear reactors, the nuclear power plants of tomorrow will provide safer, less expensive and more environmentally friendly energy. A critical step in developing new Very High-Temperature Reactors (VHTR) is certifying the graphite that is used in many parts of the reactor’s core. In recent years, it has become necessary to develop new nuclear-grade graphite and certify it for use in the next generation of gas-cooled nuclear reactors… nuclear experts envision two different versions of gas-cooled VHTRs for next-generation use. Both designs will require large amounts of high-quality graphite.”

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Whether battling an illness or just trying to maintain our health, we should constantly be evaluating the things we do in our daily lives and how they affect us. We often forget to check in on these simple things as the hustle and bustle of doctors’ appointments, medications, physiotherapy and so on seem to take precedence, but we need to take control of those things which we can control. For anyone fighting an illness or condition of any sort, it is so important to ensure that our body is working at its maximum capacity so it can fight as hard as it can. We can think of our body like a car. For a car to drive properly there are multiple parts involved and processes taking place. If one of these is not functioning as it should, this will affect the car’s performance. For example, if air pressure in the tires is too low because of a small hole in the tire, the car is working harder to move the car and will use more fuel than if the air pressure was where it should be. If everything else in this car is still working optimally then this will hinder performance, but only so much, but, if we also have an oil leak, then the car is dealing with low oil and low tire pressure. Similarly, if we are dealing with a condition which hinders certain functions in our body, we should be ensuring that the rest of our body is working at its highest ability. As far as neuropathy goes, our bodies are in a compromised state due to nerve damage which may be inhibiting blood flow, lymph circulation and so on which make it difficult for out nerves to mend. In this instance our bodies are working very hard to overcome these obstacles and so we must ensure that we are fueling it and providing it with the best fighting chance it has. We must do all we can to promote the healing process. Below we will outline a couple important lifestyle factors which should be attended to so we can encourage optimal healing function within our bodies. The four areas of focus are maintaining optimal weight, avoiding toxic exposure, correcting vitamin deficiencies, and eating a healthy and balanced diet. Correcting Vitamin Deficiencies We have likely been overwhelmed at the supermarket by the isles of different vitamins, but how often do we take a minute to think about these different vitamins? Vitamins are organic compounds which are essential to normal growth of the human body. They are required in the diet because our bodies cannot synthesize them (in sufficient amounts). Certain vitamin deficiencies have been linked to neuropathy or play a role in worsening neuropathy symptoms. Sounds scary? Well, luckily for us, vitamin intake is something we can manage easily with diet and supplements. Below we will go through various vitamins that should be incorporated into the daily routine of anyone suffering with peripheral neuropathy. B Complex Vitamins The vitamin B family helps to prevent and treat injured nerves. Below we will go into detail about each B-type vitamin and although this list may seem daunting, we don’t need to worry about it because there is something called a B Complex vitamin available which is comprised of these vitamins into one pill. An essential nutrient required by all tissues in the body. The human body cannot produce thiamine and thus, it must be consumed either as food or in supplement form. >sources: poultry, whole grain cereals, brown rice, nuts, soy beans, egg yolks. Helps the body break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats to produce energy and is needed for growth and overall good health. >sources: whole-grains, milk, poultry, eggs, cheese, peas Important for general good health but also can improve cholesterol levels and lower cardiovascular risks. >sources: protein-rich foods such as meat, fish, yeast, milk, eggs, legumes B5- Pantothenic Acid Required to synthesize coenzyme-A (an essential vitamin), proteins, carbohydrates and fats. >sources: meat, whole grain cereals and legumes Needed for several functions including the creation of red blood cells and neurotransmitters. Its participation in creating neurotransmitters has also linked it to improving mood, symptoms of depression, and promoting brain health. Too high of levels can cause toxicity. >sources: yeast, green vegetables, whole grain cereals B9-Folic Acid- Folic Acid and B12 are linked to the point where a deficiency of either Folic Acid or B12 lead to similar neurologic manifestations one of which is peripheral neuropathy. It is very important to speak with a doctor prior to taking any Folic Acid supplements because too much can cause neurological relapse. >sources: Citrus fruits, bananas, peas, beans, romaine lettuce, cucumber, asparagus. Vitamin B12 is an example of a vitamin deficiency which has been linked to neuropathy. Vitamin B12 is present in foods such as fish, meat, poultry, eggs, and diary. Vitamin B12 deficiencies cause damage to the myelin sheath which surrounds and protects nerves. >sources: meats, egg yolk, poultry, milk This is an antioxidant that reduces symptoms of neuropathy such as pain and numbness. The usual dose is 200mg per day as per Cancer BC. Deficiency has been linked to peripheral neuropathy. Has distinctive antioxidant activities which protect cells from free radical damage. >sources: Nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils. Eating a Balanced Diet Diet should be one of the first things addressed when faced with any illness or disorder. This is because how you fuel your body impacts your mood, energy, mental well-being as well as so many other processes essential to overall health and wellness. When it comes to neuropathy, a healthy diet can help prevent or reduce troubling symptoms. A balanced diet can help correct underlying nutritional deficiencies and can manage medical conditions linked to neuropathy such as diabetes. Lastly, certain diets encourage better circulation, healthier cholesterol levels, and better blood sugar and blood pressure levels, all of which should be working at their highest efficiency to keep neuropathy symptoms at bay or heal damaged nerves where possible. So, what should we be eating? Well, the short of it is that our diet should be rich in fish, nuts, antioxidants, whole grains, and fresh produce. Antioxidants are compounds produced in the body and found in certain foods. They prevent cell damage that may occur because of oxidative stress from free radicals. Free radicals are molecules that are created within the body and are necessary for certain functions, but when there are not enough antioxidants in a system then free radicals build up and cause oxidative stress which can lead to chronic diseases like cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease. For these reasons’ antioxidants should make up a part of the diet of every human despite their health. Antioxidants, are even more important for those suffering from neuropathy because antioxidants do have neuroprotective properties and have been linked to hindering the progression of neuropathic impairments by reducing oxidative stress. >Sources: Blueberries, Strawberries, Kale, Red Cabbage, Beans, Dark Chocolate, Pecans Lean protein is another important food source to be consumed. Lean protein does not contain a lot of fat and so when consumed mainly provides protein. Lean protein is important in a neuropathic diet because it allows the body to build muscle tissues and contributes to tissue repair. >Sources: White meat, poultry, low-fat milk, legumes, tofu, yogurt, fish. Fruits and Veggies Fruits and vegetables provide an assortment of dietary fibres, vitamins and minerals all of which help support immune function and maintain healthy nerves, tissues, and muscles. The best vegetables to eat are those which are dark and leafy since they contain the most antioxidants, vitamins and minerals. These are vegetables such as kale, spinach, chard, parsley and broccoli. As for fruit, similarly we want to stick to fruits which are high in antioxidants like berries and kiwis. Also incorporate citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, and lemons because these are sources of folic acid and vitamin C. Fish is an excellent food for a few reasons. First off, as we discussed previously, vitamin B12 is very important in managing neuropathy and is present in fish. Fish provides us with a source of lean protein, essential for building lean muscle and nerve rebuilding. Lastly, fish are very high in Omega-3 fatty acids, the good fats. Omega-3s play important role in reducing tissue inflammation reducing pain and other neuropathy symptoms. It is important to get Omega-3s in your diet because our body does not produce a enough of them naturally. >best sources: Wild Salmon, Arctic char, Atlantic Mackerel, Sardines, Anchovies, Farmed Rainbow trout. Whole Grains and Cereals Whole grains are important for those suffering with neuropathy because they are high in B vitamins, protein, and antioxidants. In addition, they have the added benefits from fibre and minerals such as zinc, iron, and magnesium. >Sources: oatmeal, popcorn, quinoa, brown rice, rye, buckwheat, barley. Nuts are basically a secret weapon when it comes to being packed full of good things. Nuts are full of fibre, protein, vitamins such as folate or B1, minerals, Omega-3s and even antioxidants. They are basically full of everything you could ask for in a food. It is generally recommended to eat raw or dry-roasted nuts as opposed to oil-roasted nuts to reduce calories and fat intake from nuts. Maintaining an Optimal Weight/ Staying Active It is so easy to let our weight or activity levels become unregulated as we deal with an illness, especially one that can be so debilitating as neuropathy. This shouldn’t be the case though because excess weight has negative effects on peripheral neuropathy which often worsens the condition. As previously mentioned, healing occurs most when our bodies are working at their best, and it just so happens that a huge part of this is our body weight. Peripheral neuropathy is caused by many things but is the result of damaged nerves which can be pinched, squished severed, etc. We need to do what we can to reduce any further damage to these nerves and encouraging proper circulation of oxygen and nutrients to these nerves. Unfortunately, excess body weight can damage nerves further from excess weight squishing and constricting nerves even more. A study done in 2016 at the University of Tokyo found overweight patients with neuropathic pain complained of more severe pain than normal-weight patients and they experienced more negative symptoms of neuropathy such as numbness, tingling, or stabbing sensations (Hozumi, et al., 2016). Additional research has demonstrated that obesity causes musculoskeletal degeneration which can worsen symptoms of PN by causing more damage to nerves. Other research has found that motor and sensory action potentials, the electrical change which causes a nerve to fire, in nerves are impaired in obese subjects. Overall, it is evident that excess weight impedes nerve healing. So, what can we do to manage our weight? Weight maintenance can be done maintaining a healthy diet and regular exercise. Exercise has many benefits for neuropathy as it can deliver more blood, oxygen and nutrients to far-off nerve endings which in turn can improve muscular strength, reduce pain, and prevent muscle loss. Great activities for weight loss and improving neuropathy symptoms are walking or swimming because both exercises involve aspects of cardiovascular health and are easy on our joints. Overall, the take away here is that when we are at an optimal weight, we have better nerve functioning, circulation and so on. It is recommended that patients speak with their physician regarding an optimal weight. Avoiding Toxic Exposure We must be mindful that everything we put into or on our body is either healing or damaging it. Our bodies take and use whatever we provide it with, whether that be the lotion we apply every morning, the coffee we have at lunch, or the shampoo and conditioner we use to shower. The following things should be avoided as they have negative effects and can worsen symptoms of neuropathy. Excess alcohol can worsen certain health conditions that cause neuropathy as well as it can lead to nerve damage. Additionally, heavy alcohol consumption may cause malabsorption, the inability to absorb or digest nutrients from food, of certain nutrients which are necessary for healthy nerves. Lastly, alcohol may poison healthy nerves. Overall alcohol consumption is toxic to the nerves and thus should be limited at best. Mercury is commonly found in seafood and at high levels can cause central nervous problems. Seafood accumulate mercury through absorption from surrounding environment and from the food they eat. According to Canada Health Services, fish such as tuna, shark, swordfish and marlin have the highest mercury levels whereas canned tuna, anchovy, char, herring, Pollock, salmon, and trout have lower mercury levels and thus are better choices. As far as things like nail polish and lotions, we should try to avoid drying agents like formaldehyde in nail polishes and things like Oxybenzones, Octinoxate, and Homosalate in lotions and sunscreens. Last, but definitely not least, we should avoid smoking. Smoking is a toxic habit that constricts blood vessels which supply nutrients to the peripheral nerves and can worsen symptoms and hinder the healing process. The things we do in our daily lives have so much impact on how we feel mentally and physical and how our body functions. For our body to heal, we must treat it in a way which facilitates healing. Don’t ever forget that we have the power to take control of our own health even if it is in ways which seem small such as by eating more fruits and veggies, going for a walk daily, avoiding alcohol or any of the other ways we went over. 12 Healthy Foods High in Antioxidants. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/foods-high-in-antioxidants#section1 9 Health Benefits of Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/vitamin-b6-benefits#section1 Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Dosage, and Warning. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-767/alpha-lipoic-acid Best Peripheral Neuropathy Diet | Foods To Avoid. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.foundationforpn.org/living-well/lifestyle/nutrition/ Canada, H. (2017, February 03). Mercury in Fish. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/chemical-contaminants/environmental-contaminants/mercury/mercury-fish.html Hozumi, Jun, Sumitani, Masahiko, Matsubayashi, Yoshitaka, . . . Yoshitsugu. (2016, March 29). Relationship between Neuropathic Pain and Obesity. Retrieved from https://www.hindawi.com/journals/prm/2016/2487924/ Lack of Tocopherol in Peripheral Nerves of Vitamin E-Deficient Patients with Peripheral Neuropathy | NEJM. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM198707303170502 Lifestyle Changes for Peripheral Neuropathy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://nyulangone.org/conditions/peripheral-neuropathy-in-adults/treatments/lifestyle-changes-for-peripheral-neuropathy Lobo, V., Patil, A., Phatak, A., & Chandra, N. (2010). Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3249911/ Miscio, G., Guastamacchia, G., Brunani, A., Priano, L., Baudo, S., & Mauro, A. (2005, December). Obesity and peripheral neuropathy risk: A dangerous liaison. Retrieved May, 19, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16279984 Neuropathy and Diet: Understanding the Connection | Everyday Health. (2018, May 24). Retrieved from https://www.everydayhealth.com/neuropathy/diet-understanding-connection/ Niacin (Vitamin B3) : Benefits, Dosage, Sources, Risks. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/diet/supplement-guide-niacin#1 Sabrina Martini – BSc. University of Lethbridge 2019.

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Imagine an Africa safari without glimpsing a giraffe above the treetops? It just wouldn’t be wild Africa without these gentle giants loping around the savannah. One fun fact about giraffes is that they are the tallest animal in the world. But you already knew that, right? The great giraffe is a fascinating megafauna that holds an animal encyclopedia full of fun facts, some of which are hilariously unbelievable! So let’s jump right in with the most fun fact about giraffes. 1. Hard times at the watering hole A giraffe neck is actually too short to reach the ground. Yes, that’s right, this mighty mammal with the longest neck in the world, can’t reach the watering hole for a slurp! Even worse, giraffe can’t simply bend their necks forward. They must awkwardly splay their forelegs and bend their knees before they can lower their necks to the ground for a drink. Luckily for giraffe, they don’t need to drink every day like us humans. Giraffe only need to drink once every few days to survive the savannah. 2. Loooong neck with only seven vertebrae Giraffe is the last standing land mammal to evolve a super long neck since its ancestors during the Jurassic period. A male giraffe’s neck can reach almost three metres in length. Coming in at second place is the ostrich at one metre. No competition there! What’s even more fascinating about their elongated neck is that giraffe still only have seven neck vertebrae. That’s the same number of bones as a human neck, except their bones are much, much longer than ours. Fun giraffe fact 3. A factor fifty tongue! At a whopping 50 cm long a giraffe’s tongue follows suit with its other lengthy features. Its deep purple colour is due to dark melanin pigment. As a result, there’s no need for the giraffe to get the factor 50 suncream out when licking around treetops for food all day long. The melanin provides the tongue with much-needed extra UV protection. 4. Bottom pegs Did you know that giraffe lack upper front teeth? Giraffes have the same amount of teeth as humans. However, all 32 teeth lay on the bottom of its mouth and are mostly molars positioned right at the back. Giraffe use their bottom teeth to grab a branch and then comb the leaves off. So when you see a giraffe without upper front teeth it’s not because of a giraffe brawl – that’s how evolution intended! 🙂 Obvious giraffe fact 5. These gentle giants are almost six metres tall These gentle giants are the tallest mammals to walk the Earth. Their legs are taller than most humans at two metres and even a newborn giraffe is taller than most people. Giraffe stand at around 4-5 metres high, with the tallest giraffes ever recorded being up to 5.9 m. That’s taller than three men standing on each other’s shoulders. 6. Some of the biggest feet in the animal kingdom Imagine going to your kitchen cupboard and pulling out a dinner plate. Well that dinner plate is the size of a giraffe’s hoof, and what a heck of a hoof it is! Although the hooves of a giraffe may be overlooked due to other humongous body parts, they are also pretty mind blowing. With a diameter of 30 cm, their tremendous hooves are used to distribute their weight, preventing them from sinking into sand or marshy areas. Giraffe fact 7. Ossicones? Both male and female giraffes have horns from birth. These actually lie flat on their heads and are not attached to the skull, to avoid injury during birth. Did you know that these horns are called ossicones? Later in life the ossicones will fuse with the skull and become formidable weapons, particularly in adult males. Fun Fact 8. Can you kiss a giraffe? Maybe you can! You will probably never get the chance to reach a giraffe’s head unless you visit Nairobi Giraffe Centre. At Nairobi Giraffe Centre you can kiss a giraffe. Yes, that’s right, you can have a full on snog with an endangered Rothschild giraffe. If you are lucky enough to meet a giraffe you must know they don’t like their heads being touched at all. So stay clear of patting the head of a giraffe. It’s not a dog! You have been warned! 9. Greek gods of the animal kingdom The common giraffe’s scientific name comes from the ancient Greeks. They believed the giraffe looked like a camel wearing a leopard coat and their scientific name was born, a Giraffa Camelopardalis. Giraffa camelopardalis! Is there any more appropriate scientific name in the animal kingdom? 10. Giraffes sleep when stood up Giraffes in the wild rarely lay down to sleep, as this would make them vulnerable to predators. Instead, the impressive gangly giraffe can micro nap while standing, just like horses. Giraffes curl their necks around to rest on their hindquarters for a quick five-minute catnap and sleep no more than 30 minutes a day. Fun fact 11. The giraffe dating scene Isn’t it fascinating how all animals have their own special technique to lure a mate? The male giraffe doesn’t mess around when it comes to mating season. The male giraffe gets stuck right in there and, using their 50 cm long tongues, grab a taste of the female’s urine. It’s graphic but true and it’s not just for pleasure – it’s to determine whether or not they’re ovulating. If the female is showing some heat the male giraffe will follow! 12. A giraffe is pregnant for 15 months A female giraffe’s gestation period lasts for a whopping 15 months. Yes 15 months! Amazingly, that’s not even the longest pregnancy on the African savanna. African elephants are pregnant for 22 months and rhinos for 16 months. After a long 15 month pregnancy, the giraffe will stand up to give birth to their baby. If they were to lay down, the baby giraffe would be crushed during birth. As a result, the poor baby giraffe enters the circle of life with a mini skydive as it falls about 2 metres to the ground. This article about baby giraffe has 22 facts about Africa’s cutest newborn, including why they need the dramatic head-first drop. 13. Giraffe are exceptional pollinators One of our favourite fun facts about giraffes is that they are beautiful pollinators to many plant species. Their great height and super long treetop feeding tongues allow them to transfer genetic material onto their mouths, from one flower of a tree to another. How fascinating is that! What a way to contribute to the African circle of life. Giraffe are essential in this pollination because they have evolved to feed from branches that other animals cannot reach. So without the giraffe, some trees would struggle to spread. Giraffe fun fact 14. When hunger strikes Giraffes are known as browsers and enjoy exclusive VIP access to the freshest leaves from the tallest treetops. Despite their impressive size, the giraffe has a plant-based diet and enjoys munching on acacia, mimosa and wild apricot trees. Their elongated neck helps them reach the tallest trees. These trees tend to have deep roots that can suck up more water content. So a giraffe can quench its thirst through its choice of food. Giraffe have access to parts of the trees that provide the most essential nutrients. This gives giraffe an advantage over other herbivores and means they do not compete for food with any other animal. 15. Giraffe suck on animal bones Do you know this fun fact about giraffes? They lick and chew the bones of other animals. It’s not easy being a vegetarian and that’s why you may not be surprised to know that osteophagy has been observed by the giraffe. Giraffe aren’t predators, so they don’t kill other animals, but their skeletons do require more calcium than they can get from plants. 16. Giraffes do have predators A baby giraffe is extremely vulnerable to hyenas. The vicious hyena will hunt in a pack because they can’t manage a solo kill due to the giraffe’s size. The only animal on the savannah to take a chance on hunting an adult giraffe is a lion. When a giraffe is drinking at the watering hole they’re at their most vulnerable because their necks are at lower ground, making it difficult for a giraffe to spring back and flee if there is an attack. However, a lion would have to be pretty brave to tackle a giraffe in the first place. The size of an adult giraffe compared to a lion is absurd and if giraffe gave one kick from its powerful leg, it could easily end a lion’s life. 17. Giraffe are endangered 🙁 It’s not a fun fact about giraffes, but this is the most important giraffe fact you need to be aware of. Wild giraffe are sadly declining, mainly due to habitat loss caused by increasing agriculture. People still poach them for their tail hair, pelts and meat. Giraffe are now extinct in eight African countries where they previously roamed, including Guinea and Mali. They are only found in sub-Saharan Africa and a vulnerable species on the IUCN list. There are many conservation groups leading and supporting the wild giraffe to ensure their survival. Hopefully we will not see the great giraffe become extinct like its long-necked Jurassic ancestors.

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Some attempts to find scientific knowledge in the Bible are misplaced. For example, in Isaiah 40:22 the ‘circle of the earth’ does not describe the earth as a sphere; the Hebrew word for ‘circle’ is used, not the Hebrew for ‘sphere’ or ‘ball’. However, the Bible does contain information which has historically been of considerable scientific value. Demythologizing the cosmos Unlike every other Ancient Near East cosmology, the Bible describes the universe in naturalistic terms. The sun, moon, and stars are inanimate objects rather than gods, the universe was not created from the recycled body parts of divine beings, and the universe operates according to fixed laws. Early Jewish and Christian commentators understood that nature is regular and orderly, since everything in nature takes place according to fixed laws which God has instituted, which never change. This concept of the universe, which we take for granted, was revolutionary in the Ancient Near East and was not even approached by the Greeks until around the 4th century BCE. In fact the inadequacy of Greek science led to a complete dead end. Unable to free itself completely from mythology, Greek science finally stagnated and failed to advance any further. Western science was not revived until the 6th century CE Christian philosopher John Philoponus challenged the pagan cosmology inherited from the Greeks. A pagan Greek philosopher, Proclus, had written a massive polemical commentary explicitly criticizing the Biblical description of the universe and its origin, on the grounds that it was scientifically unsupportable. Philoponus destroyed Proclus’ arguments in his reply, demonstrating the many flaws in Proclus’ work. He also wrote numerous commentaries on Aristotle’s works which identified their errors, using the Biblical cosmology as his tool. This breakthrough was instrumental in the formation of Western science as we know it. Philoponus’ work was used by later scientific investigators such as such as Bonaventure, Gersonides, Buridan, Oresme, Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton, all of whom made significant scientific progress as a result. The universe had a beginning Philoponus had defended the Christian cosmology, deriving powerful arguments from observations of the universe that it must have had a beginning, and that it was finite in duration. He singlehandedly debunked the greatest pagan philosopher and cosmologist in recorded history (Aristotle), as well as burying Proclus’ criticism of the Christian cosmology. Later Jewish and Christian cosmologists throughout the medieval era made similar arguments, based on the same observations. Christian scientists from Francis Bacon to Isaac Newton all understood this, for centuries. Incredibly, some of the greatest 20th century scientists such as Eddington and Einstein claimed it could not be true (apparently Einstein later said it was possibly the greatest error in his career). Eddington even admitted he didn’t want it to be true, for philosophical reasons. It was only recently that scientific evidence for the ‘Big Bang’ proved that the universe did indeed have a beginning and would have an end, contrary to what many scientists had believed. Health & hygiene regulations Examples of cleansing rituals (and other commandments), carried out under the Law of Moses with excellent hygiene benefits include: - Carrion is not to be eaten (Leviticus 7:24) - The examination and cleansing of objects known to have come into contact with infectious persons, and their destruction if they are unable to be cleansed (Leviticus 13) - The quarantine and routine inspection of those suffering from infectious diseases, and the washing or destruction of objects touched by that individual while infected (Leviticus 13, 14) - Dwellings known to be infected with mold are to be repeatedly cleansed and examined until the mold has been completely removed, persons in the dwelling to wash themselves and their clothes, any physical material in the house which carries the mold is to be disposed of outside the residential area (and replaced with new material), and if the dwelling cannot be cleansed or if the mold keeps reoccurring the entire dwelling is to be destroyed and the debris disposed of outside the residential area (Leviticus 14) - Men and women with abnormal genital discharges were to wash themselves and their clothes, if they touched anyone or anything without washing their hands that person or thing had also to be washed (Leviticus 15) - Cleansing rituals involved washing with running water, avoiding the danger of stagnation and the transmission of infection by contaminating a static body of water with unclean material (Leviticus 15) - Those in contact with a dead body to wash themselves and their clothes, and any open container which was in a room where a person had died was to be considered unclean, together with its contents (Numbers 19:11-20) - Latrines to be dug well clear of residential areas (Deuteronomy 23:12-13) Historical, medical, and scholarly commentary on these passages has noted the value of these instructions. George Washington actually used and enforced the hygiene rules in the Law of Moses to improve the health of his troops, and to give them a significant advantage over their English enemies, who were not so aware. Egyptian medical science was crippled by its belief in the supernatural cause of many illnesses. The Law of Moses never attributed sickness to supernatural evil such as demons (unlike the nations around them). This gave them a tremendous advantage when approaching the issue of health and medicine. Sirach chapter 16, verses 26-28, 180-175 BCE. ‘When the Lord created his works from the beginning, and, in making them determined their boundaries, he arranged his works in an eternal order, and their dominion for all generations. They neither hunger not grow weary, and they do not abandon their tasks. They do not crowd one another, and they never disobey his word.’ Basil of Caesarea, ‘Hexamaron’, chapter 5, sections 10, 370 CE. ‘It is this command which, still at this day, is imposed on the earth and, in the course of each year, displays all the strength of its power to produce herbs, seeds, and trees. Like tops, which after the first impulse continue their evolutions, turning upon themselves, when once fixed in their center; thus nature, receiving the impulse of this first command, follows without interruption the course of ages until the consummation of all things.’ John McKenna, article ‘John Philoponus, Sixth Century Alexandrian Grammarian, Christian Theologian and Scientific Philosopher’, Quodlibet Journal, Volume 5, Number 1, January 2003. ‘The Greek concept of God caused a deep confusion between cosmology and theology and was a dead-end to science, as we know it in our time.’ Wilderberg, ‘John Philoponus’, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ‘Reading Philoponus as well as the writings of his great adversary Simplicius, one gets the sense that in the 6th century CE, traditional pagan Greek learning had become desperately insular.’ Dan Graves, ‘Aristotle’s Earliest Creationist Critic’, 1998. ‘A widespread religion of Philoponus’s time was pantheism, a belief system that sees God as equivalent to nature. In his rejection of this, Philoponus argued that the Creator transcends nature rather than being within it. Having been created, nature exists without constant intervention by God. This radical conception shocked the pagans who believed the gods were imbedded within the material universe.’ Wilderberg, ‘John Philoponus’, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ‘The Athenian Neoplatonist Proclus (c. 411-485), the teacher of Philoponus’ own teacher Ammonius, had written a defense of the pagan Greek (Aristotelian, Platonist) belief in the eternity of the world. His aim was to show that Christian creationism was intellectually untenable.’ ‘Like the polemic against Proclus, Against Aristotle is mainly devoted to removing obstacles for the creationist. If Aristotle were right about the existence of an immutable fifth element (ether) in the celestial region, and if he were right about motion and time being eternal, any belief in creation would surely be unwarranted. Philoponus succeeds in pointing to numerous contradictions, inconsistencies, fallacies and improbable assumptions in Aristotle’s philosophy of nature relating to these claims. Dissecting Aristotle’s texts in an unprecedented way, he time and again turns the tables on Aristotle and so paves the way for demonstrative arguments for non-eternity.’ John McKenna, article ‘John Philoponus, Sixth Century Alexandrian Grammarian, Christian Theologian and Scientific Philosopher’, Quodlibet Journal, Volume 5, Number 1, January, 2003. ‘However, of greatest important is Philoponus’ cosmology, based upon his monotheism. Believing that heaven and earth were both created by God ex nihilo he vehemently attacked Aristotle’s assumptions with regard to the eternity of the universe and its dichotomy into a heavenly and sublunary region.’ Dan Graves, ‘Aristotle’s Earliest Creationist Critic’, 1998. ‘Philoponus’s application of Christian theology to physics prefigured a new era in science. The Alexandrian scholar was the first to combine scientific cosmology (the study of the nature of the universe) with monotheism and the Christian doctrine of creation. In doing so, Philoponus anticipated not only the findings but also the methods of modern science.’ ‘Philoponus’ replies anticipated the great Renaissance scientists Galileo (1564-1642) and Simon Stevin (1548-1620).’ Arthur Eddington, ‘The End of the World: From the Standpoint of Mathematical Physics’, Nature, volume127 (1931), p. 450. ‘Philosophically, the notion of a beginning to the present order is repugnant to me.’ ‘I should like to find a genuine loophole.’ Eddington also acknowledged that the theory of the universe expanding, as proved by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, was a powerful argument for the truth of the Biblical description of the universe as having a beginning (Eddington, ‘The Nature of the Physical World’). ‘Religion first became possible for a reasonable man of science in the year 1927’ C. Singer and E. A. Underwood, ‘A Short History of Medicine’, 1962. ‘Among the physicians of classical antiquity we find no consistent view of transmission of infection by contact. Indeed the whole idea of infection was effectively absent from them, so that preventive measures based upon them could not be developed. It was reserved for the Middle Ages to conceive serious official measures against spread of epidemics. These measures were constantly derived from the leper ritual of the Bible with its fundamental concept of isolation.’ Kim Taylor, ‘Toxic Mold Assessment: Mitigation, and Prevention’, Federal Facilities Environmental Journal (Summer 2004), p. 60. ‘The first documented residential mold assessment and remediation was reported in the Old Testament (Leviticus 14) in which identification, evaluation, and cleanup methods were described. The cleanup methods described in Leviticus have not significantly changed in the present day.’ Peter M Baldwin, ‘Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830-1930’ (1999), p. 5. ‘The ancient Jews had been the first to develop not only the rules of contagionist prophylaxis detailed in Leviticus, but had also formulated other pertinent aspects of public hygiene: a weekly day of rest, protection of the food and water supply, concern with abnormal discharges of the genitals and more general bodily cleanliness, including perhaps (if one is willing to attribute also functional motives to religious rituals) circumcision.’ T Thulchinsky & E Varavikova, ‘The New Public Health: An Introduction for the 21st Century’ (2000). ‘The Hebrew Mosaic Law of the five Books of Moses stressed prevention of disease through regulation of personal and community hygiene, reproductive and maternal health, isolation of lepers and other “unclean conditions”, and family and personal sexual conduct as part of religious practice.’ ‘It also laid a basis for medical and public health jurisprudence. Personal and community responsibility for health included a mandatory day of rest, limits on slavery and guarantees of the rights of slaves and workers, protection of water supplies, sanitation of communities and camps, waste disposal, and food protection, all codified in detailed religious obligations.’ ‘Food regulation prevented use of diseased or unclean animals, and prescribed methods of slaughter improved the possibility of preservation of the meat.’ ‘The Mosaic Law, which forms the basis for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, codified health laws for the individual and for society, all of which have continued into the modern era as basic concepts in environmental and social hygiene.’ Colonel Robert Anderson, Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army of Washington, ‘The Evolution Of Preventive Medicine In The United States Army, 1607-1939’ (1968). ‘Like Pringle, Brocklesby, Tilton, and others, Washington invoked the Mosaic sanitary code, as stated in the Fourth and Fifth Books of Moses in the King James Version of the Old Testament, Numbers 5: 1-4 and Deuteronomy 23: 12-14. This is shown in the facsimile reproduction (fig. 7) of the broadside of his general orders for the Army under the command of Brigadier General McDougall, issued at Head Quarters, Peeks-Kill [in October? 1777]. A copy of this broadside (43) is reprinted as appendix A, p. 189. In this broadside, Washington refers to Moses as “the wisest General that ever lived, for he was inspired.” He might also, with good reason, have referred to him as “the Founder of Preventive Medicine,” as proclaimed by Wood and others (44).’ The Eber Papyrus (a collection of Egyptian medical texts). ‘When thou meetest a large tumour of the God Xensu in any part of the limb of a person, it is loathsome and suffers many pustules to come forth; something arises therein as though wind were in it, causing irritation. The tumour calls with a loud voice to thee: it is a tumour of the God Xensu. Do nothing there against.’ Ashland Theological Journal, (29:170), review ‘Powers of Evil: A Biblical Study of Satan & Demons’ (1997). ‘In contrast to contemporary Ancient Near-Eastern texts, the OT makes no reference to demon possession or exorcism, nor do the people exhibit undue fear or fascination with these spirits.’ Richard Hess, ‘Review: A Reassessment of the Priestly Cultic and Legal Texts’, Journal of Law and Religion, Volume 17, #1/2 (2002), p. 378. ‘Milgrom argues that there is a basic distinction between the religious understanding of spiritual forces in the ancient Near East and in Israel. In the former, priests used rituals and incantations to thwart the evil powers and intentions of demons. P eliminated the world view that held demons responsible for the evil in the world. In its place, people were to be held responsible for the wickedness. In this sense, people replaced demons.’

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For the 285 million people around the world living with blindness or low vision, exercising independently can be challenging. Earlier this year, we announced Project Guideline, an early-stage research project, developed in partnership with Guiding Eyes for the Blind, that uses machine learning to guide runners through a variety of environments that have been marked with a painted line. Using only a phone running Guideline technology and a pair of headphones, Guiding Eyes for the Blind CEO Thomas Panek was able to run independently for the first time in decades and complete an unassisted 5K in New York City’s Central Park. Safely and reliably guiding a blind runner in unpredictable environments requires addressing a number of challenges. Here, we will walk through the technology behind Guideline and the process by which we were able to create an on-device machine learning model that could guide Thomas on an independent outdoor run. The project is still very much under development, but we’re hopeful it can help explore how on-device technology delivered by a mobile phone can provide reliable, enhanced mobility and orientation experiences for those who are blind or low vision. |Thomas Panek using Guideline technology to run independently outdoors.| The Guideline system consists of a mobile device worn around the user’s waist with a custom belt and harness, a guideline on the running path marked with paint or tape, and bone conduction headphones. Core to the Guideline technology is an on-device segmentation model that takes frames from a mobile device’s camera as input and classifies every pixel in the frame into two classes, “guideline” and “not guideline”. This simple confidence mask, applied to every frame, allows the Guideline app to predict where runners are with respect to a line on the path, without using location data. Based on this prediction and the proceeding smoothing/filtering function, the app sends audio signals to the runners to help them orient and stay on the line, or audio alerts to tell runners to stop if they veer too far away. |Project Guideline uses Android’s built-in Camera 2 and MLKit APIs and adds custom modules to segment the guideline, detect its position and orientation, filter false signals, and send a stereo audio signal to the user in real-time.| We faced a number of important challenges in building the preliminary Guideline system: - System accuracy: Mobility for the blind and low vision community is a challenge in which user safety is of paramount importance. It demands a machine learning model that is capable of generating accurate and generalized segmentation results to ensure the safety of the runner in different locations and under various environmental conditions. - System performance: In addition to addressing user safety, the system needs to be performative, efficient, and reliable. It must process at least 15 frames per second (FPS) in order to provide real-time feedback for the runner. It must also be able to run for at least 3 hours without draining the phone battery, and must work offline, without the need for internet connection should the walking/running path be in an area without data service. - Lack of in-domain data: In order to train the segmentation model, we needed a large volume of video consisting of roads and running paths that have a yellow line on them. To generalize the model, data variety is equally as critical as data quantity, requiring video frames taken at different times of day, with different lighting conditions, under different weather conditions, at different locations, etc. Below, we introduce solutions for each of these challenges. To meet the latency and power requirements, we built the line segmentation model on the DeepLabv3 framework, utilizing MobilenetV3-Small as the backbone, while simplifying the outputs to two classes – guideline and background. |The model takes an RGB frame and generates an output grayscale mask, representing the confidence of each pixel’s prediction.| To increase throughput speed, we downsize the camera feed from 1920 x 1080 pixels to 513 x 513 pixels as input to the DeepLab segmentation model. To further speed-up the DeepLab model for use on mobile devices, we skipped the last up-sample layer, and directly output the 65 x 65 pixel predicted masks. These 65 x 65 pixel predicted masks are provided as input to the post processing. By minimizing the input resolution in both stages, we’re able to improve the runtime of the segmentation model and speed up post-processing. To train the model, we required a large set of training images in the target domain that exhibited a variety of path conditions. Not surprisingly, the publicly available datasets were for autonomous driving use cases, with roof mounted cameras and cars driving between the lines, and were not in the target domain. We found that training models on these datasets delivered unsatisfying results due to the large domain gap. Instead, the Guideline model needed data collected with cameras worn around a person’s waist, running on top of the line, without the adversarial objects found on highways and crowded city streets. |The large domain gap between autonomous driving datasets and the target domain. Images on the left courtesy of the Berkeley DeepDrive dataset.| With preexisting open-source datasets proving unhelpful for our use case, we created our own training dataset composed of the following: - Hand-collected data: Team members temporarily placed guidelines on paved pathways using duct tape in bright colors and recorded themselves running on and around the lines at different times of the day and in different weather conditions. - Synthetic data: The data capture efforts were complicated and severely limited due to COVID-19 restrictions. This led us to build a custom rendering pipeline to synthesize tens of thousands of images, varying the environment, weather, lighting, shadows, and adversarial objects. When the model struggled with certain conditions in real-world testing, we were able to generate specific synthetic datasets to address the situation. For example, the model originally struggled with segmenting the guideline amidst piles of fallen autumn leaves. With additional synthetic training data, we were able to correct for that in subsequent model releases. |Rendering pipeline generates synthetic images to capture a broad spectrum of environments.| We also created a small regression dataset, which consisted of annotated samples of the most frequently seen scenarios combined with the most challenging scenarios, including tree and human shadows, fallen leaves, adversarial road markings, sunlight reflecting off the guideline, sharp turns, steep slopes, etc. We used this dataset to compare new models to previous ones and to make sure that an overall improvement in accuracy of the new model did not hide a reduction in accuracy in particularly important or challenging scenarios. We designed a three-stage training procedure and used transfer learning to overcome the limited in-domain training dataset problem. We started with a model that was pre-trained on Cityscape, and then trained the model using the synthetic images, as this dataset is larger but of lower quality. Finally, we fine-tuned the model using the limited in-domain data we collected. |Three-stage training procedure to overcome the limited data issue. Images in the left column courtesy of Cityscapes.| Early in development, it became clear that the segmentation model's performance suffered at the top of the image frame. As the guidelines travel further away from the camera’s point of view at the top of the frame, the lines themselves start to vanish. This causes the predicted masks to be less accurate at the top parts of the frame. To address this problem, we computed a loss value that was based on the top k pixel rows in every frame. We used this value to select those frames that included the vanishing guidelines with which the model struggled, and trained the model repeatedly on those frames. This process proved to be very helpful not only in addressing the vanishing line problem, but also for solving other problems we encountered, such as blurry frames, curved lines and line occlusion by adversarial objects. |The segmentation model’s accuracy and robustness continuously improved even in challenging cases.| Together with Tensorflow Lite and ML Kit, the end-to-end system runs remarkably fast on Pixel devices, achieving 29+ FPS on Pixel 4 XL and 20+ FPS on Pixel 5. We deployed the segmentation model entirely on DSP, running at 6 ms on Pixel 4 XL and 12 ms on Pixel 5 with high accuracy. The end-to-end system achieves 99.5% frame success rate, 93% mIoU on our evaluation dataset, and passes our regression test. These model performance metrics are incredibly important and enable the system to provide real-time feedback to the user. We’re still at the beginning of our exploration, but we’re excited about our progress and what’s to come. We’re starting to collaborate with additional leading non-profit organizations that serve the blind and low vision communities to put more Guidelines in parks, schools, and public places. By painting more lines, getting direct feedback from users, and collecting more data under a wider variety of conditions, we hope to further generalize our segmentation model and improve the existing feature-set. At the same time, we are investigating new research and techniques, as well as new features and capabilities that would improve the overall system robustness and reliability. Project Guideline is a collaboration across Google Research, Google Creative Lab, and the Accessibility Team. We especially would like to thank our team members: Mikhail Sirotenko, Sagar Waghmare, Lucian Lonita, Tomer Meron, Hartwig Adam, Ryan Burke, Dror Ayalon, Amit Pitaru, Matt Hall, John Watkinson, Phil Bayer, John Mernacaj, Cliff Lungaretti, Dorian Douglass, Kyndra LoCoco. We also thank Fangting Xia, Jack Sim and our other colleagues and friends from the Mobile Vision team and Guiding Eyes for the Blind.

