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Ethanol sometimes might be
0. concocted
1. love
2. magic
3. affection
an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the latter of whom regarded it as a life - preserving substance able to prevent all diseases ( the aqua vitae or " water of life ", also called by john the quintessence of wine ). = = nomenclature = = = = = etymology = = = the word " alcohol " derives from the arabic kohl ( arabic : Ψ§ΩΩΨΩ, romanized : al - kuhl ), a powder used as an eyeliner. the first part of the word ( al - ) is the arabic definite article, equivalent to the in english. the second part of the word ( kuhl ) has several antecedents in semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the akkadian ( guhlum ), meaning stibnite or antimony. like its antecedents in arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide sb2s3. it was considered to be the essence or " spirit " of this mineral. it was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when " spirits " was a synonym for hard liquor. paracelsus and libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. at the same time paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid ; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings. bartholomew traheron, in his 1543 translation of john of vigo, introduces the word as a term used by " barbarous " authors for " fine powder. " vigo wrote : " the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or ( as i fynde it sometymes wryten ) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. " the 1657 lexicon chymicum, by william johnson glosses the word as " antimonium sive stibium. " by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including " alcohol of wine, " the distilled essence of wine.
in chemistry, an alcohol ( from arabic al - kuhl'the kohl'), is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl ( βoh ) functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom. alcohols range from the simple, like methanol and ethanol, to complex, like sugar alcohols and cholesterol. the presence of an oh group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons, conferring hydrophilic ( water - loving ) properties. the oh group provides a site at which many reactions can occur. = = history = = the flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as aristotle ( 384 β 322 bce ), theophrastus ( c. 371 β 287 bce ), and pliny the elder ( 23 / 24 β 79 ce ). however, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second - and third - century roman egypt. an important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to jabir ibn hayyan ( ninth century ce ), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. the distillation of wine is attested in arabic works attributed to al - kindi ( c. 801 β 873 ce ) and to al - farabi ( c. 872 β 950 ), and in the 28th book of al - zahrawi's ( latin : abulcasis, 936 β 1013 ) kitab al - tasrif ( later translated into latin as liber servatoris ). in the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ( " burning water ", i. e., alcohol ) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among western european chemists. the works of taddeo alderotti ( 1223 β 1296 ) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water - cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the
an enhancement of the marangoni effect that, until recently, had been overlooked. the effect can be used to move water droplets around in technical applications. it is sometimes claimed incorrectly that wine with " lots of legs " is sweeter or of a better quality. in fact the intensity of this phenomenon depends only on alcohol content, and it can be eliminated completely by covering the wine glass ( which stops the evaporation of the alcohol ). british physicist c. v. boys argues that the biblical injunction, " look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright ", ( proverbs 23 : 31 ) refers to this effect. since the " tears of wine " are most noticeable in wine which has a high alcohol content, the author may be suggesting this as a way to identify wines that should be avoided in the interest of sobriety. in 2019 a paper indicated that shock - wave dynamics may play a part in the phenomenon. = = related phenomena = = other fluid phenomena that arise in alcohol - water mixtures are beading and viscimetry. these are more pronounced in liquor than in wine, and both phenomena are more pronounced in stronger liquor. beading refers to the formation of stable bubbles when liquor is shaken. this occurs only in liquor that contains more than 46 % alcohol. it is an example of the marangoni effect. shaking a whisky bottle to form bubbles is referred to as β beating [ beading ] the whisky β. viscimetry is the formation of whorls when water is added to a high - alcohol mixture. = = see also = = surface tension marangoni effect = = references = = = = external links = = wine'legs ', from kitchensavvy a video of tears of bourbon why does wine cry?
from 2 β 5 g / kg ( rats, oral ). ethanol is less acutely toxic. all alcohols are mild skin irritants. methanol and ethylene glycol are more toxic than other simple alcohols. their metabolism is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. in this way, methanol will be excreted intact in urine. = = physical properties = = in general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. owing to the presence of the polar oh alcohols are more water - soluble than simple hydrocarbons. methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. 1 - butanol, with a four - carbon chain, is moderately soluble. because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. the boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78. 29 Β°c, compared to 69 Β°c for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34. 6 Β°c for diethyl ether. = = occurrence in nature = = alcohols occur widely in nature, as derivatives of glucose such as cellulose and hemicellulose, and in phenols and their derivatives such as lignin. starting from biomass, 180 billion tons / y of complex carbohydrates ( sugar polymers ) are produced commercially ( as of 2014 ). many other alcohols are pervasive in organisms, as manifested in other sugars such as fructose and sucrose, in polyols such as glycerol, and in some amino acids such as serine. simple alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and propanol occur in modest quantities in nature, and are industrially synthesized in large quantities for use as chemical precursors, fuels, and solvents. = = production = = = = = hydroxylation = = = many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation, i. e., the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or a related oxidant. hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons, converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted. enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions. many industrial alcohols, such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon, are produced by hydro
be separated. the crude oil flows into a distillation tower and is heated up, which allows the more volatile components such as butane and kerosene to vaporize. these vapors move up the tower and eventually come in contact with cold surfaces, which causes them to condense and be collected. the most volatile chemical condense at the top of the column while the least volatile chemicals to vaporize condense in the lowest portion. the difference in volatility between water and ethanol has long been used to produce concentrated alcoholic beverages ( many of these are referred to as " liquors " ). in order to increase the concentration of ethanol in the product, beverage makers would heat the initial alcohol mixture to a temperature where most of the ethanol vaporizes while most of the water remains liquid. the ethanol vapor is then collected and condensed in a separate container, resulting in a much more concentrated product. = = = perfume = = = volatility is an important consideration when crafting perfumes. humans detect odors when aromatic vapors come in contact with receptors in the nose. ingredients that vaporize quickly after being applied will produce fragrant vapors for a short time before the oils evaporate. slow - evaporating ingredients can stay on the skin for weeks or even months, but may not produce enough vapors to produce a strong aroma. to prevent these problems, perfume designers carefully consider the volatility of essential oils and other ingredients in their perfumes. appropriate evaporation rates are achieved by modifying the amount of highly volatile and non - volatile ingredients used. = = see also = = clausius β clapeyron relation β relation between vapour pressure and temperature distillation β method of separating mixtures fractional distillation β separation of a mixture into its component parts partial pressure β pressure of a component gas in a mixture raoult's law β law of thermodynamics for vapour pressure of a mixture relative volatility β comparative volatility of components in a solution vapor β liquid equilibrium β concentration of a vapor in contact with its liquid volatile organic compound β organic chemicals having a high vapor pressure at room temperature = = references = = = = external links = = volatility from ilpi. com
Answer:
|
concocted
| null |
Ethanol sometimes might be
0. concocted
1. love
2. magic
3. affection
an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the latter of whom regarded it as a life - preserving substance able to prevent all diseases ( the aqua vitae or " water of life ", also called by john the quintessence of wine ). = = nomenclature = = = = = etymology = = = the word " alcohol " derives from the arabic kohl ( arabic : Ψ§ΩΩΨΩ, romanized : al - kuhl ), a powder used as an eyeliner. the first part of the word ( al - ) is the arabic definite article, equivalent to the in english. the second part of the word ( kuhl ) has several antecedents in semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the akkadian ( guhlum ), meaning stibnite or antimony. like its antecedents in arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide sb2s3. it was considered to be the essence or " spirit " of this mineral. it was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when " spirits " was a synonym for hard liquor. paracelsus and libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. at the same time paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid ; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings. bartholomew traheron, in his 1543 translation of john of vigo, introduces the word as a term used by " barbarous " authors for " fine powder. " vigo wrote : " the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or ( as i fynde it sometymes wryten ) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. " the 1657 lexicon chymicum, by william johnson glosses the word as " antimonium sive stibium. " by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including " alcohol of wine, " the distilled essence of wine.
in chemistry, an alcohol ( from arabic al - kuhl'the kohl'), is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl ( βoh ) functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom. alcohols range from the simple, like methanol and ethanol, to complex, like sugar alcohols and cholesterol. the presence of an oh group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons, conferring hydrophilic ( water - loving ) properties. the oh group provides a site at which many reactions can occur. = = history = = the flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as aristotle ( 384 β 322 bce ), theophrastus ( c. 371 β 287 bce ), and pliny the elder ( 23 / 24 β 79 ce ). however, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second - and third - century roman egypt. an important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to jabir ibn hayyan ( ninth century ce ), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. the distillation of wine is attested in arabic works attributed to al - kindi ( c. 801 β 873 ce ) and to al - farabi ( c. 872 β 950 ), and in the 28th book of al - zahrawi's ( latin : abulcasis, 936 β 1013 ) kitab al - tasrif ( later translated into latin as liber servatoris ). in the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ( " burning water ", i. e., alcohol ) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among western european chemists. the works of taddeo alderotti ( 1223 β 1296 ) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water - cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the
an enhancement of the marangoni effect that, until recently, had been overlooked. the effect can be used to move water droplets around in technical applications. it is sometimes claimed incorrectly that wine with " lots of legs " is sweeter or of a better quality. in fact the intensity of this phenomenon depends only on alcohol content, and it can be eliminated completely by covering the wine glass ( which stops the evaporation of the alcohol ). british physicist c. v. boys argues that the biblical injunction, " look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright ", ( proverbs 23 : 31 ) refers to this effect. since the " tears of wine " are most noticeable in wine which has a high alcohol content, the author may be suggesting this as a way to identify wines that should be avoided in the interest of sobriety. in 2019 a paper indicated that shock - wave dynamics may play a part in the phenomenon. = = related phenomena = = other fluid phenomena that arise in alcohol - water mixtures are beading and viscimetry. these are more pronounced in liquor than in wine, and both phenomena are more pronounced in stronger liquor. beading refers to the formation of stable bubbles when liquor is shaken. this occurs only in liquor that contains more than 46 % alcohol. it is an example of the marangoni effect. shaking a whisky bottle to form bubbles is referred to as β beating [ beading ] the whisky β. viscimetry is the formation of whorls when water is added to a high - alcohol mixture. = = see also = = surface tension marangoni effect = = references = = = = external links = = wine'legs ', from kitchensavvy a video of tears of bourbon why does wine cry?