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“MAN is an animal that makes bargains,” said Adam Smith, the father of modern economics and a champion of free trade. After reminding his American counterpart of this quote in May, the Chinese ambassador to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) added a request. “As trade negotiators, let’s bargain with each other, instead of biting each other.” Publicly, at least, the administration of Donald Trump has only bared its fangs. Mr Trump is waging a trade war that this year has already hit imports worth over $89bn in 2017, including $32bn of goods from China, and $48bn of steel and aluminium (see chart 1). The fight will intensify. America plans further tariffs on $208bn of Chinese imports and is threatening duties on imported vehicles and car parts that will hit European and Japanese firms hard. As well as generating trade disputes with new tariffs, America is also gumming up the WTO’s system for solving them, by blocking the appointment of judges to its Court of Appeals. Mr Trump’s assault on the multilateral rules-based system threatens decades of trade liberalisation, which has nudged average tariffs between America, Europe and Japan down from 22% when the system started in 1947 to around 3% by 2000, roughly where they remain today (see chart 2). Supporters of the system, both beyond the Trump administration and throughout most of the rest of the world, fear that America’s president is intent on destroying the WTO and undoing this progress. They are right to worry but may be wrong to despair. A plan is brewing to save the WTO from being torn apart in the Trump administration’s jaws. At the core of modern-day multilateralism is the idea that countries sign up to a set of clear commitments. The WTO’s members promise not to raise tariffs above agreed levels and to apply them based on the principle of “most favoured nation” (MFN). Applied strictly, countries should not be able to discriminate between their economic friends and foes, because a lower tariff granted to one member should be granted to all. China’s membership, for example, means it must apply equal tariffs on cars coming from the EU and America. And America signs up to the same treatment of cars from China and the EU. The system is supposed to be self-reinforcing. WTO membership involves a trade-off, between the costs of compliance and the benefits of maintaining access to a 164-strong club accounting for 98% of world trade. When deals are first struck, negotiators bargain so that the benefits of trade liberalisation outweigh the political penalties. If the penalties turn out to be greater than expected, the system has built-in safety valves. If imports are surging, subsidised or sold below cost, threatening domestic industries and jobs, members can apply defensive duties. And since 1995, if one member suspects another of rule-breaking, they have had the case heard by the WTO’s panel of judges. If these arbiters decide there has been wrongdoing, they can sanction limited retaliation. The pinch of such tariffs and the shame of being labelled a rule-breaker are both supposed to ensure good behaviour. Understanding the American assault on this system requires identifying its various fronts. The first is driven by Mr Trump’s disregard for rules. According to Axios, an American news website, he is itching to withdraw from the WTO altogether. Unshackled from the MFN principle, Mr Trump would be free to enact his own version of reciprocal trade, with tariffs that match those applied by other countries. The prospects of an American exit are slim, as it would require the approval of Congress. But in the meantime the Trump administration is doing damage from within. Its claim that imports of steel and aluminium pose a threat to national security exploits a loophole that allows WTO members to impose tariffs in times of national emergency. Unconcerned by the erosion of trust this causes, or by damage from retaliation and higher metal prices at home, Mr Trump is undermining a set of norms that Americans have spent decades trying to build. Such bullying is specific to this president. America’s trading partners hit by its tariffs on steel and aluminium have so far tried to strike back within the rules, or in proportion to the damage done to them. Eight have launched formal WTO disputes. At home Mr Trump’s tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminium have prompted a bipartisan chorus of disapproval. But other fronts in the Trump administration’s trade policy have greater sticking power. They are being pushed by Robert Lighthizer, the United States Trade Representative (USTR), whose influence in the White House is in stark contrast to his low profile outside it. Unlike many in the administration, he understands how the global trading system works, from experience as a trade lawyer and as a trade negotiator in the Reagan administration. He appreciates the system’s value, conceding in December that the WTO does “an enormous amount of good”. And crucially, his complaints about it are shared by many in Washington, DC, and across the world. Two stand out. The first relates to the WTO’s appellate body—the system’s supreme court. Members must unanimously approve judges to sit on a roster of seven, from which three are chosen to hear any given case. But as vacancies have arisen, the Trump administration has refused to let them be filled. From December 2019, there will be fewer judges than the minimum required to hear a case. The Americans complain that the appellate body has become too big for its boots. Since 2011 it has not consulted WTO members when exceeding the 90-day limit to conclude a case. Often its reports are long, in part because judges make legal commentaries on arguments that were not presented by either side. To some, this is careful and principled application of the law. To others, it looks like empire-building. More fundamentally, Mr Lighthizer fumes that this body has overstepped its remit. America’s gripe is that rulings have impeded its ability to use the WTO’s pressure valves. In 2003 the Bush administration was told that duties imposed to combat surging steel imports violated WTO law. (The duties were subsequently withdrawn.) In a series of cases the body has also found that the way America applies anti-dumping duties breaks WTO rules. One particularly painful decision relates to what exactly counts as a “public body” within WTO rules. In general, members are allowed to apply defensive duties on imports supported by government subsidies. But in China, knowing where the government ends and the private sector starts is tricky. The Americans had claimed that where the government owned a majority stake in an enterprise, it should automatically count as a “public body” liable for handing out subsidies. But the appellate body ruled against them, making it harder to apply defensive duties against state-supported production. This leads to Mr Lighthizer’s second set of grievances, regarding China’s place in the trading system. He claims that, when WTO negotiators agreed that China should join in 2001, they expected it to evolve towards Western-style capitalism. What has emerged instead is an economy dominated by state-subsidised enterprises with a regulatory regime geared towards the theft of American intellectual property. As a result, the system does not work. Take first the American concerns over China’s industrial policy. The WTO’s rulebook has a chapter curbing state subsidies. But it has gaps, in part because when it was written American and European negotiators were nervous of subjecting their own subsidy regimes to scrutiny and did not expect China to generate the resources to hand out vast sums of cash. Now, given China’s size and systemic importance, those holes look too big. Next is the accusation that China defies the spirit, if not the letter, of the rules of the WTO. In many industries, China’s government required that foreign firms investing in its market did so in joint ventures with local companies. The Americans complain that too often their firms had to hand over technology as a condition of access to the Chinese market, and then watched helplessly as partners ran off with their ideas. Mr Lighthizer’s concerns over the appellate body and China could be dealt with by negotiation, either to revisit past decisions or to fill gaps in the WTO’s rules. But getting China to the negotiating table has proved hard. When it joined the WTO its accession protocol was unusually strict. It reckoned that it had already paid enough into the system, and was not about to negotiate new definitions of public bodies that could tie its hands further. Then there is the broader problem of getting anything new agreed on multilaterally. That requires the unanimous approval of all 164 members. For years, WTO negotiations have stalled over a disagreement between richer countries, which think everyone should share a common rulebook, and those who see carve-outs for poorer countries as necessary to protect their farmers and foster development. Members like India and South Africa have been happy to hold any deal hostage to their agenda. An earlier American solution to this gridlock was to pursue ambitious regional trade deals. In Asia the Obama administration agreed the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), to link America to 11 economies of the Pacific Rim, including Japan and Singapore. It included tougher rules on state-owned enterprises. Meanwhile, it was also negotiating the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership with the EU. Combining them could have created a free-trade area large enough to tempt the Chinese to the negotiating table, as well as a regulatory regime with enough weight to pull against the Chinese one. After Mr Trump swiftly jettisoned that approach, Mr Lighthizer is spearheading a quicker, dirtier one. Dusting off an old piece of trade law, he has used Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 to accuse the Chinese of causing harm to America’s economy. Some supposed misdemeanours fall within the WTO’s rules, and so the USTR has launched an official WTO dispute. Others, which Mr Lighthizer claims relate to gaps in the rulebook, are the justification for punitive American tariffs. This looks like a worrying bout of unilateralism, reminiscent of the 1980s, when Section 301 was used by the Reagan administration to threaten Japan with tariffs unless it curbed its exports to America. The resulting tangle of restrictions made free traders squirm, but advocates argued that aggression served a higher purpose. It rallied the rest of the world around stronger trade-enforcement rules, which led to the creation of the WTO’s system of dispute settlement. This time Mr Lighthizer seems to be trying to weaken that system. Further worry stems from the fact that it is unclear how the trade conflict with the Chinese will end, but easy to see how it might escalate. Mr Lighthizer’s department has launched five formal disputes at the WTO in response to retaliatory duties against America’s levies on steel and aluminium. In response to China’s ones, the plan is for more American tariffs. Lighthizer at the end of the tunnel? Yet, amid the conflict there is still hope of salvaging a peace. As the trade cannons blast, efforts are being made to restore order. The chances of success rest on the fact that Mr Lighthizer’s concerns about China are shared by others, and in particular by the EU and Japan. The EU sees an opportunity to act as a bridge between China and America to negotiate new rules. It thereby hopes to address its own concerns over China’s rise, while tempting America back into the multilateral system. The EU may disagree with Mr Trump’s approach to China, but it recognises that it could harness America’s aggression as a way to get China to agree to new constraints. The plan is to make China’s choice clear, between an unstable trading system and one with new rules that meet the others’ concerns. The first hint of co-operation came last December, when Mr Lighthizer added his name, along with those of his counterparts from Japan and the EU, to a brief statement voicing shared concerns over “unfair competitive conditions caused by large market-distorting subsidies and state-owned enterprises”. China, though unnamed, was clearly the target. Since then, officials from all three places have been discussing what new WTO rules might look like. And on July 16th the EU launched a working group with the Chinese to discuss reform of the multilateral system. The trilateral talks between America, the EU and Japan are meant as an incubator for rules that could be taken to China; those between the EU and China are designed to be a sounding-board for those ideas and to prepare the ground for a proper negotiation. A joint statement on May 31st outlined the scope of the trilateral talks. First on the agenda is the dull but important topic of notifications. Tariffs are obvious to observers, subsidies less so. To counter that problem, WTO members are supposed to notify others about support they hand out. But without penalties for failing to do so, many do not. The three are designing a way to strengthen the incentives to comply. Second, the trio are trying to overturn the appellate judges’ definition of “public bodies”, by broadening it to make it easier to deem a state-owned enterprise to be an arm of the Chinese government. And third, the three are discussing new rules that would not only strengthen members’ defences against Chinese subsidies but also limit them at the source. Meanwhile, the EU has drawn up plans to tweak the appellate body’s rules in a way that it hopes will satisfy America. Poor judicial decisions are in the eye of the beholder, so no procedural change could solve that. But the EU’s proposal answers a number of complaints, including clarifications to the way outgoing judges’ cases are handled after their term ends. Perhaps a grand bargain is in the works. Comfortingly, there is mounting evidence that Mr Lighthizer is not out to torpedo the WTO. This year his department has filed seven new official WTO disputes, engaged actively in discussions over new rules on e-commerce, and on July 16th even called for an end to the WTO’s impasse on agriculture negotiations, suggesting that the talks should focus on market access. Even so, the chances of success are slim. Some American concerns are difficult to deal with under the WTO’s legalistic processes. These work best when Chinese laws can be compared with official commitments. But with technology transfer, for example, America claims that unwritten rules force firms to hand over their technology as a condition of doing business. That makes it hard to write watertight regulations and to test them in the WTO’s court, particularly if the firms involved are too scared to speak for fear of losing access to the Chinese market. Even if America, the EU and Japan do manage to draw up what they see as a perfect set of new rules, China may not play along. It wants a stable trading system and will pay attention to a co-ordinated bombardment from its biggest markets, but it will not sign up if it thinks it will be made poorer in the long run. The Americans would like to draw up new rules without the Chinese at the table, then ram them down their throats. That would be unacceptable to the Chinese. The next challenge will be obtaining wider agreement to a deal concocted by only four members. To poorer countries, the idea that America can be rewarded for throwing a tantrum by winning a reform of the system will be deeply distasteful. They believe that richer countries have already tipped the rules in their favour. That is why the joint statement in May included hints about bypassing the WTO’s crippling requirement for consensus, instead opting for getting a “critical mass” of countries to agree. Brink it on Another risk to the plan is Mr Trump himself. Mr Lighthizer may be a brilliant strategist, capitalising on his boss’s willingness to blow up the system in order to force the change that he wants. But he could easily fall out of favour. The plan relies on Mr Trump playing along and stepping back from the brink at the right time. He could go too early, bought off by an offer from China’s president, Xi Jinping, to buy more American goods without bringing any reform to the system. Or he could hang on too long, turning the confrontation with China into one only about power and face, and not one about trade and rules. Seen from one angle, the Americans are making a last-ditch effort to reshape the system they founded to serve their own interests. Unless they do it now, they reckon, China will become too powerful to contain. Perhaps that moment has already passed. In the 1980s, when the Reagan administration acted against Japanese trade practices, Japan’s GDP was around 40% of America’s. But this year, according to the IMF, China’s GDP will be 69% of America’s, rising to 88% over the next five years. The Chinese may call America’s bluff, hoping that when Mr Trump goes in two or six years’ time, the next president will be less keen to tax his citizens by raising the cost of imports. If so, expect tariffs to continue. And for the multilateral rules-based system to become still more toothless. This article appeared in the Briefing section of the print edition under the headline "Trade blockage"

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Ellen Kleman was a publicist, a women’s movement activist, and editor of the Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet organs, Dagny and Hertha, for a quarter of a century. Ellen Kleman was born in 1867 and grew up in Karlskrona, where her father was serving in the navy as a commander. Her mother was a housewife and looked after the family which comprised, along with Ellen, her sister Maria who was two years her senior, and Anna Kleman who was five years older. There was also a half-brother. From 1880–1885 Ellen Kleman attended Karlskrona elementary school for girls, run by Anna Fischerström. Once she had finished her education Ellen Kleman worked as a cashier in the savings department of AB Blekinge Bank in 1886. She and her sister, Anna, then left the town and headed north. Ellen Kleman initially worked at a bank in Uppsala before moving to a bank in Stockholm. She shared a home with her older sister Anna, who was employed within the insurance world. In 1887 their nephew Carl Fredrik Kleman (their half-brother’s son) was born. The boy’s mother died in childbirth and his father, Fredrik, headed off to the USA where he subsequently died. Ellen Kleman and her sister Anna then became the boy’s guardians until his teenage years when he went to live with the middle sister, Maria Stenberg. She had married and settled in Gothenburg. The sisters kept up a good relationship throughout the years. Ellen Kleman had developed an interest in the women’s movement at an early stage and joined women’s cultural circles in the Swedish capital which actively engaged in these matters. She made her authorial debut in 1907 by publishing an historical novel entitled Fabian Wendts hustru, which told the story of a woman easily swayed by others who had no sense of herself. Later Ellen Kleman wrote the lyrics to “Svenska kvinnors medborgarsång”, composed by Emil Sjögren in 1909. This song came to play an important role in the Swedish suffragette movement, making the case for women to hold equal citizenship rights to men: “Now I demand a place and a voice beside you/ I will no longer wait and be patient - / In the name of justice, as a human and an equal, / I want civic rights in the Swedish kingdom.” Ellen Kleman changed careers in 1907. She was invited to take on the position of editor of the Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet journal Dagny to replace Lotten Dahlgren. She accepted the offer, remaining in post until 1913 when the journal folded for financial reasons. Ellen Kleman then became the editor of its successor, Hertha, serving from 1914 until she retired in 1932. Under her editorship Hertha became a universal organ for the Swedish women’s movement. Her role involved all editorial duties, initially producing 20 editions every year, albeit this was subsequently reduced somewhat. Ellen Kleman’s 25-year service as editor entailed a wide-ranging role. The two journals, Dagny and Hertha, published the work of many authors, thus serving as important purveyors of contemporary women’s issues, including the suffrage debate, literary criticism, and supplying information on Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet. Ellen Kleman herself also contributed to both organs, supplying a great number of reviews, articles about women of note, articles on other women’s journals, and reports from international and national conferences. Ellen Kleman was, for example, a Swedish delegate at several International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences: Budapest in 1913, Geneva in 1920, and Rome in 1922. She reported from all these conferences providing commentary and insights from national conferences and informing on the activities of Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet, such as annual general meetings and other organisational events. Ellen Kleman also took on active roles with a range of organisations, serving as a board member of Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet 1921–1923, deputy chair of the association’s Stockholm circle in 1921, and its chair 1922–1931. Further to this Ellen Kleman was a member of the board of Självförsörjande Bildade Kvinnors Vilohem (self-supporting educated women’s rest home) association 1908–1913, member of Sällskapet Nya Idun’s agency from 1909–1924, and secretary of Svenska Kvinnors Nationalförbund from 1921–1927. Ellen Kleman met the art critic Klara Johanson, or K.J., who worked at the Stockholms Dagblad newspaper in 1908. K.J. had a pet name for Ellen Kleman, namely Choice. The Kleman sisters lived on Valhallavägen, in Östermalm in a large apartment serviced by maids. K.J. also lived in Östermalm, on Karlavägen. The letters between the two women testify to an immediate and deep love. Ellen Kleman was the practical, social, well-travelled and wealthy half of the relationship. The couple went on foreign trips together, including to Germany in 1910 and 1911, which year they also both attended the international women’s suffrage conference held in Stockholm. In the summer of 1912 they and other members of Stockholm’s intellectual women’s circles spent time at Sigrid Blomberg’s and Sigrid Leijonhufvud’s summer house in Upplands Väsby where Ellen Kleman worked on articles for Dagny. After the summer K.J. moved in with Ellen Kleman and her sister Anna at Valhallavägen 59. Anna Kleman was also active in the women’s movement and in Landsföreningen för kvinnans politiska rösträtt (LKPR, national Swedish association for women’s suffrage). There was also a live-in maid. The apartment was large, comprising an office for Ellen Kleman whilst K.J. had a so-called “book room” which served as a library and a writing area. The women socialised with female cultural celebrities and had a large and extensive social network. Ellen Kleman travelled to the preparatory meetings organised for suffragette conferences in Berlin, Dresden, Prague, Vienna and Budapest, providing reports for Dagny. She also travelled with K.J. In 1914, for instance, the couple travelled to Germany and K.J. wrote a travelogue for Hertha. The two women spoke several languages and had friends in many countries. In 1920 Ellen Kleman received a stipend from the Stockholms Dagblad newspaper which enabled her to undertake social studies in Germany and France, and the couple went on a summer-long tour of Germany, France, and Switzerland. In Paris they visited their friend Jane Gernandt-Claine. They spent other summers visiting friends at their summer houses and staying at boarding-houses throughout Sweden. Ellen Kleman and K.J. also interacted professionally. Ellen Kleman focused on research, particularly on Fredrika Bremer, and in 1913 she and Sigrid Leijonhufvud published Fredrika Bremers bild, a collection of essays about the author, including work by Hilma Borelius, Emilia Fogelklou, Lotten Dahlgren, Klara Johansson, and Selma Lagerlöf. Ellen Kleman and K.J. worked together on Fredrika Bremer’s correspondence for several years, eventually producing a four-volume work, released by Norstedt’s publishing house over the 1915–1920 period. Ellen Kleman contributed to the Svenska kvinnor series through her book Fredrika Bremer, released by J.A. Lindblads publishing house in 1925. This was the third part in a series of biographies about famous women, where the first two volumes were dedicated to Jenny Lind, by Sigrid Elmblad, and to Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, by Hilma Borelius. Ellen Kleman’s biography shed new light on the relationship between Per Böklin and Fredrika Bremer thanks to the unpublished correspondence she had gained access to through Böklin’s relations. This book was also published in Danish. Ellen Kleman was involved in raising a statue to Fredrika Bremer before the Second World War. She, along with other women including Sigrid Leijonhufvud and Lydia Wahlström, worked on the matter as members of the Fredrika Bremer statue committee. Ellen Kleman chaired the committee from 1925 until 1927 when the statue, produced by the sculptor Sigrid Fridman, was finally unveiled. Sigrid Fridman and Klara Johanson had entered into a romantic relationship in 1925, which was accepted by all involved and lasted until K.J.’s death in 1948. Ellen Kleman finished working as editor of Hertha in 1932. She had then served as editor for a quarter century and was 65 years old. She continued her active life as a pensioner, still writing, and in 1938 she published a short essay entitled Fredrika Bremer and America, released through Åhlén & Åkerlund publishers. However, primarily, she was socially active on behalf of refugees. During the 1934–1940 period she served as secretary and treasurer of Insamlingen för landsflyktiga intellektuella (fundraising for intellectual refugees), a committee which campaigned for the awarding of a greater number of entry-, residence-, and work-permits to refugees in Sweden. When the committee folded in 1940 due to financial reasons Ellen Kleman carried on working privately. She undertook major and visible efforts on behalf of refugees and against Nazism. In 1940 she joined the so-called Tuesday club which had been founded by the author Amelie Posse that same year to serve as a forum to discuss social welfare problems. The members included many cultural celebrities, such as the author Marika Stiernstedt and Ture Nerman, an author, journalist and editor of the weekly Trots allt!, 1939–1946. In 1940 Ellen Kleman became a shareholder in the weekly which supported democracy and fought against dictatorships. Ellen Kleman and K.J. continued living with Ellen’s sister Anna, until 1936 at which point Anna began to find it difficult to climb the stairs and so moved to Windsor boarding-house. The following year Ellen Kleman and K.J. moved to a modern functionalist apartment, comprising three rooms and a kitchen and located at Drottningholmsvägen 76, in what was then a newly-constructed part of town in Kungsholmen. Ellen Kleman, who devoted her time to the increasing number of refugees arriving in Sweden, was fit and managed the household, their social lives, and especially K.J. who was not a practical person and was often unwell. Ellen Kleman also made regular visits to Anna whose health continued to decline, until her eventual death in 1940. Ellen Kleman’s other sister, Maria, who had moved to Stockholm died nine days later. Ellen Kleman turned 75 in the summer of 1942 and in order to avoid any kind of festivities she and K.J. disappeared to Sigtuna. On their return home she was inundated with telegrams and tributes. She was fairly well-known by the public who held her in high regard. That year, 1942, she was awarded the Illis quorum royal medal. She spent the final years of her life collating yet another selection of Fredrika Bremer’s correspondence. The book, entitled Fredrika Bremer i brev: Ett urval, with a foreword supplied by Klara Johanson, was posthumously published in 1944. Ellen Kleman died in 1943 and is buried at Galärvarvet cemetery in Stockholm.

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The series on the History of Southern African Railways continues with this piece on the mighty Garratt engines that conquered the geography of the sub-continent. The article is a must read for any railway enthusiast! The Highveld plateau of southern Africa which rises sharply from the narrow coastal plains means that most of the sub-continent is higher than 1000 metres (3 280 feet) above sea level. This topography hampered the exploration and development of the hinterland as the escarpment proved to be a barrier to those who lived along the coast. Passes would in due course be made allowing hunters, missionaries and above all farmers, to make their way up to the top of the plateau. A generation after the Great Trek (of 1838) diamonds were discovered (1869), where Kimberley stands today and that was the impetus to be built a railway towards the interior (from 1874 to 1885). Those railway builders would face the same difficulties in finding a way up the escarpment as had the Trek Boers. The routes taken, by South Africa’s railways (refer to “Ox Wagon to Iron Horse), from the coast were dictated by the inland plateau and it was impossible to avoid the steep gradients which had to be surmounted. The difficult terrain encountered meant that not only were the gradients severe but also “S” curves and horse shoe bends were many. Moreover the permanent way was lightly laid as it was not financially possible to build to the standards of Britain. Paradoxically the discovery of gold in 1886 on the “Rand” soon demanded that huge tonnages be carried by the railways on tracks not designed for the purpose. The limitations of the permanent way were to tax the minds of the railway establishment and although upgrading of the civil works of the system was the long term solution, something was needed in the interim. At the time of Union, on the 31st May 1910, the colonial railways would amalgamate to become the South African Railways (refer to “New Era Begins). The mainline railway network, as built by S.A.R.’s constituents, was fully developed although in dire need of upgrading. Civil engineering works encompassing bridge strengthening and upgrading of the permanent way (heavier rail sections re-ballasting) was an expensive business and alternatives were therefore sought. The most attractive alternative was to use an articulated locomotive which would have greater power than a conventional tender engine, with no increase in axle loading. There were several types of articulated locomotive on the market and each had its devotees. In South Africa it would come down to just a two (iron) horse race, between the Mallet and the Beyer-Garratt. David E. Hendrie, the first Chief Mechanical Engineer (C.M.E.) of the S.A.R. (1910 to 1922), had introduced locomotives to his specification that were built overseas, predominately in Britain. By early 1921, a trial was deemed necessary to pit three classes of locomotive against one and other. It would take place on the Natal main line, between Durban and Ladysmith, one of the most severe on the Cape Gauge (3’-6”) in all of Africa, where gradients were as steep as 1 in 30 and curves as tight as 4½ chains radius (just under 300 feet). The Trial (or comparative test) was to be between a class 14B 4-8-2 tender engine, a Mallet class MH 2-6-6-2 and a Beyer-Garratt 2-6-0 + 0-6-2. The latter No. 1649, had only recently been delivered from the makers - Beyer Peacock, Manchester, England. SAR Class GA Garratt locomotive (Steam Locomotives of the South African Railways) The stage was set and the first tests were carried out under the direction of an enthusiastic young locomotive engineer, by the name W. Cyril Williams. His test report was forthright and made it plain that the Beyer-Garratt was superior in all regards. This ruffled the feathers of his superiors who were more familiar with the two other types (14B MH) and further tests were called for, which only confirmed the original findings. The tests of 1921 were a triumph for the Beyer-Garratt articulated principle and they were no less so for the W. Cyril Williams, whose eagerness from the very outset had been a little too brash for his superiors. However his report and his zeal had not passed unnoticed by No. 1649’s manufacturer - Beyer Peacock and he was soon offered a position as their “London Representative”. Before long he became something of a legend as a super salesman for the export orders that he secured and was known to all in the industry as “Garratt Williams”. The only market that he could not crack was North America where they stubbornly held onto the Mallet locomotive. His crowning honour was to become President of the Institute of Locomotive Engineers. Now what is a Beyer-Garratt locomotive? To start with the name comes from the manufacturer and its inventor, The Beyer part refers to Beyer Peacock and the Garratt to Herbert William Garratt (1864-1913), who approached Beyer Peacock with his rough idea for an articulated steam locomotive. They saw the possibilities and worked on the details and patented the design in 1907. The Beyer-Garrett steam engine comes nearest to the ideal of an articulated locomotive than any other type and the idea came to Garratt whilst he was watching a bogie well wagon, loaded with a large boiler, traverse the sharp curves in a Scottish works yard. The Beyer-Garratt differs from a conventional locomotive in that its boiler is not directly over the engine (chassis, wheels and motion), instead the boiler (cab) is mounted on a sub frame which is slung between the two engine sets which are allowed to pivot making the wheel base less rigid. On the front engine (chimney end) sits the water tank and on the rear engine sits the fuel bunker (coal/oil/wood). The Beyer-Garratt’s main advantages may be summarized thus : - A Beyer-Garratt with one crew can replace two double headed tender locomotives with two crews, e.g. one GM (built 1938) could replace two 19D tender engines with no loss in power output. - The geometry of the design allows the boiler unit to move inwards when traversing a curve (like a bowstring in a bow) and this reduces the centrifugal force allowing faster running (and less chance of overturning). - The longitudinal spacing of the engine units gives a low figure for weight per foot run of wheelbase, permitting a Beyer-Garratt to cross restricted bridges of light construction and run on lightly laid track (60 lb/yard). NB: Main line tracks in Britain are laid with 110 lb/yard rails. - It is a good steam raiser, as a very large diameter boiler with a short length (thus short tubes) and large firebox can be easily incorporated as it is carried clear of all the parts of an engine such as wheels and motion. - Since the Beyer-Garratt runs equally well in either direction, turntables are not required. - On sections with many tunnels, where trailing smoke is liable to obscure the cab view or make the cab uncomfortable the engine can run cab first. Unfortunately H.W. Garratt did not live to see the success of his invention as he passed away at the age of forty-nine, in 1913, the year before the Great War and it was therefore left up to the engineers and drawing office of Beyer Peacock to develop his concept. Railway Engineers around the world followed railway matters avidly through technical papers and magazines and the British private locomotive builders had active sales departments that advertised their products through the technical press. Therefore it was not long before the word got out that there was a new type of locomotive which could increase pulling power without increasing axle load. The Beyer-Garratt was the answer to a maiden’s prayer and Beyer Peacock were “in the pound seats”. The Beyer-Garratt Steam locomotive was well suited to Southern African conditions and from the 1920’s through to the 1950’s Beyer Peacock’s order book was full with orders from S.A.R. Rhodesia Railways, the Benguela Railway (Angola) and the East African Railways. In fact at times they were hard pressed to meet supply dates and other locomotive firms stepped into help and built the type under licence, notably North British and Henschel. South African Railways were the largest user of the type not only on the Cape gauge but also on the 2’-0” narrow gauge (610 mm), with 400 units being supplied of several different classes; the largest class, numerically, was the GMA/GMAM with one hundred and twenty being built, between 1952 and 1958, in batches shared between Beyer Peacock (58), North British (32) and Henschel (30). Another railway to rely on the Beyer-Garratts was the East African Railways which was a unification of the Kenya Uganda Railways and the Tanganyika Railways after the Second World War and it operated from 1948 until 1975 (when the E.A.R. was dissolved). The E.A.R. ran not on the Cape gauge (3’-6”) but on the Metre gauge (3’-3 3/8”), a legacy of German colonial rule in Tanganyika before the First World War and Kenya receiving surplus railway equipment from the Indian metre gauge system. Beyer-Garratt locomotive leaving the coastal area with a freight train for Nairobi (Railways of Southern Africa) The main line from the port of Mombasa to Nairobi (at 5 000 feet above sea level) was first built under the aegis of the Kenya Uganda Railway, a railway built to deter the slave trade. In 1899 the railway reached the site of Nairobi, at that time only a swampy plain devoid of habitation, but destined to become Kenya’s capital and the commercial hub of East Africa. The K.U.R. was originally laid as a military railway with 50 lb/yard rail and was noted for its heavy gradients and many curves; not unlike the “old” line up from Durban. By the 1920’s, as traffic volumes increased, the line had to be upgraded (to 80 lb/yd rails) and re-aligned so as to lessen the gradient to 1 in 60. Upgrading again with 95 lb/yard rails was done in the early 1950’s in readiness for introduction of the E.A.R. “59” or “Mountain” Class which was to become the masterpiece of the Beyer Garratt type locomotive. These powerful “beasts” were ordered in 1954 to the design of William Bulman C.M.E. and were built by Beyer Peacock; thirty four in total. They had a tractive effort (at 85% boiler pressure) of 83 350 lb (37 750 kg), an axle load of 21 tons, a wheel arrangement of 4-8-2 + 2-8-4 and were oil fired. They were built as a result of the backlog of merchandise that had built up at the port of Mombasa which could not be reduced because of the lack of railway capacity. When they were placed in service in 1956 they proved to be masters of their work and the backlog was quickly cleared. An even bigger “Garrett” was proposed - Class “61” with a tractive effort of 115 000 lb and a 27 ton axle load but this was never to get any further than the drawing board, as Dieselisation was to be the new thinking (in the 1960’s) for motive power, as it was less labour intensive and oil was cheap, then! Interestingly, in the 1990’s, the National Railways of Zimbabwe had refurbished some of their “Garratt” fleet, in order to reduce Zimbabwe’s dependency on imported diesel oil, as they had coal in abundance at their Wankie Colliery. However since the early 2000’s the railway has suffered along with the rest of the country’s economy under Robert Mugabe’s regime and there has been a general run down of railway operations. There are about ten “Garratt’s” still in steam, which are used mainly for shunting in the yard at Bulawayo, but on occasion one is brought out for a tourist “Rail Safari” to Victoria Falls. In 1968 the last Beyer-Garratts to be newly built were eight 2’-0” narrow gauge (610 mm) S.A.R. Class NG G16 locomotives, which Beyer-Peacock sub-contracted out to the Hunslet Engine Co. of Leeds, who in turn used its South African subsidiary, Hunslet Taylor, to fulfil the work, with only the boilers being manufactured by the parent company. Alas the Beyer Peacock Co. closed down their 112 year old (1854-1966) business having failed to make a profitable venture of making diesel locomotives. The Beyer-Garratt was a very successful form of articulated steam locomotive and had it not been for Dieselisation and Electrification it could well have been developed still further. It enabled railways (especially those in Africa) that were laid with a narrower gauge and light rails to operate train loads as great as those in Europe on the 4’-8½” Standard Gauge. We are fortunate that a GMA/GMAM has been saved from the breaker’s torch. She is No. 4079, named “Lindi Lou” and she is owned by the Sandstone Heritage Trust and can be seen in all her glory at the “Reef Steamers” Open Day (usually held on the last Saturday of July) at the historic Germiston Steam Locomotive Depot. Class GMA/M 4-8-2 + 2-8-4 (Great South Africa Steam Train Festival) - “Railways of Southern Africa” by O.S. Nock. - “Railways in Transition from Steam 1940-1965” by O.S. Nock. - “Steam Safari” by Colin Garratt. - “Steam in Africa” by A.E. Durrant, C.P. Lewis & A.A. Jorgensen. - “The Beyer-Garratt story” by H.M. Fleming in the Trains Illustrated Annual 1960. - “Steam Locomotives of the South African Railways, Volume 2” by D.F. Holland. - “The Garratt Locomotive” by A.E. Durrant, RAILWAYS Southern Africa, Dec. 1977.

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Global wake up call headlines the year in science Another year has come to an end, so it's time to look back at the scientific breakthroughs and inventions that excited us this year. From innovative new materials that open the door to more advanced tools and products, to discoveries that continue to push the borders of human knowledge, 2018 didn't fail to deliver. The inspirational scientific stories were offset somewhat by the flood of bad news regarding the climate, but maybe science can be a source of hope there, too. Climate sirens sound If you turned on the news in 2018 there was a good chance you saw a story on an extreme weather event taking place somewhere around the world. In 2018, study after scary study pointed to the reasons for this and painted an increasingly grim picture of the precarious plight of the planet's climate. At the start of 2018, NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) both released reports looking back at the previous year, revealing 2017 as one of the hottest years since records began in 1880, with the five hottest years all occurring since 2010. The World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) provisional Statement on the State of the Climate in 2018, which only takes into account the first 10 months of the year, suggests things won't be much better this year. Even the White House's release of the Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4) report on Black Friday couldn't hide how badly climate change will affect not just the environment, but society and the economy. Meanwhile, another report outlined how the percentage of the world's population exposed to deadly heatwaves will continue to rise – since 2000 the number has already risen by 157 million people. But it was the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCCs) Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5° C, put together by 91 scientists from 40 countries, that really drove things home, cautioning that "unprecedented changes in all aspects of society" are needed if we're to avoid the worst effects of climate change. That's something that won't be possible if we continue on the path indicated by a UN report that revealed global carbon emissions were once again on the rise and reached a record high in 2017 after stabilizing the three previous years. On the upside, we saw numerous technologies that could help us tackle the problem, such as a couple of direct air capture (DAC) pilot systems – one from Canadian company Carbon Engineering and another from Swiss company Climeworks – designed to capture CO2 from the atmosphere, and the announcement of the 10 finalists in the Carbon XPrize that is offering a US$20 million incentive for the development of technologies that transform CO2 into valuable products. One of the biggest problems we'll have to address if we're to tackle climate change is our reliance on fossil fuels, and there were a few encouraging developments on that front in 2018. Nuclear fusion, seen as the holy grail of clean energy production, came a couple of steps closer to reality with the experimental Wendelstein 7-X nuclear fusion reactor setting a record for so-called "fusion product" before achieving the highest energy density and longest plasma discharge times for a device of its type. In June, UK company Tokamak Energy reported its ST40 device had reached temperatures similar to those found at the center of the Sun (15 million degrees Celsius), but China's "artificial sun", the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) left that in the shade, reaching a core plasma temperature of over 100 million degrees Celsius, as well as a heating power of 10 MW, furthering the study of a number of aspects of practical nuclear fusion. But there's one fusion reactor we can already harness and we saw numerous advances that could help us make better use of our friend the Sun in the future, many of which involved building on current solar cell technology. A case in point is a new conversion efficiency record of 25.2 percent for a solar cell that combines silicon and perovskite in one device. Another combination solar cell, this time one that harnesses both solar and triboelectric energy, was developed to generate power when the sun don't shine – specifically, when it's raining. The proof-of-concept device operates as a traditional solar cell when the sun's shining, and harvests energy from the impact of raindrops on its surface when the weather's more inclement. And the hybrid devices kept coming with researchers at Stanford creating a prototype rooftop device that combines a solar panel and a radiative cooling system to both generate electricity and cool the building, while another team from Berkeley Lab and the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP) designed a hybrid cell that uses the power of the sun to split water into water and hydrogen, with some of the excess energy also used to generate electricity. Meanwhile, researchers at the University of British Columbia turned to additives of a different sort, using bacteria to create a "biogenic" solar cell that can generate electricity even on overcast days. A material world Graphene may be the two-dimensional wonder material du jour, but a few new materials sidled up to it on the 2D plane in 2018. A 2D form of soft metal gallium dubbed gallenene, which could find application as super-efficient, thin metal contacts in electronic devices joined the club, as did hematene, a 2D material made up of sheets of iron just three atoms thick. Scientists also proved the existence of a predicted fifth form, or allotrope, of phosphorous called blue phosphorous. They found that the phosphorous atoms form a honeycomb pattern similar to graphene, but the lattice buckles, giving it different properties to black phosphorous. Things were just as interesting in the third dimension, with a high strength and lightweight alloy called Allite Super Magnesium set to find its way into consumer products after being the reserve of military and aerospace applications. While on the subject of alloys, researchers at Sandia Labs combined gold and platinum to develop what they claim is the most durable alloy ever created – and it even makes its own lubricant. But if it's strength you're after, you can't do better than the strongest material in the universe? With the tasty moniker of "nuclear pasta", this material is formed inside neutron stars, so we won't be building anything out of it anytime soon. But there are a couple of new wood-based materials we could be making use of in the not-too-distant future, including a "super wood" that is as strong and tough as steel, a wood/metal foam that could be used for insulation, and a new wood nanofiber that knock spider silk off its perch as the world's strongest biomaterial. But that doesn't mean spider silk isn't still attractive to all kinds of industries – if only we could get our hands on enough of the stuff. Researchers made that a possibility by engineering bacteria to produce biosynthetic spider silk that is claimed to be as good as the real stuff. The bible-derived idiom says there's nothing new under the sun, but scientists have long been proving that wrong, and 2018 is no different. In February, a team of researchers reported the creation of a new form of matter they dubbed a Rydberg polaron, which is a "giant atom" stuffed with smaller atoms that could aid in investigating the physics of ultracold atoms. Meanwhile, in a discovery that could have applications in quantum computing, scientists created a new form of light in which groups of photons can be made to interact with each other, slow down and gain mass. While we're on the subject of light, astronomers managed to calculate the total number of photons emitted by all the stars in the observable universe in the past 13 billion years. Unsurprisingly, it's a very big number – a four followed by 84 zeroes. Time itself was the subject of another notable advance this year – specifically the accuracy of the experimental atomic clocks tested at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Setting new records for systematic uncertainty, stability and reproducibility, the clocks could help more precisely measure the Earth's gravity and aid in the search for dark matter. For the first time, scientists also managed to create rare and elusive quantum ball lightning in the lab. In addition to shedding light on this strange phenomenon, this could help in the development of more stable fusion reactors. Last month, scientists voted in a new definition for the kilogram that relies on the Planck constant rather than a lump of metal in a vault in France. You won't notice the change on your bathroom scales, so unfortunately it doesn't mean you can indulge in an extra helping of desert. Like the changing climate of the planet, there was also plenty of worrying news for the lifeforms that live on it in 2018. A WWF report found a 60 percent decline in animal populations since 1970, with the number of vertebrates falling by more than half between 1970 and 2012. Another report by the Wildlife Conservation Society revealed a big part of the problem is the dramatic decrease in wilderness regions, with just 23 percent of the planet's landmass remaining in a near natural state. Such news doesn't bode well for the survival of a multitude of species, but scientists provided a glimmer of hope for keeping functionally extinct species from disappearing completely by producing first-of-a-kind test tube embryos of the northern white rhino, of which no males remain. And providing more proof of just how much we still don't know about the organisms we share our planet with, scientists uncovered the first life form that doesn't adhere to a "universal rule" of DNA and continued to uncover new species that span from the depths of the Atacama Trench to the high altitudes of the atmosphere. And if your interest lies with old instead of new animals, how about the worms found frozen in the Siberian permafrost that were thawed out and revived after 40,000 years. Going back even further, scientists used what is known as a "molecular clock" to create a rough timeline of all life on Earth that traced the first organisms on the planet to around 4.5 billion years ago. This year saw the declaration of a new geological age – the official updating of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart means we are now living in the Meghalayan age, which began 4,200 years ago. And although we're still living in the Holocene epoch, which began 11,700 ago, some scientists are arguing a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene should be declared to reflect the impact of human activity on the planet. Genetic studies also provided direct evidence of interbreeding between early humans, while an extraordinarily well-preserved corpse found frozen in the Eastern Italian Alps revealed what was on the menu 5,300 years ago. Additionally, the discovery of what may be the oldest human drawings ever found reveal just how far back our artistic side goes, while studies of ancient stone mortars showed our love of beer and cheese might be older than previously thought. Human remains are all well and good, but nothing beats a good dinosaur fossil. And there were plenty of finds that kept paleontologists busy in 2018, including the remains of what would have been the world's largest land animal almost 200 million years ago, the first giant dinosaur, the first known bird beak, and a new species of ichthyosaur that could rival the Blue Whale in terms of size. Fossilized footprints also proved a treasure trove, with the smallest and largest dinosaur footprints ever found, along with what may have been a "dinosaur superhighway" in Alaska that connected Asia to North America, and evidence of early mammals and dinosaurs living side-by-side. Vale Stephen Hawking Finally, the scientific world, and the world at large, suffered a huge loss in March when Stephen Hawking passed away at the age of 76. He was diagnosed with motor neurone disease at 21 when doctors gave him just two years to live, but he proved them wrong and went on to become the most famous theoretical physicist since Einstein – maintaining a sense of humor along the way. He built on Einstein's work with a theory of cosmology that explained a union between Einstein's general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, while in 1976 he set out the theoretical argument for black holes releasing a form of radiation that now bears his name. His list of accomplishments are long and his impact on science massive and ongoing. The world is a poorer place without him but a better place for having had him in it. This is hardly a comprehensive list of the remarkable goings on in the world of science in 2018, so if your favorite science story doesn't appear above, be sure to jog our memories in the comments. Also, some of the biggest science news took place in space and medicine, which we've covered in dedicated roundups here (space) and here (medicine). And if your interests lean towards the weird as well as the wonderful, check out our look back at the weirdest science stories of 2018.

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The Anthropocene: A New World Epoch? Has humanity so changed the order of nature on Earth that we have become pioneers of a new era? Proponents of the ‘Anthropocene’ have declared the beginning of a new geological epoch, supplanting the current Holocene epoch. Considered broadly, Anthropocene is an appropriate name for a radically new human dominated era. Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer first used the term in 2000 to denote ‘the present time interval, in which many geologically significant conditions and processes are profoundly altered by human activities.’ Since then a ‘Working Group on the Anthropocene’ has broadened the scope to ‘that period of Earth's history during which humans have a decisive influence on the state, dynamics and future of the Earth system.’ That could have begun as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century. In discussing the proposed Anthropocene epoch there are broader and narrower claims that can be made. The broader claims, involving the whole planetary system, speak to the causes and conditions of a changing planetary geology and its biology. The narrower claims orbit around single disciplines, or groups of related disciplines, such as geology, biology and palaeontology. A number of professional scientists do comment at both levels, but more typically because scientists are specialists in particular fields, most are not comfortable making claims that go too far beyond their peer recognized specialisms. Natural scientists are particularly reluctant to stray into other very different disciplinary fields, such as history, sociology or economics – and vice versa. Therefore we can expect more support from scientists for narrower and more technically involved concerns about changing geological epochs; it may also take a long time for agreement to be reached about the interpretation of technically complex data and decisions to be made about whether or not we are in a new geological epoch. We can also expect that communication about specialist findings along the way will be dependent upon the vicissitudes of popular media. There are good reasons for this apparently ponderous state of affairs. It needs to be understood that the whole edifice of scientific specialization depends upon hierarchies within and across specialisms. Further, there are strongly defended boundaries between sets of disciplinary fields such as those between the natural and social sciences. This is a great strength in protecting the integrity of individual fields, but a weakness if one looks to scientists to engage more broadly with complex issues such as climate change, pollution and over-population. In the current institutional arrangements of western societies, scientists have high cultural status and are often drafted into parliamentary committees that give advice to politicians who then make policy in parliamentary processes. It follows, perhaps surprisingly, that the social and cultural power of scientists is highly limited. Their advice is only optional; one way or another, groups of politicians and their staffers filter any information that is tabled in parliament. The ability of scientists to communicate vital issues to lay audiences is also highly limited – whether or not they concern broader or narrower issues. The Working Group (of 38 eminent scientists) is therefore anomalous in the history of science: a group of accomplished scientists making claims that go beyond geology, or any other single discipline, and that is prepared to engage with public media. Historically, this kind of activity tends to occur when there is a great deal at stake – there are groups of scientists still opposed to war and nuclear weapons, and currently social movement organisations such as Lock the Gate, Greenpeace and the Wilderness Society contain broadly engaged scientists. But the Anthropocene Working Group is different in being more academically focused and arguably more global in its concerns. While the efforts of all these groups of scientists might seem inevitable given the absolute peril that faces Earth, the professional obstacles to scientists being outspoken should not be over-looked. Their ‘bread and butter’ is usually highly technically focused, and as professionals they are highly dependent on peer assessment and the raising of funds for research. For them, partisan politics is a very risky business. The relative absence of scientifically credible spokespersons for any interdisciplinary focus on system Earth, is then hardly surprising. This is a huge obstacle to informing public audiences. Television does show us personalities like David Attenborough and Brian Cox but such globally focused experts are a rare treat - constrained as they may be by producers, public broadcasting policy guidelines, and the scientific disciplines they represent. Nonetheless the activities of the Anthropocene Working Group are heroic, as is the work of other groups of politically oriented scientists. Such groups also often champion another cause in the dissemination of information about our global ecological crisis: the integration of social scientific information (including economics, politics and sociology) into the mix. This is a call for a broad kind of interdisciplinary research to become more important – indeed without such a mix there can be very limited progress at all in dealing with global problems. That is another reason why The Anthropocene Working Group makes such an interesting case study. In the broadest sense argued by the Working Group, the ‘Anthropocene’ is not simply the outcome of human technological change that is accelerating towards an all-absorbing cyberworld where machines and artificial intelligence transform the idea of what it is to be human. Rather, the fact that all technology is dependent on Earth’s natural resources, and becomes part of global ecology, is the most disturbing finding that supports the postulation of a new geological epoch. The science involved further affirms what has been known since the middle of last century: that mass pollution impacts global geology, biology and ecology. This fact should now inform all of our contemporary thinking - including utopian fantasies seeking technological mastery of the universe. The underlying problem is why this is not the case. In particular, why are politicians and voting publics so unwilling to confront what is already known about the unsustainability of humanity on Earth? One important reason is that since the publication of The Club of Rome’s The Limits To Growth in 1972, not many scientists have been brave enough to take on ‘the business as usual’ lobby. It remains a fact that when science matters, careers and funding are always on the line, or nearly on the line. Unpalateable as it may be, in today’s world the postulation of an Anthropocene epoch recognises that nature has been so impacted by human population growth that a new kind of geological deposition is occurring. The deposition of human made materials - such as plastic microparticles and toxic organic compounds - is causing a new kind of global sedimentation. These substances are not restricted to the surface layers of Earth. They turn up in the stomachs and flesh of fish and other animals; they are part of most, if not all, food chains - see, for example, S. Safety, ‘New Link in the Food Chain? Marine Plastic Pollution’, Environmental Health Perspectives. News, 123, 2, February 2015 (https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/123/2/ehp.123-A34.alt.pdf). Microparticles even occur as aerosols in the stratosphere – including ‘depleted uranium’ aerosols from past wars – see, for example, A. Durakovic, ‘Medical Effects of internal contamination with actinides: further controversy on depleted uranium and radioactive warfare’, Environmental Health and Preventative Medicine, May 2016, Volume 21, Issue 3, pp. 111-117. On Earth these new sediments have become so obvious that some geologists, biologists and palaeontologists are making the case that such significant global change at the level of Earth’s stratification warrants the declaration of a new geological epoch. This is a big claim - in the league of previous episodes of geological change caused by catastrophic events such as climate change, mass vulcanism, and meteorite strikes. Because scientists are, as mentioned, notoriously conservative and fussy about evidence, the bigger issue is whether humanity should wait for a consensus of scientists, or whether the rate of precautionary measures should escalate dramatically in defence of an already fragile global ecology. Considering the disciplinary divides between the natural sciences and all other fields, it is not surprising that experts in other fields might resist big claims from ‘across the ditch’. Indeed, because claims about new eras are so familiar to historians and theologians it is quite understandable that they might be cautious about the arrival of a new geological ‘epoch’; perhaps everyone ought to resist any encouragement to panic because of apparently apocalyptic scientific findings. After all, in the twentieth century we have survived two world wars, the threat of nuclear holocaust, pandemics, over-population, limits to growth and new age fundamentalism. In previous centuries the world was transformed by religious eschatology, voyages of discovery, trade and technological innovation. Change is definitely in the order of things, and natural scientists are not the only ones to have noticed. Still, it seems undeniably true that humanity has changed planet Earth. Arguably, global warming and climate change are only the most obvious recent indicators that big changes are occurring on the planet. It is not just that the contemporary world is changing under the impacts of globalisation, new information technology, terrorism and a shifting political world order – we are also ‘hollowing out’ the planet. The extrapolation of findings about the changing nature of geological sedimentations is very disturbing but only adds to what scientists already know about an ecology on the brink, and what many others speculate about the increasing fragility of global human society. Most fundamentally, it is clearly arguable that climate change is only one component in a new world dictated by human excess – over-population and over-pollution are causing irrevocable changes that do not favour human life or the survival of a rich diversity of other species. Whether or not there is scientific consensus about a new geological epoch, we cannot ignore the facts of a changing global ecology. This involves much more than a scientific debate. The subject of human sustainability should be all consuming – indeed the issues involved are so confronting that the most charitable way of understanding the very sluggish response that politicians and the mass media are making is to postulate denial as a kind of mass defensive strategy. Because denial seems to affect all of our major institutions and academies one wonders what amount of hard evidence it will take to persuade tough minded bureaucrats and ruling elites around the planet that we are all participating in a global ecological crisis. So when some scientists cast the net wider than global warming and climate change, there is good cause to sit back and appreciate the fact that many scientists do contemplate the global fragility of life on Earth. Perhaps they have been doing this for much longer than commonly appreciated. And, indeed, if some geologists argue for a new geological epoch – the Anthropocene – one would think that this should merit ongoing headlines. The fantasy worlds that politicians and the media seek to distract us with are clearly far more resonant than science or ‘the facts’. Perhaps we really do live in a ‘post-fact’ world. 30 March, 2017 30 March, 2017

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There are 28 National Park Service Sites in California as of 2019. Of these, two sites are shared with other states. The list below is a complete overview of each National Park Site, as well as why it’s significant, where it’s located in the state, and advice on what you need to know when planning a visit to any of these California National Parks. California National Parks Map NPS Sites California Cabrillo National Monument Cabrillo National Monument is located in San Diego’s Point Loma Peninsula. The site marks the spot where Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo landed in 1542. The landing was significant as it was the first time that a European expedition arrived in the West Coast of the US. It was initially recognized as a California Historical Landmark in 1932 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Within the site, there is a park open to tourists who wish to view the skyline and harbor of San Diego. There is also a visitor center wherein a film about the arrival of Cabrillo is played for the tourist to watch. Castle Mountains National Monument This is another national monument in the U.S. that is managed by the National Park Service. It is a protected landscape within the Mojave Desert in California’s San Bernardino County. Within the property is the Castle Mountains and the Castle Mountain Mine Area, which is an open pit gold mine. César E. Chávez National Monument This 116-acre property used to be the headquarters of the United Farm Workers. It was the home of Cesar Chavez n the 1970s until the time of his death. His gravesite is also found within the property. The site was named a national monument in 2012 as initiated by President Barack Obama. The site is co-managed by the National Park Service and the National Chavez Center. Channel Islands National Park This California National Park was closely tied to another park service site, Cabrillo National Monument, since the island that was first discovered by European explorers in 1542. The park includes 5 out of the 8 Channel Islands off the coast of Southern California. The park is valued for its cultural and natural resources. It is also a national marine sanctuary and national biosphere reserve. This national park is shared by two states: California and Nevada. It is located along the border of these two states and near the Sierra Nevada mountain range. It is also a unique area as it features an interface zone between the Mojave Desert and Great Basin, which explains the arid landscape in the park. Almost all of the entire park is a designated wilderness area and is the driest, hottest national park in the country. Devils Postpile National Monument This is another protected landscape and national monument on the list of National park Service sites in California. The naming of the site as a national monument is intended to preserve the Devil’s Postpile, which is a series of basalt columns and unusual rock formations. The property spans nearly 800 acres of land area and features the Rainbow Falls as a major attraction, aside from the Devil’s Postpile. The national monument is located within a wilderness area except for those developed into campgrounds, as well as the site of the visitor center and monument headquarters. Eugene O’Neill National Historic Site Eugene O’Neill is the only U.S. playwright that had been awarded a Nobel Prize in Literature. His former home, called Tao House, is preserved and is the main feature within this national historic site. The house is located in Danville, California and was built for using the prize money he won the Nobel Prize. This is also where he wrote some of his final plays. Fort Point National Historic Site This national historic site listed as one of the national park service sites in California is a masonry seacoast fortification. It is located to the south of San Francisco’s Golden Gate. The Fort was built before the American Civil War to protect the bay from warships. The site is managed by the National Park Service under the Golden Gate National Recreational Area. The site gets an average of approximately 1.6 million each year. Golden Gate National Recreation Area This property spans over 80,000 acres of historically and ecologically significant landscape in the San Francisco Bay area. Originally a US Army Base, today it is managed by the National Park Service and is one of the most visited units in the service’s system with 15 million visitors annually. Alcatraz Island, the Presidio, Muir Woods, the Marin Headlands, and other units comprise the site. John Muir National Historic Site This is another one of the national park service sites in California that is located near the San Francisco Bay Area. This site aims to preserve the Italianate Victorian mansion where John Muir, naturalist, and writer, lived in. Aside from the house, the property also includes 325-acre of land consisting of grasslands and native oak woodlands owned by the Muir family. The house was originally built in the late 19th century and was recognized into the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1960. Visitors to the house can watch a biographical film or take a tour around the house. In 1994, this site was proclaimed a national park through the California Desert Protection Act. Before that, Joshua Tree National Park was already a national monument. As one of the national park service sites in California, it is a designated wilderness area and is governed by the National Park Service. There are two deserts which are highly elevated ecosystems. These two deserts are the Mojave Desert and the Colorado Desert. Kings Canyon National Park Established in 1940, this national park incorporates the General Grant National Park that was originally established in the late 1900s. The aim is to protect the giant sequoias in General Grant Grove. The park is contiguous with Sequoia National Park. It is also a biosphere reserve as named by UNESCO. Kings Canyon became popular after John Muir visited it for the first time and he likened it to the Yosemite Valley. Lassen Volcanic National Park This is another national park making it to the list of National Park Service Sites in California. The Lassen Peak, to which the national park is named after, is the most important feature within the park. It is also the world’s largest plug dome volcano. In 1907, the site was part of two separate national monuments: Lassen Peak National Monument and Cinder Cone National Monument. The area surrounding the peak and dominating most of the park consists of stinking fumaroles, hot springs and boiling mud pots. Lava Beds National Monument The area included in this national monument is the largest area close to a volcano within the Cascade Range of California. It is administrated by the NPS; hence, it is included in this list of National Park Service Sites in California. This site includes lava tube caves, volcanic fields, and a shrubland desert landscape. There are also developed trails within the site making it convenient for public access. In 2011, it had over 124,000 visitors. Manzanar National Historic Site This national historic site is one of the best preserved former campsites from World War II. This site consists of 10 camps that showcase the legacy of Japanese American incarceration in the country. Before the Japanese Americans were incarcerated in these camps, the area was inhabited by the Native Americans. As one of the national park service sites in California aims to preserve the history of the site and have it remembered by future generations. Mojave National Preserve This national preserve consists of the Mojave Desert in California. This site is massive and covers up to 1.6 million hectares of land area. In fact, it ranks third in the US’ National Park System in terms of size. There are several natural features included in the area such as volcanic formations, the Cima Dome, the Marl Mountains, and the Kelso Dunes. It also includes units managed by the California Department of Parks and Recreation: Mitchell Caverns Natural Preserve and Providence Mountains State Recreation Area. Muir Woods National Monument Established as a national monument in 1908, Muir Woods is named after naturalist John Muir who was an early advocate of the National Park System. The monument is one of the closest redwood groves to the city of San Francisco. It also has a claim to fame as the location of the signing of the United Nations Charter in 1945. Today, the popularity of the park has required visitors to take a shuttle bus to the park from more distant parking lots. Pinnacles National Park This national park covers the mountainous area in Salinas Valley, California. The park was named after the rock formations that were formed from erosion of an extinct volcano. It is considered a wilderness by the National Park Service. There are two divisions to the unit named as East and West, and each side has distinct qualities. On the east, there is a lot of shade and water. On the west, there are mostly high walls. The two divisions are connected via foot trails. Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial This memorial site was named as one of the national park service sites in California. The site is dedicated to the Port Chicago disaster which killed 320 naval workers during WWII in a munitions explosion at the Concord Naval Weapons Station. The explosion resulted in the largest mutiny in US military history as almost all of the casualties were African American. The explosion and mutiny eventually led to the post-war desegregation for the United States Navy. Point Reyes National Seashore This park preserve is located in Marin County within the Point Reyes Peninsula. It is considered as a national seashore and the only one of its kind in the list of national park service sites in California. The US National Park Service maintains this nature preserve, which is still being used for agricultural purposes today. In 2010, all of the beaches included within the peninsula were considered as some of the cleanest in California. This is one of the most popular sites on the list of national park service sites in California. This site covers an old temperate rainforest filled with the famous redwood trees along the California coast. Aside from the Redwood National Park, this property also includes the Del Norte Coast, Prairie Creek Redwood State Parks, and Jedediah Smith. This results in a total land area of 139,000 acres. The ecosystem within the park is considered important as it preserves animal species in threat, as well as for its cultural history (the area is believed to be originally inhabited by Native Americans). It is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site listed under the Natural category. Rosie the Riveter/World War II Home Front National Historical Park Located in Richmond, this park preserve aims to protect the legacy of the United States home front during the Second World War. The park is located in the former location of the Kaiser Richmond shipyards and is home to the WWII Victory Ship, SS Red Oak Victory. Housing projects for workers and other facilities devoted to shipbuilding in World War II are also part of the property. This is one of national park service sites in California that is noted as “partnership park”. This means that the land or buildings are not owned by NPS but they hold responsibility for managing the park. Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area This site consists of open space preserves and several individual parks. The property, as the name implies, encompasses the Santa Monica Mountains and its surrounding areas in Southern California. The recreational area is within the Los Angeles region so about two-thirds of the park covers the Los Angeles County. The National Park Services manages the administration of the entire park area. In addition, the site is noted for being one of the densest sources of archaeological resources for a mountain range. San Francisco Maritime National Historic Park This historical park is located in San Francisco, California and features a fleet of historic vessels, maritime museum, maritime research facility, and a visitor center. This park receives about 4.2 million visits per year. Aside from being one of the national park service sites in California, it is also a US National Historic Landmark and listed in the US National Register of Historic Places. The main location of the park is in Hyde Street Pier wherein a total of six vessels are docked. Sequoia National Park This is another national park situated among the Sierra Nevada Mountain range in California. The park was established in 1980 and encompasses an area measuring over 400,000 acres. The park also includes the highest point in the US – Mount Whitney. Aside from Mount Whitney, the park is best known for the giant sequoia tress to which the park is named after. The park contains the General Sherman tree, which is considered as the world’s largest tree. It is located within Giant Forest wherein you can find half of the largest trees in the world. Tule Lake National Monument Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity National Recreation Area Located in Northern California, this national recreation area was established by the US Congress on 1965. The property consists of three units: Shasta Unit, Trinity Unit, and Whiskeytown Unit. Each of these units has different activities to offer for tourists. Despite their differences, each unit has a large reservoir, natural terrains, and natural forested habitats. There are bear, deer and migrating birds within the site. Some of the popular recreational activities within the area include swimming, hiking, boating, and camping. This is probably one of the most recognizable national park service sites in California, if not the US. Aside from being a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this national park is best known for its granite cliffs, giant sequoia groves, waterfalls, glaciers, and streams. On top of that, the park is also teeming with biological diversity. Nearly all of the park premises is designated as a wilderness area. Book Your Trip Book Your Accommodation Booking.com is hands-down the best way to book accommodation—it offers the lowest rates, and the massive community of user reviews helps you decide on the exact right place to stay, from high end hotels to budget hostels. Rent a Car The U.S. is a big place and renting a car is the best way to explore and enjoy off-the-beaten path recommendations. I’ve used RentalCars.com for more than a decade to find the best rental car rates—it’s an aggregator that scours the web for the most competitive prices. Find Interesting Things to Do Viator, a TripAdvisor property, offers tours all over the world. I also love GetYourGuide, a scrappy booking engine with great prices and a wide selection of tours on every corner of the earth. If you’re keen to take a multi-day tour, I’ve been on more than a dozen G Adventures tours and highly recommend the company. Protect Yourself With Travel Insurance Travel insurance is the single best way to protect yourself and your trip from unforeseen complications, illness, theft, and more. Whether you’re planning a domestic road trip or an international adventure, book travel insurance with a trusted company. International Medical Group (IMG) offers great prices for domestic travel, particularly for families and seniors. World Nomads is a great option for international travelers on adventurous trips to the U.S. The EE team has used both for more than a decade and highly recommends choosing the one that best fits your next trip.

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MISSILE DEFENCE IN SOUTH ASIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE REGION Over the past decade, India has pursued an active missile defence option with the help of the United States, Israel and Russia, in the shape of Patriot Advanced Capability (PAC), the Arrow, and S-300 missile defence systems. It has also considered developing a system of its own. In a region which has seen four wars over the last 59 years, and where in the last few years nuclear armed adversaries – India and Pakistan – have fought one limited war and seen a tense period of force mobilisation, the introduction of missile defence is likely to adversely impact the fragile security and strategic balance in the region. Moreover, China, which provides the declared rationale behind the maintenance of an Indian nuclear arsenal1 would also be affected. China’s deterrence, which is based on a modest deployed nuclear arsenal, would also be affected with the introduction of missile defence by its neighbour. The nuclear deterrent of Pakistan, and to some extent, that of China, would be in danger of becoming destabilised. These countries might respond by either increasing their nuclear arsenals or by trying to acquire missile defence systems of their own, among other defensive options. In either case, the net effect is likely to fuel a nuclear arms race, as well as a costly race for better and effective defence systems. Since the pursuit of missile defence in South Asia is a relatively recent development, little analytical attention has been paid to India’s ballistic missile defence plans, its costs and implications for India itself, and for its neighbours – Pakistan and China – in terms of security and stability of the region. This study aims at analysing the net effect of missile defence on the deterrent capabilities of Pakistan and China and their likely responses. Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD): The Concept The United States is the pioneer of the concept of developing and deploying nationwide missile defences. The idea of a nationwide US anti-missile system goes back to the 1980s when President Reagan envisioned a missile defence shield for continental America, named Star Wars, and laid down plans to build the shield to protect mainland America against ballistic missile attacks. It was George W. Bush Jr’s Administration that decided to give it a new impetus. President Bush decided, in December 2002, to field initial elements of a limited missile defence system by September 2004. At the same time, the US abrogated the 1972 Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty in December 2002. Although US plans have faced many problems with a number of failed intercepts, it marked a change in the US policy from a focus on deterrence to a shift towards a mix of offence and defence. The US also decided to bring on board its allies and others facing growing ballistic missile threats from their adversaries in order to build a network of missile defences. Japan, a key ally, facing a missile threat from North Korea, immediately supported the plan. While the reactions from Europe, Russia and China ranged from lukewarm to strongly critical, India showed overwhelming support for the concept, surprising even the Indian analysts2 since India had opposed the US BMD plans in early 2000.3 Many argued that it represented a fundamental shift in India’s policy. Discussing the possible motives for such a response, Rajesh Basrur points out three possible motives: the desire to obtain military and technical assistance from the US, as well as support for its drive for a permanent seat at the United Nations Security Council, which could pave the way for its rise to a superpower status; the desire to gain access to US surveillance data, especially on Chinese and Pakistani missile sites; and a possible consideration for a strategic tie up with the US against China.4 The increasing Indo-US strategic cooperation in recent years, ranging from defence and military cooperation to joint production of civilian satellites and transfer of high and dual use technology items culminating in the Indo-US deal of March 2006 for supply of civil nuclear technology and equipment does seem to support some of the possible motives pointed out by Basrur. This provides the broader perspective on Indian motives and must be kept in mind while tackling the issue of Indian pursuit of missile defences. India’s Pursuit of Missile Defences India, in its pursuit of ballistic missile defence, has taken two fundamental routes: one to acquire missile defence systems from abroad; and, second, to develop the system indigenously. India’s missile defence acquisition efforts have revolved around variants of Russian S-300 BMD system, the Israeli Arrow BMD and the American Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3). India’s indigenous efforts have centred on the domestically designed, Akash, a long range surface-to-air missile (SAM). India’s pursuit of missile defence dates back to the 1990s. As early as 1995, there were reports that India was negotiating to acquire air defence missile systems from Russia – the S-300 PMU-1, or later versions like S-300.5 Russian Deputy Defence Minister, Kokoshin, offered to sell S-300 missiles during his trip to India in 1995.6 Subsequently, in August 1995, the Indian Defence Secretary, Nambiar, went to Russia to observe tests of the missiles near Moscow. Reportedly, in June 1996, the deal was finalised, and 27 S-300 missiles were delivered to India.7 The $1 billion purchase was said to include six S-300 systems, with each combat system consisting of 48 missiles.8 These anti-missile batteries are reportedly already in operation. According to other reports, Russia has already provided India with the ABM Antey battalion module.9 The Antey Corporation’s S-300V, also known by its NATO designation, SA-12, is an advanced Russian surface-to-air missile system comprising two missile systems - the Gladiator for destroying ballistic missiles, and the Giant for use against aircraft and cruise missiles. In 1998, Antey unveiled a modification of the S-300V, nicknamed the “Antey-2500.”10 The Antey-2500 module operating within an integrated air defence system can simultaneously engage up to eight Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) from a distance of 2500 km, or sixteen Tactical Ballistic Missiles (TBM) launched from a distance of 3000 km.11 As recently as in February 2006, it was reported in the Russian press that Russia has offered India to “create a comprehensive air defence system using different air defences, including S-300 missile systems of various modifications.”12 If the reports about Indian acquisition of Russian missile defence systems prove to be true, it would bring a qualitative improvement in the deterrence potential of India vis-à-vis China and Pakistan. India has also shown interest in the Israeli Arrow ballistic missile defence system. Indo-Israeli relations improved considerably in the 1990s. Israel assumed the role of becoming the second biggest seller of weapons to India after Russia.13 India has acquired a number of weapons systems from Israel. The Arrow was jointly developed by Israel and the US. Arrow 2, an advanced version of Arrow, is designed to intercept short and medium-range ballistic missiles, and can detect and track up to 14 missiles simultaneously at distances as far a 500 km away.14 The Arrow system could potentially be used by India to counter Pakistan's nuclear-capable Ghauri and Shaheen missiles.15 Although Tel Aviv seems keen on selling Arrow system to New Delhi, the sale requires the approval of the US, since Arrow was a joint project and was partly funded by Washington. To date the US has not given approval for the sale of Arrow. However, Israel has already sold India the Green Pine radar system, a component of the Arrow system, which tracks incoming missiles and transmits data to Arrow’s management systems and interceptors. The radar can detect targets at ranges up to about 500 km. It can simultaneously track dozens of TBM, and can discriminate between TBMs, aircraft and other missiles, as well as distinguish between real threats and decoys. Green Pine is transportable and is capable of predicting impact points of incoming tactical ballistic missiles. Out of the two Green Pine radars ordered by India, the first was delivered in 2001, and the system has been reportedly deployed in India.16 The Green Pine radar's deployment along the Indian-Pakistani border potentially provides India with strategic advantage. Reportedly, the system covers all of Pakistan's military command centres and bases between Islamabad, the capital, and the Indian frontier and also provides India with surveillance of Pakistan's nuclear centres and missile sites.17 The Green Pine combined with the Russian S-300 or Antey ABM systems would provide India with missile defence cover over key parts of its territory against Pakistan and China’s IRBMs. In March 2004, Israel signed a $1.1 billion deal to sell three Phalcon Airborne Early Warning Command and Control Systems (AWACS) to India. The United States had given Israel the green light to sell the Phalcons to India which will be mounted on Russian Ilyushin aircraft.18 The Phalcon system, expected to be delivered within 44 months, can pick up aircraft, including at low altitude, hundreds of kilometres away in any weather, day or night. Once deployed, the Phalcon system would provide India surveillance over much of Pakistan’s territory. Combined with missile defence systems, Phalcon would enhance India’s ability to counter a first strike by Pakistan. Discussions have also been underway since 2002, for the sale of the US PAC-2/PAC-3 missile defence system to India. In February 2005, a US team, headed by Edward Ross from the Defence Security Cooperation Agency, had briefed New Delhi on technical details of PAC-2.19 Moreover, India has attended several BMD workshops, conferences, and missile defence exercises over the past few years.20 The Bush Administration has been giving signals that it is keen on selling the PAC system to New Delhi. In June 2005, the US cleared the sale of the (PAC-3) system to India on the eve of Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee’s visit to the US.21 Again in September 2005, a high-level US defence team held detailed classified briefings of Indian officials on the PAC-3 system.22 PAC-3 is a surface-to-air guided missile defence system that provides advanced capability against cruise missiles, aircraft, and short- and medium-range ballistic missiles. The PAC-3 system has four main components – radar, command centre, launcher, and interceptor missiles.23 The system is capable of targeting and destroying multiple targets while evading countermeasures and decoys. The PAC-3, unlike previous models, relies on hit-to-kill technology to eliminate short- and medium-range missiles.24 The PAC-3 interceptors are mounted on mobile launchers which can hold up to 16 interceptors each. The launchers are arranged to provide overlapping coverage, allowing PAC-3 to respond rapidly to attacks from all directions. Other reports suggest that India has also been working on developing a missile defence system of its own. India’s Defence and Research Development Organisation (DRDO) has reportedly been engaged in efforts since 1993 to modify its Akash surface-to-air missile (SAM) into an interceptor capable of engaging ballistic missiles.25 Akash’s range is approximately 27 km. According to India’s DRDO, its range will be increased to 60 km and eventually to 120 km.26 One of its important features is the Rajendra phased array radar27 which is capable of multi-target tracking and engagement. It can reportedly track up to 64 targets at a range of 50 km. The stated goal of the eventual upgrade project is to intercept missiles with ranges up to 2000 km.28 This goal may be a little too ambitious and unrealistic given the difficulties the US has experienced developing the Theatre High Altitude Area Defence (THAAD) designed to intercept missiles with ranges up to 3500 km.29 Moreover, so far there have been no reports of Akash tests against ballistic missiles. However, it would be of great concern to both China and Pakistan if the US decides to transfer missile defence technologies to India since missile defences erode their nuclear deterrents vis-à-vis India. In early 2005, there were reports that India was working on another missile defence system on the basis of Prithvi missile and the Israeli Green Pine radar. According to these reports, the DRDO intended to integrate this system into a missile defence system within a five-to-seven-year timeframe. The head of DRDO’s Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, V. K. Saraswat, confirmed the ballistic missile defence programme, saying that the system was intended to provide a missile defence cover in a radius of over 200 km.30 Again, in July 2005, Indian Defence Minister Pranab Makherjee said that there was no question of accepting a missile shield from anyone and that India was developing its own. Space satellites are an integral component of missile defence systems. India also has some satellite potential to complement its missile defence efforts. These can be used for early warning to detect a ballistic missile from its launch, its approximate flight course, etc. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been developing defence support programme satellites and their space-based infrared system. The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series of satellites are in orbit31, which can be used for missile defence purposes.32 India’s likely missile defence choices are, however, not clear so far. Although the DRDO and leading Indian defence technocrats have repeatedly asserted that the country has the capability to build missile defences,33 these claims need to be treated with care. Many experts are sceptical of Indian claims to be able to build a truly indigenous BMD system, at least in the short to medium term.34 In the past, many Indian initiatives termed as indigenous have faced critical snags or lagged far behind schedule. These include: the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA); the Trishul short-range SAM; and the Nag anti-tank guided missile.35 There are also recent, though unconfirmed, reports of possible abolition of the Akash missile programme,36 which would indicate that the project was not technically successful. Even a technologically advanced state like the US has discovered that developing and integrating missile defence systems present unique challenges. India’s capability to develop such complicated technologies37 is questionable in the short term since these require a high degree of technological expertise, and decades of research and testing. Therefore, in the short to medium term, India’s option could be to acquire the systems from abroad or go for a mix of imported systems and indigenous ones. Given the size of the country, a national BMD system is unlikely. Since BMD systems cost billions of dollars, from an economic point of view India cannot afford a nation-wide missile defence. This would suggest a limited point defence system to protect targets such as Nuclear Command Authority and other nuclear and missile establishments.38 The architecture of such a system is also unclear. One possibility is deployment of a layered system with imported systems such as S-300, Arrow or PAC-3 providing the first layer of defence architecture while modified Akash providing a second layer of defence. While a near foolproof BMD system would require several layers of defences, the exorbitant costs of BMD systems would make any complex missile defence deployments unviable. Moreover, it seems unlikely that the US would allow the sale of Arrow system to India. The sale of the US PAC-3 systems might materialise in the next few years and provide India with limited missile defence cover. However, at present, India’s most likely option seems to be the deployment of a variant of Russian S-300 system. India also has the option to integrate the Green Pine radar with Russian ABMs or its own systems. However, there are a lot of other related issues that confront India as far as deployment of missile defences is concerned. There is some opposition within India against the wisdom of going for missile defences. Even if India managed to deploy missile defences, there is a question mark about its effectiveness against a ballistic missile attack.39 Moreover, the astronomical costs of BMD systems weighed against the dubious gains from such a system are one of the major concerns of the opponents of missile defences. Some analysts question India’s decision to acquire missile defences in the light of the country’s perspective on nuclear weapons and deterrence. India’s nuclear doctrine emphasises the political utility of nuclear weapons i.e. the potential of nuclear weapons to deter a nuclear war rather than winning one. Rajesh Rajagopalan states, “There could be no clearer indicator that BMDs do not fit well within Indian strategic thought than the fact that no Indian doctrinal statements – neither the Draft Indian Nuclear Doctrine of the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB) nor the official statement about India’s nuclear doctrine that the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) released in early January 2003 – even hint at the need for BMDs. In fact, I would go further: a decision to acquire such an ABM system directly contradicts the basis of the Indian nuclear doctrine.”40 Moreover, the Indian government has yet to explain to public the decision to acquire missile defences. Whatever the shape and size of Indian missile defence system are, its purpose seems neutralisation of a first strike by the adversary and having an assured second strike capability. In addition to the pursuit of missile defences, India already has a well-developed ballistic missile programme, as well as nuclear warheads to arm its missiles. For the government of India, ballistic missiles serve as a potential delivery system for nuclear weapons, as part of a strategic deterrence posture directed against Pakistan and China. While Pakistan’s nuclear programme is security driven, India’s has wider objectives: it serves an important status function in support of India’s long-standing quest for global or at least Asian great power stature. India has developed a short- and medium-range missile capability, which includes the Prithvi and Agni series. The Prithvi missiles have ranges under 500 km and are liquid-fuelled. Its Agni missiles have ranges from 700 to 2,000 km.41 India is also developing versions of the Agni with 3,000 km range and ranges over 5,000 km. It is also working on Sagarika SLBM with 350 km range.42 India is also likely to develop a global positioning system to upgrade its missile guidance systems. India has declared that it will pursue a doctrine of minimum nuclear deterrence combined with a “no-first-use” approach to nuclear weapons.43 India’s nuclear doctrine also envisages a triad of nuclear forces – mobile, land-based missiles and sea-based forces. India is working on enhancing its sea-based nuclear capability, but presently it can deliver nuclear weapons only by missile or aircraft. Such an extensive development of India’s nuclear capabilities with a proposed triad of nuclear forces, however, belies India’s claim of minimum nuclear deterrence. At present, India has a missile capability which can target all of Pakistan’s territory and parts of China. But with the IRBM and eventually ICBM development, India will be able to target all of Chinese territory and beyond. To date deterrence seems to have worked between India and Pakistan, and India and China. However, India’s pursuit of missile defences promises to upset and change the deterrence calculations of Pakistan and China.