from 2 β 5 g / kg ( rats, oral ). ethanol is less acutely toxic. all alcohols are mild skin irritants. methanol and ethylene glycol are more toxic than other simple alcohols. their metabolism is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. in this way, methanol will be excreted intact in urine. = = physical properties = = in general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. owing to the presence of the polar oh alcohols are more water - soluble than simple hydrocarbons. methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. 1 - butanol, with a four - carbon chain, is moderately soluble. because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. the boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78. 29 Β°c, compared to 69 Β°c for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34. 6 Β°c for diethyl ether. = = occurrence in nature = = alcohols occur widely in nature, as derivatives of glucose such as cellulose and hemicellulose, and in phenols and their derivatives such as lignin. starting from biomass, 180 billion tons / y of complex carbohydrates ( sugar polymers ) are produced commercially ( as of 2014 ). many other alcohols are pervasive in organisms, as manifested in other sugars such as fructose and sucrose, in polyols such as glycerol, and in some amino acids such as serine. simple alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and propanol occur in modest quantities in nature, and are industrially synthesized in large quantities for use as chemical precursors, fuels, and solvents. = = production = = = = = hydroxylation = = = many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation, i. e., the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or a related oxidant. hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons, converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted. enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions. many industrial alcohols, such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon, are produced by hydro
be separated. the crude oil flows into a distillation tower and is heated up, which allows the more volatile components such as butane and kerosene to vaporize. these vapors move up the tower and eventually come in contact with cold surfaces, which causes them to condense and be collected. the most volatile chemical condense at the top of the column while the least volatile chemicals to vaporize condense in the lowest portion. the difference in volatility between water and ethanol has long been used to produce concentrated alcoholic beverages ( many of these are referred to as " liquors " ). in order to increase the concentration of ethanol in the product, beverage makers would heat the initial alcohol mixture to a temperature where most of the ethanol vaporizes while most of the water remains liquid. the ethanol vapor is then collected and condensed in a separate container, resulting in a much more concentrated product. = = = perfume = = = volatility is an important consideration when crafting perfumes. humans detect odors when aromatic vapors come in contact with receptors in the nose. ingredients that vaporize quickly after being applied will produce fragrant vapors for a short time before the oils evaporate. slow - evaporating ingredients can stay on the skin for weeks or even months, but may not produce enough vapors to produce a strong aroma. to prevent these problems, perfume designers carefully consider the volatility of essential oils and other ingredients in their perfumes. appropriate evaporation rates are achieved by modifying the amount of highly volatile and non - volatile ingredients used. = = see also = = clausius β clapeyron relation β relation between vapour pressure and temperature distillation β method of separating mixtures fractional distillation β separation of a mixture into its component parts partial pressure β pressure of a component gas in a mixture raoult's law β law of thermodynamics for vapour pressure of a mixture relative volatility β comparative volatility of components in a solution vapor β liquid equilibrium β concentration of a vapor in contact with its liquid volatile organic compound β organic chemicals having a high vapor pressure at room temperature = = references = = = = external links = = volatility from ilpi. com
Answer:
|
love
| 0.3 |
Other than sight bloodhounds can find a meal by
0. social media
1. their phone
2. the internet
3. stench
to understand an increase in mortality from the disease. the inuit were the first to report the increase in deaths, due to their reliance on common eider for meat, feathers, and eggs. with support from the cape dorset, iqaluit, aupaluk, kangirsuk, kangiqsujuaq, and ivujivik inuit communities, the researchers were able to detect the outbreak of avian cholera in thirteen locations from 2004 to 2016. the inuit peoples were able to keep a closer eye on death rates of the common eider due to their daily routines and subsistence on the duck. = = privacy concerns = = as digital technology advances with many dangers associated to privacy, individuals are attempting to be more accountable when meeting others. background check websites and search engine sources reveal just how many people attempt to find information on another person, whatever the reason. many researchers altogether ignore the idea of privacy when analyzing methods of participatory surveillance. more so, from a social media perspective, some researchers claim that by openly sharing information with others, this cannot be deemed a breach of privacy. however, a few researchers on the topic mention breaches of privacy within the spheres of both digital media studies and infodemiology. = = = infodemiology = = = infodemiology relies on users'information to analyze health patterns and public health concerns. however, the legality behind using other people's information without their consent can cause serious ethical privacy violations. however, limitations such as individual privacy concerns and unreliable information cause participatory digital information to sometimes be inaccurate and hard to differentiate from truth. = = = doxing = = = doxing is a form of cyberbullying, using the internet to post private information about an individual or organization as a means of attack against the entity. common information that can be leaked can be anything from a past indiscretion, home address, or even social security number of the victim. this information could be freely available on the internet for the attacker to access and further publicize. this differentiates it from other types of information leaks, since the information is simply being brought to the forefront of the public's awareness. in other words, the public information being leaked could be found freely by other parties even if it was not exposed in a more public light. the term " doxing " comes from the origins of document, first used in 2001 with the infamous hacker collective called anonymous. with today's current laws, most legislation pertaining to cyber threats and attacks are rooted in
single bound, and can maintain rapid pursuit for at least 20 minutes. a wolf's foot is large and flexible, which allows it to tread on a wide variety of terrain. a wolf's legs are long compared to their body size allowing them to travel up to 76 km ( 47 mi ) in 12 hours. this adaptation allows wolves to locate prey within hours, but it can take days to find prey that can be killed without great risk. moose and deer live singly in the summer. caribou live in herds of thousands which presents dangers for wolves. elk live in small herds and these are a safer target. a wolf carries its head at the same level as its back, lifting it only when alert. in one study, wolves detected moose using scent ten times, vision six times, and once by following tracks in the snow. their vision is as good as a human's, and they can smell prey at least 2. 4 km ( 1 + 1β2 mi ) away. one wolf traveled to a herd 103 km ( 64 mi ) away. a human can detect the smell of a forest fire over the same distance from downwind. the wolf's sense of smell is at least comparable to that of the domestic dog, which is at least ten thousand times more sensitive than a human's. = = pursuit = = when hunting large gregarious prey, wolves will try to isolate an individual from its group. if successful, a wolf pack can bring down a game that will feed it for days, but one error in judgment can lead to serious injury or death. most large prey have developed defensive adaptations and behaviors. wolves have been killed while attempting to bring down bison, elk, moose, muskoxen, and even by one of their smallest hoofed prey, the white - tailed deer. in one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves in a single event. with smaller prey like beaver, geese, and hares, there is no risk to the wolf. although people often believe wolves can easily overcome any of their prey, their success rate in hunting hoofed prey is usually low. generally, bison, elk, and moose will stand their ground, then the wolves must struggle with them to bring them down. often caribou and deer will flee, but sometimes deer also make a stand. if the targeted animal stands its ground, wolves either ignore it or try to intimidate it into running. wolves, or even a wolf on its own, will attempt to fright
102 kg ( 225 lb ). when hunting medium to large sized prey, spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal ; young animals are frequently targeted, as are old ones, though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras, due to their aggressive anti - predator behaviours. small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth, while large prey is eaten alive. the spotted hyena tracks live prey by sight, hearing and smell. carrion is detected by smell and the sound of other predators feeding. during daylight hours, they watch vultures descending upon carcasses. their auditory perception is powerful enough to detect sounds of predators killing prey or feeding on carcasses over distances of up to 10 km ( 6. 2 mi ). unlike the grey wolf, the spotted hyena relies more on sight than smell when hunting, and does not follow its prey's prints or travel in single file. spotted hyenas usually hunt wildebeest either singly, or in groups of two or three. they catch adult wildebeest usually after 5 km ( 3. 1 mi ) chases at speeds of up to 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ). chases are usually initiated by one hyena and, with the exception of cows with calves, there is little active defence from the wildebeest herd. wildebeest will sometimes attempt to escape hyenas by taking to water although, in such cases, the hyenas almost invariably catch them. zebras require different hunting methods to those used for wildebeest, due to their habit of running in tight groups and aggressive defence from stallions. typical zebra hunting groups consist of 10 β 25 hyenas, though there is one record of a hyena killing an adult zebra unaided. during a chase, zebras typically move in tight bunches, with the hyenas pursuing behind in a crescent formation. chases are usually relatively slow, with an average speed of 15 β 30 km / h. a stallion will attempt to place himself between the hyenas and the herd, though once a zebra falls behind the protective formation it is immediately set upon, usually after a chase of 3 km ( 1. 9 mi ). though hyenas may harass the stallion, they usually only concentrate on the herd and attempt to dodge the stallion's assaults. unlike stallions, mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas when their foals are threatened. unlike wildebeest, zebras rarely take to water
have shown that cannibalistic necrophagy, although rare, has been observed as a survival behavior in several social species, including anatomically modern humans ; however, episodes of human cannibalism occur rarely in most human societies. many instances have occurred in human history, especially in times of war and famine, where necrophagy and human cannibalism emerged as a survival behavior, although anthropologists report the usage of ritual cannibalism among funerary practices and as the preferred means of disposal of the dead in some tribal societies. = = gallery = = = = see also = = consumer - resource systems = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = smith, t. m. ( 2015 ). elements of ecology. robert leo smith ( 9 ed. ). harlow. isbn 978 - 1 - 292 - 07740 - 6. oclc 915123443. { { cite book } } : cs1 maint : location missing publisher ( link ) rufus, anneli s. ( 2009 ). the scavengers'manifesto. kristan lawson. new york : jeremy p. tarcher / penguin. isbn 978 - 1 - 58542 - 717 - 8. oclc 262428497. kruuk, hans ( 2002 ). hunter and hunted : relationships between carnivores and people. cambridge, uk : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 511 - 06485 - 3. oclc 57254065. " tasmanian devil | habitat, population, size, & facts | britannica ". www. britannica. com. retrieved 2022 - 10 - 03. = = external links = = stitching a life from the scraps of others β slideshow by the new york times