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Some of the oldest laws in Britain were drafted in defence of the Atlantic salmon; one of the lesser-known clauses of the first Magna Carta in 1215 ordered the removal of all salmon weirs in the Thames and Medway estuaries, a statute that remained in force until the end of the 19th century. In Scotland, there is still no public right to fish for salmon, even in the sea, while recent bylaws passed in England and Wales have reinstated a number of ancient restrictions, including on the use of the ‘Viking’ haaf nets that have been a feature of Cumbrian salmon fishing for more than a thousand years. Native American, Norse and Celtic myth-makers wove the figure of the wise or noble salmon into a number of early myths and legends, such as the sixth-century Welsh quest narrative of Culhwch and Olwen collected in The Mabinogion, in which a sea-scarred, Severn-born salmon is revered as the oldest and wisest creature on earth; or the Ossianic legend of the Salmon of Wisdom, the skin of which was accidentally eaten by Fionn mac Cumhaill, who from it gained oracular access to all the knowledge of the world. Salmon – the name, it’s thought, derives from the Latin salire, ‘to leap’ – has always been a fish apart, marked by its unusual capacity to migrate between the distinct worlds of salt and fresh water. According to William Camden’s Britannia (1586), the salmon leaps of Pembrokeshire were Britain’s first tourist attractions, at which scores of people would gather to ‘stand and wonder at the strength and sleight by which they see the Salmon get out of the Sea into the said River’. The spectacle remains one of the great sights of autumn, and people still crowd the banks of the Teifi to watch the returning salmon launch themselves at the cascading waters in brute determination to reach their ancestral spawning grounds upstream. Many don’t make it, but for those that do, it marks the end of an extraordinary circular migration that begins and ends in the same shallow gravel-beds to which every sea-run adult will seek to return at least once in its life: an impulse that was confirmed by Francis Bacon in the 1620s, when he tied ‘a Ribband or some known tape or thred’ around the tail of a sea-bound smolt, retrieving it the following year when the fish returned as a splendid silver grilse. ‘Smolt’, ‘grilse’: as Richard Shelton observes, salmon are spoken of in a ‘stained-glass language’ of their own, their life stages marked by an ichthyological lexicon unchanged since Chaucer’s time. Born in a ‘redd’, a shallow, gravel-covered depression dug by the female in the days before spawning, newly hatched salmon begin life as ‘alevins’, tiny, buoyant creatures with their yolk sacs still attached. Once the yolk has been absorbed, the fast-growing fish, now known as ‘fry’, are able to feed for themselves, turning instinctively to face the current in order to graze on drifting insect larvae. Some months later, the juvenile salmon, now known as ‘parr’, move downstream to deeper water, where their markings grow darker and their shapes more distinctively salmonoid. By the following spring, most parr have begun the first of the transformations that will enable them to cross the hydrological boundary from the river to the sea: once their kidneys have been primed to reverse their usual function of taking in salts and excreting dilute river water, their skin colour brightens to reflective silver through a microscopic coating of guanine crystals, and their body shapes fill out in anticipation of the long voyage ahead. It is then that the ‘smolts’, as the fish are now known, are ready to head downriver to the sea. Once out in the ocean, the salmon are lost to view. By day, they swim too near the surface for a ship’s sonar to distinguish them from the acoustic ‘clutter’ created by waves, and at night, when they descend, their shoaled shadows seem to disappear. It is only in recent years that fisheries scientists such as Shelton have succeeded in tracking the oceanic wanderings of spring smolts – or rather, ‘post-smolts’, now that they have left the river. As soon as they reach the sea, it appears, Atlantic salmon (unlike their shore-hugging relatives, the sea trout) head rapidly away from the coast, crossing a series of sharp salinity and temperature contours in what appears to be a headlong journey north, towards the plankton-rich feeding grounds of the Norwegian Sea. The phytoplanktonic bloom, which covers much of the North Atlantic in microscopic algae every spring, is the most important event in the global marine system, a vast green banquet that attracts much of the world’s zooplankton, the tiny free-swimming animals on which the rest of the oceanic food web depends. For a few months, as millions of tonnes of nutrients transform the top few metres of the North Atlantic into a kind of concentrated chowder, shoals of long-distance predators make their way to the feast, their migrations assisted by the same north-trending currents that stir up the oceanic broth while preventing its dispersal. Young salmon, from rivers on both sides of the Atlantic, arrive in their tens of thousands to gorge themselves on krill, sand eels and arctic squid, their bodies growing fast compared to those of most other sea fish, from the few ounces they weighed on leaving home, to three pounds or more by the end of the summer, and eight or even ten pounds by the end of the following year. Some of these fattened one-winter salmon, now known as ‘grilse’, will begin to make their way back to the redds of their birth, drawn by the scent of familiar waters that was imprinted on their sensory systems during the outbound stage of the journey. The others will remain at sea for another year or two, sometimes even three, before they too turn home, transported, as though under a spell, back to their ancestral rivers, and up the series of perilous and exhausting leaps that gave Salmo salar its name. To Sea and Back is a remarkable book, a lyrical zoography of the Atlantic salmon that weaves in and out of a wider historical narrative of ocean exploration, fisheries science and personal memoir. Admirers of Shelton’s previous book, The Longshoreman: A Life at the Water’s Edge (2004), will be familiar with the loose structure (as well as with – it must be said – a fair amount of recycled material), but the controlled meanderings that marked out The Longshoreman as a new kind of nature writing range further afield in this second outing, in which the motifs of exile and homecoming are refracted through a series of autobiographical asides that evidently made a strong impression on whoever wrote the press release, since it gave the title as To Sea and Back: The Heroic Life of the Atlantic Shelton, an insightful slip, given that much of the interest of the book derives from untangling the complex relationship between the author’s knowledge of the sea and the personal circumstances that first drew him to it. It was, he says, the chalk streams of the Chilterns that made him ‘first a naturalist and then a biologist’, encouraged by the books he discovered in his grandparents’ library, a room overshadowed by the menacing horns of long-dead Highland cattle. Frank Buckland’s multi-volume Curiosities of Natural History (1857-72) held a particular fascination for him – ‘I have the four little books in front of me now and, opening the first of them, it falls open at the chapter on rats that was my favourite holiday reading of over half a century ago.’ Ah, yes, Frank Buckland and his edible rats. As a would-be social reformer and committed zoophagist – an eater of unusual animals – Buckland was convinced of the double benefits of putting rat meat on the national menu: not only would it help relieve the hunger of the poor, it would also ease the infestations that plagued every city in the world. ‘It is not generally known what good eating young rats are,’ he wrote, with a lack of squeamishness inherited from his father, the Very Rev. William Buckland, dean of Westminster, who regularly plied his dinner guests with dog, panther, crocodile and hedgehog, as well as with canapés of toasted field-mice (a favourite of Frank’s). Although the failure of his rat meat campaign was followed by other attempts to amend the eating habits of the poor – ‘in my humble opinion, hippophagy has not the slightest chance of success in this country,’ he wrote after a disastrous dinner in which every dish, from the soup to the jelly, had been prepared from the carcass of a knackered old cab horse – it was in his role of inspector of salmon fisheries, to which he was appointed by the Home Office in 1867, that Frank Buckland finally made his mark on the British diet by introducing stockbreeding methods to the rearing of salmon and trout. His aim was twofold: to increase domestic fish supplies while introducing fast-growing freshwater species to the newest territories of the British Empire, New Zealand and Tasmania. Trays of ice-cooled ova were shipped across the world to be released into the southern hemisphere’s most pristine rivers, but while the European trout species established themselves well, the Atlantic salmon failed utterly, their genetic predisposition to head north to colder waters proving lethally unsuited to the warm, shark-patrolled expanses of the South Pacific. At home, meanwhile, Buckland was becoming quite the showman, touring a miniature salmon hatchery around the country, while campaigning for the cleaning up of industrially polluted rivers from which ‘the king of fish’ had virtually disappeared. Buckland’s claim to have met the elderly man who caught and ate the last salmon in the Thames seems about as likely as his father’s claim to have eaten the desiccated heart of Louis XIV (‘I have eaten many strange things, but have never eaten the heart of a king before’), but his outrage at the poisoning of British rivers was authentic, and his published findings did much to change the views of politicians and industrialists, though probably not of the factory owner who assured him that ‘sulphuric acid was a tonic for the fish.’ But however gratified Buckland might have been ‘to hear again of salmon in the Kelvin, Clyde, Tyne and Thames’, he left another legacy in the form of modern high density fish farming, the greasy-fleshed results of which, Shelton rightly complains, ‘bear little culinary relation to their wild-caught counterparts. The flavour tends towards the uriniferous with lower notes of stale fish food.’ Even Shelton’s terrier, Dinah, ‘an otherwise enthusiastic little scavenger of generally catholic tastes’, refuses to touch it, though the Bucklands would probably have wolfed it down raw. Most farmed salmon tastes horrible because caged fish have no opportunity for active swimming. Fed on high-fat pellets full of artificial colour – the pinkness of a wild salmon’s flesh comes from the amphipods and krill it eats during its time at sea – the cooped up salmon simply put on weight without distributing the fat around their bodies. A wild sea-run salmon, by contrast, prepares itself for the journey home by storing fat reserves across its muscles, connective tissues and under the skin, from where it will draw the energy to sustain it during the task ahead. As soon as it smells fresh water again, an adult salmon will stop feeding, devoting itself solely to the rigours of the voyage, its body beginning its final transformation, as its immune system shuts down to conserve energy, its skin starts to lose its silvery sheen, and (in the case of the male) a rush of hormones prompts the lower jaw to change shape, curving into an aggressive-looking underbite known as a ‘kype’, a jutting scimitar used for fending off other males in the spawning grounds upstream. The journey can take many months, however, and as the starving returnees battle against the freshwater currents, their fuel reserves deplete rapidly, consumed by the effort of the journey as well as by the production of eggs (by the females) and milt (by the males), so now they must rely on bursts of adrenalin to scale the near vertical ascents. The physical cost of homecoming is enormous, and those that do make it home to spawn arrive in a terrible state, weak, exhausted and already dying from disease and starvation, so the effort of mating, described by Shelton with an Attenboroughesque attentiveness – ‘the quivering displays of the sailor home from the sea bring the hen to arching orgasm’ – is often their final act. Shelton coolly describes the lingering death of a spawned-out male, now known as a ‘kelt’ – the last of its names – lying in ‘the shallow tail of a pool’, with its arteries blocked and muscles wasted, its broken skin scarred by bacterial infections, as it slowly drowns in the water that seeps into its wounds. The decay that follows serves to replenish the river with phosphates and nutrients that in a few months’ time will help sustain the hatched young that emerge from the redds, buoyant and vulnerable in the shallow water, until they, too, are ready to head downstream on the first stage of ‘their great adventure’, as Shelton calls this vast oceanic circumnavigation that will end, as do all great journeys, in the place it began.

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It was the 1790s. Tillman Henkel, a magistrate appointed by the newly-arrived British, was a busy man. He had the task of developing an administrative block in the Sundarbans, in today’s West Bengal. Henkel was supervising the processes of clearing mangrove forests and transporting soil to ‘create’ land. Henkel’s work came after the East India Company’s survey which identified the boundaries of the 1.7 million acres of this ever-changing delta region of the Ganga-Brahmaputra and Meghna river systems. The Sundarbans were, and still remain the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem. The vision in Henkel and the British administration’s eyes was simple: to make these mostly uninhabited lands a centre for paddy cultivation. And so, they continued to reclaim land in the Sundarbans, a process that carried on all the way into the 1870s. To make agriculture profitable in this delta that is frequented by saline waters, the British had a solution—they built embankments that would keep the saline water of the Sundarbans from inundating the agricultural land. These embankments made freshwater agro-ecosystems possible here, which then help sustained human settlements in the process. So extensive was the land and forest clearing process here, that by 1947, the forests in the Sundarbans were only 50% of their pre-colonial size. Jump to 2020. 4.5 million people reside in the Sundarbans. The embankment network now extends to about 3,122 kilometres. The block which Henkel supervised is now called Hingalganj—derived from Henkel’s name. It falls under the North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal, one of the districts worst affected by cyclone Amphan, that made landfall on the 20th May. The state has reportedly incurred a financial loss of ₹1 lakh crore, which also includes the breaching of the river embankments in the South and North 24 Parganas. Several houses were inundated with water as a result. These cyclones are not new, and neither are the damages to embankments. Cyclone Aila, which hit the state in May 2009, damaged over 700 kilometres of embankments. For several years post the cyclone, farmers could not cultivate their crops as usual. As multiple climate scientists have warned, with the warming global climate, cyclones will be frequent visitors in this region. This then means that embankments would breach, agriculture would suffer, and the government would incur huge expenditures to repair and reconstruct them. In this context, can livelihoods in the Sundarbans be more resilient? At the very outset, resilience will have to be built by acknowledging the unique geography of the region, which the embankments, relics of a colonial policy, fail to do. Due to the pandemic & followed lockdown, many returned to Sunderbans. But it was to another crisis, Cyclone Amphan has devastated the region. With destruction of embankments, a surge in the movement of saltwater from sea to land is feared.#AmphanAftermathhttps://t.co/uM8ZP5KCLk — John Paul Jose (@johnpauljos) May 23, 2020 “The British just picked up societies in rural Bengal and transposed them to the Sunderbans, but, the geography is not conducive for that kind of living,” says Anamitra Danda, a senior Visiting Fellow with ORF who has worked extensively on the Sundarbans. “Instead, they should have only allowed movement according to the movement of Nature in the Sunderbans itself.” In the Sundarbans, Nature does inevitably move you around. Every few hours, “the forest cover swells and shrivels with the ebbs and flows of tides that shift twice a day,” writes Megnaa Mehtta, an environmental anthropologist and postdoctoral fellow at the Sheffield Institute for International Development, in Monsoon[+Other] Waters. “The forest is a river.” “In such a shifting landscape,” Megnaa suggests, “life and livelihoods might also have been nomadic. Fixity was a colonial project necessary for taxes and tolls.” So, the unique ecology here originally only allowed for a specific type of paddy farming called the broadcasting method. Farmers from further north of the delta used to sail here, sow the paddy seeds, and return to their native places, only to come back during the harvest period. Even today, the geography of the Sundarbans only allows 54 of its 102 islands to be inhabited by people. The rest are homes of the Royal Bengal Tiger. In fact, sources during the colonial period give evidence to an ecosystem without concrete embankments. While it is unclear if other types of embankments existed, it is well established that no fixed, permanent embankments existed in the delta before the British. Colonial records instead describe the Sundarbans as extremely fertile, with a flourishing rice crop. Rainey (1891: 271), as Megnaa writes, talks about buffalo and wild boar as the main threats to ripening rice, not saltwater. Concrete embankments were never a part of his description of the local geography, raising questions on their construction in the first place. When the British administration began attempting to tame this unique and fast-changing geography with concrete, they faced devastating results. In the 19th century, an attempt was made to construct a large port—Pot Canning—despite many warnings against it from Henry Piddington, the foremost expert on cyclones at the time. But, the Matla river surged and ruined its construction, much like the fate the embankments met post the cyclones. It seems that a life without concrete embankments existed, wherein agriculture wasn’t conditional on them. As the British constructed embankments to secure as much revenue from the paddy production process as possible, the objective to continue building these very expensive concrete structures also points to something familiar: self-interested profit. Who benefits from Embankments? In response to the 2009 cyclone, the Aila Task Force proposed a colossal ₹5,032 crore ‘Embankments Reconstruction Project’ to repair over 700km of damaged and breached embankments. Critiques of this project soon rolled in. It was argued that this embankment reconstruction was based on an expensive, but previously untested technology. That this concretisation would impact the habitats of local flora and fauna was also brought to notice, apart from the flouting of environmental norms that covering the riverside slope with polypropylene sheets would incur. This is a photo I took in 2017 when the concrete embankments post #CycloneAila had just been constructed. The #Embankment Reconstruction Project was allocated a whopping Rs 5,032 crore/ GBP 562 million funded by @WorldBank to build cement and block walls @sayantanbera pic.twitter.com/aGk9flYBjh — Megnaa Mehtta (@MMehtta) May 24, 2020 Amites Mukopadhyay’s book, Living with Disasters brings out another critique. It documents the voices of locals in the Sundarbans who lost their lands when rings of embankments were built on their land. They were not given any compensation. In this context, it is important to note the socio-economic architecture of each of the islands in the Sundarbans. Those who live closer to the edge of the rivers, and thereby closer to the embankments, are often those who belong to the lowest caste groups. As one goes inwards and away from the rivers, economically better-off people, with higher and bigger landholdings live. A breach in embankments impacts the already vulnerable and marginalised even more. So, again, who benefits from these embankments? Reports have suggested that for every kilometre of an embankment built in the Sundarbans, the contractor receives ₹5-18 crores, massive amounts of which are shared with local village officials too. So, these embankments only seem to be a part of a large viciously expensive cycle of construction, destruction by cyclones, and reconstruction. In between this, it’s the agriculture that suffers. Making livelihoods resilient here, then, would require a reimagining of the overall ecology of the Sundarbans. Reimagining the Sundarbans “There is no doubt that for many who live near them, the embankments are what makes their lives possible,” says Anamitra Danda. “But this is because looking at their immediate past, they think that paddy cultivation in the region with embankments is the normal thing to do. In this geography, it is the most abnormal thing to do!” A “normal” thing to do perhaps, would be to shift back to salt-tolerant varieties of rice. Historically, salt-tolerant paddy varieties like Talmugur, Lal Getu, and Malta were cultivated on raised sections of lands in the Sundarbans. But more recently, the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources noted the availability of only two of the six locally recalled salt-tolerant paddy varieties. Others had disappeared with the onslaught of the Green Revolution which introduced high-yielding varieties of rice. A paper by Bheema et al. reinforces the low-yielding nature of such salt-tolerant crops, leading to their gradual dip in popularity. “High salt deposition in soils makes plants increasingly difficult to acquire water and nutrients (..) High salt reduces pollen viability of the flowering stage, which in turn determines grain yield,” it states. The creation of embankments also furthered this shift; with freshwater now available, there seemed to be no need to cultivate salt-resistant varieties at all. — Modern Farmer (@ModFarm) June 9, 2015 Since Aila, WWF-India has been re-introducing the salt-tolerant Hamilton and Malta varieties of paddy in the Sundarbans. The NGO Society of Environment and Development has also been attempting the same. Now, the preliminary assessment of Amphan has estimated that over four lakh farmers were affected by the cyclone in the South and North Parganas alone. In response, Chief Minister Mamta Banerjee informed that a new paddy variant that can grow in saltwater has been developed. But, such announcements need to move beyond short-term relief measures. In fact, higher-yielding varieties of salt-tolerant crops which can now withstand saline water that is about half as saline as seawater, without affecting normal growth are also available. Such a move back to salt-tolerant rice would not need fresh water— and hence, embankments—at all. Another way to ensure resilient livelihoods here can be a move from agriculture towards sustainable fishing. Interestingly, the initial shift to paddy cultivation during colonial times was an opportunity for those who engaged in fishing to climb up the social ladder, as agriculture was considered a “higher” status occupation compared to fishing. But now, a shift to fishing might actually be more resilient for the future. In the Sundarbans, towards Bangladesh’s side of the mangroves, such efforts towards generating income through alternative activities have already begun under a collaboration between GIZ and the Bangladesh government. So far, more than 3,000 small-scale farmers have been trained to produce certified organic shrimps. “If people are engaged in fishing, and their land gets inundated, it would no longer matter,” says Anamitra Danda. The breaching of embankments would no longer ruin a livelihood. In fact, for fisheries, reconstruction would also not be necessary. The natural, ever-changing ecology of the Sundarbans needs to be acknowledged in such a reimagination. Not only would that reduce the economic pressure on the government, but also ensure more resilient livelihoods for those who live here, and whose future is marked by the storms of climatic changes.

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Stories and Sages: New Directions in Holocaust Education Rafi Cashman teaches at TanenbaumCHAT in Toronto and is a Wexner Fellow and Davidson Scholar in the doctoral program at the University of Toronto (OISE). In this article, he describes a curricular approach to teaching the Shoah using a combination of popular Holocaust literature and Torah texts. As eyewitnesses to the Holocaust begin to disappear, and the event ceases to play a clear role in the formation of the Jewish identity of adolescents and young adults, urgent questions arise. Even as we seek to combat Holocaust revisionism, anti-Semitism, and neo-Nazism, how will we identify the enduring understandings of this watershed? How will we help students understand the extremes of human behavior and the need to act and not stand by idly when friends, neighbors, or “the others” are threatened? How will we make the event relevant to our students and connect it to how they understand themselves as modern Jews? With colleagues, I have designed a curriculum that suggests new directions in Holocaust pedagogy. We focus on literature and the arts enhanced by traditional Jewish texts and contemporary Jewish stories that lead students to reflect on their lives as Jews in the wake of the Holocaust. The rationale for prioritizing narrative is that it allows for a profound internalization of the material, encourages a feeling of responsibility, and provides the context in which to carry the learning forward. The use of Torah text is intended to enrich and complement the Holocaust narratives by conceptualizing the ideas presented in the stories in a framework of Jewish identity. We believe this deeper connection is necessary as the survivors pass on and only our students are left to tell their stories. This methodology gives it an ability to engage a broad range of students, including those who may not have access to direct survivor testimony, who may not be effected by historical facts alone, who may have no background or knowledge of the event, and those from the ultra-religious world who generally learn about the Holocaust only in the context of global Jewish tragedies. As such, it creates a more seamless relationship between the subject of the Holocaust and the educational goals of the students’ learning environments. Darrell Fasching (1992) describes narrative ethics as a response to the ethical failure that occurred in the Holocaust by people who thought that a secular Western system of morality was sufficient to guide one’s ethical decisions. He suggests that generalized abstract guiding principles are insufficient influences when people confront real and difficult decisions. He maintains that people need authentic models to shape proper, morally integrated expectations. People are, he says, “not story-tellers but story-dwellers” (Fasching, 1992, p.25). We experience ourselves as living narratives, not abstract entities. As such, abstract principles have a limited effect. When making decisions, we reflect on our and others’ stories; we find direction and an appeal to the reality of life practiced as opposed to that theorized about, and it is this life story that influences our decisions much more profoundly than axioms do. Fasching proposes a return to Bible stories rather than to the principles of Kant for moral guidance to restore more predictable and effective ethical behavior today (ibid.). Max van Manen applies this not only to ethics but to learning in general. “Narrative reason speaks to the emotions as well as to the conceptual and the moral aspects of a broader human rationality” (Selis, 2004). Narrative reasoning works at both a cognitive and non-cognitive level, and its power brings “about ‘understandings’ of evoked meanings, human truths, and significances that something can hold” (ibid). Stories touch the heart as well as the mind, and personalize the abstract in a way that ideas, facts, and numbers cannot. It is easy and tempting to reduce the Holocaust (and history in general) to facts, which, profoundly disturbing though they are, can be taught merely as knowledge. Literature ensures that the facts are humanized and thus reveal personal meaning. Guzzetti and others (Guzzetti, Kowalinski, & McGowan, 1992; Sanacore, 1990; Wilson, 1988) speculate that, “students can acquire more concepts and a greater understanding of those concepts through literature and literature-based instruction than through a traditional approach.” (Guzzetti, Kowalinski, & McGowan, 1992, p.121) The use of Torah texts to reflect upon the narrative can bring out meanings in the story that may not have been clear, or lacked conceptual depth. Van Manen explains the effectiveness of using narrative and text together. He understands learning for knowledge as arising from a field previously sown with experience. Abstract knowledge can be properly assimilated only when it exists in a context to which the individual can relate. This can arise out of one’s own experience, or the assimilation of someone else’s, through narrative. He feels that “students only achieve a deep understanding when they internalize the pathos that precedes conceptual knowledge.” (Selis, 2004) Narrative thus creates the bedrock upon which abstract conceptual knowledge, explored through Torah texts, can be built. The texts allow students to authentically explore the essential philosophical, spiritual, and religious questions the literature raises. Thus, they are given both cognitive and non-cognitive tools to explore what they are learning about the Holocaust and about its impact on their Jewish identity. It also encourages a new generation of students, the last eyewitnesses to the eyewitnesses, to accept the responsibility of learning and retelling the Holocaust narratives they learn now within a Jewish framework, and not simply as one of many genocides. They can only authentically teach and share individual stories that they fully and personally comprehend (and not simply tell), not a litany of depersonalized and distant facts, dates, numbers, and terms. This model is also effective because Jewish texts can be engaged at various levels and can accompany each story. As such, the curriculum is appropriate for even ultra-religious communities, which often lack a historically sound Holocaust curriculum. For such schools, the Torah text is primary, the Holocaust story secondary. Teachers can seamlessly add or subtract this layer of learning as necessary, making this curriculum malleable and useful in different settings. Theory Into Practice A selection from the unit on concentration and death camps will help to elucidate how narrative and Torah texts can make sense of one another and create meaning for students. Even though this portion of the unit is more extensive and includes a more robust use of historical texts, we have chosen to portray the part that best represents the ideas discussed in this article in a succinct manner. The students come to the first class on this unit having read the story The Wache by Sala Pawlowicz and Kevin Klose. It is a first hand account of a woman’s experience of sickness, violence, dehumanization and kindness in a concentration camp munitions factory. Two themes from the story that are considered here are the reasons for dehumanization in contrast with the intrinsic value of human life, and the significance of language in understanding ourselves as human beings. One of the themes of this story is the repetitive use of animal references as a way of underscoring the Jews’ dehumanization. This appears in a number of contexts, such as the protagonist referring to a furry insect as the ‘only friend I had,’ to cries of pain as an ‘animal’s groan,’ to the Nazi supervisor’s comment, ‘Do you think you are human?’ The students are encouraged to find these references on their own, to try and suggest why they are used, and why the author chose this motif. Once this theme has been explored, it should be placed in the context of Nazi propaganda, such as a poster of a swastika armed with a knife killing a rat dressed up like a Jew, or a Nazi propaganda film that equates the Jews with a rodent infestation, in order that the students better understand the social-historical context. This propaganda should be explained with reference to Nazi racial anti-Semitism having arisen from the post-Darwinian reduction of human beings to biological entities, and the subsequent use of race to distinguish amongst different groups of human beings, and the Nazi evaluation of Jews as sub-human. At this point the class should be presented with a Torah perspective on the value of each human being. There is an argument in the Talmud Yerushalmi between Rabbi Akiva and ben Azai as to the main principle of Torah; ben Azai says that “Man was created in the image of G-d” and Rabbi Akiva says “Love your friend as yourself.” As a way of delving more deeply into the text, the teacher could allow the students to explore the meaning of the text themselves. They should be guided to note major differences between the verses, such as references to friend vs. the more abstract man, or the reference to love in contrast to the less intimate Elokim (the reference God as judge). The idea that should be moved toward in class is that the basic principle of ben Azai of tzelem (image of G-d) denotes a basic level of respect founded upon a Godly quality that each person has fundamentally. The Nazis tried to make the Jews less than human, but the Torah in is conflict with such a position. Despite any perceived biological differences, which the Nazis felt made them people worthy of a different fate than others, the Torah looks at the fundamental spiritual makeup of a human being, and that quality is inviolable. This notion should then be reflected back to the students at the end of the story, which contrast the Nazis’ acts of violence with an anonymous act of kindness by a Polish inmate, such an act of kindness lifting the protagonist from animal entity to genuine human being. This reflecting of the text back into the story deepens the students understanding of both. Using the Torah sources conceptualizes (through contrast) the experience observed in the text. But it is more than a moral point that is gained here. The student, by seeing how this biological form of racism plays out in real life, is able to personalize it in a way that a more abstract view of the moral questions involved would not allow for. On the other hand, by turning to the Torah after having read the story creates a strong emotional-moral foundation that gives it greater relevance and meaning in the student’s life. Another example is the importance of language in human self-conception. One of the Nazis says, “Don’t ever speak to me, foul one,” and at another instance the narrator has to sign a problem to her guard because she is forbidden to use words. Words would indicate this woman’s humanity, which the guards believe she does not have. In the Torah there is a deep connection between language and humanity that can be explored here to help make sense of the guards demand for silence. A simple start would be to look at the verse in Bereshit where Adam is created. There it says that God “breathed into him the breath of life,” but the Aramaic translation of Onkelos refers to this breath instead as the “power of speech.” This is a powerful understanding of language as the defining life-force of the human being. To understand this gives greater depth to our understanding of the Nazi’s demand for a Jew not being allowed to communicate, not only as a way to dehumanize, but as a reflection of their looking at the Jews like animals (as Adam was, in some sense, before this breath of life). One could take this notion further by looking at the idea of language as the basis upon which the world was created, as noted in the fifth chapter of Pirkei Avot and elaborated upon in the Tanya of the first Lubavitcher Rebbe. As an extension, though not directed related, one could use this as a way of helping students explore and understand the seriousness of lashon hara, which comes as a recognition of the power language has to form and effect us. What comes out of this relationship between story and text is, on one hand, a narrative that is deepened through the Torah’s understanding of the power of language, and on the other, an authentic experience of why the Torah has such a strong approach to language. The use of narrative underscored by complementary Jewish texts in teaching about the Holocaust is powerful and effective in our contemporary context. It allows us not only to teach about what happened but also to create a deeper relationship between those events and the students studying them, and to imbue students with the commitment to carry the message after the age of survivors. This experience is transformative as students accept their Holocaust legacy and examine and build a reflective Jewish identity in its wake. Fasching, Darrell J. (1992). Narrative Theology After the Holocaust: From Alienation to Ethics. New York: Fortress Press. uzzetti, B.J., Kowalinski, & T. McGowan. (1992). Using a Literature-based Approach to Teaching Social Studies. Journal of Reading, 36(2), 114-122. Sanacore, J. (1990). Creating the Lifetime Reading Habit in Social Studies. Journal of Reading, 33(6), 414-418. Selis, Allan (Fall 2004). Orality, Textuality and the Living Experience of the Oral Torah. Jewish Educational Leadership, (3:1) lookstein.org/online_journal.php?id=15 Shawn, K. & Goldfrad, K. (Eds.). (2007). The Call of Memory: Learning about the Holocaust through Narrative. An Anthology. New York: Ben Yehuda Press. van Manen, Max. (Summer 1994). The Practice of Practice. Curriculum Inquiry, 4(2), (135-170). Wilson, M. (1988). “How Can We Teach Reading in the Content Areas?” In C. Weaver (Ed.), Reading Process and Practice: From Socio-Psycholinguistics to Whole Language (pp.280-320). Portsmouth, NH: Henemann.

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Since their inception, cryptocurrencies have been considered particularly volatile investment instruments when it comes to their price. That's led to price jumps and crashes, preventing cryptocurrencies from being used for everyday goods and services in some cases, due to the risks for vendors and merchants. That's where stablecoins come in. The theory goes, if you create a currency that is 'pegged' or attached to a regular fiat currency like the US dollar or something else with a relatively stable price, it will prevent price swings. We explore these more below. What is a stablecoin? Stablecoins are cryptocurrencies that claim to be backed by fiat currencies—dollars, pounds, shekels, rubles, etc. The idea is that, unlike cryptocurrencies like, stablecoins’ prices remain steady, in accordance with whichever fiat currency backs them. Stablecoins are used as stores of value or units of account, as well as in other use cases where volatile cryptocurrencies may be less desirable. Different stablecoins use different strategies to achieve price stability; some are centralized, others are decentralized. What are some examples of stablecoins? - Tether (USDT): With this stash safely in the vault of a bank, investors can be confident that their tethers really are worth one dollar each, keeping the price steady. The stablecoin accounts for a whopping 48% of all cryptocurrency trading volume. There’s only one problem: Tether Ltd, which mints Tether tokens, has never conclusively proven that the currency really is fully backed, fuelling doubts among investors. (More on this below) is one of the first stablecoins and the most famous. It claims it is backed by a reserve of real dollars—"collateral"—that is "off-chain," i.e. in a real-world location that is controlled by a centralized third party. - Gemini Dollar (GUSD)/Paxos Dollar (PAX)/USDC: Developed by venture capitalists the Winklevoss twins, blockchain startup Paxos, and crypto exchange (in concert with payment platform Circle) respectively, these stablecoins are currying favor with the institutional investors—all have been closely audited by Wall Street firms and are compliant with local regulatory regimes. As Tether becomes less trusted, these tokens only become more popular. - (EMOJI): Filecoin (oneFIL): Developed by ICHI, a protocol for creating "decentralized money authorities," oneFIL is the stablecoin for the network. It is backed by and Filecoin's native coin, FIL. Its purpose is to provide a stablecoin for the wider development of the Filecoin network, and also provides incentives and discounts for Filecoin storage buyers and providers. While the vast majority of stablecoins are backed by US dollars stored in a bank vault, weakening sentiment around the USD and the fiat, in general, has led to the elaboration of stablecoins backed by other assets, including various gold-backed cryptocurrencies. These differ considerably in their form and usability but are all backed by investment-grade gold. CACHE gold (CACHE) is among the most popular of these. Each CACHE is backed by 1g of pure gold held in the vaults stored around the world. Sending CACHE tokens is the equivalent of sending 1g of gold per token since they can be easily redeemed for physical gold at any time. There’s also Tether Gold (XAUt) and PAX Gold (PAXG), which operate in a similar way, but are instead pegged to one troy ounce of investment-grade gold. They also have a higher minimum redemption amount than CACHE. - Terra (LUNA) is a decentralized stablecoin, which means rather than relying on a trusted third party it uses a complex algorithm to keep stable. To do this, it balances “on-chain” reserves—i.e. the funds are held in smart contracts—with supply and demand automatically, mitigating the chances of traders accidentally—or intentionally—fiddling the price. - Ampleforth (AMPL) relies on a similar process. Instead of physically backing each AMPL with 1 USD, it instead uses a process known as a “rebase” to automatically adjust the circulating supply of the cryptocurrency in response to changes in supply and demand. If the price of AMPL is more than 5% above or below the USD reference price, then it will increase or decrease the circulating supply in an effort to push the price back towards $1. Since this rebase is proportional across all wallets, AMPL holders always maintain their share of the overall AMPL network. - Dai (DAI) is said to stand out from other competing stablecoins because it can be widely used while staying decentralized and trustless. , which was created by blockchain company MakerDAO, is an token whose value is pegged to the US dollar, and can be used for transfers between Ethereum wallets. A comprehensive list of popular stablecoins - Tether (USDT) - True USD (TUSD) - Gemini Dollar (GUSD) - USD Coin (USDC) - Paxos Standard (PAX) - Binance USD (BUSD) - sUSD (SUSD) - mStable USD (MUSD) - Ampleforth (AMPL) (algorithmic) - Binance GBP Stable Coin (BGBP) - Stasis Euro (EURS) - BiLira (TRYB) - Binance KRW (BKRW) - CACHE Gold (CACHE) - Tether Gold (XAUt) - Paxos Gold (PAXG) - Petro (PTR) (oil-backed) - Libra (basket backed) How are stablecoins used? Like most digital assets, stablecoins are primarily used as a store of value and as a medium of exchange. They give traders temporary reprieve from volatility when the market is tumbling, and can also be used in the rapidly growing world of decentralized finance () for things like yield-farming, lending, and liquidity provision. Most traders and investors gain exposure to stablecoins by purchasing them from exchange platforms, but it is also often possible to mint fresh stablecoins by depositing the requisite collateral with the issuing company, such as US dollars with Tether or physical gold with CACHE gold. Why have stablecoins become so popular? Stablecoins are enormously popular: Tether, for instance, is the second most traded cryptocurrency after, with a 24-hour trading volume of over $70 billion (at the time of writing). Tether has just surpassed a $15 billion market capitalization! In only one month, Tether’s market cap has increased by more than $3 billion, maintaining its number one spot as the most liquid, stable and trusted currency! pic.twitter.com/MLOWkiIDvF — Tether (@Tether_to) September 17, 2020 Why people choose stablecoins over cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin They’re (relatively) stable. Because they are supposedly backed by fiat currency, investors can be confident that their tokens will always sell for one dollar each. This supposedly means that the prices won’t fall: coin prices are driven by belief, so if investors believe their stablecoins are worth and backed by one dollar each, the price should reflect that. They’re a safe haven for worried investors. Many exchanges—including, the world’s largest—don’t let traders buy fiat currency, and only let them buy and sell cryptocurrencies. This means it’s often tricky for investors to swiftly cash out their cryptocurrencies when the going gets tough. To do so they might have to transfer across several exchanges, or even wait several days. This is where stablecoins come in. Because they are cryptocurrencies, they live on most exchanges. Yet because they hew to the value of a single fiat currency, they act as a sort of temporary refuge for investors looking to secure their funds during a bear market. In this way, stablecoins are like blockchain-enabled versions of the dollar. That’s if they retain their value. Disadvantages of stablecoins Investors need proof the coins are backed by reserves. In Tether’s case, this has never been conclusively provided, sparking rumors that the currency was unbacked and was in fact minted out of thin air. Stablecoins aren’t necessarily stable. The Gemini Dollar has increased by a few cents several times in the last year as traders poured money into it. Ironically, many of those investors’ funds had come from Tether—which has previously sunk to as low as $0.51 on some exchanges. As such, stablecoins can be considered ‘relatively’ stable, rather than absolutely stable—particularly when compared to volatile assets like Bitcoin. Tether has consistently stated that it is in fact 100% backed by the US dollar, but when Tether released a breakdown of its reserves in May—for the first time in seven years—it turned out that less than 3% of Tethers were actually backed by cash. US lawmakers are also not fans of stablecoins in general. In his semi-annual monetary policy report to Congress earlier this month, Federal Reserve chairman Jerome Powell said that stablecoins were in need of tighter regulations. "If they are going to be a significant part of the payments universe, which we don't think crypto assets will be, but stablecoins might be, then we need an appropriate regulatory framework, which frankly we don't have," he said. In July 2021, President Biden's Treasury Secretary, Janet Yellen, met with top regulators to "discuss interagency work" around stablecoins, with Secretary Yellen urging regulators to "act quickly to ensure there is an appropriate U.S. regulatory framework in place". In the same month, China's central bank, the People's Bank of China (PBoC), sounded the alarm on stablecoins, with PBoC deputy governor Fan Yifei stating that commercial organizations' global stablecoins "may bring risks and challenges to the international monetary system, and payments and settlement system." Yifei added that Chinese authorities are "quite worried about this issue" and have taken unspecified measures. The future of stablecoins With the crypto boom of 2017 behind us, investors are increasingly looking to stablecoins as a safer way to experiment with the technology. In the first half of 2020, the supply of stablecoins swelled by 94% to hit $11 billion in June. And regulators are warming up to them, too; in September 2020, the US Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) gave national banks and federal savings associations the green light to hold reserves for stablecoin issuers. As more respected players throw in their weight—the Winklevoss twins, Circle, and Coinbase, for instance—the idea of a digital dollar, a shadow currency that takes fiat onto the blockchain without risking its value, is ever more tantalizing. Guide & Tools