the spotted hyena is the most carnivorous member of the hyaenidae. unlike its brown and striped cousins, the spotted hyena is primarily a predator rather than a scavenger. one of the earliest studies to demonstrate its hunting abilities was done by hans kruuk, a dutch wildlife ecologist who showed through a 7 - year study of hyena populations in ngorongoro and serengeti national park during the 1960s that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions, and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of africa. however spotted hyenas remain mislabeled as scavengers, often even by ecologists and wildlife documentary channels. = = prey = = blue wildebeest are the most commonly taken medium - sized ungulate prey item in both ngorongoro and the serengeti, with zebra and thomson's gazelles coming close behind. cape buffalo are rarely attacked due to differences in habitat preference, though adult bulls have been recorded to be taken on occasion. in kruger national park, blue wildebeest, cape buffalo, burchell's zebra, greater kudu and impala are the spotted hyena's most important prey, while giraffe, impala, wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby timbavati area. springbok and kudu are the main prey in namibia's etosha national park, and springbok in the namib. in the southern kalahari, gemsbok, wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey. in chobe, the spotted hyena's primary prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala. in kenya's masai mara, 80 % of the spotted hyena's prey consists of topi and thomson's gazelle, save for during the four - month period when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area. bushbuck, suni and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the aberdare mountains, while grant's gazelle, gerenuk, sheep, goats and cattle are likely preyed upon in northern kenya. in west africa, the spotted hyena is primarily a scavenger who will occasionally attack domestic stock and medium - size antelopes in some areas. in cameroon, it is common for spotted hyenas to feed on small antelopes like kob, but may also scavenge on reedbuck, kongoni
Answer:
|
stench
| null |
Other than sight bloodhounds can find a meal by
0. social media
1. their phone
2. the internet
3. stench
to understand an increase in mortality from the disease. the inuit were the first to report the increase in deaths, due to their reliance on common eider for meat, feathers, and eggs. with support from the cape dorset, iqaluit, aupaluk, kangirsuk, kangiqsujuaq, and ivujivik inuit communities, the researchers were able to detect the outbreak of avian cholera in thirteen locations from 2004 to 2016. the inuit peoples were able to keep a closer eye on death rates of the common eider due to their daily routines and subsistence on the duck. = = privacy concerns = = as digital technology advances with many dangers associated to privacy, individuals are attempting to be more accountable when meeting others. background check websites and search engine sources reveal just how many people attempt to find information on another person, whatever the reason. many researchers altogether ignore the idea of privacy when analyzing methods of participatory surveillance. more so, from a social media perspective, some researchers claim that by openly sharing information with others, this cannot be deemed a breach of privacy. however, a few researchers on the topic mention breaches of privacy within the spheres of both digital media studies and infodemiology. = = = infodemiology = = = infodemiology relies on users'information to analyze health patterns and public health concerns. however, the legality behind using other people's information without their consent can cause serious ethical privacy violations. however, limitations such as individual privacy concerns and unreliable information cause participatory digital information to sometimes be inaccurate and hard to differentiate from truth. = = = doxing = = = doxing is a form of cyberbullying, using the internet to post private information about an individual or organization as a means of attack against the entity. common information that can be leaked can be anything from a past indiscretion, home address, or even social security number of the victim. this information could be freely available on the internet for the attacker to access and further publicize. this differentiates it from other types of information leaks, since the information is simply being brought to the forefront of the public's awareness. in other words, the public information being leaked could be found freely by other parties even if it was not exposed in a more public light. the term " doxing " comes from the origins of document, first used in 2001 with the infamous hacker collective called anonymous. with today's current laws, most legislation pertaining to cyber threats and attacks are rooted in
single bound, and can maintain rapid pursuit for at least 20 minutes. a wolf's foot is large and flexible, which allows it to tread on a wide variety of terrain. a wolf's legs are long compared to their body size allowing them to travel up to 76 km ( 47 mi ) in 12 hours. this adaptation allows wolves to locate prey within hours, but it can take days to find prey that can be killed without great risk. moose and deer live singly in the summer. caribou live in herds of thousands which presents dangers for wolves. elk live in small herds and these are a safer target. a wolf carries its head at the same level as its back, lifting it only when alert. in one study, wolves detected moose using scent ten times, vision six times, and once by following tracks in the snow. their vision is as good as a human's, and they can smell prey at least 2. 4 km ( 1 + 1β2 mi ) away. one wolf traveled to a herd 103 km ( 64 mi ) away. a human can detect the smell of a forest fire over the same distance from downwind. the wolf's sense of smell is at least comparable to that of the domestic dog, which is at least ten thousand times more sensitive than a human's. = = pursuit = = when hunting large gregarious prey, wolves will try to isolate an individual from its group. if successful, a wolf pack can bring down a game that will feed it for days, but one error in judgment can lead to serious injury or death. most large prey have developed defensive adaptations and behaviors. wolves have been killed while attempting to bring down bison, elk, moose, muskoxen, and even by one of their smallest hoofed prey, the white - tailed deer. in one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves in a single event. with smaller prey like beaver, geese, and hares, there is no risk to the wolf. although people often believe wolves can easily overcome any of their prey, their success rate in hunting hoofed prey is usually low. generally, bison, elk, and moose will stand their ground, then the wolves must struggle with them to bring them down. often caribou and deer will flee, but sometimes deer also make a stand. if the targeted animal stands its ground, wolves either ignore it or try to intimidate it into running. wolves, or even a wolf on its own, will attempt to fright
102 kg ( 225 lb ). when hunting medium to large sized prey, spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal ; young animals are frequently targeted, as are old ones, though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras, due to their aggressive anti - predator behaviours. small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth, while large prey is eaten alive. the spotted hyena tracks live prey by sight, hearing and smell. carrion is detected by smell and the sound of other predators feeding. during daylight hours, they watch vultures descending upon carcasses. their auditory perception is powerful enough to detect sounds of predators killing prey or feeding on carcasses over distances of up to 10 km ( 6. 2 mi ). unlike the grey wolf, the spotted hyena relies more on sight than smell when hunting, and does not follow its prey's prints or travel in single file. spotted hyenas usually hunt wildebeest either singly, or in groups of two or three. they catch adult wildebeest usually after 5 km ( 3. 1 mi ) chases at speeds of up to 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ). chases are usually initiated by one hyena and, with the exception of cows with calves, there is little active defence from the wildebeest herd. wildebeest will sometimes attempt to escape hyenas by taking to water although, in such cases, the hyenas almost invariably catch them. zebras require different hunting methods to those used for wildebeest, due to their habit of running in tight groups and aggressive defence from stallions. typical zebra hunting groups consist of 10 β 25 hyenas, though there is one record of a hyena killing an adult zebra unaided. during a chase, zebras typically move in tight bunches, with the hyenas pursuing behind in a crescent formation. chases are usually relatively slow, with an average speed of 15 β 30 km / h. a stallion will attempt to place himself between the hyenas and the herd, though once a zebra falls behind the protective formation it is immediately set upon, usually after a chase of 3 km ( 1. 9 mi ). though hyenas may harass the stallion, they usually only concentrate on the herd and attempt to dodge the stallion's assaults. unlike stallions, mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas when their foals are threatened. unlike wildebeest, zebras rarely take to water
have shown that cannibalistic necrophagy, although rare, has been observed as a survival behavior in several social species, including anatomically modern humans ; however, episodes of human cannibalism occur rarely in most human societies. many instances have occurred in human history, especially in times of war and famine, where necrophagy and human cannibalism emerged as a survival behavior, although anthropologists report the usage of ritual cannibalism among funerary practices and as the preferred means of disposal of the dead in some tribal societies. = = gallery = = = = see also = = consumer - resource systems = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = smith, t. m. ( 2015 ). elements of ecology. robert leo smith ( 9 ed. ). harlow. isbn 978 - 1 - 292 - 07740 - 6. oclc 915123443. { { cite book } } : cs1 maint : location missing publisher ( link ) rufus, anneli s. ( 2009 ). the scavengers'manifesto. kristan lawson. new york : jeremy p. tarcher / penguin. isbn 978 - 1 - 58542 - 717 - 8. oclc 262428497. kruuk, hans ( 2002 ). hunter and hunted : relationships between carnivores and people. cambridge, uk : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 511 - 06485 - 3. oclc 57254065. " tasmanian devil | habitat, population, size, & facts | britannica ". www. britannica. com. retrieved 2022 - 10 - 03. = = external links = = stitching a life from the scraps of others β slideshow by the new york times
the spotted hyena is the most carnivorous member of the hyaenidae. unlike its brown and striped cousins, the spotted hyena is primarily a predator rather than a scavenger. one of the earliest studies to demonstrate its hunting abilities was done by hans kruuk, a dutch wildlife ecologist who showed through a 7 - year study of hyena populations in ngorongoro and serengeti national park during the 1960s that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions, and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of africa. however spotted hyenas remain mislabeled as scavengers, often even by ecologists and wildlife documentary channels. = = prey = = blue wildebeest are the most commonly taken medium - sized ungulate prey item in both ngorongoro and the serengeti, with zebra and thomson's gazelles coming close behind. cape buffalo are rarely attacked due to differences in habitat preference, though adult bulls have been recorded to be taken on occasion. in kruger national park, blue wildebeest, cape buffalo, burchell's zebra, greater kudu and impala are the spotted hyena's most important prey, while giraffe, impala, wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby timbavati area. springbok and kudu are the main prey in namibia's etosha national park, and springbok in the namib. in the southern kalahari, gemsbok, wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey. in chobe, the spotted hyena's primary prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala. in kenya's masai mara, 80 % of the spotted hyena's prey consists of topi and thomson's gazelle, save for during the four - month period when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area. bushbuck, suni and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the aberdare mountains, while grant's gazelle, gerenuk, sheep, goats and cattle are likely preyed upon in northern kenya. in west africa, the spotted hyena is primarily a scavenger who will occasionally attack domestic stock and medium - size antelopes in some areas. in cameroon, it is common for spotted hyenas to feed on small antelopes like kob, but may also scavenge on reedbuck, kongoni
Answer:
|
the internet
| 0.3 |
As water increases in an environment the number of aquatic animals such as zooplankton, nekton, and benthos will
0. on the up
1. fall
2. stagnate
3. face extinction
an ecological cascade effect is a series of secondary extinctions that are triggered by the primary extinction of a key species in an ecosystem. secondary extinctions are likely to occur when the threatened species are : dependent on a few specific food sources, mutualistic ( dependent on the key species in some way ), or forced to coexist with an invasive species that is introduced to the ecosystem. species introductions to a foreign ecosystem can often devastate entire communities, and even entire ecosystems. these exotic species monopolize the ecosystem's resources, and since they have no natural predators to decrease their growth, they are able to increase indefinitely. olsen et al. showed that exotic species have caused lake and estuary ecosystems to go through cascade effects due to loss of algae, crayfish, mollusks, fish, amphibians, and birds. however, the principal cause of cascade effects is the loss of top predators as the key species. as a result of this loss, a dramatic increase ( ecological release ) of prey species occurs. the prey is then able to overexploit its own food resources, until the population numbers decrease in abundance, which can lead to extinction. when the prey's food resources disappear, they starve and may go extinct as well. if the prey species is herbivorous, then their initial release and exploitation of the plants may result in a loss of plant biodiversity in the area. if other organisms in the ecosystem also depend upon these plants as food resources, then these species may go extinct as well. an example of the cascade effect caused by the loss of a top predator is apparent in tropical forests. when hunters cause local extinctions of top predators, the predators'prey's population numbers increase, causing an overexploitation of a food resource and a cascade effect of species loss. recent studies have been performed on approaches to mitigate extinction cascades in food - web networks. = = current example = = one example of the cascade effect caused by the loss of a top predator has to do with sea otters ( enhydra lutris ). starting before the 17th century and not phased out until 1911 when an international treaty was signed to prevent their further exploitation, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their pelts, which caused a cascade effect through the kelp forest ecosystems along the pacific coast of north america. one of the sea otters'primary food sources is the sea urchin ( class : echinoidea ). when hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an ecological release
fishing activities. classic examples in lakes, piscivorous fish can dramatically reduce populations of zooplanktivorous fish, zooplanktivorous fish can dramatically alter freshwater zooplankton communities, and zooplankton grazing can in turn have large impacts on phytoplankton communities. removal of piscivorous fish can change lake water from clear to green by allowing phytoplankton to flourish. in the eel river, in northern california, fish ( steelhead and roach ) consume fish larvae and predatory insects. these smaller predators prey on midge larvae, which feed on algae. removal of the larger fish increases the abundance of algae. in pacific kelp forests, sea otters feed on sea urchins. in areas where sea otters have been hunted to extinction, sea urchins increase in abundance and decimate kelp a recent theory, the mesopredator release hypothesis, states that the decline of top predators in an ecosystem results in increased populations of medium - sized predators ( mesopredators ). = = basic models = = the classic population equilibrium model is verhulst's 1838 growth model : d n d t = r n ( 1 β n k ) { \ displaystyle { \ frac { dn } { dt } } = rn \ left ( 1 - { \ frac { n } { k } } \ right ) } where n ( t ) represents number of individuals at time t, r the intrinsic growth rate and k is the carrying capacity, or the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support. the individual growth model, published by von bertalanffy in 1934, can be used to model the rate at which fish grow. it exists in a number of versions, but in its simplest form it is expressed as a differential equation of length ( l ) over time ( t ) : l β² ( t ) = r b ( l β β l ( t ) ) { \ displaystyle l'( t ) = r _ { b } \ left ( l _ { \ infty } - l ( t ) \ right ) } where rb is the von bertalanffy growth rate and lβ the ultimate length of the individual. schaefer published a fishery equilibrium model based on the verhulst model with an assumption of a bi - linear catch equation, often referred to as the schaefer short - term catch equation : h ( e, x ) = q e x { \
than they reproduce, but are replaced by animals migrating from the protected nature reserve area. = = refuge based on migration = = many prey animals systematically migrate between refuges and predator - rich feeding grounds, in patterns that minimize their chances of being caught by the predators. the largest such migration by biomass is the oceans'diel vertical migration, in which vast quantities of organisms hide in the lightless depths of the open ocean, arising after dark to consume phytoplankton. this allows them to avoid the large predatory fish of the open ocean, as these predators are primarily visual hunters and need light to effectively catch prey. similar types of migration also occur in fresh water. for example, small european perch exhibit a daily horizontal migration in some lakes in finland. during the day they move away from the vegetated areas where the predation threat in the clear water is great, into more turbid open water areas, moving back at night because of the greater availability of zooplankton among the aquatic plants. = = refuge based on remoteness = = refuge use reduces the likelihood of species extinction. there have been a number of mass extinction events. during some of these, denizens of the deep ocean have been relatively immune. the coelacanth for example, is a remnant species of a once common group of fishes, the sarcopterygii, which disappeared from shallow seas at the time of the cretaceous β paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, leaving only a couple of surviving species. many coral taxa have used the deep ocean as a refuge, shifting from shallow to deep water and vice versa during their evolutionary history. by developing wings and taking flight, insects exploited the air as a refuge, a place of safety from ground - based predators ; this successful evolutionary strategy set the insects on the path to occupying the dominant position they hold today. human societies show a similar effect, with remote mountainous regions such as zomia or the scottish highlands serving as refugia, allowing their inhabitants to maintain cultural traditions and languages that were being pushed to extinction in more accessible locations. = = refuge based on size = = refuge from predators often depends on the size of the prey, meaning that individuals under or over a specific size cannot be consumed by the predator. the small individuals are more likely to be able to tuck themselves away in some hole or cranny, or if, like barnacles, they are living on an exposed surface, are of negligible interest to predators like starfish because of their
wetlands and the migratory range of the species determines which ponds are connected and if they form a metapopulation. the duration of the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches to terrestrial patches. = = see also = = competition ( biology ) conservation biology landscape ecology lotka β volterra equations oscillation population viability analysis predation spatial heterogeneity = = references = = bascompte j. ; sole r. v. ( 1996 ), " habitat fragmentation and extinction thresholds in spatially explicit models ", journal of animal ecology, 65 ( 4 ) : 465 β 473, bibcode : 1996janec.. 65.. 465b, doi : 10. 2307 / 5781, jstor 5781. hanski, i. metapopulation ecology oxford university press. 1999. isbn 0 - 19 - 854065 - 5 fahrig, l. 2003. effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. annual review of ecology, evolution, and systematics. 34 : 1, p. 487. levin s. a. ( 1974 ), " dispersion and population interactions ", the american naturalist, 108 ( 960 ) : 207, doi : 10. 1086 / 282900, s2cid 83630608. = = external links = = helsinki - science : metapopulation
. 1670 / 0022 - 1511 ( 2007 ) 41 [ 483 : adoecd ] 2. 0. co ; 2. s2cid 30162903. archived from the original ( pdf ) on 2008 - 12 - 17. mccallum m. l. ( 2015 ). " vertebrate biodiversity losses point to a sixth mass extinction ". biodiversity and conservation. 24 ( 10 ) : 2497 β 2519. bibcode : 2015bicon.. 24. 2497m. doi : 10. 1007 / s10531 - 015 - 0940 - 6. s2cid 254285797. mccallum, malcolm l. ( 2021 ). " turtle biodiversity losses suggest coming sixth mass extinction ". biodiversity and conservation. 30 ( 5 ) : 1257 β 1275. bibcode : 2021bicon.. 30. 1257m. doi : 10. 1007 / s10531 - 021 - 02140 - 8. s2cid 233903598. myers, norman ; mittermeier, russell a. ; mittermeier, cristina g. ; da fonseca, gustavo a. b. ; kent, jennifer ( 2000 ). " biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities ". nature. 403 ( 6772 ) : 853 β 8. bibcode : 2000natur. 403.. 853m. doi : 10. 1038 / 35002501. pmid 10706275. s2cid 4414279. brooks t. m. ; mittermeier r. a. ; gerlach j. ; hoffmann m. ; lamoreux j. f. ; mittermeier c. g. ; pilgrim j. d. ; rodrigues a. s. l. ( 2006 ). " global biodiversity conservation priorities ". science. 313 ( 5783 ) : 58 β 61. bibcode : 2006sci... 313... 58b. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 1127609. pmid 16825561. s2cid 5133902. kareiva p. ; marvier m. ( 2003 ). " conserving biodiversity coldspots " ( pdf ). american scientist. 91 ( 4 ) : 344 β 351. doi : 10. 1511 / 2003. 4. 344. archived from the original ( pdf ) on september
Answer:
|
on the up
| null |
As water increases in an environment the number of aquatic animals such as zooplankton, nekton, and benthos will
0. on the up
1. fall
2. stagnate
3. face extinction
an ecological cascade effect is a series of secondary extinctions that are triggered by the primary extinction of a key species in an ecosystem. secondary extinctions are likely to occur when the threatened species are : dependent on a few specific food sources, mutualistic ( dependent on the key species in some way ), or forced to coexist with an invasive species that is introduced to the ecosystem. species introductions to a foreign ecosystem can often devastate entire communities, and even entire ecosystems. these exotic species monopolize the ecosystem's resources, and since they have no natural predators to decrease their growth, they are able to increase indefinitely. olsen et al. showed that exotic species have caused lake and estuary ecosystems to go through cascade effects due to loss of algae, crayfish, mollusks, fish, amphibians, and birds. however, the principal cause of cascade effects is the loss of top predators as the key species. as a result of this loss, a dramatic increase ( ecological release ) of prey species occurs. the prey is then able to overexploit its own food resources, until the population numbers decrease in abundance, which can lead to extinction. when the prey's food resources disappear, they starve and may go extinct as well. if the prey species is herbivorous, then their initial release and exploitation of the plants may result in a loss of plant biodiversity in the area. if other organisms in the ecosystem also depend upon these plants as food resources, then these species may go extinct as well. an example of the cascade effect caused by the loss of a top predator is apparent in tropical forests. when hunters cause local extinctions of top predators, the predators'prey's population numbers increase, causing an overexploitation of a food resource and a cascade effect of species loss. recent studies have been performed on approaches to mitigate extinction cascades in food - web networks. = = current example = = one example of the cascade effect caused by the loss of a top predator has to do with sea otters ( enhydra lutris ). starting before the 17th century and not phased out until 1911 when an international treaty was signed to prevent their further exploitation, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their pelts, which caused a cascade effect through the kelp forest ecosystems along the pacific coast of north america. one of the sea otters'primary food sources is the sea urchin ( class : echinoidea ). when hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an ecological release
fishing activities. classic examples in lakes, piscivorous fish can dramatically reduce populations of zooplanktivorous fish, zooplanktivorous fish can dramatically alter freshwater zooplankton communities, and zooplankton grazing can in turn have large impacts on phytoplankton communities. removal of piscivorous fish can change lake water from clear to green by allowing phytoplankton to flourish. in the eel river, in northern california, fish ( steelhead and roach ) consume fish larvae and predatory insects. these smaller predators prey on midge larvae, which feed on algae. removal of the larger fish increases the abundance of algae. in pacific kelp forests, sea otters feed on sea urchins. in areas where sea otters have been hunted to extinction, sea urchins increase in abundance and decimate kelp a recent theory, the mesopredator release hypothesis, states that the decline of top predators in an ecosystem results in increased populations of medium - sized predators ( mesopredators ). = = basic models = = the classic population equilibrium model is verhulst's 1838 growth model : d n d t = r n ( 1 β n k ) { \ displaystyle { \ frac { dn } { dt } } = rn \ left ( 1 - { \ frac { n } { k } } \ right ) } where n ( t ) represents number of individuals at time t, r the intrinsic growth rate and k is the carrying capacity, or the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support. the individual growth model, published by von bertalanffy in 1934, can be used to model the rate at which fish grow. it exists in a number of versions, but in its simplest form it is expressed as a differential equation of length ( l ) over time ( t ) : l β² ( t ) = r b ( l β β l ( t ) ) { \ displaystyle l'( t ) = r _ { b } \ left ( l _ { \ infty } - l ( t ) \ right ) } where rb is the von bertalanffy growth rate and lβ the ultimate length of the individual. schaefer published a fishery equilibrium model based on the verhulst model with an assumption of a bi - linear catch equation, often referred to as the schaefer short - term catch equation : h ( e, x ) = q e x { \