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Top of the page This topic is about tension headaches in adults. If you are looking for information about migraine headaches, see Migraine Headaches. If you are looking for information about tension headaches in children, see Headaches in Children. Most headaches are tension headaches. These headaches tend to happen again and again, especially if you are under stress. They are not usually a sign of something serious. But they can be very painful and hard to live with. Tension headaches can last from 30 minutes to 7 days. If you have a headache on 15 or more days each month over a 3-month period, you may have chronic tension headaches. This type of headache can lead to stress and depression, which in turn can lead to more headaches. Tension headaches are very common. Symptoms can start in childhood, but they are more likely to occur during middle age. Some people have both tension headaches and migraine headaches. Doctors don't know for sure what causes tension headaches. Experts once thought that tension or spasms in the muscles of the neck, face, and head played a role. Now they think that a change in brain chemicals also may be a cause. Tension headaches are one of the most common types of headaches. They can be brought on—or triggered—by things such as stress, depression, hunger, and muscle strain. Tension headaches may come on suddenly or slowly. Symptoms of tension headaches include: This is different than migraine headaches, which usually cause throbbing pain and start on one side of your head. Tension headaches tend to come back, especially when you are under stress. Pain from a tension headache is usually not severe and does not get in the way of your work or social life. But for some people, the pain is very bad or lasts a long time. A doctor can usually diagnose tension headaches by asking you questions about your health and lifestyle and by examining you. Most people can treat their tension headaches with over-the-counter pain relievers like acetaminophen (such as Tylenol) or aspirin. But if you take these pain relievers more than 3 times a week, you may get rebound headaches. These are different from tension headaches. Rebound headaches usually start after pain medicine has worn off, which leads you to take another dose. After a while, you get a headache whenever you stop taking the medicine. Your doctor may prescribe medicine if you get chronic tension headaches. Even with treatment, most people still have some headaches. But with treatment, you will probably have them less often. And when you do get them, they probably won't be as bad. Home treatment may help you avoid headaches. You can: Health Tools help you make wise health decisions or take action to improve your health. The cause of tension headaches is not clear. In the past, doctors believed that tension or spasms of the muscles of the neck, face, jaw, head, or scalp played a role in causing these headaches. Now they think a change in brain chemistry may also help cause a tension headache. Tension headaches are the most common type of headache. They can be brought on—or triggered—by things such as stress, depression, hunger, and muscle strain. Tension headaches may come on suddenly or slowly. Chronic tension headaches often occur along with other health problems such as anxiety or depression. Unlike migraines, tension headaches usually don't occur with nausea, vomiting, or feeling sensitive to both light and noise. But light or noise could make your headache worse. Tension headaches usually aren't bad enough to keep you from doing your daily activities. If you have a headache on 15 or more days each month over a 3-month period, you may have chronic tension headaches. Call 911 or other emergency services if: Call your doctor now or go to the emergency room if: Watch closely for changes in your health, and be sure to contact your doctor if: Watchful waiting is a wait-and-see approach. If your headache gets better on its own, you won't need treatment. If it gets worse or you get headaches often, you and your doctor will decide what to do next. Watchful waiting and using over-the-counter pain medicines work well if your tension headaches don't keep you from doing the things you want to do. But if your headaches are disrupting your life, talk to your doctor about other treatments that you could try. Your family doctor or general practitioner can recognize and treat tension headaches. If your headaches are severe or do not get better with treatment, you may be referred to a specialist, such as a neurologist. If you think that your headaches are caused by depression or anxiety, talk to your doctor. Treating these problems may help reduce how bad your headaches are and how often you get them. It can be hard to know which type of headache you have, because different types can have the same symptoms. But the treatments may be different, so it's important to find out which type you have. In very rare cases, headaches can be caused by more serious health problems (such as brain tumours or aneurysms). But most headaches aren't caused by anything serious, so you probably won't need to have tests. You can treat most tension headaches with: Medicines can help you feel better. But they can also be dangerous, especially if you don't take them the right way. Be safe with medicines. Read and follow all instructions on the label. Your doctor may recommend that you take a prescription medicine every day to prevent headaches. You may want to try a prescription medicine to prevent a headache if: Your doctor may have you try one or more medicines, such as an antidepressant or a medicine that prevents seizures. These medicines can help prevent headaches even if you don't have depression or seizures. You may be able to prevent or reduce tension headaches by learning what causes your headaches and trying to avoid those triggers. For more information, see Living With Tension Headaches. How you think can affect how you feel. So finding ways to relax and stop negative thoughts may help prevent headaches. You may want to try: For more information, see Living With Tension Headaches. If you continue to have tension headaches while you are getting treatment, you and your doctor may want to try another treatment. You may have to try different drugs or doses. If you have already tried several medicines, your doctor may order tests (such as an MRI or CT scan) to find out if a health problem is causing your headaches. Finding and avoiding the things—or triggers—that lead to tension headaches can reduce how often you get headaches and how bad they are when you do get them. Headache triggers can include: Using a headache diary can help you find your triggers. You write down when you have a headache and how bad it is, along with details such as what you ate and what you were doing before the headache started. This information can help you avoid things that bring on your headaches. And the diary also can help your doctor plan your treatment. If you have headaches caused by muscle tension in your neck, shoulders, and upper back, pay attention to your posture during your daily activities. You also can try muscle relaxation and other ways to reduce muscle tension. Your doctor also may prescribe medicine to help prevent tension headaches. You may have fewer headaches—and less pain when you do get them—if you: You can reduce how many headaches you have by finding out what triggers them and avoiding those things. Triggers may include stress, hunger, and lack of sleep. Use a headache diary to find your triggers. You write down when you have a headache and how bad it is, along with details such as what you ate and what you were doing when the headache started. This information can help you avoid things that bring on your headaches. A diary also may help your doctor plan your treatment. If you have mild to moderate headaches, your doctor probably will want you to take over-the-counter medicines to stop your headaches. These include medicines like acetaminophen (such as Tylenol) and ibuprofen (such as Motrin). Be safe with medicines. Read and follow all instructions on the label. If over-the-counter medicines don't stop your headaches well enough—or you get a lot of headaches—your doctor may prescribe medicine to prevent headaches. Don't take medicine too often. Talk to your doctor if you're taking medicine more than 3 days a week to stop a headache, or if you have a headache on more than 15 days a month. Taking too much over-the-counter pain medicine can lead to more headaches. These are called rebound headaches. One Man's Story: "I hold my stress in my shoulders and neck. My shoulders are always up around my ears. A lot of times, I leave at the end of the day with a big headache."—Jerry Read more about how Jerry reduced his stress. Stress can cause tension headaches. You can lower your stress with positive thinking and relaxation methods. Research shows that you can change how you think. And how you think affects how you feel. Try these techniques on your own or with help from a therapist or counsellor trained in muscle relaxation, meditation, biofeedback, or cognitive-behavioural therapy. Learn how to lower your stress with these topics: You also can learn to stop thinking all the time about things that bother you. Seek help if you think that your tension headaches may be linked to depression or anxiety. Treating these health problems can reduce how often you get headaches. Your doctor may recommend medicine to treat or prevent tension headaches. You might only need to take an over-the-counter medicine for pain. These medicines usually have fewer side effects than prescription drugs. Always be safe with medicines. Read and follow all instructions on the label. Over-the-counter medicines that you can use to stop a headache include: Try to avoid taking over-the-counter drugs more than 3 times a week, because you may get rebound headaches. These are different from tension headaches. They usually occur after headache medicine has worn off. This leads you to take another dose. After a while, you get a headache whenever you stop taking the medicine. Your doctor may recommend that you take a prescription medicine every day to prevent headaches. You may want to take this medicine if: Medicines used to prevent tension headaches include: Botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) is sometimes injected into the muscles in the face and head to treat headaches. In the past, doctors thought that spasms caused tension headaches. But BTX-A injections do not seem to help with symptoms of tension headaches.footnote 1 And BTX-A may cause weakness of the facial muscles and may make it hard for you to swallow. Using other treatments along with medicines may help you stop a tension headache or prevent one. If you decide to try one or more of these treatments, make sure your doctor knows. He or she may have advice on how to use other treatments safely. Other treatments for headaches include: CitationsJackson JL, et al. (2012). Botulinum toxin A for prophylactic treatment of migraine and tension headaches in adults: A meta-analysis. JAMA, 307(6): 1736–1745. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2012.505. Accessed February 1, 2016. Current as of: August 4, 2020 Author: Healthwise StaffMedical Review: Kathleen Romito MD - Family MedicineAnne C. Poinier MD - Internal MedicineAdam Husney MD - Family MedicineE. Gregory Thompson MD - Internal MedicineMartin J. Gabica MD - Family MedicineKarin M. Lindholm DO - Neurology Current as of: August 4, 2020 Author: Healthwise Staff Medical Review:Kathleen Romito MD - Family Medicine & Anne C. Poinier MD - Internal Medicine & Adam Husney MD - Family Medicine & E. Gregory Thompson MD - Internal Medicine & Martin J. Gabica MD - Family Medicine & Karin M. Lindholm DO - Neurology To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2021 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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What is it? - Hair loss can start with a few extra hairs in the sink or in your comb. Later, it can progress to a bare scalp. - Baldness typically refers to excessive hair loss from your scalp and can be the result of heredity, certain medications or an underlying medical condition. Anyone — men, women and children — can experience hair loss. - Some people prefer to let their baldness run its course untreated and unhidden. Others may cover it up with hairstyles, makeup, hats or scarves. And still others choose one of the medications and surgical procedures that are available to treat hair loss. Before pursuing any treatment option, talk with your doctor about the cause of and best possible treatments for your hair loss. The medical term for hair loss is alopecia. Pattern baldness (androgenetic alopecia), the most common type of alopecia, affects roughly one-third of men and women. It's typically permanent. Permanent hair loss - Male-pattern baldness (androgenetic alopecia). For men, pattern baldness can begin early, even in the teens or early 20s. It's typically characterized by a receding hairline at the temples and balding at the top of the head. The end result may be partial or complete baldness. - Female-pattern baldness (androgenetic alopecia). Women with permanent hair loss usually have hair loss limited to thinning at the front, sides or crown. Women usually maintain their front hairline and rarely experience complete baldness. - Cicatricial (scarring) alopecia. This rare condition occurs when inflammation damages and scars hair follicles, causing permanent hair loss. Sometimes the patchy hair loss is associated with itching or pain. Temporary hair loss - Alopecia areata. Hair loss usually occurs in small, round, smooth patches about the size of a quarter. Usually the disease doesn't extend beyond a few bare patches on the scalp, but it can cause patchy hair loss on any area that has hair, including eyebrows, eyelashes and beard. In rare cases, it can progress to cause hair loss over the entire body. If the hair loss includes your entire scalp, the condition is called alopecia totalis. If it involves your whole body, it's called alopecia universalis. Soreness and itching may precede the hair loss, but symptoms are often minimal. - Telogen effluvium. This type of temporary hair loss occurs suddenly, most often after a significant illness or major life stress. Handfuls of hair may come out when combing or washing your hair or may fall out after gentle tugging. This type of hair loss usually causes overall hair thinning and not bald patches. - Traction alopecia. Bald patches can occur if you regularly wear certain hairstyles, such as pigtails, braids or cornrows, or if you use tight rollers. Hair loss typically occurs between the rows or at the part where hair is pulled tightly. - Anagen effluvium. In this type of hair loss, actively growing hairs in the anagen state are affected most often by chemotherapeutic drugs given to fight cancer or lymphoma. Hair loss starts soon after beginning therapy and is more extensive than in the telogen effluvium state. In the weeks after the therapy has been completed, the hair cycles re-establish themselves, although the hair may not return as thickly as before chemotherapy. Due to hormonal changes, irritation or damage, some hair follicles have a shorter growth phase and produce thinner, shorter hair shafts. Your hair goes through a cycle of growth and rest. The course of each cycle varies by individual. But in general, the growth phase of scalp hair, known as anagen, typically lasts two to three years. During this time, your hair grows just less than 1/2 inch (1 centimeter) a month. The resting phase is called telogen. This phase typically lasts three to four months. At the end of the resting phase, the hair strand falls out and a new one begins to grow in its place. Once a hair is shed, the growth stage begins again. Most people normally shed 50 to 100 hairs a day. But with about 100,000 hairs in the scalp, this amount of hair loss shouldn't cause noticeable thinning of the scalp hair. Gradual thinning is a normal part of aging. However, hair loss may lead to baldness when the rate of shedding exceeds the rate of regrowth, when new hair is thinner than the hair shed or when hair comes out in patches. Causes of specific types of hair loss - Pattern baldness (androgenetic alopecia). In male- and female-pattern baldness, the time of growth shortens, and the hairs are not as thick or sturdy. With each growth cycle, the hairs become rooted more superficially and more easily fall out. Heredity likely plays a key role. A history of androgenetic alopecia on either side of your family increases your risk of balding. Heredity also affects the age at which you begin to lose hair and the developmental speed, pattern and extent of your baldness. - Cicatricial (scarring) alopecia. This type of permanent hair loss occurs when inflammation damages and scars the hair follicle. This prevents new hair from growing. This condition can be seen in several skin conditions, including lupus erythematosus or lichen planus. It's not known what triggers or causes this inflammation. - Alopecia areata. This is classified as an autoimmune disease, but the cause is unknown. People who develop alopecia areata are generally in good health. A few people may have other autoimmune disorders, including thyroid disease. Some scientists believe that some people are genetically predisposed to develop alopecia areata and that a trigger, such as a virus or something else in the environment, sets off the condition. A family history of alopecia areata makes you more likely to develop it. With alopecia areata, your hair generally grows back, but you may lose and regrow your hair a number of times. - Telogen effluvium. This type of hair loss is usually due to a change in your normal hair cycle. It may occur when some type of shock to your system — emotional or physical — causes hair roots to be pushed prematurely into the resting state. The affected growing hairs from these hair roots fall out. In a month or two, the hair follicles become active again and new hair starts to grow. Telogen effluvium may follow emotional distress, such as a death in the family or a physiological stress, such as a high fever, sudden or excessive weight loss, extreme diets, nutritional deficiencies, surgery, or metabolic disturbances. Hair typically grows back once the condition that caused it corrects itself, but it usually take months. - Traction alopecia. Excessive hairstyling or hairstyles that pull your hair too tightly cause traction alopecia. If the pulling is stopped before there's scarring of your scalp and permanent damage to the root, hair usually grows back normally. Other causes of hair loss - Poor nutrition. Having inadequate protein or iron in your diet or poor nourishment in other ways can cause you to experience hair loss. Fad diets, crash diets and certain illnesses, such as eating disorders, can cause poor nutrition. - Medications. Certain drugs used to treat gout, arthritis, depression, heart problems and high blood pressure may cause hair loss in some people. Taking birth control pills also may result in hair loss for some women. - Disease. Diabetes and lupus can cause hair loss. - Medical treatments. Undergoing chemotherapy or radiation therapy may cause you to develop alopecia. Under these conditions, healthy, growing (anagen) hairs can be affected. After your treatment ends, your hair typically begins to regrow. - Hormonal changes. Hormonal changes and imbalances can cause temporary hair loss. This could be due to pregnancy, childbirth, discontinuation of birth control pills, the onset of menopause, or an overactive or underactive thyroid gland. The hair loss may be delayed by three months following a hormonal change, and it'll take another three months for new hair to grow back. During pregnancy, it's normal to have thicker, more luxuriant hair. It's also common to lose more hair than normal about three months after delivery. If a hormonal imbalance is associated with an overproduction of testosterone, there may be a thinning of hair over the crown of the scalp. Correcting hormonal imbalances may stop hair loss. - Hair treatments. Chemicals used for dying, tinting, bleaching, straightening or permanent waves can cause hair to become damaged and break off if they are overused or used incorrectly. Overstyling and excessive brushing also can cause hair to fall out if the hair shaft becomes damaged. - Scalp infection. Infections, such as ringworm, can invade the hair and skin of your scalp, leading to hair loss. Once infections are treated, hair generally grows back. Ringworm, a fungal infection, can usually be treated with a topical or oral antifungal medication. - Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder). Trichotillomania is a type of mental illness in which people have an irresistible urge to pull out their hair, whether it's from the scalp, their eyebrows or other areas of the body. Hair pulling from the scalp often leaves them with patchy bald spots on the head, which they may go to great lengths to disguise. Causes of trichotillomania are still being researched, and no specific cause has yet been found. A complete medical history, family history and physical examination can help in a diagnosis. The pattern and rate of hair loss, the appearance of nearby hairs (for example, if hairs are broken off), and accompanying symptoms are considered when making the diagnosis. Tests may be necessary if the cause isn't apparent after the examination. These include: - Pull test. Several dozen hairs are gently pulled to see how many come out. This helps determine the stage of the shedding process and can help diagnose or rule out telogen effluvium. - Skin scrapings. Samples taken from the skin or from a few hairs plucked from the scalp can help verify whether an infection is causing hair loss. - Punch biopsy. When a diagnosis is difficult to confirm, especially in the case of alopecia areata or scarring alopecia, your doctor may perform a punch biopsy. During this test, the doctor uses a circular tool to remove a small section of your skin's deeper layers. - Screening tests for related diseases. Your doctor may perform tests to determine if you have a medical condition that causes hair loss, such as thyroid disease, diabetes or lupus. Your doctor may also ask questions about the types of medications you're taking. Sometimes hair loss is a side effect of certain drugs, such as those that treat gout, arthritis, depression, heart problems and high blood pressure.

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We must protect our environment and nature. We normally think and believe that everyone should participate in this kind of activity for us to achieve a friendly lifestyle. We can conserve electricity by not turning on the lights during the daytime. We can also reduce our electricity usage by staying more outside instead of turning our air conditioner in the bedroom. Of course, that is your right whether you will use so much electricity or not. This one is pretty normal, especially for those who have things to do, and they need to consider the welfare of their family. If you think that your water bill increases every month, there must be something wrong with your consumption. It could be that the pipe has problems such as small holes or cracks under the ground or foundation of your house. You can also check the daily usage of the water in your home. This one can be one of the many reasons only. You are also trying to study and improve the drainage part of your home. It is nice that we always know about what is happening in our property or house such as the septic tank cleaning Columbia SC. We can do various plans and many things to protect our septic tanks, even in a small way. Of course, part of this one is the proper ways to conserve our water at home. We have basic ideas about those steps and methods, but we need something more. We need to remind ourselves of those things for us to be responsible people. This one will show that we are capable of making our world a better place for our future kids and family. Others may take a very long time to shower, which is why we spend a lot of time paying for the water bill. You would feel that it is refreshing to have a long and nice hot shower in the evening. If you are doing this one, then you have to think many times before you do it. It can permanently affect your septic system. 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But of course, you can try to make them more familiar with those things that generally groomers will use. In this manner, they would not be afraid the next time they will see this kind of item. Probably you can play with them using that equipment. This is the easiest thing that you can try now. Of course, who would forget about the treats and rewards that you can give to your dogs? Most of them would know this one instantly as long as they are doing a great job. You can buy some treats or those food packs that they like very much. Others would always remind their groomers that having a break would be the ideal way to deal with it if the pet is not getting along. There are some pets that they like to be in a very relaxing and soothing place. Carpets could have different problems according to the weather and the season that you have in your place. It is nice that you have the best ways to deal with them. Every season or year, you need to improve your skills in dealing with them. Others would try to reinvent their steps and methods in cleaning the problem here. This is actually nice if you could try to know those problems and the details on how you can solve them one by one. It may sound simple to deal with it but the truth here is that it is too much of the trick that you need to do. One of the hardest things to deal here is the carpet cleaning Hollywood FL. Of course, we need to consider the weather here such as the rainy days and the snowy times. Those days are the most difficult time to deal with our carpet since we need to ensure that there won’t be any wet areas or muddy parts because of the shoes or the feet of the kids. It could be very hard to remove the stain during this time since we could not wash and dry them immediately. It is possible to clean it but you need to hire someone or a company that could deal with it. Of course, the reason why is that they have the best ways and the methods to think about. 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Thus, you should offer the car detailer enough time to do their job if you’re out for quality services. Expertise, Products, and Tools Detailing a car involves cleaning the exterior and interior of the vehicle. This will help get rid of all the dust and dirt. However, you’ve got to make sure that the company has the correct expertise, products, and tools before you can hand over your car. A reliable detailing company will have the right car care products and tools. You shouldn’t hire the company if you believe that the detailer isn’t using the right equipment. You’ve got to set a budget first if you’re planning to hire a car detailing service. A car detailing company charges various prices. This depends on the job at hand. Before you choose one, make sure you compare the prices of different detailers. Also, you need to keep in mind that cheap rates do not mean you should hire them right away. Chances are the company is using subpar products to cut costs. 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You don’t have to worry because there are lots of services and rentals that can give you an extraordinary experience along the way. Your dream of having this amazing and incredible ride will be possible in an exotic car rental Los Angeles. Every memory must be counted as you go on to go further in a vast road of experience. This sounds to be interesting but everything must be settled in place. Some companies offer a lot of choices that you can have in renting their cars. Your dream car will be in your touch in the few days that you want. Either it’s a business trip or a family ride, you must think about your safety and those needed to know. Well, before starting this thing, there are some things that you might want to know first before renting. These include the following; You’re a licensed driver. Having a license is a must knowing that you are driving on a far road and even in some regions far from home. Safe Destination. Before going somewhere, rest assured that your destination is safe and that you have an idea about the place. Fees, Taxes and rules. When you go travelling, be sure that you have searched already about the place. Are there any fees, tolls, and how about the rules of that area? Having some idea will let you have a bundle of on-the-go time. Kind of car. What car do you want to rent? Are these kinds of cars that will give you a glimpse of comfort? You think about it before deciding. Good rate. How about the price? The rate per day or hour? How many days do you want to go? Is the price worth it? Good and reputable company. Where to rent? Look for a company that has been operating for years and that has been trusted by many. Have insurance. You might think about getting insurance but do not decide on it right away. There are particular considerations about this thing especially when you can rent an exotic and fabulous car that everyone loves to ride on. Who are you going to be with? Think about having a trip whether for business or leisure, think about who you want to be with. This could help you decide what car will be suitable for that trip. If you have enjoyed reading our content, share this to your friends!

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A coronavirus-like virus has been described in ancient ayurvedic scriptures about 5,000 years ago. Dr Smita Naram, founder and CMD of Ayushakti revealed that she was surprised to find a chapter called 'Krimi' i.e. infections, in the 'Charak Samhita' that describes an infection exactly like the novel coronavirus. In the chapter 'Krimi', there is mention of a term called 'Sleshma Krimi, which is described as something that cannot be seen by the naked eye as they are 'Maha Sukshnma' which means they are so minute that one needs a special instrument to see that, Smita Naram said. "I was surprised to find this description in the Charak Samhita. It was rather unbelievable. In the Charak Samhita, there is a specific chapter on 'krimi' i.e. infections. In the chapter, there is a description of Sleshma Krimi. It is just fascinating how they have described how 'Sleshma Krimi'," Smita Naram said. "It cannot be seen by the naked eye as they are 'Maha Sukshma'. This means they are so minute that one needs a special instrument to see it. This was said 5,000 years ago!" revealed Dr Smita Naram. The Charak Samhita describes how they settle in your respiratory system," she said. Moreover, Dr Smita Naram said that she was stunned to read how Krimi has been described in the text. It has been described as being round in shape, heavy with spikes on them, she said. "The Charak Samhita's description is so close to that of the novel coronavirus. They explain how Sleshma Krimi, after settling in the respiratory system, creates cough, severe congestion, and breathlessness and sometimes leads to death," Dr Smita Naram explained. The ancient scriptures also reveal three ways to prevent the infection and protect oneself from it. Ancient scriptures say isolate yourself so that you don't catch this infection, don't feed them anything that strengthens them and makes them more active, Dr Naram said. Dr Smita Naram, Founder of Ayushakti, reveals her immunity-boosting recipes: Dr Smita Naram said that when the scriptures said don't feed the Krimi anything that strengthens them, it means that don't feed them 'Kapha' inducing foods. In today's day and age such foods are wheat, bread, and dairy products," Dr Naram advised. Thirdly, the scriptures advise certain immune-boosting herbs, especially in your respiratory area. Dr Smita Naram advised herbs that open up respiratory channels. She has even come up with a recipe that anyone can prepare at home. Just follow these steps - 1. Pomegranate peel - a quarter of outer peel 2. 20 basil leaves 3. 1-inch size ginger 4. 1-inch size fresh turmeric or powder 5. 1 black pepper powder 6. Crush everything very well 7. Add 2 glasses of water and boil 9. Boil until to make it 1/2 of a glass 10. Strain in a cup 11. Drink this warm 2-3 times a day. "It has been proven in many scientific reports that ingredients like Pomegranate peel, Kalmegh, Tulsi, Shunti, Dalchini, etc. can enhance the immune power, kill all types of viral infections and prevent the viral attacks remarkably well," Dr Naram said. She added that herbs like Yashtimadhu, kantakari, Tulsi, Shati, Dalchini etc. are proven for their effectiveness in improving respiratory functions, removing blocks and inflammations from the respiratory channels, thus, relieving allergies and infections. "Although, it's a difficult task to make the efforts to improve the immune system, but it's a worthy attempt. Another way to bring back long-lasting health naturally is to detoxify your body at regular intervals," Dr Naram advised. Dr Partap Chauhan, Director of Jiva Ayurveda, had some handy tips as well: He said it upfront -- do not panic!. "Fear and negativity reduce immunity. Excessive mental stress also affects our digestion and thus causes formation of 'Ama' -- a toxic material that acts like a breeding field for microbes," Dr Chauhan explained. He advised that to boost your immunity, have a tablespoonful of Chywanprash daily. Herbs like Ashwagandha, Shatavari, Amala, Glioy, Neem, Kutki, Tulsi are good immune boosters. Citrus fruits like orange, grapefruit, lemon are rich source of vitamin C and are good to consume. Drinking warm water and keeping hydrated is very beneficial according to him, He said. He said robust digestion is key. "Eat a piece of fresh ginger or drink ginger tea. Mint tea, cinnamon tea and fennel tea are also good. Take one-litre water and add to it one teaspoonful of each - fennel, cumin, coriander powder and freshly grated ginger. Boil everything together for a few minutes, filter and fill in a hot container. Keep sipping this water throughout the day," Dr Chauhan advised. He further advocated 'Nasya' which he says can be done by putting 2-3 drops of sesame oil or Anu oil in each nostril. "Sniff it in to strengthen the inner mucus membrane. Gargling with lukewarm saline water 2-3 times a day is also beneficial," he said. Dr Chauhan explained clear bowels is a must. "Take two tablets of Triphala or one teaspoonful of Triphala powder with lukewarm water at bedtime to keep your bowels clean," says Dr Chauhan. Lastly, he stressed how exercise is a must. "Practice stretching, walking, Yoga, Pranayama and meditation for 30 minutes daily is recommended" he adds. Rajiv Vasudevan, founder and CEO of AyurVAID chain of hospitals said, "Know thyself, know thy environment. Harness the body's innate ability to ward off infections. Beyond generalities, Ayurveda enables specific dos and don'ts, personalised to a person with particular health status, at a particular place-time, to correct imbalances in one's body and restore immunity in general and to Covid-19 in particular". He said that by identifying the extent of underlying system inflammation and metabolism, the presence of history/active URTI/LRTI, co-morbidities, immune-compromise status, a unique composite risk score can be developed. "What we have done is gone beyond 'daadi ke nuskhe' [Grandmother's tips]. We have developed a precise Ayurveda Covid-19 risk-mitigation strategy with personalised prescription of diet, lifestyle, medicine and DIY [Do it Yourself] therapies." Overall, well-being at a stage like this is a must for people around the world. Advise from Rajeev Vasudevan, Founder of AyurVAID is as follows: 1. It is advised to have easily digestible food during this season as the digestive capacity could be affected. 2. Stick to freshly prepared, light, vegetarian food. In case you wish to have non-vegetarian food, please ensure that it is well cooked, not too oily or with excess spices. 3. Dinner should be your lightest meal. 4. Avoid curds, oily and deep-fried items, refined flour, leftover meals, processed and packaged food items, oats and millets, cheese, cold and aerated drinks as far as possible. Avoid Bengal Gram/Beans and difficult to digest Vata/gas-causing food items. Avoid use of milk at night. In case you are used to having milk, it is good to have diluted milk with dry ginger powder and turmeric 5. Include: Warm water, broken wheat, green and yellow moong/green gram, ghee, rice, honey 6. Include Vegetables: Ivy gourd/Coccinia, Garlic, Amaranthus, Brinjal. Minimize the use of gas causing items like cabbage and cauliflower. 7. Include Fruits: Amla, Pomegranate, dry raisins, cardamom 8. Include bitter and pungent and astringent taste while choosing your food items as these items are light and easy. 9. Maintain adequate Hydration with around 6 to 8 glasses of water daily. 1. Avoid day sleep to prevent 'Kapha' accumulation/to reduce further impairment of your metabolism 2. Having sips of hot water will aid your digestion and minimise the signs of bloating, belching and flatulence. 3. Avoid cold water bath 4. Ensure very good hygiene at home and ensure the place receives good air and sunlight. Try to minimize and avoid damp and humid atmosphere at home. And finally, we spoke to Dr Manisha Mishra at Charak Pharma, who has developed a range of ways to enhance the natural defence mechanism of the body. Here are handy tips by Dr Mishra and her team at Charak Pharma: 1. To enhance immunity, adapt a healthy diet, have the right amount of sleep and exercise 2. Practice personal hygiene and stick to a daily regime 3. For oral hygiene and throat care, gargle daily with warm water or herbs like Tulsi, Yashtimadhu, Mint, and Behda 4. Incorporate immune-enhancing herbs or Ayurveda Rasayana in your daily regime like amla, Guduchi, Haldi, Tulsi, Yashtimadhu, etc. 5. Avoid unwholesome food like mixing milk and sour fruits or having curd at night. 6. Eat seasonal fruits and vegetables 7. Drink detox water made of Jeera (Cumin seeds), Fennel seed (Saunf) and Dhaniya seed to enhance digestion and eliminate toxins. 8. Practice Yoga and Pranayam to destress and reduce anxiety 10. Stay positive and happy as it helps enhance immunity.

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Above/featured: Jan Hus Monument, Old Town Square – 4 Jul 2008 (HL, 450D). Most visitors to the Czech capital city of Prague will pass by and overlook the large sculpture near the middle of Old Town Square. The central figure in the monument is one of the most important historical figures for capital and country. Although he may not be as well known outside of the European continent, Jan Hus is a massive historical figure within central Europe. Jan Hus was declared the greatest hero of the Czech nation in a 2015 survey by Czech Radio. In Konstanz on 6 July 1415, Jan Hus was sentenced to death on the charge of heresy. I’ve described locations in Konstanz during Hus’ final days. In recognition of his attempts to reform the Catholic Church and to foster and encourage Bohemian identity, July 6 is commemorated annually as a national holiday in the Czech Republic: the holiday is known as “Den upálení Mistra Jana Husa,” which translates to “day of the burning of Jan Hus.” An Early Reformer Jan Hus dared to challenge the corrupt papal practices and church hierarchy, pointing the way for Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation. Inspired by English reformer John Wycliffe, Hus taught from Wycliffe’s reformist writings and considered himself a “Wyclifist,” which in Hus’ day would have been at the very least intolerable to the church and at the very worst grounds for excommunication and being labeled a heretic. He was furious by the selling of papal indulgences: by the practice itself, and that the practice directed on people in Bohemia raised money for military engagement far from Bohemia as multiple Popes vied for supremacy during the Western Papal Schism. Hus also began defining the concept of a Czech nation for the Czech people, and also made significant contributions to the Czech language by advocating simplifications to written conventions. A book about a system of spelling “Bohemian Orthography” (Orthographia bohemica, Ortografie česká) is possibly attributed to Jan Hus’ authorship with the book’s completion between 1406 and 1412 AD/CE. Over centuries, the Catholic Church operated with total authority on religion, science, and politics and far-reaching aspects on daily life. It’s a nice racket to claim you’re the only legitimate path to God and salvation. What Jan Hus and (subsequently Martin Luther) set in motion when they openly challenged the superiority of the Church was an idea of an individual’s direct path to their own thoughts and emotions in the world and to God. Having someone in your own house openly complaining and challenging the profitable and powerful “middle man” did not endear these Hus or Luther to the Church. For helping to bring about the Bohemian Reformation in the 15th-century, Jan Hus is described: Jan Hus (1369-1415), a predecessor of Martin Luther, was an early 15th century Czech theologian and scholar. He advocated church reforms, such as using Czech as the liturgical language, aligning the church’s practices with teachings contained in the Bible, limiting the power of the church to spiritual matters, and stopping the sale of indulgences. Consequently, he was excommunicated from the Catholic Church in 1411 for insubordination and he went into exile within the following year. He was summoned to the ecclesiastical Council of Constance in 1414, where he was ordered to recant his teachings. Refusing to recant and comply, the council declared Hus heretic and sentenced him to death by burning at the stake on 6 July 1415. News of Hus’ martyrdom sparked outrage, anger, and often violent protests among Czechs, and the movement eventually ignited the Hussite wars between Hus’ followers (early Protestants) and the Catholic Church. Armed conflict ended with infighting among the Hussites, and ultimately defeat of the Hussites at the hands of Catholic forces. Hus’ death brought about important consequences: • 1st Defenestration of Prague in 1419, sparking regional Hussite Wars until about 1434. • The rise of Jiří z Poděbrad (George of Poděbrady). • The Hussite movement precedes Luther’s Reformation by about 100 years. • 2nd Defenestration of Prague in 1618, triggered international continent-wide Thirty Years War. • The world’s largest Reformation monument recognizes Hus, Wycliffe, and Luther as key members of church reformation. • Pope John Paul II’s 1999 apology, about Hus’ execution in 1415. After the 1412 papal bull or edict proclaiming Hus’ excommunication from the church, Hus went into exile and in 1413 wrote to Christian of Prachatice (Křišťan z Prachatic) a letter in Latin which included the phrase “super omnia vincit veritas“, which translates to “truth always wins” or “truth conquers all” in English***. In Czech, the phrase is “pravda vítězí nad vším“, from which the motto “Pravda vítězí” (truth prevails) appears in the country’s presidential banner. *** ” … Currat mundus sicut Deus eum permiserit currere; melius est bene mori, quam male vivere, propter mortis supplicum, non est peccandum; praesentem vitam finire in gratia est exire de miseria; qui addit scientiam addit laborem; qui veritatem loquitur, caput sibi perculitur; qui mortem metuit, amittit gaudia vitae; super omnia vincit veritas. Vincit qui occiditur quia nulla nocet adversitas si nulla ei dominatur iniquitas.” The above Latin excerpt is on Google Books, from “Geschichte von Böhmen: größtentheils nach Urkunden und Handschriften. Böhmen unter König Wenzel IV., bis zum Ausbruch des Hussitenkrieges: vom Jahre 1378-1419“, Volume 3, Issue 1, by František Palacký (Kronberger und Riwnac/Tempsky, 1845), p. 298. An English translation appears on archive.org, from “John Huss: His Life, Teachings and Death, After Five Hundred Years“, by David Schley Schaff (New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915), p. 58. Another English translation appears on archive.org, from Letter 27 (XXVII), in “Jan Huss, The Letters of John Hus. With Introductions and Explanatory Notes“, by Herbert B. Workman and R. Martin Pope (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904), pp. 119-122. The Workman and Pope work is also available at the Online Library of Liberty. Pomník mistra Jana Husa (Jan Hus Monument) Czech sculptor Ladislav Šaloun with architect Antonín Pfeifer’s help worked for over 10 years on the design and construction of the Jan Hus Memorial. The memorial was inaugurated at Prague’s Old Town Square on 6 July 1915 to mark the 500th anniversary of Jan Hus’ martyrdom. Jan Hus is seen looking up and towards the Church of Our Lady before Týn which was the primary church for the Hussites between 1419 and 1621. As Prague was under the rule of the Habsburg (i.e., Catholic) Empire in 1915, the authorities of the day refused to acknowledge the memorial and forbade an official event for the monument’s inauguration. In quiet protest, city residents proceeded to blanket the new monument with flowers. Over centuries, Jan Hus became an enduring symbol for the people of Bohemia and an independent Czech national identity. By extension, the Jan Hus memorial has also become a symbol of opposition against foreign rule (for example, Jan Palach during the early years of Communist rule). Cultural monument of the Czech Republic: Národní památkový ústav, Památkový katalog (National Heritage Institute, Memorial Catalog): register no. 38167/1-11, catalog no. 1000150135. Betlémská kaple (Bethlehem Chapel) The Bethlehem Chapel was a late 14th-century religious building where Jan Hus preached and became Rector in 1402. Until 1412, Hus was popular and attracted many people to the chapel for his sermons where he would openly call for reform within the Catholic Church. Instead of Latin (Rome) or German (Holy Roman Empire), he spoke and wrote to his congregation in Czech so all could hear and read. He also wanted every layperson to receive both forms of communion which was forbidden by the church. Hus the accidental rebel would soon find voice. After damage in World War 2 and post-war neglect, the present-day building is a 1950s restoration by the ruling Communist state, because they viewed the Hussite movement as a useful political tool to emphasize the plight and revolution of the working class. The reconstruction was not historically accurate, as the state was no fan of religion. The present-day church is considered relatively plain, but the location itself remains prominent for having been home to Jan Hus. Cultural monument of the Czech Republic: Národní památkový ústav, Památkový katalog (National Heritage Institute, Memorial Catalog): register no. 11734/1-129, catalog no. 1000001492. The Jan Hus monument in Old Town Square and Bethlehem Chapel are both located within the “Historic Centre of Prague” which in 1992 has been inscribed by UNESCO as World Heritage Site. I made all photos with Canon cameras 450D (450D) and 6D mark 1 (6D1) on multiple visits in 2008, 2010, 2013, and 2016. This post appears on Fotoeins Fotografie at fotoeins DOT com as http://wp.me/p1BIdT-8XD.

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Chess has long been considered a game of kings. Apparently, the rulers of powerful kingdoms and empires were well aware of what a wonderful practice for developing battle tactics and predicting it is playing chess with the rulers of other countries. With the getting of deep knowledge of the peculiarities of brain work as a result of modern research, it can be absolutely confidently asserted that this ancient game serves as an excellent stimulant for improving mental activity. And such advantages are simply invaluable for students. In order for the homework to not distract from reading this fascinating article, entrust it to specialists from wedoessay.com. Dialog with History Before talking about the benefits and social significance of chess, it is necessary to determine its place in the system of social relations. For this, it is necessary to explain: what is chess in general? The answer – "chess is a sport" – cannot satisfy us, because it emphasizes only one side of the chess game, identical to other sports. We mean the competitive moment, participation in tournaments, volitional effort, etc. The chess game, like any sport, has its own individual characteristics. Only by revealing these features we can correctly assess the utility and social significance of chess. Almost every chess player knows the legend of the origin of chess. Remember the story with a wise brahmin who, wanting to distract his warlike king from destructive wars, offered him chess instead? We know that wars do not arise from the whims of monarchs, they are caused by the development of society. Nevertheless, the legend of the brahmin, regardless of its authenticity, has a profound meaning: chess is a display of struggle. And the struggle is inextricably linked with the very essence of a human. It would, however, be wrong to think that chess only reflects a military clash. Chess is an abstract representation of the struggle in general and, therefore, a reflection of dialectical contradictions. The move and the return move in the chess game mean the thesis and the antithesis. Then the synthesis follows. Thus, contradictions in chess constantly arise, are resolved and appear again. Lasker in his book "Common Sense in Chess" wrote that the systematic accumulation of small advantages sooner or later leads to qualitative changes. These changes can be expressed in the win of the material or in the occurrence of a favorable situation for a decisive combination. In the course of history, we often witnessed how many card and board games were born and disappeared without a trace. The fact that chess has lived for two and a half thousand years cannot be explained by chance. There is something in chess that constantly attracts new generations to them. The essence is the following: chess survives as a dialectic. Human met a game in rules and in the construction of which the basic laws of dialectics, expressed in abstract, but at the same time in crystal clear form, are manifested. In chess, a person, as if affirms his or her essence. Do not the historical patterns appear in the evolution of the chess game? It may appear that the structure of chess is an arbitrary and formal convention. But not all share this opinion. Modern rules of the game were formed during a long historical period. So, in the Middle Ages, the movement of figures on the board was limited. The queen, for example, was the weakest figure. The fighting nature of chess began to manifest itself much later. It is no accident that in the era of early capitalism when the activity of the urban population increased sharply, chess emerged from the empirical state and began to take the form of a coherent theory. In the pre-revolutionary France of the 18th century, not only Rousseau and Diderot debated in the "Cafe de La Regence", but also Philidor, who played his first games blindly there. Philidor wrote the first great theoretical work on chess. In this work, he raised the value of pawns. Chess, as it were, reflected a collective struggle in which the people have a decisive role. Chess was of particular importance for the working class. None other than Ernst Thalmann wrote that the willpower and independent thinking that develop in the study of chess, can be useful to workers in the struggle against the bourgeoisie. What is the value of chess for schoolchildren, students, workers and scientists now, in the age of the scientific and technological revolution? Under socialism and in the age of automation, the struggle of people with nature and with themselves remains the most important element of the development of society. Or, in the words of Heraclitus, the dispute is the basis of everything that exists. Contradictions with the world around them during the studies, scientific research or at work require the person’s persistence, concentration, internal discipline, courage and risk, criticism and self-criticism, the ability to withstand possible failures and disappointments and yet fight for success. These valuable qualities that make up the human personality are not given to a person in the cradle. They appear as a result of the development of consciousness. The chess game, which, as we have already said, is an abstract representation of the struggle of any kind, greatly contributes to the formation of these valuable qualities. A chess player who is unable to critically evaluate his or her game during the game will inevitably fail. Every loss is a criticism of our chess knowledge, our theoretical and practical training. Chess is a wonderful school of the upbringing of the will, it requires self-control and firmness towards oneself. They demand the overcoming of the enemy's opposing will. One of the most valuable educational aspects of the chess game lies in its essence: chess is an excellent school of consistent logical thinking. This side of the chess game takes on special significance in our time, when the physical moment in the work gradually gives way to the spiritual one. The value of chess pieces is demarcated so precisely that it allows it to be mathematically formalized. This circumstance prompts the chess player, starting from a given point, to strive for certain results by logical conclusions. Exact logical thinking is easier to train through chess play (we mean serious games) rather than using a logic textbook for this purpose. It is known that a person is much more willing and productive to learn during the game than with a different method of studying. Here it is necessary to draw attention to the special potential possibilities of chess as a means of educating scientific accuracy and analytical skills. It can be said without exaggeration that in our time, fruitful creative activity is accessible only to a person who is capable of analyzing an enormous stream of facts and information in a short time. Each successively conducted chess game is an example of the unity of strategy and tactics. At a certain stage of the game, the chess player, having analyzed the position, outlines a strategic plan, which then carries out with the necessary tactical means. The more he or she has the ability to analyze, the more effective his or her plan will be and the more tangible the results will be. In work, study and personal life, a person constantly faces the need to make all sorts of decisions – from the simplest to the most difficult ones. Is chess capable, despite its abstract nature, to help a person make certain decisions? It is obvious that chess, although it belongs to strategic games, has nothing to do with the strategic games of human society (for example, with discussions, negotiations, solutions to various problems, etc.). Chess, as we know, copies the struggle between two armies with different kinds of troops (rooks, elephants, horses, etc.). Thus, chess becomes a model of genuine social conflicts, or, in other words, in chess, aspects of collisions between people in the form of a model are concluded. The question of which collisions chess simulates has no answer. Of course, the conflicts on the chessboard are essentially different from the vital ones in their content. However, another circumstance is more important: before choosing a course from a multitude of possibilities, the chess player must go over all the answers of his opponent. This is the point of contact of chess with life. A person playing chess can be compared to a higher cybernetic system. A learning cybernetic system can make optimal decisions in a specific situation only if it has previously lost a number of options for the model. Such a game is not fun, but a necessity for the evolution of learning cybernetic systems. Thus, the benefit of chess is also in the fact that it learns to make decisions by looking through all available opportunities. Will the chess machine bring damage to the human imagination? Human fantasy is not a constant. The boundaries of fantasy depend on the type of occupation of a person, they can expand and contract. A chess game excites the imagination and develops it. This is another advantage of chess, which we must use. Despite the deeply developed theory of chess and the algorithm of many chess problems, creative fantasy in chess plays, as before, a decisive role. Our time requires creative fantasies from people working in scientific centers or serving highly productive machines and whole enterprises for the search for something new. Everything that can be algorithmized must be transferred to machines so that a person can concentrate his or her abilities on solving creative problems. It is indisputable that different genius combinations belong to the highest achievements of human imagination. Should more attention be paid to chess at schools and universities because of its special educational qualities? Certainly. It is necessary to bring up our young generation to the best qualities that will help them successfully solve all complicated tasks in all areas of science and technology. We have already explained above, what chess can provide in this respect. If you propose today to any teacher to introduce chess instruction in his or her class for at least one hour a week, he or she will show you the hourly curriculum and prove the impossibility of compaction. The mistake of such a teacher is the following: in this century, the century of a huge flow of information, it is simply impossible to give an exhaustive survey of all sciences. We must increasingly replace the memorization of facts by studying methods of obtaining and explaining facts. Chess will also help students in developing precise methods of thinking. It is especially useful to start teaching chess from the lower classes. With a chess game, children accustom themselves to dialectical, strategic and tactical methods of thinking in the early stages of their development, unconsciously, of course. As one experiment has shown, children, who systematically play chess, have higher grades in other subjects. What can be said about another remarkable ability of chess – to bring joy and satisfaction to people? A person loves adventure, this is his or her vital need. Victory, achieved after severe trials, brings joy to a person. A victory in chess gives an incomparable sense of satisfaction. The chess game, thus, contributes to the improvement of the spirit. Few chess players become masters, but all without exception, again and again, strive after the chess game, which takes them to the world of spiritual adventure. This feature of the chess game is of particular importance for people suffering from severe diseases, because of which they are alienated from public life and sport. Let us summarize the above and present it in the form of arguments that confirm the use of chess. Also, we will add some interesting facts. - It helps increase the level of IQ Chess has always been considered a game exclusively for the most intelligent individuals with a high IQ. Do intelligent people have the propensity to play chess or does the process of the game itself help increase the intellectual abilities of the players? One of the studies carried out confirmed the fact of the last statement. The experiment was attended by 4 thousand students from Venezuela, during which there was an incredible increase in the level of IQ in both man and woman who played chess for 3 months. - Both parts of the brain are involved Scientists from Germany conducted an experiment, as a result of which they unexpectedly discovered that in the process of playing both parts are equally involved, which react equally to changes in the positions of chess pieces. - It contributes to the development of creativity As the right part of the brain deals with the creativity, its activation in the process of playing chess should contribute to the development of the corresponding abilities of the players. For a certain period of time, some students played chess while their friends were engaged in other activities. As a result, those who played chess showed great abilities in performing various tasks. - It reduces the likelihood of Alzheimer's disease Since the brain functions like any other muscle, then, like for any bicep, training is needed to avoid health problems. Modern research has determined that people aged 75 years who play chess are less likely to the development of the Alzheimer's disease than their non-playing in this intellectual game peers. If you do not exercise regularly, the muscles lose their elasticity. Likewise, the lack of intellectual training for the brain leads to a loss of mental abilities. Therefore, now there are more reasons to think about chess. - It is perfect for memory Every player knows that chess is the wonderful way to improve memory, because you need not only to remember all the previous moves of your opponent, but also your moves, which previously led to victory. The experiment carried out in 1985 only confirmed this assertion. Students constantly playing chess were able to improve their grades, and their professors noted the demonstration of excellent analytical skills in their wards. Similar results were obtained as a result of an experiment conducted by researchers in other city, in which the sixth graders took part. People who previously did not play chess were able to improve their ability to remember information after they started playing this intellectual game.

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Ethical concerns abound in the race to develop a COVID-19 vaccine. How do we ethically test it in people? Can people be forced to get the vaccine if they don’t want it? Who should get it first? Tackling those questions demands that a vaccine exist. But a slew of other ethical questions arise long before anything is loaded into a syringe. In particular, some Catholic leaders in the United States and Canada are concerned about COVID-19 vaccine candidates made using cells derived from human fetuses aborted electively in the 1970s and 1980s. The group wrote a letter to the commissioner of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in April, expressing concern that several vaccines involving these cell lines were selected for Operation Warp Speed — a multibillion-dollar U.S. government partnership aimed at delivering a COVID-19 vaccine by January 2021. The group urged the FDA to instead provide incentives for COVID-19 vaccines that do not use fetal cell lines. But, as virologist Angela Rasmussen of Columbia University pointed out on Twitter, those other vaccines are being developed with scientific input from research using HeLA cells — which come with their own thorny ethical issues of consent. Here’s how scientists and bioethicists are thinking about the cell lines they use as they develop COVID-19 vaccines. What are cell lines, and what is their connection to vaccine research and development? Cell lines are cultures of human or other animal cells that can be grown for long periods of time in the lab. Some of these cultures are known as immortalized cell lines because the cells never stop dividing. Most cells can’t perform this trick — they eventually stop splitting and die. Immortal cell lines have cheated death. Some are more than 50 years old. Cell lines can be manipulated to become immortal. Or sometimes, immortality arises by chance. “Whenever people make primary cell cultures from different organs of different animals, every so often you just get … lucky, and some cultures just won’t die,” explains Matthew Koci, a viral immunologist at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. Such long-lasting cell lines go on to get studied, and studied some more. Some end up being used in labs around the world. Immortalized cell lines are crucial for many different types of biomedical research, not just vaccines. They’ve been used to study diabetes, hypertension, Alzheimer’s and much more. Some are human cells, but many also come from animal models. For example, many COVID-19 studies — beyond just those related to vaccines — are using Vero cells, a cell line derived from the kidney of an African green monkey, Rasmussen says. Two common immortalized cell lines go by the monikers HEK-293 and HeLa. HEK-293 is a cell line isolated from a human embryo that was electively aborted in the Netherlands in 1973. Catholic leaders and other antiabortion groups have objected to the use of HEK-293 in the development of some COVID-19 vaccine candidates. Cells derived from elective abortions, including HEK-293, have been used to develop vaccines, including rubella, hepatitis A, chickenpox and more. Other fetal cell lines, such as the proprietary cell line PER.C6, are also used in vaccine development, including for COVID-19. HeLa cells are named after Henrietta Lacks, a Black tobacco farmer and mother of five from Virginia who was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1951. That cell line comes from a sample taken from her cervix by researchers at Johns Hopkins University when she was undergoing treatment there. These cells have been used in development of vaccines including the polio and human papilloma virus, or HPV, vaccines. They’ve even contributed to our understanding of the human genome. Are human immortalized cell lines necessary to make COVID-19 vaccines? More than 125 candidate vaccines against COVID-19 are under development around the world. As of July 2, 14 were in human trials. Those vaccines can be divided into a few different types. Some, such as RNA vaccines made by companies like Moderna (SN: 5/18/20), do not require a live cell, and thus, no cell line. But other types do require live cells during their production. That includes candidates that use the old-school method for developing vaccines: attenuation. This is “what Pasteur did” when he made the first vaccines against anthrax and rabies, explains Mark Davis, a virologist at Stanford University. “You grow a virus,” and over time the virus loses potency. “It’s still alive, but for some reason, it typically loses its more dramatic clinical effects.” In another type of vaccine under development called viral-vector, the viral genes to produce immunity to the coronavirus are placed in another, harmless virus. That new combined virus is then grown in cells. In vaccine development in general, “if we’ve got a virus that has to go through its life cycle, that happens in cell lines,” Koci says. Many current vaccines, such as those for influenza, hepatitis B and HPV, are grown in nonhuman cell lines and even chicken eggs, bacteria or yeast. But human cell lines are especially useful when working with a new virus, Koci explains. “We don’t know what’s really important” yet in how the coronavirus replicates, he says. There’s no guarantee that a nonhuman cell line will work immediately. Over a few years of work, Koci says, a COVID-19 vaccine might be developed that could be grown in yeast or chicken eggs. But we don’t have years. “We want to make [the system] look as [much like] a human cell as we can.” This is where immortal cell lines come in. HEK-293 cells, for example, are especially useful for vaccine work, Rasmussen explains. It’s easy to put new viral genes in them, she says, and once they have the genes inside, HEK-293 cells can pump out large amounts of viral protein — exactly what’s needed to help people develop an immune response. HeLa are also relatively easy to work with. They can be used to analyze how the coronavirus enters cells to hijack their machinery, for example. “It’s great to have them in the arsenal,” Rasmussen says. But, she says, it’s important to “think about their origins.” What are some of the moral or ethical issues associated with cell lines such as HEK-293 and HeLa? No matter what cell line is used, ethical questions will need to be answered. Cell lines derived from animals have all the ethical complications associated with animal research. But in the case of fetal cells, some anti-abortion groups are opposed to using anything that involves fetal cell lines anywhere in its development. The basis for the objection comes down to the idea that if you use anything derived from an abortion, you are in some small way complicit in the abortion itself. Fetal cell lines have been widely used in basic science and clinical medicine for decades, says Nicholas Evans, a bioethicist at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. “Chances are if you have had a medical intervention in this country or pretty much any other country, you have benefited from the use of these cell lines in some way.” Catholics got permission in 2005 and 2017 from the Vatican’s Pontifical Academy for Life to get vaccines that use historical fetal cell lines, if no alternatives are available. “The reason is that the risk to public health, if one chooses not to vaccinate, outweighs the legitimate concerns about the origins of the vaccine,” Evans explains. Of course, many people who are anti-abortion are not Catholic, and not all Catholics agree. In the case of HeLa cells, the ethical problems began the day the cells were taken from Lacks, who was never told that her cells might be used for experimentation. “There was no informed consent. She wasn’t aware, and her family wasn’t aware,” says Yolonda Wilson, a bioethicist at Howard University in Washington, D.C. “The use of this Black woman’s body has I think contributed to a kind of cultural memory of mistrusting health institutions among Black folks,” she says. “It’s not this one-off … it’s a larger narrative of disrespecting Black patients, using Black people and Black bodies in experiments.” In 2010, science writer Rebecca Skloot wrote a book about Lacks’ story. Since then, Wilson says, “Johns Hopkins University, at least, seems to recognize the ethical issues involved and [is] taking steps to repair some of the damage that has been done.” The university has worked closely with members of Lacks’ family to create scholarships, awards and symposiums about medical ethics. The university will also be constructing a building to be named in Lacks’ honor. But Wilson notes that damage still remains in the broader Black community. How should those ethical issues be taken into account in COVID-19 vaccine development? There’s no avoiding immortal cell lines. “Certainly I would expect they would be involved in some of the work, directly or not” in any vaccine that comes out, Rasmussen says. Even though HeLa cells or HEK-293 cells might not be used in the production of a particular COVID-19 vaccine, they are being used as scientists work to understand the virus. Some knowledge gained from those cell lines will go into a vaccine, at the very least. But for HeLa cells in particular, Wilson says, there’s an opportunity for restorative justice. Given the disproportionate effects of the virus among Black people in the United States due to underlying health conditions and jobs that may expose them more to the virus (SN: 4/10/20), “special effort should be made to ensure that Black people are vaccinated once we know that this is safe,” she says. Latino people have been similarly hard-hit by COVID-19. Wilson also notes that it’s an opportunity to help researchers think more about the history and context of their work. “It’s important not to act as though the science that happens is divorced from the communities in which it happens.” The world is waiting anxiously for a COVID-19 vaccine. But as work to make a vaccine goes on, scientists need to think about the materials they use and why, Rasmussen says. “I think probably more [scientists] think about HeLa cells in this way,” she explains. “Many of us have read Skloot’s excellent book.” But that doesn’t mean that scientists could, or should, stop using HeLa cells entirely. In the end, she says, “you’re going to use the cell type that’s right for the experiment.” Wilson agrees. Ethical considerations are not about weighing an ethical approach against the need to save lives. “That’s false framing,” she says. “It’s not: Be ethical or save lives. Ethics should guide us in thinking how to save lives.”

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Would you like to multiply your genealogy research and preservation efforts? As a parent, do you need tips in bringing out the best in your children? Could you improve your interactions with colleagues? If you answered yes to any of these questions, you’ll want to discover the world of multipliers and diminishers and how it relates to family history work. Multipliers begins with this quote: It has been said that after meeting with the great British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, you left feeling he was the smartest person in the world, but after meeting with his rival Benjamin Disraeli, you left thinking you were the smartest person. (Bono)¹ Have you ever helped someone one-on-one with their family history and at the end of the session, they remarked how smart your were instead of feeling how smart they were? If so, you might be an accidental diminisher, someone with good intentions who unknowingly keeps others from fulfilling their potential. We all have Accidental Diminisher moments. The secret to the Multiplier effect is knowing what your vulnerabilities are, spotting them in action, and turning these situations into Multiplier moments.² What then is a multiplier? Someone with a growth mindset, who recognizes that intelligence is continually developing. A multiplier thinks, “people are smart, they’ll figure it out.” Although Multipliers was written as a guide to business leaders, applications to the family setting and to working with others on family history abound. In the book Liz details five types of multipliers: the Talent Magnet, the Liberator, Challengers, Debate Makers, and the Investor. Here is my take on each type with an application to family history work. The Talent Magnet The Talent Magnet finds the native genius in an individual and then names that genius. He also super sizes that genius by giving the individual a task or assignment that will require some stretching. How could this apply to family history? Think of the geniuses you have in your family – musicians, artists, writers, computer whizzes, analysts, etc. Identify their genius, then involve them in a family history task using their talent. I recently asked my computer whiz son to take my raw DNA from AncestryDNA, compare it to my mother’s DNA, and extract my unique matches so I could narrow down my dad’s line. Unfortunately my dad passed away before I could test his DNA and this was the next best thing to determining his DNA matches. My computer whiz wrote a little computer program, put all the data in a beautiful spreadsheet and saved me hours and hours of time. The Liberator listens more and talks less. She gives people space to discover and space to make mistakes and learn from them. She demands people’s best work. Do you sometimes program too much of family history; giving set tasks or showing people what to do every step of the way. Have you ever been guilty of grabbing the computer mouse and just doing it yourself when teaching a newbie? Combat this diminisher tendency by asking lots of questions, listening much more than you talk. For example, when looking at a census online with someone, let them discover what the columns mean. I created the Finding Franklin census activity for youth just for this purpose. Youth are given a sheet with questions about Franklin Delano Roosevelt that can be answered in the census records. As they search, they begin to learn how useful census research can be. Guided discovery is the best way to learn. The Challenger encourages others to take on the impossible in a big way. If your family gets the assignment to create an engaging family history activity for the family reunion, do you think of all the ideas, then give assignments? Or do you brainstorm with your family members, listening, and giving credence to all the ideas. Debate makers define the questions. They look at all of the evidence of a brick wall problem, then form a team to assemble the data. When the team comes together, the debate maker sparks the debate where all findings are discussed, then a decision is made together. Do you tend to make decisions for your organization yourself, or do you enlist everyone’s opinions, have a discussion, then make a decision together? Family history includes lots of brick walls: any problem that seems impossible to solve. Rather than giving up or just making a decision that your guess is correct, what about asking other family members to take a look at the evidence and have a discussion? You could also utilize an online forum or form your own research group. Several years ago, I was asked to be part of a Royston research group. Each of us had been researching the same family, trying to connect to our common ancestor, Thomas Royston born 1610. We emailed documents, opinions, and ultimately did a Y-DNA test to further our work. Without that research group, I’d still be researching in my own little corner of the world, not sure if I was correct in my assumptions or not. With the help of the group, I was able to connect my Texas Roystons to Thomas Royston, the earliest Virginia settler. The Investor gives ownership of a task and backs up people with the resources needed to complete that task. He teaches and coaches when needed and holds people accountable for their work. The opposite of an investor is the micromanager. Have you ever given a child a household job to do, then proceeded to hover over them as they did the job? An investor will give a task back that’s not done adequately, encouraging excellence. The key is to give complete ownership, provide any help or backup, and expect a job well done. What if something fails? It’s okay to let it happen, but talk about it, and focus on the next opportunity to succeed. We all learn from our failures. In our family history work, we have so much on our plate, why not enlist the aid of everyone in planning the next family reunion? Could your teenagers create a video for the family reunion? Would a young adult couple make a game for the children? We planned an ancestor skit night at our last family reunion and asked each nuclear family to perform a skit. Some were more polished than others, but giving complete ownership of the skits to the families proved to be a good experience for all of us. Thoughts from Liz Wiseman Nicole and I met Liz Wiseman at RootsTech 2017 when she spoke on Rookie Smarts. I was impressed with her research and unique insights into leadership. After reading Multipliers, I reached out to Liz with a few questions and she graciously shared these insights. How has researching multipliers changed you? I am less interested in assessing whether or not someone is a good leader (a multiplier) or a bad leader (a diminisher), but more interested in understanding what provokes and surfaces our inner diminisher. I see good leadership not as a set of characteristics, but as a collection of moments. Great leadership is about creating as many multiplier moments around you as you can. And, if you lead like a multiplier by rule, people around you will forgive you for being a diminisher by exception. What is the first step someone should take in becoming a multiplier? The one thing we would suggest you do is to ask really insightful and interesting questions that make people think. This is a practical step and it applies across all of the disciplines. For example, whether you are trying to become a Liberator, a Challenger, or a Debate Maker, asking insightful and interesting questions will get you started down the correct path. So, if you are looking to build one skill, start with questions. If you want to work on one assumption, we would suggest trying “People are smart and will figure it out.” One way to do this is ask, “How is this person smart?” That one question can interrupt any tendencies to judge people in a binary fashion and can work like a fast pass into the Technicolor world where Multipliers live. (Multipliers, FAQ p. 309) How does the concept of multipliers and diminishers relate to parenting? In my research studying the best business managers, I too have noticed an interesting crossover – their leadership profile is remarkably similar to that of great parents: Both set high expectations, offer stretch challenges, give people space to think and act independently, but hold others accountable. Of course, the opposite holds true as well; the worst leaders (both at work and at home) either coddle their people or operate through fear, blame, manipulation and micromanagement. These similarities exist because parenthood is perhaps the purest form of leadership. After all, you can’t fire your kids, and they don’t “report” to you. Once they can escape the crib or outrun you, it’s difficult to compel them to compliance. Rather, they must voluntarily follow your lead. This requires parents to exert influence while exercising control sparingly. (from an article to be published for Mother’s Day in Fortune.) Summing it all up In our lifetime, we will play many roles: family historians, parents, and employees to name a few. We will all be thrust into leadership roles many times in our lives. If we can learn to be multipliers instead of diminishers, just think what we can accomplish. We can utilize the geniuses in our family. We can ask more questions. We can challenge someone to do something difficult. We can debate tough problems. We can give complete ownership of a task. In short, we can multiply the efforts of our existing resources – our family, friends, and associates. Best of luck in becoming a family history multiplier! ¹ Bono, “The 2009 Time 100: ‘The World’s Most Influential People,” Time, May 11, 2009 as quoted by Liz Wiseman, Multipliers: How the Best Leaders Make Everyone Smarter, (New York: HarperCollins, 2017), 1. 2 Wiseman, Multipliers, 193.

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After nearly a month, I owe it to this series to put the English wars in the context of the greater Reformation in Europe. I’ll write this with the assumption that the reader has some very basic knowledge on who Martin Luther is as this is not intended as an introductory piece on Luther’s biographical details. Luther’s Reformation begins anywhere from 1517 to 1521 depending on how you frame it, but regardless this is a long way off from our target dates of 1620-1660 for this blog series. This gap is the focus of this particular article, where I want to highlight how the conservatism of Luther’s writings likely played a role in limiting the scope and progress of the Reformation in the 16th Century. Probably any student of Christianity or Early Modern Europe will be familiar with the more provocative quotes from Luther like the following: Faith alone is the saving and efficacious use of the word of God…. The word of God cannot be received and cherished by any works whatever but only by faith. Therefore it is clear that, as the soul needs only the word of God for its life and righteousness, so it is justified by faith alone and not any works; for if it could be justified by anything else, it would not need the word, and consequently it would not need faithThe Freedom of a Christian Man. Luther, 1520; ed. Harold J Grimm, 1957. Likely the central message from any introductory class on Luther and Protestantism. The occasional political scientist will dust off quotes similar to this one for a class on the “origins of modern democracy”, highlighting Luther as the philosophical catalyst for Europeans to begin en masse to reject the Medieval social order. I won’t be focusing on the many reasons why the Medieval world came to an end during this period, but I’ll simply name drop the New World, the Black Death, the Printing Press, or the Peasants’ Revolts to be equally cliched myself. What I am interested in, though, is examining the tone of a few of Luther’s earlier texts and how it contrasts with the common image of Luther as a model revolutionary, however radical Protestantism would later become. In fact, Luther equivocates throughout his early works, not just The Freedom of a Christian Man. He opens with his strongest messaging, almost in the style of a modern provocateur, declaring his Christian man as both “perfectly free…subject to none” but paradoxically a “servant…subject to all”. However, he always tacks back later in his pamphlets with very different language: You will ask, “If all who are in the church are priests, how do these whom we no call priests differ from laymen?” … Holy Scripture makes no distinction between them, although it gives the name “ministers,” “servants,” “stewards” to those who are now proudly called popes, bishops and [feudal] lords and who should according to the ministry of the word serve others and teach them the faith of Christ and the freedom of believers. Although we are all equally priests, we cannot all publicly minister and teach. Or as he puts here with very little subtlety: Finally, something must be added for the sake of those for whom nothing can be said so well that they will not spoil it by misunderstanding it [the power of faith]. It is questionable whether they will understand even what will be said here. There are very many who, when they hear of this freedom of faith, immediately turn it into an occasion for the flesh and think that now all things are allowed them. They want to show that they are free men and Christians only by despising and finding fault with ceremonies, traditions, and human laws; as if they were Christians because on stated days they do not fast or eat meat when others fast…. Luther’s conclusion to The Freedom of the Christian Man includes an extended section dealing with the inevitable disagreements on the nature of ceremony and tradition where he spends roughly equal page space addressing the ‘radical’ and the ‘conservative’ points of view; e.g. when is it okay to disobey traditional authority and when must the “free” Christian submit? The theme is consistent across these quotations: Luther’s Reformation according to Luther should not be a wholesale reinvention of European society from top to bottom. More personally, Luther writing this does not explicitly depict himself as overthrowing the Pope as the head of Christianity nor the various feudal lords of Central Europe, and that seems intentional. Most discussions on the Reformation will be sure to cover this last point at the very least. It’s worth looking further. Luther published another short pamphlet in 1523 entitled On Governmental Authority in which he further explored what he perceived to be the proper relationship between the lay people and governments be them burghs or kingdoms. He opens the pamphlet immediately with an explanation that he is writing this purposefully so that no one can argue that Luther’s theories exclude civil authority from a Christian world. In a similar style to his previous works, he grounds his main theological points firmly in biblical passages, mostly from the New Testament. An interesting sidebar here is this exposes a key perspective on the Reformation and how society was changing at its very roots. Luther himself was originally enrolled as a law student before eventually dropping out and focusing specifically on theology. The overlap of those professions in the period exposes a feature of this period. Although law as its own profession had existed for over two hundred years by the time Luther came of age, there was a great deal of overlap with legalistic minds and theological minds. In many ways, this reflects Medieval society in general, something that was to break down over the two hundred year period from 1500-1700. The most memorable takeaway from Luther’s On Governmental Authority is the “Two Kingdoms” theory. Roughly put, Luther divides the world into two groups, Christians and non-Christians, and makes some arguments based on biblical references to argue that while Christians have no need for laws, non-Christians do and therefore both laws and governments need to exist to manage them. Something important to remember here is that Luther’s “non-Christians” include professed Christians who do not live what Luther considers to be “true” Christian lives. This is a convenient logical turn that allows Luther to argue that true Christians are not overly-concerned with the profane while defending the traditional authorities that he seems to want to guard against destructive impulses within the Reformation. Whether he slips into his next argument or intended it in his “Two Kingdoms” introduction, Luther moves on to build a sanctioned excuse for not only acquiescence to civil authority, but active and zealous participation in Christian governments across Europe. He bases this in the concept of charitable action for the benefit of others rather than oneself: Here the other proposition applies, that you are under obligation to serve and assist the [state] by whatever means you can, with body, goods, honor, and soul. For it is something which [Christians] do not need, but which is very beneficial and essential for the whole world and for your neighbor. Therefore, if you see that there is a lack of hangmen, constables, judges, lords, or princes…you should offer your services…. Here is the reason why you should do this: In such a case you would be entering entirely into the service and work of others, which would be of advantage neither to yourself nor your property, or honor, but only to your neighbor and to others.On Governmental Authority. Martin Luther, 1523. ed. Hans J. Hillberbrand, 1968. This is advocacy against anarchy at least and could be viewed as overt religious support for the state. We can imagine why Luther might insert this passage, but it does seem to be a very convenient official stance for kings, dukes, and counts in Europe to take. After all, that happens to preserve the convenient power-sharing arrangement the First and Second Estates traditionally wielded against the Third. Modern readers should remember that rulers and state officials were just as notorious in the late Medieval period as they are now for corruption, profiteering, and skulduggery. Luther takes an openly obliging position on the privilege of the ruling class by shamelessly claiming that service to the state could never bolster one’s property nor honor. Luther ends the first section of his pamphlet and opens the second section, entitled “Part Two How Far Does Temporal Authority Extend”, where he begins to deal with the question of where the limits of state power lie and how those limits interact the power of the Church and of God. Luther enters what must be described as a heated invective at both the Church and nobility in his opening paragraphs. He accuses feudal lords of “heaping tax upon tax and tribute upon tribute” and the Church of “heaping alien sin upon themselves and incur[ing] the hatred of God, and man, until they come to ruin…”; hardly a resounding recommendation. The reader should take note, though, that Luther spends most of this criticism focused on lords who attempt to legislate either against the owning of translated Bibles or directly in favor of the Pope. Likewise his criticism of the Church centers around similar topics. Luther is very concerned with state overreach into religious matters and in some ways is arguing for an early separation between the Church and the state itself, but only in so much as he believes the Christian Church to be the ultimate authority on Earth. The modern reader cannot mistake his words here as support for post-Enlightenment secular values; see this rather as arguing for state recognition of the independence of the Church in affairs relating to God, as defined by Luther apparently. Luther chastises Germany’s lords again in Friendly Admonition to Peace concerning the Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants published in 1525. Set against the backdrop of a Peasants’ Revolt against their lords regarding taxation and religious worship (quite common during this period), Luther addresses both the lords and the peasants in turn. His first section written to the lords is mostly wrist-slap language, speaking about honor and the grace of God. He speaks as a peer to them later about individual Articles put forth by the peasants, backing them in principle, but ultimately appealing to his audience’s lordly sense of equity. In his address to the peasants, Luther takes a mostly sympathetic tone to the principle of the revolt (the spread of the Lutheran Church), but uses very telling language to advocate for nonviolence, The fact that the rulers are wicked and unjust does not excuse tumult and rebellion, for to punish wickedness does not belong to everybody, but to the worldly rulers who bear the sword…. Now you cannot deny that your rebellion proceeds in such a way that you make yourselves your own judges, and avenge yourselves, and are unwilling to suffer any wrong. That is contrary not only to Christian law and the gospel, but also to natural law and all equity….Friendly Admonition to Peace concerning the Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants. Martin Luther, 1525. ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand, 1968. And in another shocking statement of strange teleological basis, It is true that the rulers do wrong when they suppress the gospel and oppress you in temporal things; but you do much more wrong when you not only suppress God’s word, but tread it underfoot, and invade His authority and His law, and put yourselves above God. Besides, you take from the rulers their authority and right; nay, all that they have. For what have they left, when they have lost their authority? Here Luther speaks even more clearly with respect to the so-called ‘temporal’ authorities, namely the feudal lords. This echoes Luther’s vision of the role of the “stewards” from The Freedom of the Christian Man but depicted at length. He gives what reads almost as a blanket concession for ducal law at least within Germany, couched within a weak appeal for feudal justice based on Christian values. Luther lays out his would-be prescription for lordly behavior mostly on a good-faith basis. Lords are left to their own devices with an almost explicit honor code, although the resulting grey area is completely unaddressed by Luther. Perhaps he was thinking about this within the context of his “good men who produce good works” argument, which gives him some logical consistency even if he still lacks what to us seems common sense. People are flawed and will continue to be flawed and that includes lords as well despite their professed faith. So why? Maybe Luther had a slow ratchet of progress planned in his mind, but maybe he didn’t and simply found himself surrounded by controversy. Perhaps this was an attempt to placate existing elites for protection from staunch Catholic allies? Was this an attempt to cynically create a Protestant ‘bloc’ with Luther himself as a sort of first-citizen Pope of a new Christian order? It’s hard to say, but I think it’s important to remind ourselves that the Reformation was from the very start a radical movement that tried it’s hardest at times to be as conservative as possible and this holds true for Britain as well as Germany. From a modern perspective his tone may seem underwhelming; we’ve become accustomed to ‘heroes’ of change and progress who take a vocal stance opposing the status quo. We openly applaud this as a cultural value. Luther’s tone sets the stage for the strange conservatism of England’s own Reformation which should be kept in context as we examine the minds of the Puritans. The shrill call for further Reformation that characterizes the pre-Civil War period fits as a collective response to a century of delayed decisions by the existing powers represented ultimately by King Charles, Archbishop Laud, and the Church of England.

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Born in an aboriginal Atayal tribe named Mihu. Went to Tungshih Junior High School, where he was often discriminated due to his aboriginal identity. During this period, he read extensively the poetry by Chou Meng-tieh, Yu Guangzhong, and Yang Mu, and composed his first modern poem. He started to pay attention to the life of the lower class in society after learning about Wu Cheng’s poetry. (Note：Photograph provide by Walis Nokan; Walis Nokan (the first from the right) in his third year in the college) “Mihuo: Record of the Land” Award Acceptance Speech In these last few years, I have been gradually enlightened through the myths and legends of old men, while my dreams have also begun to slowly take shape. For example: Returning to the tribe to establish a children’s library; compose volume after volume of fairy tales passed down through tribal oral tradition; open up my home for people to come and chat; inviting tribespeople to come tell stories by the fireplace at night; regularly asking elders to speak about their life histories…Oh, you’re asking me about winning the award! The prizemoney can help to start realize a little dream of mine to build a library for tribal children. It’s not the type with air-conditioned rooms, but one with flowers and grass, with trees and dirt, a library that can cultivate dreams in the hearts of children. If you like it, come and find me! (Note：Photograph provide by Cheng Sheng-yi) According to the rule of Atayal naming. “Losin Wadan: Colonialism, Ethnicity and Self” Award Acceptance Speech In this year of field research into tribesmen during the “White Terror” era; amid the back-and-forth journey between Central, Northern, Hualien, Taitung and Southern Taiwan; and while combing through those memories and years tribespeople cannot bear to discuss the most—I understood: This was a journey of enlightenment and growth for me. I have never forgotten; I was in my early 20s at the time. The tribe elder who was captured and imprisoned for being bent on safeguarding the dignity of the tribe—40 years later, the white hair on his head still refuses to lie down, a manifestation of his soaring will. The elder said: “We are from Pinsbuohang (the mythical origins of the Atayals, meaning ‘Cause stone to break’). Our ancestors passed through hardships and broke through stone to come into this world. Remember: We Atayals are the children of stone-breakers!” After writing “Losin Wadan”, I know very well that this is just the first step toward breaking the stone. Learning and reminiscing the spirit of our ancestors has always been the goal I and this generation of tribespeople have been working toward. “Have You Seen the Rainbow Bridge?” Award Acceptance Speech Cinema has always had the convention of “paying tribute” to classic films. “Have You Seen the Rainbow Bridge?” is a tribute to Su Tong’s “The Completion of a Ritual”, much like how my prose poetry over the past year have been repeated tributes to Su Tong. In this perspective, some of the boundlessness of literature can perhaps be gleaned from my indigenous identity. If we interpret the state of Taiwan’s Northern and Southern literature in this way, then perhaps mutual questioning, research, and more introspection and sympathy will be able to slowly smooth out “ideological” debates. I personally believe so. Accordingly, when I enter into various literature competitions carrying works touted as “indigenous literature”, it is actually no longer about winning prizes; what is important is the impact on all sorts of ideological literature hegemony. Thus, the judges’ positive reaction to “Have You Seen the Rainbow Bridge?” is actually a progressive testimony to the fact that the garden of Taiwan’s literature diversity is equipped with the soil of growth, allowing us to see the world through the point of view and perspective of another window. I also hope readers will be able to “see” in “Have you Seen the Rainbow Bridge” a spiritual world of indigenous peoples that is on the brink of distress, and through sympathy and introspection, adjust our views toward this group of people. (Note：Photograph provide by Cheng Sheng-yi) “Seven-Day Reading ” Award Acceptance Speech: A Journey Forged Through Suffering “Seven-Day Reading” depicts the plight of Native Americans. It is also a response to the tribe I call home. This is a journey forged through suffering—as is the case with history, this writing also suffered through the fate of multiple rejections. Fortunately, the judges saw the faint glow within and allowed it to take flight from the murky files, showing that even a faint light can shoot straight to people’s hearts. (Note：Photograph provide by Cheng Sheng-yi) The first aboriginal poet represent Taiwan for this event. (Note：Photograph provide by Embajada de la República de China (Taiwan) en Nicaragua) (Note：Photograph provide by Centre culturel de Taïwan à Paris) Entered Tungshih Junior High School Entered the Taiwan Provincial Junior Teachers College in Taichung (current National Taichung University of Education) Joined the Comet Poets Society Published a prose on the 37th issue of the magazine Mindao Literature & Art Military service in Kinmen Began to publish his works under the pseudonym Liu Ao Rise of ethnic consciousness His work “Amaryllis” was included in the annual collection of poetry by Elite Books Becoming a member of the Labor Party in Taiwan Establishment of the Aboriginal Post Change his name to Walis Nokan and started to write and publish works under this aboriginal name Establishment of the Hunter Culture Magazine His poem “Concerning Atayal” won the 1992 poetry annual award from the Modern Poetry Society Founded the Research Center for Humanities of Taiwan’s Aboriginal Peoples "Mihuo: Record of the Land" won the Jury Prize from the 16th China Times Literary Award Returned to his tribe to teach and renamed himself as Walis Nokan “Losin Wadan: Colonialism, Ethnicity and Self” won the First Prize for Non-ficition Novel from the 17th China Times Literary Award Missing My People won the 5th Chen Xiu-Xi Poetry Award “He Makes Another Survey” won the Jury Prize for the 19th Modern Chinese Poetry from China Times Literary Award “Atayal (War, 1896-1930)” won the First Prize for Modern Poetry from the first Taiwan Literature Award “Have You Seen the Rainbow Bridge?” won the Newcomer Prize for Fiction from the 12th Unitas Literature Award Helped with post-921 earthquake reconstructions Published the novel series Brutal Wars Went to Japan for the Taiwan and Japan International Exchange Symposium “Seven-Day Reading” [Qiridu] won the Prose Prize from the 33th Unitas Literature Award “School for Little Poems” won Modern Chinese Poetry Prize from the Wu Zhuo-liu Literature Award Invited to attend the 11 Festival Internacional de Poesía de Granada in Nicaragua Published the French version of the poem collection Mountain of Dream [Shanyoumeng] （Taichung: Morning Star Publishing Inc.，1999） （Taichung: Taiwan Aborigines Humanities Research Center，1993） Established in 2016, Walis Nokan Digital Archive was funded by the National Museum of Taiwan Literature and constructed by the digital team at the National Chung Hsing University. With an introduction written by the writer himself, the archive presents the aboriginal writer Walis Nokan’s life and literature development with the technique of Timeline JS and contains detailed information, foreign translations, online reading of his works as well as related audio, video and research sources, showing the significance of the writer’s historical data and digital curating of Taiwanese literature. For online reading, the archive provides both the English and Chinese versions of the works “Ino’s Second Survey on the Spot,” “Atayal,” and “Journey of Mist” with the writer’s oral reading to enrich multi-media interpreting experience. We would like to express gratitude to the following people who helped construct this archive: Taipei Chinese PEN, Embassy of the Republic of China in Nicaragua, Taiwan Cultural Center in Paris, Indigenous Peoples Cultural Foundation, Tzu Chi Culture and Communication Foundation, Professor Tu Kuo-ching (UC Santa Barbara, USA) Professor Maghiel van Crevel ( Chinese Language and Literature Department, Leiden University, Netherlands), Dr. Wei Yi–Chun ( Department of Sinophone Literatures, National Dong Hwa University) English translators Fran Lee Chieh-Hsi and Howard Shih Hsiung-hao, Mr. Chen Che-Wei, and Mr. Cheng Sheng-Yi. The digital team at NCHU includes Dr. Chiu Kuei-fen, digital assistant Hung Chien-mei, and the web chief-editor Hsu Kuo-ming, a Ph.D. student in the Department of Chinese Literature at NCHU . All ownership rights, copyright and intellectual property in the materials on this website, including the content, words, sounds, and images, belong to or have been legally approved for use by the National Museum of Taiwan Literature (NMTL). Those seeking to download, copy, change, distribute, publicly release or use the material in any other way must first acquire the consent of NMTL. NMTL reserves all legal rights for unauthorized use. Meet the team Consultant: Walis Nokan Web content editor: Hsu Kuo-ming Web designer: Yoong Jun-yao , and Hung Chien-mei English website translator: Fran Lee Chieh-Hsi and Howard Shih Hsiung-hao