than they reproduce, but are replaced by animals migrating from the protected nature reserve area. = = refuge based on migration = = many prey animals systematically migrate between refuges and predator - rich feeding grounds, in patterns that minimize their chances of being caught by the predators. the largest such migration by biomass is the oceans'diel vertical migration, in which vast quantities of organisms hide in the lightless depths of the open ocean, arising after dark to consume phytoplankton. this allows them to avoid the large predatory fish of the open ocean, as these predators are primarily visual hunters and need light to effectively catch prey. similar types of migration also occur in fresh water. for example, small european perch exhibit a daily horizontal migration in some lakes in finland. during the day they move away from the vegetated areas where the predation threat in the clear water is great, into more turbid open water areas, moving back at night because of the greater availability of zooplankton among the aquatic plants. = = refuge based on remoteness = = refuge use reduces the likelihood of species extinction. there have been a number of mass extinction events. during some of these, denizens of the deep ocean have been relatively immune. the coelacanth for example, is a remnant species of a once common group of fishes, the sarcopterygii, which disappeared from shallow seas at the time of the cretaceous β paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, leaving only a couple of surviving species. many coral taxa have used the deep ocean as a refuge, shifting from shallow to deep water and vice versa during their evolutionary history. by developing wings and taking flight, insects exploited the air as a refuge, a place of safety from ground - based predators ; this successful evolutionary strategy set the insects on the path to occupying the dominant position they hold today. human societies show a similar effect, with remote mountainous regions such as zomia or the scottish highlands serving as refugia, allowing their inhabitants to maintain cultural traditions and languages that were being pushed to extinction in more accessible locations. = = refuge based on size = = refuge from predators often depends on the size of the prey, meaning that individuals under or over a specific size cannot be consumed by the predator. the small individuals are more likely to be able to tuck themselves away in some hole or cranny, or if, like barnacles, they are living on an exposed surface, are of negligible interest to predators like starfish because of their
wetlands and the migratory range of the species determines which ponds are connected and if they form a metapopulation. the duration of the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches to terrestrial patches. = = see also = = competition ( biology ) conservation biology landscape ecology lotka β volterra equations oscillation population viability analysis predation spatial heterogeneity = = references = = bascompte j. ; sole r. v. ( 1996 ), " habitat fragmentation and extinction thresholds in spatially explicit models ", journal of animal ecology, 65 ( 4 ) : 465 β 473, bibcode : 1996janec.. 65.. 465b, doi : 10. 2307 / 5781, jstor 5781. hanski, i. metapopulation ecology oxford university press. 1999. isbn 0 - 19 - 854065 - 5 fahrig, l. 2003. effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. annual review of ecology, evolution, and systematics. 34 : 1, p. 487. levin s. a. ( 1974 ), " dispersion and population interactions ", the american naturalist, 108 ( 960 ) : 207, doi : 10. 1086 / 282900, s2cid 83630608. = = external links = = helsinki - science : metapopulation
. 1670 / 0022 - 1511 ( 2007 ) 41 [ 483 : adoecd ] 2. 0. co ; 2. s2cid 30162903. archived from the original ( pdf ) on 2008 - 12 - 17. mccallum m. l. ( 2015 ). " vertebrate biodiversity losses point to a sixth mass extinction ". biodiversity and conservation. 24 ( 10 ) : 2497 β 2519. bibcode : 2015bicon.. 24. 2497m. doi : 10. 1007 / s10531 - 015 - 0940 - 6. s2cid 254285797. mccallum, malcolm l. ( 2021 ). " turtle biodiversity losses suggest coming sixth mass extinction ". biodiversity and conservation. 30 ( 5 ) : 1257 β 1275. bibcode : 2021bicon.. 30. 1257m. doi : 10. 1007 / s10531 - 021 - 02140 - 8. s2cid 233903598. myers, norman ; mittermeier, russell a. ; mittermeier, cristina g. ; da fonseca, gustavo a. b. ; kent, jennifer ( 2000 ). " biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities ". nature. 403 ( 6772 ) : 853 β 8. bibcode : 2000natur. 403.. 853m. doi : 10. 1038 / 35002501. pmid 10706275. s2cid 4414279. brooks t. m. ; mittermeier r. a. ; gerlach j. ; hoffmann m. ; lamoreux j. f. ; mittermeier c. g. ; pilgrim j. d. ; rodrigues a. s. l. ( 2006 ). " global biodiversity conservation priorities ". science. 313 ( 5783 ) : 58 β 61. bibcode : 2006sci... 313... 58b. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 1127609. pmid 16825561. s2cid 5133902. kareiva p. ; marvier m. ( 2003 ). " conserving biodiversity coldspots " ( pdf ). american scientist. 91 ( 4 ) : 344 β 351. doi : 10. 1511 / 2003. 4. 344. archived from the original ( pdf ) on september
Answer:
|
stagnate
| 0.3 |
mimicry is used for avoiding predators by animals by camouflaging as what kind of animal?
0. frightful
1. weak
2. tame
3. vulnerable
concept. in allopatric situations, situations where separate species overlap geographically, mimic phenotypes have high fitness and are selected for when their model is present, but when it is absent, they suffer intense predation. in pfenning's article it was suggested that this is caused by apostatic selection because strength of selection is higher on the mimics that have their original model present. in batesian mimicry, if the mimic is less common than the model, then the rare mimic phenotype is selected for because the predator has continued reinforcement that the prey is harmful or unpalatable. as the mimic becomes more common than the model, the situation reverses and the mimic is preyed upon more often. therefore, dishonest signals in prey can be selected for or against depending on predation pressure. an example of apostatic selection by birds was observed by allen and clarke ( 1968 ) in ground - dwelling passerines when they presented wild birds in their natural habitat with artificial, dimorphic prey. the two colors of prey were presented in 9 : 1 ratios, and then the prey were switched so both colors had an opportunity to be over or underrepresented. in all four of the passerine species that were observed, the more common morph of the artificial prey was consumed more frequently regardless of its color. this study also had a second component in which they allowed the birds to become familiar with one color of the prey, and then presented the dimorphic prey in equal amounts. in this case, the passerines consumed more of the prey that they were accustomed too. this is consistent with the idea that the search image influences apostatic selection : the familiar form that has been encountered more frequently is the preferred prey. apostatic selection has also been studied in cichlid fish, which presents a rare polymorphism : the gold ('midas') colour morph. torres - dowall et al. ( 2017 ) discussed how apostatic selection is a plausible mechanism for the maintenance of this midas morph. they concluded that the rare morph is established by a difference in the predator's probability of detecting the midas morph. one limitation of this study was that the morphs in the wild were not able to be manipulated. = = see also = = frequency - dependent selection polymorphism ( biology ) = = references = =
island tameness is the tendency of many populations and species of animals living on isolated islands to lose their wariness of potential predators, particularly of large animals. the term is partly synonymous with ecological naivete, which also has a wider meaning referring to the loss of defensive behaviors and adaptations needed to deal with these " new " predators. species retain such wariness of predators that exist in their environment ; for example, a hawaiian goose retains its wariness of hawks ( due to its main predator being the hawaiian hawk ), but does not exhibit such behaviors with mammals or other predators not found on the hawaiian islands. the most famous example is the dodo, which owed its extinction in large part to a lack of fear of humans, and many species of penguin ( which, although wary of sea predators, have no real land predators and therefore are very bold and curious towards humans ). a comparison of 66 species of lizards found that flight initiation distance ( how close a lizard allows a human " predator " to approach before it flees ) decreases as distance from the mainland increases and is shorter in island than in mainland populations. according to the author charles darwin, he believed that escape behavior evolved to be lower where predators were rare or absent on remote islands because unnecessary escape responses are costly in terms of time and energy. island tameness can be highly maladaptive in situations where humans have introduced predators, intentionally or accidentally, such as dogs, cats, pigs or rats, to islands where ecologically naive fauna lives. it has also made many island species, such as the extinct dodo or the short - tailed albatross, vulnerable to human hunting. in many instances the native species are unable to learn to avoid new predators, or change their behavior to minimize their risk. this tameness is eventually lost or reduced in some species, but many island populations are too small or breed too slowly for the affected species to adapt quickly enough. when combined with other threats, such as habitat loss, this has led to the extinction of many species ( such as the laysan rail and lyall's wren ) and continues to threaten others, such as the key deer. the only conservation techniques that can help endangered species threatened by novel introduced species are creating barriers to exclude predators or eradicating those species. new zealand has pioneered the use of offshore islands free of introduced species to serve as wildlife refuges for ecologically naive species. a comparable phenomenon may be present in plant species that colonize faraway islands devoid of their natural predators on the mainland, losing anti - browsing
known as mullerian mimicry, after fritz muller, a german naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the amazon in the late 19th century. many species of bee and wasp that occur together are mullerian mimics. their similar coloration teaches predators that a striped pattern is associated with being stung. therefore, a predator which has had a negative experience with any such species will likely avoid any that resemble it in the future. mullerian mimicry is found in vertebrates such as the mimic poison frog ( ranitomeya imitator ) which has several morphs throughout its natural geographical range, each of which looks very similar to a different species of poison frog which lives in that area. = = see also = = handicap principle = = references = = = = sources = = edmunds, malcolm ( 1974 ). defence in animals. longman. isbn 978 - 0 - 582 - 44132 - 3. poulton, edward bagnall ( 1890 ). the colours of animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects. london : kegan paul, trench & trubner. ruxton, graeme d. ; sherratt, t. n. ; speed, m. p. ( 2004 ). avoiding attack : the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. oxford university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 852859 - 3. = = external links = = media related to warning coloration at wikimedia commons
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
hopping mice only heightened their caution in the presence of cat stimuli. although reintroducing native predators improved general antipredator responses among naive prey populations, evidence for enhanced discrimination towards introduced predators was limited, although the findings suggest that exposure to native predators may better prepare naive prey for environments where novel predators are present. a 2019 study explored whether exposing predator - naive prey, specifically the greater bilby ( macrotis lagotis ), to controlled numbers of introduced predators ( feral cats, felis catus ) can enhance their survival upon reintroduction. over two years, bilbies were exposed to feral cats in a fenced area, and their behaviors were assessed. results showed that predator - exposed bilbies exhibited increased wariness β spending less time moving and more time in cover β compared to naive bilbies. following translocation, the predator - exposed group had higher survival rates and was less likely to be predated upon than their naive counterparts. the study suggests that training naive prey in the presence of predators may improve their survival in reintroduction efforts. = = references = =
Answer:
|
frightful
| null |
mimicry is used for avoiding predators by animals by camouflaging as what kind of animal?
0. frightful
1. weak
2. tame
3. vulnerable
concept. in allopatric situations, situations where separate species overlap geographically, mimic phenotypes have high fitness and are selected for when their model is present, but when it is absent, they suffer intense predation. in pfenning's article it was suggested that this is caused by apostatic selection because strength of selection is higher on the mimics that have their original model present. in batesian mimicry, if the mimic is less common than the model, then the rare mimic phenotype is selected for because the predator has continued reinforcement that the prey is harmful or unpalatable. as the mimic becomes more common than the model, the situation reverses and the mimic is preyed upon more often. therefore, dishonest signals in prey can be selected for or against depending on predation pressure. an example of apostatic selection by birds was observed by allen and clarke ( 1968 ) in ground - dwelling passerines when they presented wild birds in their natural habitat with artificial, dimorphic prey. the two colors of prey were presented in 9 : 1 ratios, and then the prey were switched so both colors had an opportunity to be over or underrepresented. in all four of the passerine species that were observed, the more common morph of the artificial prey was consumed more frequently regardless of its color. this study also had a second component in which they allowed the birds to become familiar with one color of the prey, and then presented the dimorphic prey in equal amounts. in this case, the passerines consumed more of the prey that they were accustomed too. this is consistent with the idea that the search image influences apostatic selection : the familiar form that has been encountered more frequently is the preferred prey. apostatic selection has also been studied in cichlid fish, which presents a rare polymorphism : the gold ('midas') colour morph. torres - dowall et al. ( 2017 ) discussed how apostatic selection is a plausible mechanism for the maintenance of this midas morph. they concluded that the rare morph is established by a difference in the predator's probability of detecting the midas morph. one limitation of this study was that the morphs in the wild were not able to be manipulated. = = see also = = frequency - dependent selection polymorphism ( biology ) = = references = =
island tameness is the tendency of many populations and species of animals living on isolated islands to lose their wariness of potential predators, particularly of large animals. the term is partly synonymous with ecological naivete, which also has a wider meaning referring to the loss of defensive behaviors and adaptations needed to deal with these " new " predators. species retain such wariness of predators that exist in their environment ; for example, a hawaiian goose retains its wariness of hawks ( due to its main predator being the hawaiian hawk ), but does not exhibit such behaviors with mammals or other predators not found on the hawaiian islands. the most famous example is the dodo, which owed its extinction in large part to a lack of fear of humans, and many species of penguin ( which, although wary of sea predators, have no real land predators and therefore are very bold and curious towards humans ). a comparison of 66 species of lizards found that flight initiation distance ( how close a lizard allows a human " predator " to approach before it flees ) decreases as distance from the mainland increases and is shorter in island than in mainland populations. according to the author charles darwin, he believed that escape behavior evolved to be lower where predators were rare or absent on remote islands because unnecessary escape responses are costly in terms of time and energy. island tameness can be highly maladaptive in situations where humans have introduced predators, intentionally or accidentally, such as dogs, cats, pigs or rats, to islands where ecologically naive fauna lives. it has also made many island species, such as the extinct dodo or the short - tailed albatross, vulnerable to human hunting. in many instances the native species are unable to learn to avoid new predators, or change their behavior to minimize their risk. this tameness is eventually lost or reduced in some species, but many island populations are too small or breed too slowly for the affected species to adapt quickly enough. when combined with other threats, such as habitat loss, this has led to the extinction of many species ( such as the laysan rail and lyall's wren ) and continues to threaten others, such as the key deer. the only conservation techniques that can help endangered species threatened by novel introduced species are creating barriers to exclude predators or eradicating those species. new zealand has pioneered the use of offshore islands free of introduced species to serve as wildlife refuges for ecologically naive species. a comparable phenomenon may be present in plant species that colonize faraway islands devoid of their natural predators on the mainland, losing anti - browsing
known as mullerian mimicry, after fritz muller, a german naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the amazon in the late 19th century. many species of bee and wasp that occur together are mullerian mimics. their similar coloration teaches predators that a striped pattern is associated with being stung. therefore, a predator which has had a negative experience with any such species will likely avoid any that resemble it in the future. mullerian mimicry is found in vertebrates such as the mimic poison frog ( ranitomeya imitator ) which has several morphs throughout its natural geographical range, each of which looks very similar to a different species of poison frog which lives in that area. = = see also = = handicap principle = = references = = = = sources = = edmunds, malcolm ( 1974 ). defence in animals. longman. isbn 978 - 0 - 582 - 44132 - 3. poulton, edward bagnall ( 1890 ). the colours of animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects. london : kegan paul, trench & trubner. ruxton, graeme d. ; sherratt, t. n. ; speed, m. p. ( 2004 ). avoiding attack : the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. oxford university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 852859 - 3. = = external links = = media related to warning coloration at wikimedia commons
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
hopping mice only heightened their caution in the presence of cat stimuli. although reintroducing native predators improved general antipredator responses among naive prey populations, evidence for enhanced discrimination towards introduced predators was limited, although the findings suggest that exposure to native predators may better prepare naive prey for environments where novel predators are present. a 2019 study explored whether exposing predator - naive prey, specifically the greater bilby ( macrotis lagotis ), to controlled numbers of introduced predators ( feral cats, felis catus ) can enhance their survival upon reintroduction. over two years, bilbies were exposed to feral cats in a fenced area, and their behaviors were assessed. results showed that predator - exposed bilbies exhibited increased wariness β spending less time moving and more time in cover β compared to naive bilbies. following translocation, the predator - exposed group had higher survival rates and was less likely to be predated upon than their naive counterparts. the study suggests that training naive prey in the presence of predators may improve their survival in reintroduction efforts. = = references = =
Answer:
|
weak
| 0.3 |
Butterflies will often times have coloring that at look like eyes on their wings for
0. to look pretty
1. fun
2. to see flowers
3. protection
attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence / absence of fluorescence. in 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among tadpoles, salamanders and caecilians. the extent varies greatly depending on species ; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable. it can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucus or their bones. = = = = butterflies = = = = swallowtail ( papilio ) butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light. their wings contain pigment - infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light. these crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb radiance from sky - blue light ( wavelength about 420 nm ). the wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly's wings. this likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling. = = = = parrots = = = = parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling. a study using mate - choice experiments on budgerigars ( melopsittacus undulates ) found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. this study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by - product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal. considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs. = = = = arachnids = = = = spiders fluoresce under uv light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores. andrews, reed, & masta noted that spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is " taxonomically widespread, variably expressed, evolutionarily labile, and probably under selection and potentially of ecological importance for intraspecific and interspecific signaling ". they showed that fluorescence evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification. in some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator β prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflage - matching with fluorescent flowers. differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators. therefore,
##cides which can probe deep into tubular flowers. butterflies mostly fly by day and are particularly attracted to pink, mauve and purple flowers. the flowers are often large and scented, and the stamens are so - positioned that pollen is deposited on the insects while they feed on the nectar. moths are mostly nocturnal and are attracted by night - blooming plants. the flowers of these are often tubular, pale in colour and fragrant only at night. hawkmoths tend to visit larger flowers and hover as they feed ; they transfer pollen by means of the proboscis. other moths land on the usually smaller flowers, which may be aggregated into flowerheads. their energetic needs are not so great as those of hawkmoths and they are offered smaller quantities of nectar. inflorescences pollinated by beetles tend to be flat with open corollas or small flowers clustered in a head with multiple, projecting anthers that shed pollen readily. the flowers are often green or pale - coloured, and heavily scented, often with fruity or spicy aromas, but sometimes with odours of decaying organic matter. some, like the giant water lily, include traps designed to retain the beetles in contact with the reproductive parts for longer periods. unspecialised flies with short proboscides are found visiting primitive flowers with readily accessible nectar. more specialised flies like syrphids and tabanids can visit more advanced blooms, but their purpose is to nourish themselves, and any transfer of pollen from one flower to another happens haphazardly. the small size of many flies is often made up for by their abundance, however they are unreliable pollinators as they may bear incompatible pollen, and lack of suitable breeding habitats may limit their activities. some pterostylis orchids are pollinated by midges unique to each species. due to mutual specialisation, pollinators are highly dependent on floral diversity. therefore, losses in plant diversity, such as those carried on by increasing land use, may be linked to extinctions of pollinators. a decline, for whatever reason, to one side of this partnership can be catastrophic for the other. flowers pollinated by bees and wasps vary in shape, colour and size. yellow or blue plants are often visited, and flowers may have ultra - violet nectar guides, that help the insect to find the nectary. some flowers, like sage or pea, have lower lips that will only open when sufficiently heavy insects, such as bees, land on them. with
##o butterfly's structural blue colour. in 2007, qualcomm commercialised an interferometric modulator display technology, " mirasol ", using morpho - like optical interference. in 2010, the dressmaker donna sgro made a dress from teijin fibers'morphotex, an undyed fabric woven from structurally coloured fibres, mimicking the microstructure of morpho butterfly wing scales. canon inc.'s subwavelength structure coating uses wedge - shaped structures the size of the wavelength of visible light. the wedge - shaped structures cause a continuously changing refractive index as light travels through the coating, significantly reducing lens flare. this imitates the structure of a moth's eye. notable figures such as the wright brothers and leonardo da vinci attempted to replicate the flight observed in birds. in an effort to reduce aircraft noise researchers have looked to the leading edge of owl feathers, which have an array of small finlets or rachis adapted to disperse aerodynamic pressure and provide nearly silent flight to the bird. = = = agricultural systems = = = holistic planned grazing, using fencing and / or herders, seeks to restore grasslands by carefully planning movements of large herds of livestock to mimic the vast herds found in nature. the natural system being mimicked and used as a template is grazing animals concentrated by pack predators that must move on after eating, trampling, and manuring an area, and returning only after it has fully recovered. its founder allan savory and some others have claimed potential in building soil, increasing biodiversity, and reversing desertification. however, many researchers have disputed savory's claim. studies have often found that the method increases desertification instead of reducing it. = = = other uses = = = some air conditioning systems use biomimicry in their fans to increase airflow while reducing power consumption. technologists like jas johl have speculated that the functionality of vacuole cells could be used to design highly adaptable security systems. " the functionality of a vacuole, a biological structure that guards and promotes growth, illuminates the value of adaptability as a guiding principle for security. " the functions and significance of vacuoles are fractal in nature, the organelle has no basic shape or size ; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell. vacuoles not only isolate threats, contain what's necessary, export waste, maintain pressure β they also help the cell scale and grow