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To Really Appreciate Louis Armstrong’s Trumpet, You Gotta Play it. Just Ask Wynton Marsalis One of the standout musical artifacts to go on view at the National Museum of African American History and Culture when it opens this fall is the elegant 70-year-old brass trumpet from Louis Armstrong. One of dozens he played through his five decades of performing, it came to life when Armstrong played it. “Satchmo,” as he was known, was not only one of the most popular musicians of the 20th century, he also helped steer jazz to a new direction—one of inventive soloing, done with a heart that connected to millions. Blending popular song with the blues and an unerring assurance and tone, Armstrong is credited with helping shape the distinctly American art form. “He is the beginning and end of music in America,” Bing Crosby once said. “You can’t play anything on a horn that Louis hasn’t played,” Miles Davis said. Writer Nat Hentoff has said: “I have never known a distinctive jazz music who was not dedicated to his instrument, but none made his horn the constant center of his being as intensely as Louis did.” As Armstrong put it: “When I pick up that horn, that’s all. The world’s behind me, and I don’t feel no different about that horn now than I did when I was playing in New Orleans. That’s my living and my life. I love them notes. That’s why I try to make them right.” Armstrong was born in New Orleans August 4, 1901—not July 4, 1900, as he often boasted—in a poor part of the city, the grandson of slaves. He tooted a tin horn working on a junk wagon, before earning enough money to play his first horn. “I kept that horn for a long time. I played it all through the days,” he recalled in a memoir. When he shot his stepfather’s pistol on New Year’s Eve on a dare, Armstrong, at 13, was arrested and sent to a reform school where he learned some horn skills from a teacher there. While still in his teens, he got into the band of his hero, Joe “King” Oliver, transplanting him to Chicago and then New York, where he had become a sensation in 1925, changing jazz from its syncopation to true sophistication. “No one knew what swing was till Louis came along,” trumpeter Max Kaminsky said. Armstrong’s success continued through the century, until he became one of the first African-Americans to host his own national radio show, and was a frequent guest on TV and in musicals, one of which, Hello Dolly gave him a No. 1 hit that knocked the Beatles out of the top spot for the first time in three months, and won the Grammy for song of the year. And though Armstrong funded Civil Rights movement efforts and supported it, some activists saw him as being part of the old guard. “I grew up knowing who he was,” Wynton Marsalis says. “I didn’t necessarily like his music, because I grew up in the Civil Rights era and the post-Civil Rights era and we felt like he was an Uncle Tom, always smiling with a handkerchief. His image was not something that was popular at that time. So I didn’t discover his real genius until I was 18.” Marsalis was part of a storied New Orleans family led by teacher and pianist Ellis Marsalis and at age 14 played traditional jazz with the New Orleans Philharmonic, becoming at age 17, the youngest musician admitted to Tanglewood’s Berkshire Music Center. Still, he wasn’t a fan of Armstrong until his father sent him a tape. “He had been telling me for years, ‘Man, you need to learn about Pops.’” Marsalis says. So he listened. “‘Jubilee’ was the name of the song. I tried to learn that song one night when I was 18 and I couldn’t make it through the song,” he says. “We thought back then that if you played fast and did a lot of fancy things like Freddie Hubbard played, that you were a good trumpet player. Louis Armstrong played more straight notes. It wasn’t considered difficult.” “But when I tried to learn one of his solos, just the endurance it took, let alone the type of soul and feeling he was playing with, it was revelatory for me. And then I began to study his music.” The previously resistant Marsalis spent the rest of his teens listening to the early records. “Before that time, being from New Orleans, we didn’t follow New Orleans jazz. We grew up with it around us, but we were largely ignorant with what it meant culturally,” Marsalis says. “Even with a father that was fairly well informed, I managed to remain ignorant.” That all changed when he heard and studied the music. “I love him,” Marsalis says of Armstrong. “And being a trumpet player, it was not hard to study the greatest trumpet player ever. “If you love jazz, you have to love him,” he says. “It’s like a classical musician talking about Bach and Beethoven’s music. They’re the foundation of a lot of good music, so it’s only natural that a jazz musician would be interested in the foundation of his style.” Naturally, he was interested when he was invited to play the Smithsonian’s Armstrong horn on the occasion of the installation of Smithsonian’s 13th director, David J. Skorton, in a ceremony last fall, accompanied by the Smithsonian Jazz Masterworks Orchestra. “It sounded better than I thought it would sound,” Marsalis says of the historic instrument. “In terms of music, his horn sounded good because of him. When he’s not playing, you don’t think you’re going to pick up Louis Armstrong’s trumpet and sound like him.” Although Armstrong played dozens of instruments, the Smithsonian’s horn, made by Henri Selmer of Paris is among only a few to be inscribed with his name. It was ordered in 1940 by his friend and manager Joe Glaser. A correspondence from Glaser to the Selmer instrument company dated Feb. 22, 1946 noted that Armstrong had been using a Selmer trumpet manufactured in 1932 and wanted “an exact duplicate.” Armstrong said once he went through trumpets fairly regularly. “I give my horns about five years. Of course I look after them, run hot water through the instrument every night so you know it’s going to percolate.” “It will last forever if you keep it cleaned out, like your stomach,” Armstrong said. “So I could keep my trumpets longer, but I use a horn a lot and that’s how long I usually give ‘em.” The ’46 Selmer, acquired by the Smithsonian in 2008, did hold up, allowing Marsalis to get a bright sound out of it nearly seven decades later. “It was a great playing instrument. It played fantastically,” Marsalis says. “I really enjoyed it.” It’s not often he plays a museum object, but Marsalis said he was cautious with it. “When you play anybody else’s horn, you’re always careful,” he says. “Like when you take care of somebody else’s kids, you’re going to be definitely more careful than you are with your own. But it’s not like I’m doing that much with it. I’m just going to play it. The horn was not in danger.” There was some adjustments he had to make, however. “I didn’t have a mouthpiece to play with it, because on my horn, the mouthpiece is connected to the horn,” Marsalis says. “So one of the members of the band gave me a mouthpiece and I played it with another mouthpiece. Which gave me a little bit of challenge.” Still, Marsalis, a nine-time Grammy winner who wrote the first jazz piece to win a Pulitzer, says he usually plays a Selmer trumpet as well—and like, Armstrong, he gives his instruments away after about five years as well. “I didn’t know that’s what he did too, but that’s generally what I do,” he says. There were some preparations needed to make the horn playable, says Dwandalyn Reece, culture curator for the museum. “The trumpet came to us in pretty good condition,” Reece says, though she added, “It wasn’t playable when it got here. And there was some treatment to put it in that condition.” A conservator and tuner were brought in to deal with some of the trumpet’s issues, says Renee Anderson, the museum’s head of collections. “There was a lacquer coating on it to help prevent tarnish. We looked to see if there were any spots where the lacquer impacted the valves,” Anderson says. “There were areas where the valves were a little sticky so we wanted to make sure they would flow freely.” Playing an historic instrument from the museum’s collection was a first, says Reece. But musical instruments are different than other historic items in the collection, she says. “Instruments are interesting things in that their sole purpose in life was to be played and to live in that kind of way. The National Museum American History brings out a couple of instruments that get played every once in a while. But it’s a kind of tug of war, between the conservation needs of the object and whether it can be played without any damage.” “There’s a deep philosophy and set of considerations behind playing original, historic instruments in a museum’s collections,” adds John Edward Hasse, the curator of American music at the American History Museum. Hasse notes that John Coltrane’s saxophone was brought out of the collections and played during a concert of the renowned saxophonist’s music. “An instrument exists for one fundamental reason,” Hasse says, “to make music that can be heard.” But it’s a careful balance in preservation and allowing an instrument to achieve its potential, he says. The Armstrong horn passed its test so it could be played by a jazz giant of his own era. “It was exciting to hear it and to see that connection of the generations of this pivotal instrument from this person who was so important not only to jazz, but to American music,” Reece says. By Roger Catlin Source: Smithsonian Magazine

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In this article we will be looking at the different kinds of malware and what they do. When performing static or dynamic malware analysis it is crucial to have a good understanding of the different malware types available so you are able to recognize them and focus your investigation. During static malware analysis the imported DLL’s and functions often tell us a lot about the malware’s intentions and behaviour. For example when malware imports networking functions together with functions to edit the Windows registry and compression functions, we could be dealing with spyware, a downloader malware or a Trojan which executes itself or other malware at start up. In the simplest case of statically imported DLL’s you can use an application like Dependency Walker to find out which functions are used in malware. Further inspection of the DLL’s, functions, PE headers and resources should narrow the possible kinds of malware a lot. Let’s continue to look at the different kinds of malware available and what they exactly do. Adware as malware is malicious software which presents unwanted advertising to the user. This kind of malware often uses pop-up windows which cannot be closed by the user. Adware is often included with free software and browser toolbars. Malware which is also collecting user data, activity and other information for targeted advertising is called spyware. A backdoor is a piece of malicious code which allows an attacker to connect to the infected target and take control of the target machine. In most cases there is no authentication required to log in the remote machine other than authentication methods required by the malware. A backdoor is often generated by a Trojan which goes unnoticed if the host has no effective detection mechanisms. Backdoors can use a lot of methods to communicate home. Also port 80 is commonly used by malware over the HTTP protocol because this port is open on most machines connected to the internet. We will discuss 2 kinds of backdoors; the reverse shell and the Remote Access/Administration Tool (RAT). A reverse shell is a connection initiated from the infected host to the attacker and provides the attacker with a shell access to the host. The reverse shell is often created by a Trojan and functions as a backdoor on the infected host. After the reverse shell has been set up the attacker is able to execute commands as if they were executed locally. There are a couple ways for malware developers to set up a reverse shell. Commonly used methods for reverse shells are Netcat and Windows cmd.exe packaged inside malware. A simple method used by malware using the Windows CMD to set up a reverse shell is to create a socket to establish a connection to the attacker and than tying it to the standard streams (standard input, output and error) for cmd.exe. The cmd.exe is than run with suppressed window to hide it from the victim’s view and can than be used to execute commands on the infected host. RAT – Remote Access Trojan A Remote Access Trojan (RAT), or sometimes called a Remote Administration Tool or Remote Access Tool, is software which allows an attacker to take control of the infected host by the use of a backdoor. We’ll call it a Remote Access Trojan in this article to emphasize the maliciousness of this kind of RAT. We are talking about the malicious RAT’s and not the ones which are used by system administrators or software vendors for remote support and troubleshooting. Remote Access Trojans are often included with free software and send as attachment by e-mail. A botnet is a network of remote controlled private computers with backdoors which are being controlled by a command and control server. All infected hosts in the botnet are controlled as a group and receive the same instructions from the server which is controlled by the attacker. Botnets are often used to send spam, to perform distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks or malware distribution. A browser hijacker is a piece of malicious code developed to control your browser settings like the homepage for example, or the standard search provider. Browser hijackers are often included with free software and browser toolbars and may also contain adware and spyware. Some browser hijackers also change your browser’s proxy settings which compromises your online privacy and safety. Downloader Malware is malicious software which downloads other malicious software. Attackers often infect a machine with downloader malware when they have gained first access to the system. The downloader malware than infects the target machine silently with other malware. Information Stealing Malware Information stealing malware is a collection of malware types which are developed to steal information like credit card numbers, bank account details, account details and other personal information. The collected information is usually send to the attacker who often uses it to gain access to your personal account or to put it up for sale on the deep web. Information stealing malware often comes in the form as keyloggers, password (hash) grabbers and sniffers. The stolen information is often send to a command and control server for further processing. Keylogger malware is a malicious piece of software (or hardware) which records your keystrokes in order to retrieve passwords, conversations and other personal details. The recorded keystrokes are than send to the attacker. A keylogger is a very effective way for attackers to steal passwords because there is no need to crack hashes, decrypt information or to sniff secured connections for passwords. A launcher is a piece of malicious software which is used to launch other malware. This piece of malicious software is often combined with downloader malware. The launcher malware often uses stealthy and unconventional methods to launch other malicious code to avoid detection. Technically speaking all malware which prevents a user from accessing the computer or files and demanding money in exchange for access is called ransomware. Ransomware often encrypts your hard drive or files and demands money in exchange for the decryption key. This kind of ransomware is also called a crypto locker. After infection the ransomware presents the user some payments methods which can be used to unlock the computer or decrypt the files. If the ransomware or crypto locker will actually unlock your hard drive or files, the decryption keys and payment are often controlled by a command and control server. Ransomware has become increasingly popular over time because it is highly profitable for malware developers. Especially ransomware in combination with anonymous payments methods like bitcoin are making this kind of malware very profitable and lowering the risks of getting caught. Popular ransomware malware is: Cryptolocker, Cryptowall and Tox ransomware which is known as the first ransomware as a service available for everybody through the TOR network. A rootkit is malicious software designed to conceal the existence of other malware. The concealed malware is often a backdoor to provide full access to the attacker or information stealing malware. Rootkits may be hard to detect and remove based on where the rootkit resides. Rootkits on firmware level for example may require hardware replacement and rootkits on kernel level may require a new installation of the operating system. Another dangerous and almost impossible to detect rootkit is the bootkit. The bootkit is a rootkit hidden in the boot sector that infects the Master Boot Record. This kind of rootkit is able to bypass drive encryption for example because the Master Boot Record (MBR) is not encrypted. The MBR contains the decryption software to decrypt the drive. A bootloader is a piece of codes which runs before the operating system does. Scareware is malicious software which forces the victim into purchasing something by frightening him or her. You might call it blackmailing malware too since it often includes embarrassing viruses or files. The most common scareware malware looks like a virus scanner which has detected some viruses which will be removed after the victim has purchased the virus scanner. In reality only the scareware will be removed (hopefully). Scareware often uses scare tactics which will embarrass the victim to avoid that the victim escalates the problem to a system administrator at work or call in professional help for virus removal for example. Because of these tactics a lot of victims will pay for the software to have the virus or other embarrassing materials removed silently. Scareware or blackmailing malware is just like ransomware, very profitable for malware developers. Spam Sending Malware Spam Sending Malware is malicious software which uses the infected machine to send spam. The spam sending malware might be part of a botnet controlled by a command and control server functioning as a distributed spam sending network. Because of the distributed approach there is not a single point of failure, if ¼ of the infected machines are cleaned the other ¾ will keep sending spam mails. Big botnets can send billions of spam messages per week and very often new malware is spread together with the spam messages. Spam sending malware can get you into trouble because ISP’s cut off your internet connection or you e-mail address can be blacklisted so be sure to remove this kind of malware as soon as possible. This type of malware is profitable for malware developers because they can sell the spam sending services. A Trojan or a Trojan horse as malware is a malicious program functioning as a backdoor. Just like the ancient Greek story of the wooden horse with Greek troops inside which was used to invade the city of Troy, a Trojan in computing tends to appear like a regular application, media or any other file but containing a malicious payload. Trojans are often spread through social engineering where the victim is fooled into executing the file or application with the Trojan. Most Trojans contain backdoors which can be used by the attacker to steal information, spread other malware or use the infected machine’s resources in a botnet. Literally anything is possible when infected with a Trojan which was installed or run with elevated privileges. Trojans in computing have been around for a long time, a few old and popular Trojans are: Netbus, SubSeven or Sub7 and Back Orifice or BO in short. A virus is a malicious program which replicates itself into other applications, files or even the boot sector. A virus then can do anything it is programmed to like stealing information, log keystrokes or even render a computer useless. The defining characteristic of a virus lies in the self-replication and insertion of malicious code into other programs without user consent. Just like most other malware a virus is designed for seeking profit. A worm is a piece of malware that replicates itself in order to spread and infect other systems. Computer worms use the network, links, P2P networks, e-mail and exploit vulnerabilities to spread themselves. Often more than one wat is used to spread the worm. The difference with a virus is that a virus inserts code into other programs where a worm does not and replicates only itself. Worms do not necessarily contain a payload but most worms do. Worms can also be designed to only spread without a payload. Malware Analysis Tutorials - Basic Malware Analysis Tools - Dynamic Malware Analysis Tools - Malware Types Explained - Basic Malware Analysis - Advanced Static Malware Analysis - Advanced Dynamic Malware Analysis

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Editor’s note: The following article was written by Christopher Orr. Update (6/18/11): What follows is an updated version of the original article. On May 24, 2011 – the feast of the holy Equals-of-the-Apostles, Sts. Cyril and Methodius, Enlighteners of the Slavs and the name day of Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All-Russia – Metropolitan Jonah (Primate of the Orthodox Church in America) and Metropolitan Hilarion (First Hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia) concelebrated the Divine Liturgy at St. Nicholas Russian Orthodox Cathedral (Moscow Patriarchate) in New York City. This is the first concelebration between the first hierarchs of the Orthodox Church in America (OCA) and the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (ROCOR) in decades. Also concelebrating was Archbishop Justinian of Naro-Fominsk (Administrator of communities in the USA directly under the Moscow Patriarchate), Bishop Tikhon of Philadelphia and Eastern Pennsylvania (OCA) and Bishop Jerome of Manhattan (ROCOR), Igumen (Abbot) Sergius of St. Tikhon’s Monsatery in South Canaan, PA and the former Abbot of the St. Herman of Alaska Monastery in Platina, CA, Archimandrite Gerasim, as well as clergy of the Patriarchal Parishes in the United States, the OCA and ROCOR. By way of background, the OCA and ROCOR have had a stormy relationship since the latter’s formation in 1921. The OCA – known previously as the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church in America, or informally as the “Metropolia” – was the Russian Orthodox diocese for North America established well before the Bolshevik Revolution (1917). ROCOR – informally known as “the Synod”, the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (ROCA), or the “Church Abroad” – saw itself as the duly constituted, representative body of all Russian Orthodox bishops, clergy and laity outside of Soviet Russia based on Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow’s Ukaze (Decree) 362. The ROCOR hierarchy was primarily comprised of refugee bishops, their clergy and faithful fleeing Russia with the “Whites” who had lost the 1917-21 Civil War in Russia to the Bolshevik “Reds”. However, Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky) of the Metropolia and Metropolitan Evlogy (Georgievsky) of the Russian Orthodox diocese of Western Europe saw themselves as more ‘canonically established’ than the refugee bishops who had (uncanonically, but understandably) their dioceses in Russia and were without dioceses abroad. That is, Mets. Evlogy and Platon were bishops resident in their own dioceses whereas the ROCOR hierarchs were bishops of dioceses in Russia, which they were unable to occupy. The Metropolia cooperated with the ROCOR bishops at first but severed relations with them in 1926 citing the Synod’s increasing claims of authority over the more ‘canonically regular’ American diocese. The Synod, for its part, suspended Metropolitan Platon of New York and his clergy for disobedience. However, in 1935, an agreement was signed that normalized relations between the Metropolia and ROCOR, and the Metropolia’s 6th All-American Sobor (1937) affirmed that the Metropolia remained autonomous while reporting to ROCOR in matters of faith. Towards the end of World War II, ROCOR, which had been cooperative with the anti-Soviet forces of Nazi Germany, was forced to move its base of operations from Yugoslavia (the jurisdiction of the Orthodox Church of Serbia) to New York City (the jurisdiction of the Metropolia). In November 1946, soon after the close of WWII (in which America was allied with the USSR against Nazi Germany), the 7th All-American Sobor of the Metropolia (comprised of laity, lower clergy and bishops) met in Cleveland and severed ties with ROCOR so as to attempt a reconciliation with the USSR-based Patriarchate of Moscow whose relations with Stalin’s government were greatly improved (comparatively) during and immediately after WWII. Reconciliation between the Metropolia and Moscow was proposed with the stipulation that the Metropolia be allowed to retain its complete autonomy from the Soviet-dominated Church of Russia. When this condition was not met, the Metropolia continued as a self-governing Church in communion with neither Moscow nor ROCOR. For its part, ROCOR viewed the Moscow Patriarchate as a puppet church controlled by the anti-religious, militantly atheistic Soviet state. ROCOR saw itself as the only free, legitimate part of the Russian Orthodox Church. Some within ROCOR even argued that the Moscow Patriarchate was “without grace”, i.e., no longer Church. ROCOR was constitutionally and culturally opposed to any reconciliation with the Soviet-controlled Moscow Patriarchate. In 1968, the Metropolia and the Moscow Patriarchate again began informal negotiations meant to resolve their long-standing differences. Representatives from the Metropolia sought the right of sacramental independence and episcopal self-governance (autocephaly), as well as the removal of Russian jurisdiction from all matters concerning the American Church. Official negotiations on the matter began in 1969. On April 10, 1970, Patriarch Alexius I of Moscow and fourteen bishops of Moscow’s Holy Synod signed the official Tomos of Autocephaly, which reestablished communion between the two churches and granted the Metropolia complete autocephaly as the newly renamed Orthodox Church in America (OCA), the fifteenth autocephalous Orthodox Church according to Moscow’s reckoning. ROCOR was decidedly against what it viewed to be the OCA’s compromise with a Patriarchate they saw as being either created or controlled by the anti-religious USSR. However, after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the resurgence of free church life in the Russian Church, the canonization of the New Martyrs who suffered under Communism (including Tsar St. Nicholas and his family), repentance over the murder of the royal family, and a general thaw in relations in the first decade of the 21st century, the Russian Orthodox Church – Moscow Patriarchate and the the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia were reconciled in 2007. ROCOR became an autonomous part of the Russian Church. While intercommunion of OCA and ROCOR laity and clergy has occurred following the 2007 reconciliation , full intercommunion between ROCOR and the Metropolia/OCA in the persons of the presidents of their respective Synods had not taken taken place prior to this historic, 2011 Divine Liturgy. “Behold now, what is so good or so joyous as for brethren to dwell together in unity!” (Psalm 132:1) 1. No one seems clear on when ROCOR and OCA/Metropolia bishops last officially (or unofficially) served together in the altar prior to the 2007 reconciliation between Moscow and ROCOR. 2. See the unpublished M.Th. dissertation by Nikolaj L. Kostur, “The Relationship Between the Russian Orthodox Church in North America and the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad from 1920-1950″ (St. Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Seminary, May 2009), pp. 16-18. 3. As noted in a comment by Fr. Andrew Damick, Met. Platon was also a refugee who had abandoned his Russian diocese (Kherson and Odessa) and found refuge in America where he had previously been diocesan hierarch from 1907 to 1914. After his return to America as a refugee and the departure of Abp. Alexander (Nemolovsky) to Europe, Met. Platon was elected and confirmed as head of the Metropolia by Patriarch St. Tikhon. This appointment was rescinded by later decree of Patriarch St. Tikhon that many took to be written under Soviet duress to Soviet political ends. It became increasingly difficult for Russian hierarchs abroad to communicate with the Patriarchate – and to be sure the communications they received were authentic and freely given. This uncertainty and confusion fomented factionalism and chaos within the Church and emigre community abroad – which was the likely the intent of Soviet ‘meddling’. Met. Evlogy was thus the only hierarch resident in his diocese about which there was absolutely no question regarding his canonical standing, though Met. Platon and the other Russian bishops abroad would dissent the point on various, sometimes conflicting grounds. The Russian bishops abroad found themselves in a bit of a canonical ‘no man’s land’ since they viewed themselves as refugees who would return home to Russia rather than as permanent residents abroad (or as missionaries). In some ways, with ROCOR being based in Karlovtsy, Serbia, the Russian bishops were hierarchs of the Serbian Church without traditional, geographically-defined dioceses – that is, except for the bishops of the previously established Russian Orthodox dioceses of Western Europe and North America. This was a confusing time with competing narratives and facts. Time will tell the tale. Thankfully, due to the 1970 reconciliation between the Metropolia and Moscow, the 2007 reconciliation between Moscow and ROCOR, and the 2011 concelebration of ROCOR and the OCA’s first hierarchs the details are now moot outside of academic and historical questions. 4. While not concelebration proper, ROCOR and OCA bishops communed together during the 2010 Episcopal Assembly in New York City. The Liturgy was served by the Dean of Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Cathedral (GOA) alone with the attending bishops communing in the altar. 5. It has been independently confirmed that individual bishops of ROCOR and the OCA have also served together prior to the May 24, 2011 Divine Liturgy, e.g., the enthronement of the OCA’s Met. Jonah (Paffhausen). It should also be noted that simply praying together – in the altar or anywhere – was an important step for ROCOR and OCA bishops given ROCOR’s stance on prayer with heretics and schismatics. The import of these common prayers was not well noted at the time.

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Best Spring Blooming Bulbs for Warm Climates Spring Bulbs, Spring Flowers Several of the fall-planted spring-flowering bulb varieties that mark the end of winter in colder climates can play a role in warm-weather spring gardens too. Most daffodils, some tulips and several other spring-blooming flower bulbs can be grown in areas as warm as Southern California and the Gulf Coast. A warm climate has the following characteristics: - Temperatures can drop to around -5ºC (23ºF) during the winter. (This is typical for climate zones 8-9) - Summers are warm and dry. - Daffodils (aka Narcissi) are the biggest surprise: most originate in warm Mediterranean regions and will grow readily in USDA zones 9 and 10, requiring no over-winter chilling at all. - Other bulbs that take naturally to warmer areas include Alliums, Dutch Iris, German Iris, Summer Snowflakes and Spanish Bluebells. - Classic spring bulbs such as Crocus, Hyacinths and most Tulips are less conducive to warm-climate growing conditions, but can be grown as annuals in warm zones if pre-chilled for 6 to 8 weeks prior to planting. This gives them the solid dose of winter temperatures they require to trigger their spring bloom cycle. Purchase bulbs in the fall for the best selection, and then chill them until planting at 35° F to 45° F (1.5° C to 7° C) in a paper bag kept in a refrigerator crisper drawer. Make sure to keep the bulbs away from any ripening fruits, which give off ethylene gas that can harm the embryonic flower in the bulb. - Remove bulbs from chilling in late December to early January and plant immediately. Best performing tulips for warm zones include the Darwin hybrids and many of the long-stemmed Single Late varieties. These tulips are good choices for multiple-year flowering when combining with perennials Fragrant and stately, Tulip 'Ad Rem' is a spectacular tulip with large, richly colored blossoms. Wonderfully fragrant, it features glowing scarlet petals adorned with a golden band around the edges. Perfect for lighting up the garden! Blooming in mid-late spring, this Darwin Hybrid enjoys a sturdy, long stem that will withstand wind and rain. Grows up to 20-24 inches tall (50-60 cm) Incredibly beautiful, award-winner Tulip 'Ballade' is a spectacular tulip with fabulous royal purple goblet-shaped flowers with pointed, reflexed petals and fine ivory edges. Blooming in the late spring garden, this Lily-Flowered Tulip provides an elegant and graceful display when swaying in the spring breeze. It naturalizes easily and will come back year after year to create dazzling harmonies. Grows up to 20 inches tall (50 cm) Tulip 'Cape Cod' provides a mesmerizing sight with its glowing apricot petals edged yellow and combined with its purple mottled leaves. The flowers, large in proportion to the plant's total height, up to 4 in. wide (10 cm), open wide in the full sun. Belonging to the Greigii Tulip Group, 'Cape Cod' will reliably bring sparkles to the garden in early - mid spring. Growing only 8 inches tall (20 cm), this tulip naturalizes easily and will come back year after year Quite short, Tulip 'Couleur Cardinal' nevertheless has a commanding presence in the early-mid spring garden with its rich, deep-red flowers with a plum blush, all set on dark sturdy stems that withstand wind and rain. 'Couleur Cardinal' is one of the oldest tulips as it was introduced in 1845 (!!!) and has been quite popular since then. Grows up to 14 inches tall (35 cm) Award-winning Tulip 'Menton' is amazingly beautiful with its elegant, egg-shaped blossoms looking rose pink in part shade and warming up to soft apricot in full sun. Blooming in late spring, this graceful Single Late Tulip enjoys a tall, stiff stem that will withstand wind and rain. Grows up to 24-26 inches tall (60-65 cm) Adored by gardeners and considered one of the prettiest white tulip cultivars, award-winning Tulip 'Purissima' is a classy and elegant tulip with broad pure white elongated petals and a creamy base. Withstanding wind and rain thanks to its strong stem, it is apopular member of the Fosteriana Group. Blooming in early to mid spring, it can be found on full display for up to 3 weeks! Growing up to 14-16 inches tall (35-40 cm), this tulip naturalizes easily and will come back year after year Tulip 'Shirley' is a ravishing color-changing tulip featuring ivory white petals, tenderly edged in purple as it opens, slowly turning almost entirely into light lilac lace. A fascinating tulip to observe. Easy to pair with other tulips and perennials, this mid-late spring bloomer makes excellent and long-lasting cut flowers. May live a few years in the garden but the best effect will be obtained from new bulbs. Grows up to 18-20 inches tall (45-50 cm) Award-winning Tulip 'Showwinner' is a striking cultivar of the waterlily tulips, with its bright scarlet flowers which open wide to reveal a golden heart and are held on short stems above handsomely mottled leaves. A beautiful sight on display in the early spring garden! Naturalizes easily and will come back year after year. Grows only 8-10 inches tall (20-25 cm) Standing out, award-winning Tulip 'Spring Green' is truly an unusual tulip with its amazing ivory-white flowers and soft green feathering. Fresh-looking, sturdy and reliable, it blooms in late spring and enjoys long-lasting blossoms (3 weeks!). It looks ravishing in a vase too. Award-winning Tulip 'Toronto' is a multi-flowering tulip with 3-5 flowers per bulb. A bouquet per stem! Short but highly visible with its jasper red tinged on vermilion petals and bronze base atop handsomely mottled leaves! The cup-shaped flowers open broadly in the full sun. Belonging to the Greigii Tulips, 'Toronto' will reliably bring joyful color to the garden in mid spring. Growing only 12 inches tall (30 cm), this tulip naturalizes easily and will come back year after year to your delight! Named for its place of origin, Turkey, award-winning Tulip turkestanica is a wild-looking species with gray-green leaves and up to 12 star-shaped, white flowers borne on 10-inch stems (25 cm). While appearing white at first glance, the flowers are actually flushed greenish-gray or greenish-pink on the outside, with centers shaded yellow or orange around brown or purple stamens and purple-tipped yellow anthers. These are quite attractive little fragrant flowers indeed! Flowering in early spring, this tulip naturalizes easily. These daffodils are good choices for multiple-year flowering when combining with perennials Sun-proof, award-winner Narcissus 'Accent' is an elegant and prolific daffodil boasting star-shaped flowers, 4 in. across (10 cm), adorned with slightly reflexed, ivory-white petals and a contrasting, frilled funnel-shaped cup of deep salmon pink. Blooming in mid to late spring, this Large-Cupped Daffodil is a vigorous grower that is regarded as one of the best landscape pink daffodils. Excellent as cut flowers! Fragrant, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'Actaea' displays elegant, pure white flowers, up to 3 in. wide (8 cm), adorned with six wide petals and tiny, red-rimmed, golden-yellow cups. Blooming in mid to late spring, one flower per stem, the blossoms rise atop a clump of narrow, strap-shaped leaves. Great in the sunny border, this daffodil performs better in wet, poorly drained areas than most daffodils. Because of its sweet scent, it makes excellent cut flowers. Multiple award-winning 'Bridal Crown' is sweetly scented and incredibly good-looking. It features long-lasting double flowers with multiple creamy-white petals interspersed with saffron-yellow cup segments. The flowers cluster together at the top of the stems and appear in mid-late spring. Such a beautiful sight! This Daffodil makes a beautiful cut flower and can be forced indoors for winter bloom. Rich of a strong vanilla scent, multiple award-winning Narcissus 'Carlton' is an exquisite, solid golden-yellow daffodil featuring very large flowers, 5 in. across (12 cm), adorned with wide, gracefully frilled cups and broad, overlapping petals. Blooming in mid spring, this highly popular Large-Cupped Daffodil is a strong performer of immense vigor, and one of the best perennializers. It is famously reliable for large scale plantings. Very fragrant, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'Cheerfulness' boasts long-lasting, double flowers, 2.5 in. across (6 cm), with multiple creamy-white petals interspersed with yellow flecks at the center. The flowers, 3-6 per stem, cluster together at the top of the stems and appear in mid or late spring. Reliably perennial, you can't help but smile when looking at this daffodil! Introduced in 1938, multiple award-winning Narcissus 'Dutch Master' has become the standard for large yellow daffodils. Lightly fragrant, it boasts very large, showy golden-yellow flowers, 4 in. across (11 cm), in mid spring. Noted for its great vigor and superior performance. Great for naturalizing. Comes back year after year to bring its cheerful color and put a smile on your face! Always the first to bloom, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'February Gold' is a small but sturdy daffodil with gently nodding flowers, up to 3 in. across (7.5 cm), adorned with vivid yellow trumpets and reflexed petal. Blooming in early spring, this Miniature Daffodil is one of the most reliable, reblooming perennial bulbs. It multiplies easily to create pretty swathes of yellow blooms resembling shooting stars with their back-swept petals. Perfect for borders or naturalizing. Rich of a spicy fragrance, Narcissus 'Flower Drift' features large, fully double flowers, 4 in. across (10 cm), adorned with multiple creamy-white petals surrounding a warm orange-yellow center. Blooming in early-mid spring, one flower per stem, this Double Daffodil is a good naturalizer. A real show-stopper, Narcissus 'Fortissimo' produces very large blossoms, up to 5 inches across (12 cm), combining brilliant yellow petals with a slightly frilled, reddish-orange cup. Blooming in mid spring, this very eye-catching Large-Cupped Daffodil is a wonderful naturalizer and makes ravishing cut flowers. Each spring will bring you more of the largest, brightest daffodils! Delightfully fragrant, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'Geranium' bears clusters of 3-6 flowers per stem, adorned with creamy-white petals and deep orange-red cups in mid to late spring. Many bulbs will produce multiple stems, forming lovely bouquets. Because of its strong stem and sweet scent, this heirloom Tazetta Daffodil makes excellent cut flowers. Ideal for warmer climates. Sweetly fragrant, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'Ice Follies' produces large flowers adorned with creamy-white petals and a flared, frilled, lemon-yellow cup that fades to pale cream over time. Blooming in early - mid spring, this fast growing and popular Large-Cupped Daffodil is a wonderful naturalizer as well as a good forcer. A heavy bloomer and vigorous grower. Resembling carnations with its fully double lemon-yellow petals turning creamy-white, Narcissus 'Ice King' is a marvelous addition to any mid spring borders. And it is so conspicuous with its impressive 4 in. (10 cm) blossoms! A sport of world acclaimed Narcissus 'Ice follies', this Double Daffodil has been extremely popular since its introduction in 1984. Makes a beautiful cut flower and creates extremely long-lasting bouquets. Vigorous and long lived, multiple award-winner Narcissus 'Peeping Tom' boasts large flowers, 4 in. across (9.5 cm), adorned with brilliant yellow, reflexed petals surrounding long, bright golden-yellow ruffled trumpets. Blooming in early to mid spring, this Miniature Daffodil is great for naturalizing and multiplies rapidly. Perfect choice for the garden or containers. Award-winner Narcissus 'Pink Charm' produces exquisite, large flowers, 4 in. across (9cm), with ivory-white petals surrounding a creamy-white cup adorned with a lovely coral band at the rim. Blooming in mid spring, this romantic-looking Large-Cupped Daffodil is noted for its wonderful ability to produce a second bloom on many stems. Great in pots for the patio or balcony, in a vase or planted in the garden. Excellent as cut flowers! Highly reliable, Narcissus 'Standard Value' is a mid-sized Daffodil featuring bright, golden petals surrounding a lemon-yellow trumpet with a slightly ruffled edge. Blooming in mid to late spring, one flower per stem, it is ideal for naturalizing. Multiple award-winning Narcissus 'White Lion' is sweetly fragrant and sturdy with blossoms resembling gardenias! It features long-lasting, double flowers with multiple creamy-white petals surrounding a warm yellow center. Blooming in mid to late spring, this strong and reliable heirloom Daffodil was introduced in the 1940s and is still a favorite. These hyacinths are good choices for multiple-year flowering when combining with perennials Extremely fragrant, award-winning Hyacinth 'Blue Festival' is a multi-flowering Hyacinth bearing up to 6 flower clusters per bulb instead of just one. Each flower stalk has fewer florets but the plant is still very attractive and quite unique. 'Blue Festival' features soft purple-blue flowers with slightly paler edges and blooms for 2-3 weeks in mid spring. Ideal for pots, containers or garden beds. With its soft primrose yellow color, Hyacinth 'City of Haarlem' brings a cheerful sight to the dull days of late winter! Featuring flowered spikes densely covered with starry, pale yellow florets maturing to ivory, it is strongly fragrant. Rising atop fleshy bright green leaves, this eye-catching hyacinth blooms for 2-3 weeks in mid spring. Combine with Hyacinth 'Jan Bos' for a striking combination or with 'Blue Jacket' for a pastel scenery. One of the most fragrant, Hyacinth 'Delft Blue' features densely flowered spikes of soft porcelain blue flowers. Rising above glossy green leaves, this lovely hyacinth blooms for 2-3 weeks in mid spring. A wonderful addition to pots, great for indoor forcing, it also looks lovely planted in groups or drifts in the border. Plant it where you will be able to enjoy its perfume daily! Highly fragrant, award winning Hyacinth 'Pink Pearl' features dense spikes of fuchsia-purple flowers edged pale pink. Floating atop rich green bright green leaves, this beauty blooms for 3-4 weeks in mid spring. It is a favorite for raising in pots for early color and fragrance indoors but is also valuable as outdoor plant. Naturally multi-stemmed, with each bulb producing up to 6 flower clusters instead of just one, award-winning Hyacinth 'White Festival' features gleaming, snow-white flowers. More graceful and loose than the standard types, each flower stalk bears fewer florets and is less inclined to collapse in bad weather. It enjoys the same strong fragrance of the larger forms and blooms for 2-3 weeks in mid spring. Ideal for pots, containers or garden beds These special bulbs are good choices for multiple-year flowering when combining with perennials Alliums are plants of exquisite beauty that deserve a place in perennial gardens. Easy to grow and undemanding, these very ornamental bulbs distinguish themselves by their great diversity in color, inflorescence, flowering height and bloom times. Many species bloom in early summer - just after the spring-flowering period and just before the exuberant full bloom of summer. Anemone coronaria are most often found as cut flowers, but these gorgeously colored poppy-like flowers also thrive in the home garden where their broad, bright faces are highly appealing. Their dark-centered, single or double flowers, are available in a fresh array of colors including purple-blue, red, pink or white. They are borne on stiff stems atop clumps of finely divided, ferny leaves. Blooming in mid to late spring, they usually last up to 4 weeks. They attract butterflies and make wonderful cut flowers. While called 'Dutch Iris', this iris never grew wild in the Netherlands. Instead, it is the product of hybridizations carried out by Dutch growers. Tall and slender, it features flowers that are 4 in. wide (10 cm) with flower stalks, surrounded by gray reed-like leaves, that are very sturdy - a quality which makes them quite suitable for use as cut flowers. The color assortment is very wide and includes bicolored varieties. |Season of Interest|| Top picture is courtesy of Peter Wiezoreck While every effort has been made to describe these plants accurately, please keep in mind that height, bloom time, and color may differ in various climates. The description of these plants has been written based on numerous outside resources. |Season of Interest|| Plant one of these shrubs or small trees and enjoy a... Shade gardens can appear like a planting challenge for some... Hardy native North American plants are important elements... Hardy native North American plants are important elements... Hardy native North American trees are important elements in... Hardy native North American shrubs are important elements... Low maintenance and fairly easy to replicate, this planting... This garden bursts with early season color and elegant,... A delightful color show that will provide gardeners with... Brighten a moist and shady area of your garden! Most plants...