, they found that the energy cuterebra austeni got from their resources before adulthood played a role in who won. some species have obvious gains when they win, but no morphological and / or physiological tell to determine who would win. this is the case with several species of butterflies where males hold a contest over territory. however, a study in 2010 that staged contests between male pararge aegeria found motivation to be a factor. the more time a male spent with a female, the more persistent they were, which increased the likelihood of the male to win the contest over the previous male holding dominance over the territory. = = see also = = intraspecific competition scramble competition = = references = = = = further reading = =
defends a particular territory. the female grayling butterfly chooses a male based on the most optimal location for oviposition. sometimes, males leave after mating. the only resource that a male provides is a nuptial gift, such as protection or food, as seen in drosophila subobscura. the female can evaluate the quality of the protection or food provided by the male so as to decide whether to mate or not or how long she is willing to copulate. = = = mate choice by genes = = = when males'only contribution to offspring is their sperm, females are particularly choosy. with this high level of female choice, sexual ornaments are seen in males, where the ornaments reflect the male's social status. two hypotheses have been proposed to conceptualize the genetic benefits from female mate choice. first, the good genes hypothesis suggests that female choice is for higher genetic quality and that this preference is favored because it increases fitness of the offspring. this includes zahavi's handicap hypothesis and hamilton and zuk's host and parasite arms race. zahavi's handicap hypothesis was proposed within the context of looking at elaborate male sexual displays. he suggested that females favor ornamented traits because they are handicaps and are indicators of the male's genetic quality. since these ornamented traits are hazards, the male's survival must be indicative of his high genetic quality in other areas. in this way, the degree that a male expresses his sexual display indicates to the female his genetic quality. zuk and hamilton proposed a hypothesis after observing disease as a powerful selective pressure on a rabbit population. they suggested that sexual displays were indicators of resistance of disease on a genetic level. such'choosiness'from the female individuals can be seen in wasp species too, especially among polistes dominula wasps. the females tend to prefer males with smaller, more elliptically shaped spots than those with larger and more irregularly shaped spots. those males would have reproductive superiority over males with irregular spots. in marbled newts, females show preference to mates with larger crests. this however, is not considered a handicap as it does not negatively affect males'chances of survival. it is simply a trait females show preference for when choosing their mate as it is an indication of health and fitness. fisher's hypothesis of runaway sexual selection suggests that female preference is genetically correlated with male traits and that the preference co - evolves with the evolution of that trait, thus the preference is under indirect
Answer:
|
protection
| null |
Butterflies will often times have coloring that at look like eyes on their wings for
0. to look pretty
1. fun
2. to see flowers
3. protection
attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence / absence of fluorescence. in 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among tadpoles, salamanders and caecilians. the extent varies greatly depending on species ; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable. it can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucus or their bones. = = = = butterflies = = = = swallowtail ( papilio ) butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light. their wings contain pigment - infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light. these crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb radiance from sky - blue light ( wavelength about 420 nm ). the wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly's wings. this likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling. = = = = parrots = = = = parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling. a study using mate - choice experiments on budgerigars ( melopsittacus undulates ) found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. this study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by - product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal. considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs. = = = = arachnids = = = = spiders fluoresce under uv light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores. andrews, reed, & masta noted that spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is " taxonomically widespread, variably expressed, evolutionarily labile, and probably under selection and potentially of ecological importance for intraspecific and interspecific signaling ". they showed that fluorescence evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification. in some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator β prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflage - matching with fluorescent flowers. differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators. therefore,
##cides which can probe deep into tubular flowers. butterflies mostly fly by day and are particularly attracted to pink, mauve and purple flowers. the flowers are often large and scented, and the stamens are so - positioned that pollen is deposited on the insects while they feed on the nectar. moths are mostly nocturnal and are attracted by night - blooming plants. the flowers of these are often tubular, pale in colour and fragrant only at night. hawkmoths tend to visit larger flowers and hover as they feed ; they transfer pollen by means of the proboscis. other moths land on the usually smaller flowers, which may be aggregated into flowerheads. their energetic needs are not so great as those of hawkmoths and they are offered smaller quantities of nectar. inflorescences pollinated by beetles tend to be flat with open corollas or small flowers clustered in a head with multiple, projecting anthers that shed pollen readily. the flowers are often green or pale - coloured, and heavily scented, often with fruity or spicy aromas, but sometimes with odours of decaying organic matter. some, like the giant water lily, include traps designed to retain the beetles in contact with the reproductive parts for longer periods. unspecialised flies with short proboscides are found visiting primitive flowers with readily accessible nectar. more specialised flies like syrphids and tabanids can visit more advanced blooms, but their purpose is to nourish themselves, and any transfer of pollen from one flower to another happens haphazardly. the small size of many flies is often made up for by their abundance, however they are unreliable pollinators as they may bear incompatible pollen, and lack of suitable breeding habitats may limit their activities. some pterostylis orchids are pollinated by midges unique to each species. due to mutual specialisation, pollinators are highly dependent on floral diversity. therefore, losses in plant diversity, such as those carried on by increasing land use, may be linked to extinctions of pollinators. a decline, for whatever reason, to one side of this partnership can be catastrophic for the other. flowers pollinated by bees and wasps vary in shape, colour and size. yellow or blue plants are often visited, and flowers may have ultra - violet nectar guides, that help the insect to find the nectary. some flowers, like sage or pea, have lower lips that will only open when sufficiently heavy insects, such as bees, land on them. with
##o butterfly's structural blue colour. in 2007, qualcomm commercialised an interferometric modulator display technology, " mirasol ", using morpho - like optical interference. in 2010, the dressmaker donna sgro made a dress from teijin fibers'morphotex, an undyed fabric woven from structurally coloured fibres, mimicking the microstructure of morpho butterfly wing scales. canon inc.'s subwavelength structure coating uses wedge - shaped structures the size of the wavelength of visible light. the wedge - shaped structures cause a continuously changing refractive index as light travels through the coating, significantly reducing lens flare. this imitates the structure of a moth's eye. notable figures such as the wright brothers and leonardo da vinci attempted to replicate the flight observed in birds. in an effort to reduce aircraft noise researchers have looked to the leading edge of owl feathers, which have an array of small finlets or rachis adapted to disperse aerodynamic pressure and provide nearly silent flight to the bird. = = = agricultural systems = = = holistic planned grazing, using fencing and / or herders, seeks to restore grasslands by carefully planning movements of large herds of livestock to mimic the vast herds found in nature. the natural system being mimicked and used as a template is grazing animals concentrated by pack predators that must move on after eating, trampling, and manuring an area, and returning only after it has fully recovered. its founder allan savory and some others have claimed potential in building soil, increasing biodiversity, and reversing desertification. however, many researchers have disputed savory's claim. studies have often found that the method increases desertification instead of reducing it. = = = other uses = = = some air conditioning systems use biomimicry in their fans to increase airflow while reducing power consumption. technologists like jas johl have speculated that the functionality of vacuole cells could be used to design highly adaptable security systems. " the functionality of a vacuole, a biological structure that guards and promotes growth, illuminates the value of adaptability as a guiding principle for security. " the functions and significance of vacuoles are fractal in nature, the organelle has no basic shape or size ; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell. vacuoles not only isolate threats, contain what's necessary, export waste, maintain pressure β they also help the cell scale and grow
, they found that the energy cuterebra austeni got from their resources before adulthood played a role in who won. some species have obvious gains when they win, but no morphological and / or physiological tell to determine who would win. this is the case with several species of butterflies where males hold a contest over territory. however, a study in 2010 that staged contests between male pararge aegeria found motivation to be a factor. the more time a male spent with a female, the more persistent they were, which increased the likelihood of the male to win the contest over the previous male holding dominance over the territory. = = see also = = intraspecific competition scramble competition = = references = = = = further reading = =
defends a particular territory. the female grayling butterfly chooses a male based on the most optimal location for oviposition. sometimes, males leave after mating. the only resource that a male provides is a nuptial gift, such as protection or food, as seen in drosophila subobscura. the female can evaluate the quality of the protection or food provided by the male so as to decide whether to mate or not or how long she is willing to copulate. = = = mate choice by genes = = = when males'only contribution to offspring is their sperm, females are particularly choosy. with this high level of female choice, sexual ornaments are seen in males, where the ornaments reflect the male's social status. two hypotheses have been proposed to conceptualize the genetic benefits from female mate choice. first, the good genes hypothesis suggests that female choice is for higher genetic quality and that this preference is favored because it increases fitness of the offspring. this includes zahavi's handicap hypothesis and hamilton and zuk's host and parasite arms race. zahavi's handicap hypothesis was proposed within the context of looking at elaborate male sexual displays. he suggested that females favor ornamented traits because they are handicaps and are indicators of the male's genetic quality. since these ornamented traits are hazards, the male's survival must be indicative of his high genetic quality in other areas. in this way, the degree that a male expresses his sexual display indicates to the female his genetic quality. zuk and hamilton proposed a hypothesis after observing disease as a powerful selective pressure on a rabbit population. they suggested that sexual displays were indicators of resistance of disease on a genetic level. such'choosiness'from the female individuals can be seen in wasp species too, especially among polistes dominula wasps. the females tend to prefer males with smaller, more elliptically shaped spots than those with larger and more irregularly shaped spots. those males would have reproductive superiority over males with irregular spots. in marbled newts, females show preference to mates with larger crests. this however, is not considered a handicap as it does not negatively affect males'chances of survival. it is simply a trait females show preference for when choosing their mate as it is an indication of health and fitness. fisher's hypothesis of runaway sexual selection suggests that female preference is genetically correlated with male traits and that the preference co - evolves with the evolution of that trait, thus the preference is under indirect
Answer:
|
fun
| 0.3 |
condensation is a stage in what cycle process?