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In our series of bioarchaeographies, we’ve alternated between Old Testament people, such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Shishak, King David, Ahaz, Hezekiah, and Omri, and New Testament figures, like Caesar Augustus, Quirinius, Herod Agrippa I and II, Herod Antipas, Pontius Pilate, Gallio, and Sergius Paulus. In this article, we’ll explore the life of one of the most notoriously wicked kings of Israel: Ahab. Scripture gives this summary of Ahab’s reign: In the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah, Ahab the son of Omri began to reign over Israel, and Ahab the son of Omri reigned over Israel in Samaria twenty-two years. And Ahab the son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD, more than all who were before him. And as if it had been a light thing for him to walk in the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, he took for his wife Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and went and served Baal and worshiped him. He erected an altar for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria. And Ahab made an Asherah. Ahab did more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, to anger than all the kings of Israel who were before him. (1 Kgs 16:29 -33) Ahab (ca. 874-853 BC) inherited a kingdom that had been stabilized by his father, Omri.1 He continued the building projects that his father had begun, and actively sought to expand the reach of the Kingdom of Israel. While it was Omri who moved the capital of Israel to Samaria and built the palace on the acropolis, it was Ahab who expanded it, adding numerous administrative buildings. He extended the royal palace using finely dressed ashlar stones in a pattern that may have copied a Phoenician style.2 The royal acropolis was monumental, being 89 X 178 m in size, and covering 4 acres, roughly the same amount of space as an entire town in rural Israel at that time.3 While Ahab was, no doubt, responsible for some of the renovations to the palace, some scholars have suggested that the “Building Period II” phase of the site ought to be attributed to Jehu, rather than Ahab.4 The “Ivory House” In 1 Kings 22:39, we read of a specific building that Ahab was famous for: “Now the rest of the acts of Ahab and all that he did, and the ivory house that he built and all the cities that he built, are they not written in the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel?” Scholars have speculated that one of the enhancements which Ahab made to the capital of Samaria was to adorn the palace walls and furniture with ivory decorations such that it became known as “the Ivory House.” When Kathleen Kenyon’s team excavated Samaria in 1932, they unearthed a large collection of carved ivories dating to the Iron Age.5 The Samaria Ivories, as they have come to be known, depict wildlife, plants, mythological creatures, and foreign deities. Because they date to the time of King Ahab, and were discovered near the palace complex, most scholars believe they come from the fabled, Ivory House. While many hold that they were made by the Phoenicians, some scholars are suggesting this needs to be reviewed in light of new studies showing that there was a local tradition of ivory carving in the Southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages.6 Whatever their origin, it is interesting that a significant group of ivories were discovered near the palace, which date to the time the Bible says Ahab was famous for his Ivory House. The Kurkh Monolith In 853 BC, the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III fought against a coalition of western kings near at Qarqar in modern-day Syria. He left a description of the battle on a stele that was discovered in 1861 at Kurkh, near the Tigris river in Turkey. In the inscription on the Kurkh Monolith, he names “Ahab the Israelite” as on of the combatants and claims that he had one of the strongest forces, with 2000 chariots and 10000 soldiers.7 Despite Shalmaneser’s boasts, the battle may have been more of failure than a victory for him (or, at best, a draw), as returned to Assyria immediately after the battle, had no further contact with the coalition, and didn’t return to Israel for another four years.8 While neither Shalmaneser III, nor the Battle of Qarqar are mentioned in the Bible, this inscription is still important for several reasons. First, it is a clear confirmation of Ahab as a king of Israel. Secondly, it testifies to the wealth and power of the Israelite kingdom at the time.9 Finally, it references a historical event that can be dated. Indeed, it was one of the key inscriptions that Edwin Thiele used to construct a chronology of Israel in his book, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. He writes: “An exact synchronism between Hebrew and Assyrian history is made possible in the early period of the kings by an interesting correlation of events in Israel and Assyria that begins and ends the twelve-year period of 853-841 B.C. It has already been mentioned that Ahab is listed by Shalmaneser III as one of the kings of the Westland who fought against him in the battle of Qarqar, and we have seen that this battle was fought in the year 853. Therefore, Ahab was still alive and reigning in Israel sometime in the year 853. Shalmaneser also mentions that he received tribute from Jehu during his expedition to the west in his eighteenth year. This would be in the eponymy of Adam-rimani (841). Thus Jehu was already reigning over Israel sometime in 841….the interval between the death of Ahab and the accession of Jehu is exactly twelve years, being made up of the reigns of Ahaziah ,the son and successor of Ahab, and Joram, who was slain and succeeded by Jehu [2 Kings 2:51 & 3:1]….Since the interval between the battle of Qarqar, at which Ahab fought in 853, and the time Jehu paid tribute to Shalmaneser in 841 is also for a period of just twelve years, it is in this period that the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram must have taken place, with 853 as the last year of Ahab and 841 for Jehu’s accession.”10 One of the most infamous women in all of history was Queen Jezebel, the Phoenician wife of King Ahab. In the early 1960’s a seal that had been purchased on the antiquities market was donated to the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.11 It bears the name Jezebel interspersed around various images. Initially, scholars were hesitant to identify it with Ahab’s wife, in part because Jezebel is spelled slightly differently than in Scripture. On the seal, it is spelled YZBL, while in Scripture it is spelled ‘YZBL (the ‘ represents the Hebrew letter aleph).12 If this were the seal of Jezebel, one would expect to see the aleph, as well as a lamed; it should read L’YZBL, or “Belonging to Jezebel.” Recently, scholars have analyzed the seal and noted that the damaged part at the top of the seal is just large enough to have contained the two missing letters. This, combined with the seal’s impressive size, and the fact that it is filled with Egyptian symbols that were commonly used in Phoenicia at this time, has lead some scholars to believe that this is the seal of Ahab’s wife, Queen Jezebel.13 In addition to his palace at Samaria, Ahab also had a “palace” at Jezreel, about 21 miles north of the capital city. Next to this palace, was vineyard owned by a man named Naboth, which Ahab coveted. Jezebel arranged for Naboth to be killed and Ahab became the owner of the vineyard (1 Kgs 21:1-16). Excavations at Jezreel have identified an Iron Age IIB (900–700 B.C.) military fortress on the upper tell.14 In 1 Kings 21:1-2, we read that Naboth’s vineyard was located near King Ahab’s “palace.” The Hebrew word for palace is heikal, not the word that is normally used for a palace: armon. A heikel is a large, important building of military or religious nature. Jezreel was the place Israel mustered her army, and thus the heikal was likely the fortress of Ahab.15 The most recent excavators – Norma Franklin of the University of Haifa and Jennie Ebeling of the University of Evansville – have unearthed an ancient winery cut into limestone bedrock at the foot of Tel Jezreel. Based on comparison with other wineries in the vicinity and the absence of evidence for a beam and screw press (a later invention), it is believed that this is an Iron Age winery.16 Moreover, details in 2 Kings 9 lead to the conclusion that Naboth’s vineyard was located east of Jezreel on the main road, the Via Maris. The Tel Jezreel Expedition unearthed the winery in 2013, and found it east of Jezreel near where the Via Maris would have run. Because wineries were located near the vineyards in ancient times, this may indeed be the remains of Naboth’s vineyard, which King Ahab stole. The exploits of King Ahab are recorded in four chapters of Scripture (1 Kings 18, 20-22), more than any other ruler of the northern Kingdom of Israel.17 Archaeological discoveries related to King Ahab help provide a background to his life. It is clear that he followed the expansion and building policies of his father, Omri. Moreover, numerous details that are recorded in Scripture have been affirmed in the archaeological record. This helps us understand in greater detail the extent of the northern Kingdom of Israel in the 9th century BC. Title Photo: Yuber / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 1 Bryan Windle, “King Omri: An Archaeological Biography.” Bible Archaeology Report, March 6, 2020. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2020/03/06/king-omri-an-archaeological-biography/ (Accessed April 24, 2020) 2 Catherine L. McDowell, study note on 1 Kings 16:29 in ESV Archaeology Study Bible (ed. John Currid and David Chapman; Wheaton: Crossway, 2018), 500. 3 Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000 – 586 B.C.E. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 406. 4 Norma Franklin, “Samaria: from the Bedrock to the Omride Palace,” Levant 36, 2004, pg. 201. Online: file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/samariabedrockLevant.pdf (Accessed February 27, 2020). 5 Rupert Chapman, “Samaria, Capital of Israel.” BAR 43:5, (September/October 2017), 30. 6 “The Samaria Ivories – Phoenician or Israelite?” Biblical Archaeology Society. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/the-samaria-ivories-phoenician-or-israelite/ (Accessed May 5, 2020). 7 Bryant Wood, “Ahab the Israelite,” Associates for Biblical Research. January 2, 2006. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/divided-kingdom/3584-ahab-the-israelite (Accessed May 7, 2020). 8 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, Lost Treasures of the Bible. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 119. 9 Bryant Wood, “Ahab the Israelite,” Associates for Biblical Research. January 2, 2006. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/divided-kingdom/3584-ahab-the-israelite (Accessed May 7, 2020). 10 Ewin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983), 76. 11 Bryant Wood, “Seal of Jezebel Identified,” Associates for Biblical Research. July 15, 2019. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/people-places-and-things-from-the-hebrew-bible/4450-seal-of-jezebel-identified (Accessed May 9, 2020). 12 Marjo C.A. Korpel, “Fit for a Queen: Jezebel’s Royal Seal.” BAR 34:2 (March/April 2008), 32-37. Online: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/fit-for-a-queen-jezebels-royal-seal/ (Accessed May 9, 2020). 14 Marek Dospěl, “Naboth’s Vinyard Unearthed at Tel Jezreel?” Biblical Archaeology Society. November 6, 2017. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/naboth-vineyard-tel-jezreel/ (Accessed May 11, 2020). 15 Norma Franklin, Jennie Ebeling, Philippe Guillaume, and Deborah Appler, “Have We Found Naboth’s Vineyard at Jezreel?” BAR 43:6 (November/December 2017), 52. 16 Ibid, 53-54. 17 Bryant Wood, “Ahab the Israelite,” Associates for Biblical Research. January 2, 2006. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/divided-kingdom/3584-ahab-the-israelite (Accessed May 7, 2020).

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CONSENSUS, HIERARCHY, AUTHORITY AND POWER At every level of its organization, Burning Man employs consensus decision making. Consensus means that that everyone who is party to a discussion agrees to a course of action. For a decision to be adopted, everyone must give his or her consent. This doesn’t mean that everyone agrees that a particular decision is the best decision. It simply means that everyone will go along with what the group decides. Consensus works best in small groups of people who are qualified to form opinions upon the subjects at hand. All those who have information that is pertinent to a decision have a responsibility to the group to bring this information forward and, in advancing a thesis or point of view, to adduce relevant facts and reasoned arguments. Consensus building only works when people share basic values and operate in a climate of trust that is rich in shared information. On the other hand, if most members of the consensus forming group do not hold strong opinions concerning an issue or are indifferent to a topic, it is a likely indication that the decision might better be delegated to an individual or smaller group. Although consensus forming can, at times, be time consuming, it is by no means an intractable process. If one or two people cannot agree with the group’s proposed decision, this sometimes indicates that an issue is more complex than understood by the larger group. If an agreement cannot be reached it may be necessary to postpone a decision until more research is done or to give members more time to reflect on the values or principles involved. In practice, however, this seldom happens if some form of guiding policy already governs the issue at hand. Difficulty in achieving consensus might also mean that those who disagree with the majority do not understand the entire issue or fully appreciate the context of the larger group’s view. In these instances, it is usually very difficult for one or two people to hold out against the reasoned arguments of a majority. Burning Man Senior Staff may sometimes postpone decisions on a question or extend a period of discussion, but it has never failed to reach a consensus. Consensus formation is, in fact, the most natural way of making decisions. Within very small groups, it can proceed informally and without a group leader. In larger groups, however, a discussion leader or chairperson, is necessary. Amid the ebb flow of discussion, different individuals may take a lead in presenting ideas or in proposing or summarizing emergent areas of consensus. However, it is the responsibility of the chair of a meeting to ensure that everyone is heard, and that a final decision has been made and recognized. Although consensus formation requires unanimity, it does not involve voting. Group members may be polled in some fashion at the conclusion of a discussion to guarantee that a consensus has been achieved, but opinions may not be represented in the form of a vote. A vote can be described as an opinion that has been commodified. It can be swapped and traded for advantage, or even held up for bid. A vote may be used to leverage power or buy victory through division. Consensus, by contrast, induces more immediate relationships and operates by constantly seeking a meeting of minds. Voting, typically, is most useful in larger assemblies where consensus making is unwieldy. No decision in Burning Man has ever been arrived at by a vote. Consensus making is our fundamental policy. HIERARCHY AND LEADERSHIP Even within informal groups, leaders naturally arise. Certain individuals will take charge of particular tasks or areas of responsibility. When they succeed, other group members will begin to respect their judgment. Their advice in these matters will be sought out and their opinions will be heeded. Finally, if they show themselves willing to communicate and coordinate what they do in a way that serves the group’s mission, they will acquire real authority. This never means that they exercise complete autonomy. Their actions should always be subject to the judgment of a supervisor or review of their peers. It does mean, however, that they have gained the right to make decisions about how a task is to be accomplished and that everyone involved should respect this right and consult with them concerning matters that affect their mission. This sorting out of responsibilities spontaneously occurs within groups. However, as the mission of any organization increases in complexity, it becomes necessary to formally define leadership roles. At this level of responsibility, leaders become managers. It is the mission of a manager to create policy, delegate authority, and supervise those to whom authority is given. Managers must take a higher vantage point in order to regard a larger picture. They must look toward a horizon in time, anticipating the long-term implications of decisions. They must also gain a comprehensive view. Actions or decisions may be in conflict with one another or misallocate valuable resources. A higher point of view allows a manager to survey the whole of a plan and integrate a group’s efforts. Lastly, the most important task of a manager is to remind everyone of their mission: to articulate this higher and wider perspective so that people can understand their roles. As our organization has grown, consensus formation has spread outward to incorporate more resources and a wider base of knowledge. At the same time, as decision-making responsibility has increased, management roles have expanded upon a vertical axis. When fitted together, these two systems form a model of how Burning Man’s organization operates. Several different levels of consensus formation now exist within Burning Man. This includes the various sub-committees and staff groups within each department. Informally, it also includes theme camps, artist groups and service organizations within the greater community of Burning Man. As this consensus process has expanded, the management structure of our organization has also elaborated itself. Within each department there exist many sub-committees that are managed by senior staffs. Above these groups is Burning Man’s Senior Staff, with its various sub-committees and consultants. Senior Staff assembles Burning Man’s budget, manages its ticket sales and day to day finances, and is ultimately responsible for formulating policies that govern all operations of the organization. Finally, positioned above Senior Staff is Black Rock City LLC. This policy making body supervises salaries, hiring and firing, all major financial decisions, and all policy decisions that immediately affect the survival of Burning Man. Larry serves as the director of Burning Man and chairs both of these groups. At each of these successive levels, managers assume more responsibility and, therefore, exercise more authority. They also confront problems at a higher level of generality. It is helpful to imagine this model as a series of horizontally based networks or platforms, each equipped with its own subordinate threads of delegation. Moving through the center of these horizontal platforms is a vertical axis of managerial leadership. Each consensus making body is like a bead that’s threaded on a string. At this level of organizational complexity, the responsibility of managers begins to increase. Managers must now learn to move within a greater system of decision making. This means they take responsibility for understanding or participating in decisions that are made at a higher level and are ready to convey these policies back to their group. They must also engage in a consensus process with their peers. They should solicit opinions about how policies can be realized. Finally, they have a responsibility to ensure that policies are thoroughly explained to people who are working on the tiers below. It is never sufficient to tell people that “higher ups” have issued a decree. A manager should always be ready to explain the reasoning behind a policy and carefully listen to what people have to say. After all, these folks are actually doing the work that policy is meant to guide. Their knowledge base may very well exceed one’s own. Looking down on things from a higher perspective can allow a manager to see the big picture. But managers should not imagine that this useful point of view transforms them into bigger or all-seeing persons. A generalized view can obliterate crucial details. Managers should always be ready to imagine that they don’t really know what they’re talking about. At every phase of a downward progression in a hierarchic system, from policies made on high to actions undertaken at the ground level of operations, managers must also be willing to reconsider policy. Policy concerns the “what” and “why” of things. But how a thing is done can directly affect a policy. If policies are dysfunctional, or if someone discovers better solutions to problems, the plan can be changed. When a proposed change affects a policy, a manager should convey this information upward. Within any healthy organization, information should continually recycle in this way. It should be carried downward and upward, as if borne through the organization by a convection current. As the connective link in this process, managers must do more than understand policy, create consensus within their policy making peer groups and communicate these policies to the people they supervise. They must ensure that everyone is communicating and feels able to contribute. Within Burning Man — at our event and within the organization that produces it — anyone at any time can be a leader. AUTHORITY AND POWER It is a common mistake to confuse authority with power. A manager may possess the authority to make a decision. However, this does not mean that power in any way emanates out of that person. The previous model affords a good way of thinking about this. The thread connecting consensus-forming beads can be imagined as a river, and this river forms a channel for power. The immediate link to each station along its path is an individual leader or management group vested with authority. This authority can be imagined as a kind of water wheel. A manager has the recognized right, when making a decision, to dip this wheel of authority into the power stream in order to accomplish work. However, since power does not actually belong to a manager, he or she may be legitimately criticized by anyone for defaulting in responsibilities. Authority and the respect due it can be justly said to belong to the person who exercises it. This right is earned by virtue of the responsibilities they have chosen to assume. But power is not the property of anyone. It is merely the motive force which authority draws upon. In most organizations, the power stream is made of money. In democratic politics, it is ultimately enforced by the ability to secure votes. Only rarely, and for brief periods of time, does it grow out of brute force or from the barrel of a gun, and only gurus may be said to rule through a purely personal manifestation of power. In Burning Man, however, all power proceeds from a gift. It was as a gift that Burning Man was born. None of the resources that Burning Man now commands would ever have existed if dozens, hundreds and, finally, thousands of people had not been willing to give to that gift. If the founders of Burning Man had asked participants to contribute to a private project dedicated to personal ends, who would have followed them? The Burning Man, as he is placed in Black Rock City, stands positioned at the radiating center of the most interactive and creative community on earth. Yet none of this could possibly exist if Burning Man had not remained supremely and symbolically a gift that has engendered other gifts. This insight contains a very basic lesson for anyone who would act as a leader and manage others. A manager may preside over a meeting and address his or her fellows with an inspiring vision. A moment later, however, the talk might shift to other topics. Suddenly this leader may possess only a modest opinion based on limited information. His or her paddle has been lifted from the stream and others now lead the discussion. Leadership often consists of knowing exactly when not to invoke authority. The above description of how our organization works describes a sort of factory that is run by the power of gift giving, and it is our duty to manage this machinery well. However, we should always remember that the single most common mistake people make when they misuse these tools of management is to somehow forget their first lesson. If your actions don’t respect the spirit of a gift; if you are jealous or possessive of power, if you withhold information, if you blame other people, if you refuse to give credit, and if you ignore the abilities of others — then you are probably abusing your authority. All of our work together is in service to a gift, and this should always be regarded as the source of the power that holds us together.

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Welcome to contact us through online consulting, emails and hotline if you are interested in our company or products. Our staff will reply you within 24 hours. Oct 09,2019·Steel is an alloy of iron that contains carbon.Typically the carbon content ranges from 0.002% and 2.1% by weight.Carbon makes steel harder than pure iron.The carbon atoms make it more difficult for dislocations in the iron crystal lattice to slide What are the different grades of stainless steel?What are the different grades of stainless steel?Ferritic stainless steels are classified into AISI grades 1 to 5,with grades 1 to 3 referred to as standard grades and grades 4 and 5 referred to as speciality grades.Standard grades are the most commonly used,whereas speciality grades are used only in special cases.Table 2.Ferritic Stainless Steel Properties,Grades What are the technical properties of stainless steel?What are the technical properties of stainless steel?Stainless Steel Tables of Technical Properties Stainless Steel Tables of Technical Properties Materials and Applications Series,Volume 5 Euro Inox Euro Inox is the European market development association for stainless steel.Stainless Steel Tables of Technical Properties Jan 24,2017·Carbon steel is commonly used across many industries.It is affordable while still providing excellent mechanical properties.Carbon steel is typically composed of 0.05% to about 2.0% carbon measured by weight,along with iron and trace amounts of other elements.Since it is a very common selection for a variety of purposes,it is important to know how to choose the right carbon steel grade API 2H Grade 50 API 2H Steel Kloeckner Metals CorporationANSWER There are multiple supplements following available for this grade including,S1 (Ultrasonic Examination per A578 Level C),S3 (Individual Plate Testing for Mechanical Properties),S4 (Though-Thickness Testing),S5 (Low Sulfur for improved Through-Thickness Properties),and S8 (Strain-Aged Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing). Types of Carbon Steel and Their PropertiesProduction and ProcessingExamples ApplicationsCarbon steel can be classified into three categories according to its carbon content low-carbon steel (or mild-carbon steel),medium-carbon steel and high-carbon steel .Their carbon content,microstructure and properties compare as follows:See more on matmatchIntroduction to Stainless Steel Grades,Properties and May 20,2005·Ferritic stainless steel include grades like 430 and contain only chromium as a major alloying element.The quantity of chromium present ranges from 10.5 to 18%.They are known for their moderate corrosion resistance and poor fabrication properties.China Steel 45 Degree Angle Iron of Equal Structure for 1.Aluminum Angle steel a.Grade 6061 ? Analysis Manganese silicon Chromium Copper Iron Zinc Magnesium Titanium 6061 0.15 0.4-0.8 0.15-0.35 0.15-0.4 0.7 0.25 0.8-1.2 0.15 ? Mechanical propertiesCompare 20 Grades of Knife Steel - ThoughtCoJul 30,2019·Properly heat-treated,O1 and 1095-grade steels are seen as by many equal to any expensive stainless steel grades.Carbon V&Knife Steel A steel designation trademarked by Cold Steel,Carbon V reportedly fits between a 1095 and O1 grade and is similar to 50100-B.Carbon V is a cutlery grade steel that shows reasonable corrosion resistance and good edge retention. A131 grade E steel,grade E steel,steel grade E; 316 stainless steel; AH32 DH32 EH32 FH32; ABS EH36; X12CrMnNiN18-9-5 steel material properties,EN10088-1 X12CrMnNiN18-9-5 stainless suppliers; BV EH36; SG255 SG295 SG325 SG365; 304L stainless steel barsDH36,NV D36|DNV Grade DH36,DNV DH36 STEELDH36,NV D36|DNV Grade DH36,DNV DH36 STEEL PLATE BBNSTEEL is specialized in supplying DNV high strength steel plate in NV D36,DNV Grade DH36,DNV DH36 steel plateDifferent Steel Alloys Have Different Properties and UsesFerritic steelsWhat Is Type 201 Stainless Steel?Alloy steelsSteel Properties and HistoryLearn About the Difference Between Types 304 and 304L Stainless SteelCompare 20 Grades of Knife SteelProperties of Type 316 and 316L Stainless SteelsWhy Stainless Steel Can Resist Rust and CorrosionLearn How the Normalizing Process for Steel Makes It More WorkableExplore furtherSteel grades - Wikipediaen.wikipediaSteel Standards - ASTM InternationalastmSAE steel grades - Wikipediaen.wikipediasteel Composition,Properties,Types,Grades, Facts britannicaThe Four Types of Steel Metal SupermarketsmetalsupermarketsRecommended to you based on what's popular Types and Properties of Steel - ThoughtCoDec 04,2019·Various grading systems are used to distinguish steels based on these properties,which include density,elasticity,melting point,thermal conductivity,strength,and hardness (among others).To make different steels,manufacturers vary the type and quantity of alloy metals,the production process,and the manner in which the steels 1.Based on Carbon Content Low Carbon Steels; medium Carbon Steels; high Carbon Steels; Low Carbon Steels Composition 0%C to 0.25 % C.Microstructure Predominantly - ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.Properties Outstanding ductility and toughness.good machinability and weldability,high formability,toughness,high ductility etc.For example,Mild steel.EH36 Chemical Composition ,EH36 Mechanical Property SUS 420F steel chemical,JIS G4303 SUS 420F stainless properties; Galvanized Steel Sheet main application; A516GR55/60/65/70 steel plate.A516GR60 steel,A516GR70 steel.A516GR60 A516GR70 steel plate/sheet supplier.Low carbon alloy stainless steel 317LN,317LN/S31753 steel; A42CP,NFA 36-205 A42CP,A42CP steel plate/sheet,A42CP steel supplier Fe 360 CK1 Chemical composition,Fe 360 CK1 Mechanical Fe 360 CK1 steel grade which standard by EU 155,is a hot rolled products of structural steels in technical delivery conditions with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance.For the steel Fe 360 CK1,a maximum carbon equivalent value of 0.44% and for grade Fe 360 CK1 a maximum carbon equivalent value of 0.52% based on the ladle analysis shall for all thickness. Jan 26,2020·Group 4 (Grades 434,436,444,and Others) With a higher molybdenum content,the ferritic stainless steel grades in Group 4 have enhanced corrosion resistance and are used in hot water tanks,solar water heaters,exhaust system parts,electric kettles,microwave oven elements,and automotive trim.Grade 444,in particular,has a pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) that's similar to grade 316 austenitic stainless steelFerritic Stainless Steel Properties,Grades Ferritic stainless steels are classified into AISI grades 1 to 5,with grades 1 to 3 referred to as standard grades and grades 4 and 5 referred to as speciality grades.Standard grades are the most commonly used,whereas speciality grades are used only in special cases.Table 2.Grade 304 Stainless Steel Properties,Fabrication and May 18,2005·Type 304 is the most versatile and widely used stainless steel.304 stainless steel is an austenitic grade that can be severely deep drawn.The properties,applications and fabrication details are provided for 304 stainless steel. May 20,2005·The grade selection process for stainless steel is a compromise between the desired properties of the finished product.When selecting a particular grade of stainless steel,it is essential to consider the primary properties required,such as corrosion resistance and heat resistance.Introduction to Steel Grades - MatmatchSteels are impure iron-carbon alloys of low carbon content,usually 0.11.5% carbon by weight.The amount of carbon and level of impurities and additional elements,both metallic and non-metallic,determine the properties of each steel grade ..Various types of steel are manufactured in relation to the needed properties for their application,and different grading systems are utilised to Maraging Steel Properties,Processing,and Applications Maraging steels are ultra-high-strength steel alloys,a special class of low-carbon steel,that exhibit superior strength and toughness compared to most other steels,yet have a similar ductility.Maraging is a term derived from martensitic and ageing,referring to the process by which the steel is strengthened. Stainless Steel for physical,mechanical and environmental data,all Stainless Steel steel grades.Mechanical and Physical Properties of - Steel gradesStainless Steel for physical,mechanical and environmental data,all Stainless Steel steel grades.Mechanical properties of steel grades Keyword Found Steel Grades and Properties - ThoughtCo Thoughtco In essence,steel is composed of iron and carbon,although it is the amount of carbon,as well as the level of impurities and additional alloying elements that determine the properties of each steel grade. NM400 is an abrasion resistant plate with a hardness of 400 HBW,intended for applications where demands are imposed on abrasion resistance in combination with good cold bending properties.NM400 offers very good weldability.People also askWhat are the grades of carbon steel?What are the grades of carbon steel?Steel Grades and Properties.1 Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon.2 Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3-0.6% carbon.3 High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon.Different Steel Types and Properties - ThoughtCoProperties and Composition of Type 201 Stainless SteelJan 25,2020·Type 201 is part of the 200 series of austenitic stainless steel.Originally developed to conserve nickel,this family of stainless steels is characterized by low nickel content.Type 201 can substitute for type 301 in many applications,but it's less resistant to corrosion than its counterpart,particularly in chemical environments. Feb 13,2018·Thus,this grade of structural steel will have a marginally different chemical composition to the standard S355 grade.Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel - S235,S275,S355.The mechanical properties of structural steel are central to its classification and hence,application.Although,chemical composition is a governing factor of the What Are the Four Types of Steel? - WeergSep 24,2020·Steel is such a powerful element,coming in several distinct grades and holding unique chemical compositions.Now,with steel properties and the different steel alloys being so vast,it might be shocking to realize that all kinds,even CNC machining steelSome results are removed in response to a notice of local law requirement.For more information,please see here.Previous123456Next Stainless Steel Specifications,Grades and Properties The name stainless steel covers a variety of corrosion resistant steels that contain a minimum of 11% Chromium.Changing the Chromium content and adding other elements like Nickel,Molybdenum,Titanium and Niobium changes the mechanical and physical properties of the steel.Stainless Steel - Properties,Grades and Applications Despite the above risks,stainless steel is a wonder material and has a highly positive impact on the industry as a whole.Due to so many grades with different properties,there is always a grade that is perfect for an application.It is essential to choose the grade wisely to ensure a cost-effective investment.Stainless Steel Grades (The Ultimate Guide) MachineMfgI.Stainless Steel GradesII.Stainless Steel ClassificationIII.Stainless Steel Mechanical PropertiesIV.Detailed Introduction to Stainless Steel200 series stainless steelContain chrome,nickel,manganese,belongs to austenitic stainless steel.300 series stainless steelContain chrome,nickel,also belongs to austenitic stainless steel.301 stainless steelIt has good malleability and applied in forming products.It can also be quickly hardened by machining.Good weldability.The abrasion resistance and fatigue strength are superior to 304 stainless steel.302 stainless steelTSee more on machinemfgSteel-gradesSteel Grades and Properties - ThoughtCo Jan 27,2019 According to the World Steel Association,there are over 3,500 different grades of steel,encompassing unique physical,chemical,and environmental properties. a higher grade of cutlery steel,with more carbon in it,which allows for much better edge retention when the steel is heat treated properly.It can be hardened to Rockwell 58 hardness,making it one of the hardest stainless steels.Also known as razor blade steel.Available in three grades 440A,440B,440C (more common) and 440F (free Stainless Steel Grades and Properties - Bergsen MetalNov 25,2019·300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steel.Our 300 series of stainless steel is austenitic,with chromium levels ranging between 1830% and nickel levels of 6% to 20%.We offer the following grades 303 Stainless Steel.Due to its sulfur and phosphorus content,303 stainless steel is highly machinable.Stainless Steel Tables of Technical PropertiesThe selection of the appropriate stainless steel grade for each applic ation is the result of variou s considerations.In order to assis t the reader in this selection,Euro Inox makes the following tables of technical properties available Chemical composition of stainless steels (flat products) The selection of the appropriate stainless steel grade for each applic ation is the result of variou s considerations.In order to assis t the reader in this selection,Euro Inox makes the following tables of technical properties available Chemical composition of stainless steels (flat products)Stainless Steels - Specifications,Grades and PropertiesMay 20,2005·Grade compositions,mechanical properties and production specifications are governed by a range of international and national standards for stainless steel.While the old AISI three digit stainless steel numbering system (e.g.304 and 316) is still commonly used for the classification of stainless steel grades,new classification systems have been developed.Steam Turbine,Steam Boiler,Power Plant,Steam Power Dec 07,2020Welding Grade 91 Alloy Steel - Steam Forum Analysis of New Boiler Technologies Thermal Dr Mike Inkson Features and Description of Edward Flite-Flow Globe Valves See more resultsMetal Strength Chart - Mechanical Properties Chart of Strength is a critical factor in metal uses,for example,some applications require stronger aluminum parts,while some products need high steel hardness or yield strength of steel,this may determine the selection of CNC machining material or product design.Here we collect the metal strength chart (tensile,yield strength,hardness,and density included) and mechanical properties chart of Steel Grade Equivalency.Grade Equivalency Coating Equivalency Terms Others Stainless Steel Grades Product Erdemir Grade No Çolakolu Metalurji Grade No Tosyal Grade No Euro EU Italian UNI German DIN American ASTM - SAE French NF Japan JIS; HR-Hot Rolled 3008 91008 C8E C8 CK8 SAE1008 HR-Hot Rolled 3010 91010 C10E C10 CK10 Steel Grades and Properties - ThoughtCoJan 27,2019·The carbon content in steel can range from 0.1%-1.5%,but the most widely used grades of steel contain only 0.1%-0.25% carbon.Elements such as manganese,phosphorus,and sulfur are found in all grades of steel,but,whereas manganese provides beneficial effects,phosphorus and sulfur are deleterious to steel's strength and durability.Different types of steel are produced according to the properties required for their application,and various grading systems are used to distinguish steels Steel Grades,Properties and Global StandardsSteel grades,chemical composition,products Traditional steel designations 2-5 Mechanical properties,room temp.6-7 Mechanical properties,elevated temp.8-9 Mechanical properties,low temp.; Design codes 10 Schaeffler diagram and microstructures 11 Physical properties 12-13 Fabrication and use characteristics 14-15 Steel grading systems consider chemical composition,treatment,and mechanical properties to enable fabricators to select the appropriate product for their application.Aside from the actual percentage of carbon and other alloys in the material,the microstructure also has a significant influence on the mechanical properties of steel.Structural Steel - S235,S275,S355 Chemical Composition May 11,2012·Structural steel is a standard construction material made from specific grades of steel and formed in a range of industry-standard cross-sectional shapes (or Sections).Structural steel grades are designed with specific chemical compositions and mechanical propertiesTable of material properties for structural steel S235 Steel grades with the designation 'H',according to the standard EN 10219-1 are applicable for cold formed structural hollow sections.See Details below for the description of the relevant EN standard.Steel sub-grades JR,J0,J2,K2 characterize the ability of steel to behave in a ductile manner and therefore avoid brittle fracture,especially Apr 23,2021·Although there are many grades of stainless steel,only a dozen or so are used with any regularity.For example,AISI Type 304 SS ,having a chromium-nickel constituent and low carbon,is popular for its good corrosion resistance,cleanability,and formability,making it popular for many everyday items such as kitchen sinks.The Metal Profile of Steel - ThoughtCoJan 25,2020·Grades and Types According to the World Steel Association,there are over 3,500 different grades of steel,encompassing unique physical,chemical,and environmental properties.These properties include density,elasticity,melting point,thermal conductivity,strength,and hardness.What Are The Properties Of Steel? - Engineering DiscoveriesSteel is identified by grades,which are defined by specific organizations that set standards for grading.Mild steel and two grades of stainless steel,304 and 430 are discussed below.Other mechanical properties of structural steel that are important to the design er include 1- Welcome to contact us through online consulting, emails and hotline if you are interested in our company or products. 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When a computer is started (it is booted), a flow of electrons “enters” in the computer circuitry and chips and, in few seconds, there is a prompt waiting for a command. But… how is the very first instruction executed? This is a vey high level representation of the process Some might argue that this representation is becoming outdated as there are new things like UEFI and systemd that replace some of the above steps. In any case, it is still in place in many systems. In the next paragraphs there is a description about the old and the new stuff!! Lets continue with the (romantic?) view of electrons flowing and hitting some circuitry and the CPU. When the coming stream of electrons hits a specialized circuit, the circuit sends a signal (another stream of electrons :-) to the RESET pin of the CPU. This RESET pin is a real (physical) pin found on CPUs. When the CPU gets this signal in the RESET pin, it will load the very first instruction at memory address FFFF0h (or address FFFFFFF0h in 32⁄64 bit architectures). These addresses are also called Reset Vector (more about this below) Find here a more detailed explanation about the Reset Vector. Find here the Memory Map of the IA32 PC architecture by Intel. Boot and BIOS The very first instructions and follow-up actions are part of the routines and programs that conform what was named Basic Input Ouput System (B.I.O.S) for old computers (in IT, “old” means very few years), or Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) for newly systems. For simplicity, BIOS and UEFI will be used indistinguishably unless otherwise stated. Find deeper explanations about BIOS and UEFI First PCs already used Read Only Memory (ROM) chips to store the BIOS programs. Due to the underlying hardware’s design, a small part of the ROM is directly mapped to the memory address space. This memory address is FFFF0h (or address FFFFFFF0h in 32 bit architectures), whiich we called before “REset Vector”. As you can imagine, this address contains the first instruction of the first routines to execute. See the Boot sequence description at Wikipedia. You can find this very first instruction close to the bottom here. As you can see, it is an assembler instruction that does a (far) jump where some BIOS routines (known as POST) have the first instruction. “far jmp” is an instruction of Assembler, a language that is a pseudo representation of the real machine code run by the CPUs. Go deeper about this with the assembler and machine code posts at Wikipedia. (yes… what a wonderful place is Wikipedia. I am not related to it at all but, probably like you, I am a heavy user of it. If you are aalso a heavy user, please, do your best to support it via collaborating, donating or just spreading the word !!) UEFI has a different booting process. The CPU is already executing the first instructions of the BIOS routines. These initial routines are part of what is called the Power On Self Test (POST). Remember that this very initial code is executed from a memory address mapped to the ROM, which is slow. These first steps of POST do checks for the initial needed hardware (mainly memory) and will load the rest of the BIOS routines in that memory.. Read this answer at Stackoverflow (and its comments) for a much better and deeper explanation. When all the checks are done, POST calls the BIOS interrupt 13 INT-13 to load and pass control to the sectors of the disk containing programs to load the kernel, known as boot loader, or even second stage boot loaders, as POST is the very first loader !! This is true for all PC-Intel computer, but UEFI, while maintaining compatibility with this “BIOS” mode, has a more modular and modern design. You can find more information about POST at Wikipedia. Linux Boot loader After the POST routines, the next stage is to load the Operating System (in our case Linux). New BIOS routines are executed, which look at some definitions stored in permanent RAM device, called CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide *S**emiconductor). CMOS data is kept by the battery all motherboards have. Part of this data holds a list of the bootable devices (you can see this list when you enter into the Bios). This (ordered) list is fetched by the BIOS routines and used to scan the listed devices. Although there can be other devices (CD-ROMs, USBs, etc.), lets assume that our primary Hard Drive is the first one. The first sector of cylinder 0 of head 0 (in other words, the very first sector of a partitioned and formated hard disk) contains the MBR (Master Boot Sector) which in turn contains the initial boot loader and some extra info about the structure of the partition table on that hard disk. All this in 512 Kb. To be precise, the MBR is 446 bytes. The rest up to 512 are 4 patition entries of 16 bytes, plus 2 lst bytes for the boot signature (active partition). See them at the disc sector layout at Wikipedia. One (and only one) of the partitions (up to a maximum of 4) has to be marked as active in order to load its (second stage) loader. This second loader can also be seen as the real kernel (or OS nucleus) loader. In Windows, it can be, NTLDR (Windows NT Loader) or its successor. In Linux, the most populars are LILO and GRUB. The major part of Linux distributions are using (nowadays) GRUB2. When GNU GRUB2 (GRand U nified Bootloader version 2) is installed in the disk (normally when installing a Linux distribution), the file boot.img is copied in the MBR sector. When loaded into memory and run (remember that this is done by the BIOS routines…) it calls the first sector of the file core.img. This is the 1.5 stage (yes, GRUB has 3 stages). When core.img runs, it loads its configuration, needed modules and file system drivers. It also knows about where stage 2 files are in the file system. Stage 1.5 knows its configurations as it is created from diskboot.img and configured during installation time. As stage 1.5 has loaded filesystem driveers, the 2nd stage is loaded from a file system and not from “raw” sectors in the disk (more precisely, from the standard directory /boot/grub) . This allows to have enough capacity to store bigger files with more complex and larger routines, configuration files, etc. After loading all needed files into memory, stage 2 presents a text selection in the console screen, allowing to select the OS (Operating System) to load. Once a kernel has been selected by the user or by configuration during installation, GRUB stage 2 reads and loads the kernel code from the file system. GRUB also loads the initrd (Initial RAM disk) image. When GRUB has loaded the kernel and initrd images, it pases control to the kernel. You can find here the code for grub_main function. This function prepares many things (console, root device, etc.) and passes control to grub_normal_execute. After some calls and many checks, grub_command_execute is called to execute the grub Here you can find images (files) that GRUB can load (normally Find unix.stackexchange.com a very good response to a question about loading initrd. Find in the Linux documentation the boot protocols. When the kernel is given control by GRUB stage 2, it does many things. As the loaded kernel is normally a compressed image (zIamge or bzImage), it decompresses itself into memory. It also does many initializations like setting up interrupts, load the initial RAM disk so the kernel can find useful commands, starts the scheduler etc. At some point, the kernel mounts the root file system. At the end, the kernel calls the init function, which is the first real ‘user space’ process. The call to init is hard coded in the kernel. Check the kernel source code from Linus Torvals repository. Look at the end of function kernel_init to find where init is expected to be. (Same for kernel version 4.16 at elixir.bootlin.com) as the Linus repository keeps updated and line pointers vary with time. Init (or systemd) init has been recently superseded by systemd in many Linus distros, both have the same mission. /sbin/init is the program in charge to start all that is needed to make the computer useful from a user or service point of view. With still some controversy, many people claim that systemd is a more modern, flexible and faster way to start things up (at least for the desktop/laptop arena…), but many others (Mico Maco included) think that it is way to complicated (breaking the Unix ‘keep things small and simple’ principle ), and it creates dangerous coupling among different subsystems. Time will tell… For compatibility sake, if systemd is used in a system, /sbin/init is a link that points to the systemd binary. This way the kernel keeps calling something called init (as previously shown). You can check this running ps -ef | less in a terminal and check the very first process ID (PID 1) is mycomputer ~ # ps -ef | less UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD root 1 0 0 18:23 ? 00:00:01 /sbin/init splash .......... Note that the parent process ID (PPID) of init is “0”. This process with PID “0” is the kernel itself (you might find people talking about swapper, scheduler, idle task, etc..) In any case, it is part of the kernel and therefore in kernel space so it does not show up in We will not go much further from here. init/systemd tasks might vary a lot, depending on linux flavor, hardware, needed processes, etc. One of the program (services?, daemons?) init runs is the XWindows environment to present the graphical environment. init also launches the program/daemon that takes care of the pseudo-terminals. This program used to be agetty (o a similar tty program). agetty program ( /sbin/agetty), in combination with /bin/login), is in charge, after the user enters the username and password, to do several tasks like credential and security checks, initializes the environment, etc. It will also launch a shell, normally bash ( /bin/bash), which also does some more environment setup and presents a prompt to the user. As one can imagine, all the actions done by these programs take default hard coded values or values from several configuration files that the user can edit and tailor. As previously commented, nowadays many distributions have changed systemd is a world on its own, the concept regarding login is the same. As you can find in file (which in turn is a link to /lib/systemd/system/[email protected]), there are login configuration parameters managed by systemd. One of these parameters informs the service for managing “tty” terminals: [Service] # the VT is cleared by TTYVTDisallocate ExecStart=-/sbin/agetty --noclear %I $TERM Not surprisingly, it calls our old friend So the general concept still holds true with systemd: The above description for getting a login prompt and stating a bash session applies to what is known as an “interactive session”, where users can “interact” with the system. Nevertheless, there are also “non interactive sessions” or launch of programs that are not a shell. They are normally called daemons and configure many things in the system, like the printing daemon (normally cups), the bluetooth daemon or an HTTP server like apache or nginx. Discover the, for many of us, new world and (too) many functionalities of systemd here or here.. or here You can even look to the code of systemd at the GIT repository of one of its creators !! Mico Maco has kept his pending links to read about OK, and now what? In this page Mico Maco has tried to provide a description about what happens “internally” when a computer is powered-on an shows a prompt to accept commands by the user. As you might already have spotted, this process implies the launch of many processes while initializing the system. Also, many of these processes keep running “in the background” to, for instance, accept HTTP requests in case the system is setup to run a web server. In turn, that HTTP server will need to run some code to serve the page, which in turn can be interpreted by a specific language interpreter like PHP or Java. So there are many things running in the background while we also have our shell prompt waiting for a command… So how all this is being handled? How all seems to run “in parallel” at the same time? Mico Maco recommends to follow with how bash executes commands, which is a more interactive or practical view. This will lead, in any case, to the real McCoy about running multiple processes and scheduling them. Other resources ans references If you are interested on a travel in time and also in digging deeper on physical switches, magnetic drums and how the ROM revolutionized all, read this very interesting post at Wikipedia. Find a much deeper Linux booting explanation by 0xax at section “From the bootloader to the kernel”” An introduction to the Linux boot and startup processes link Inside the Linux boot process at IBM (old but clear !!). Newer article at IBM Learn Linux, 101: Boot the system

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