0. h2o
1. space
2. solar
3. fire
a cascade refrigeration cycle is a multi - stage thermodynamic cycle. an example two - stage process is shown at right. ( bottom on mobile ) the cascade cycle is often employed for devices such as ult freezers. in a cascade refrigeration system, two or more vapor - compression cycles with different refrigerants are used. the evaporation - condensation temperatures of each cycle are sequentially lower with some overlap to cover the total temperature drop desired, with refrigerants selected to work efficiently in the temperature range they cover. the low temperature system removes heat from the space to be cooled using an evaporator, and transfers it to a heat exchanger that is cooled by the evaporation of the refrigerant of the high temperature system. alternatively, a liquid - to - liquid or similar heat exchanger may be used instead. the high - temperature system transfers heat to a conventional condenser that carries the entire heat output of the system and may be passive, fan, or water - cooled. cascade cycles may be separated by either being sealed in separated loops or in what is referred to as an " auto - cascade ", where the gases are compressed as a mixture but separated as one refrigerant condenses into a liquid while the other continues as a gas through the rest of the cycle. although an auto - cascade introduces several constraints on the design and operating conditions of the system that may reduce the efficiency, it is often used in small systems due to only requiring a single compressor or in cryogenic systems as it reduces the need for high - efficiency heat exchangers to prevent the compressors leaking heat into the cryogenic cycles. both types can be used in the same system, generally with the separate cycles being the first stage ( s ) and the auto - cascade being the last stage. peltier coolers may also be cascaded into a multi - stage system to achieve lower temperatures. here, the hot side of the first peltier cooler is cooled by the cold side of the second peltier cooler, which is larger in size, whose hot side is in turn cooled by the cold side of an even larger peltier cooler, and so on. efficiency drops very rapidly as more stages are added but for very small heat loads down to near - cryogenic temperatures this can often be an effective solution due to being compact and low cost, such as in mid - range thermographic cameras. a two stage peltier cooler can achieve
the water cycle ( or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle ) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth across different reservoirs. the mass of water on earth remains fairly constant over time. however, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. the water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. the processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. in doing so, the water goes through different phases : liquid, solid ( ice ) and vapor. the ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86 % of global evaporation. the water cycle is driven by energy exchanges in the form of heat transfers between different phases. the energy released or absorbed during a phase change can result in temperature changes. heat is absorbed as water transitions from the liquid to the vapor phase through evaporation. this heat is also known as the latent heat of vaporization. conversely, when water condenses or melts from solid ice it releases energy and heat. on a global scale, water plays a critical role in transferring heat from the tropics to the poles via ocean circulation. the evaporative phase of the cycle also acts as a purification process by separating water molecules from salts and other particles that are present in its liquid phase. the condensation phase in the atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. the flow of liquid water transports minerals across the globe. it also reshapes the geological features of the earth, through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. the water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes ( land use changes ) all have an effect on the water cycle. : 1153 on top of this, climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes
the cromer cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that uses a desiccant to interact with higher relative humidity air leaving a cold surface. when a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred. the desiccant absorbs moisture from the air leaving the cold surface, releasing heat and drying the air, which can be used in a process requiring dry air. the desiccant is then dried by an air stream at a lower relative humidity, where the desiccant gives up its moisture by evaporation, increasing the air's relative humidity and cooling it. this cooler, moister air can then be presented to the same cold surface as above to take it below its dew point and dry it further, or it can be expunged from the system. the desiccant undergoes a reversible process whereby in the first part of the cycle, it absorbs or adsorbs moisture from air leaving a cold surface, releasing heat, and then in the second part of the cycle evaporates moisture, absorbing heat and returning the desiccant to its original state to complete the cycle again. the result of the cromer cycle is that the process air leaving the cycle is dehumidified further ( higher latent ratio ) than it would be leaving the cold surface without the cycle. the cromer cycle concept was originally patented in the mid - 1980's. those patents have expired and thus the cycle is free for anyone to use. the cycle was first publicized in 1997 by popular mechanics in its tech update section. = = psychrometrics = = the cromer cycle is primarily used in air conditioning and drying applications. the cold surface portion of the cycle is most often a result of a reversed carnot or refrigeration cycle. for the cromer cycle to operate, a desiccant must be exposed to two air streams, one with higher humidity from a cold surface, and one with lower humidity to dry it. this is most easily accomplished by moving the desiccant. any cycling mechanism can be used, such as pumping a liquid desiccant, however an easy mechanical application is a rotating wheel, loaded with desiccant, through which the different air streams pass. this is shown in figure 1 where a desiccant wheel has been applied to a standard air conditioning set - up. the
##lytic sulphur cycles involving their lithospheres. in addition, europa is thought to have a sulfur dioxide cycle. in addition, the io plasma torus contributes to a sulphur cycle on jupiter and ganymede. studies also imply active oxygen cycles on ganymede and oxygen and radiolytic carbon dioxide cycles on callisto. = = saturn = = in addition to saturn's methane cycle some studies suggest an ammonia cycle induced by photolysis similar to jupiter's. the cycles of its moons are of particular interest. observations by cassini β huygens of titan's atmosphere and interactions with its liquid mantle give rise to several active chemical cycles including a methane, hydrocarbon, hydrogen, and carbon cycles. enceladus has an active hydrological, silicate and possibly a nitrogen cycle. = = uranus = = uranus has an active methane cycle. methane is converted to hydrocarbons through photolysis which condenses and as they are heated, release methane which rises to the upper atmosphere. studies by grundy et al. ( 2006 ) indicate active carbon cycles operates on titania, umbriel and ariel and oberon through the ongoing sublimation and deposition of carbon dioxide, though some is lost to space over long periods of time. = = neptune = = neptune's internal heat and convection drives cycles of methane, carbon, and a combination of other volatiles within triton's lithosphere. models predicted the presence of seasonal nitrogen cycles on the moon triton, however this has not been supported by observations to date. = = pluto - charon system = = models predict a seasonal nitrogen cycle on pluto and observations by new horizons appear to support this. = = references = =
denitrification oxygen cycle and ozone β oxygen cycle β a biogeochemical cycle of circulating oxygen between the atmosphere, biosphere ( the global sum of all ecosystems ), and the lithosphere ozone - oxygen cycle β continually regenerates ozone in the atmosphere and converts ultraviolet radiation ( uv ) into heat water cycle β moves water continuously on, above and below the surface shifting between states of liquid, solution, ice and vapour methane cycle β moves methane between geological and biogeochemical sources and reactions in the atmosphere hydrogen cycle β a biogeochemical cycle brought about by a combination of biological and abiological processes phosphorus cycle β the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere sulfur cycle β a biogeochemical process resulting form the mineralization of organic sulfur, oxidation, reduction and incorporation into organic compounds carbonate β silicate cycle transforms silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation and transforms carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism. rock cycle β switches rock between its three forms : sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous mercury cycle β a biogeochemical process in which naturally occurring mercury is bioaccumulated before recombining with sulfur and returning to geological sources as sediments other chemical cycles include hydrogen peroxide. = = mars = = recent evidence suggests that similar chemical cycles to earth's occur on a lesser scale on mars, facilitated by the thin atmosphere, including carbon dioxide ( and possibly carbon ), water, sulphur, methane, oxygen, ozone, and nitrogen cycles. many studies point to significantly more active chemical cycles on mars in the past, however the faint young sun paradox has proved problematic in determining chemical cycles involved in early climate models of the planet. = = jupiter = = jupiter, like all the gas giants, has an atmospheric methane cycle. recent studies indicate a hydrological cycle of water - ammonia vastly different to the type operating on terrestrial planets like earth and also a cycle of hydrogen sulfide. significant chemical cycles exist on jupiter's moons. recent evidence points to europa possessing several active cycles, most notably a water cycle. other studies suggest an oxygen and radiation induced carbon dioxide cycle. io and europa, appear to have radiolytic sulphur cycles involving their lithospheres. in addition, europa is thought to have a sulfur dioxide cycle. in addition, the io plasma torus contributes to a sulphur cycle on jupiter and ganymede. studies also
Answer:
|
h2o
| null |
condensation is a stage in what cycle process?
0. h2o
1. space
2. solar
3. fire
a cascade refrigeration cycle is a multi - stage thermodynamic cycle. an example two - stage process is shown at right. ( bottom on mobile ) the cascade cycle is often employed for devices such as ult freezers. in a cascade refrigeration system, two or more vapor - compression cycles with different refrigerants are used. the evaporation - condensation temperatures of each cycle are sequentially lower with some overlap to cover the total temperature drop desired, with refrigerants selected to work efficiently in the temperature range they cover. the low temperature system removes heat from the space to be cooled using an evaporator, and transfers it to a heat exchanger that is cooled by the evaporation of the refrigerant of the high temperature system. alternatively, a liquid - to - liquid or similar heat exchanger may be used instead. the high - temperature system transfers heat to a conventional condenser that carries the entire heat output of the system and may be passive, fan, or water - cooled. cascade cycles may be separated by either being sealed in separated loops or in what is referred to as an " auto - cascade ", where the gases are compressed as a mixture but separated as one refrigerant condenses into a liquid while the other continues as a gas through the rest of the cycle. although an auto - cascade introduces several constraints on the design and operating conditions of the system that may reduce the efficiency, it is often used in small systems due to only requiring a single compressor or in cryogenic systems as it reduces the need for high - efficiency heat exchangers to prevent the compressors leaking heat into the cryogenic cycles. both types can be used in the same system, generally with the separate cycles being the first stage ( s ) and the auto - cascade being the last stage. peltier coolers may also be cascaded into a multi - stage system to achieve lower temperatures. here, the hot side of the first peltier cooler is cooled by the cold side of the second peltier cooler, which is larger in size, whose hot side is in turn cooled by the cold side of an even larger peltier cooler, and so on. efficiency drops very rapidly as more stages are added but for very small heat loads down to near - cryogenic temperatures this can often be an effective solution due to being compact and low cost, such as in mid - range thermographic cameras. a two stage peltier cooler can achieve
the water cycle ( or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle ) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth across different reservoirs. the mass of water on earth remains fairly constant over time. however, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. the water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. the processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. in doing so, the water goes through different phases : liquid, solid ( ice ) and vapor. the ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86 % of global evaporation. the water cycle is driven by energy exchanges in the form of heat transfers between different phases. the energy released or absorbed during a phase change can result in temperature changes. heat is absorbed as water transitions from the liquid to the vapor phase through evaporation. this heat is also known as the latent heat of vaporization. conversely, when water condenses or melts from solid ice it releases energy and heat. on a global scale, water plays a critical role in transferring heat from the tropics to the poles via ocean circulation. the evaporative phase of the cycle also acts as a purification process by separating water molecules from salts and other particles that are present in its liquid phase. the condensation phase in the atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. the flow of liquid water transports minerals across the globe. it also reshapes the geological features of the earth, through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. the water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes ( land use changes ) all have an effect on the water cycle. : 1153 on top of this, climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes
the cromer cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that uses a desiccant to interact with higher relative humidity air leaving a cold surface. when a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred. the desiccant absorbs moisture from the air leaving the cold surface, releasing heat and drying the air, which can be used in a process requiring dry air. the desiccant is then dried by an air stream at a lower relative humidity, where the desiccant gives up its moisture by evaporation, increasing the air's relative humidity and cooling it. this cooler, moister air can then be presented to the same cold surface as above to take it below its dew point and dry it further, or it can be expunged from the system. the desiccant undergoes a reversible process whereby in the first part of the cycle, it absorbs or adsorbs moisture from air leaving a cold surface, releasing heat, and then in the second part of the cycle evaporates moisture, absorbing heat and returning the desiccant to its original state to complete the cycle again. the result of the cromer cycle is that the process air leaving the cycle is dehumidified further ( higher latent ratio ) than it would be leaving the cold surface without the cycle. the cromer cycle concept was originally patented in the mid - 1980's. those patents have expired and thus the cycle is free for anyone to use. the cycle was first publicized in 1997 by popular mechanics in its tech update section. = = psychrometrics = = the cromer cycle is primarily used in air conditioning and drying applications. the cold surface portion of the cycle is most often a result of a reversed carnot or refrigeration cycle. for the cromer cycle to operate, a desiccant must be exposed to two air streams, one with higher humidity from a cold surface, and one with lower humidity to dry it. this is most easily accomplished by moving the desiccant. any cycling mechanism can be used, such as pumping a liquid desiccant, however an easy mechanical application is a rotating wheel, loaded with desiccant, through which the different air streams pass. this is shown in figure 1 where a desiccant wheel has been applied to a standard air conditioning set - up. the
##lytic sulphur cycles involving their lithospheres. in addition, europa is thought to have a sulfur dioxide cycle. in addition, the io plasma torus contributes to a sulphur cycle on jupiter and ganymede. studies also imply active oxygen cycles on ganymede and oxygen and radiolytic carbon dioxide cycles on callisto. = = saturn = = in addition to saturn's methane cycle some studies suggest an ammonia cycle induced by photolysis similar to jupiter's. the cycles of its moons are of particular interest. observations by cassini β huygens of titan's atmosphere and interactions with its liquid mantle give rise to several active chemical cycles including a methane, hydrocarbon, hydrogen, and carbon cycles. enceladus has an active hydrological, silicate and possibly a nitrogen cycle. = = uranus = = uranus has an active methane cycle. methane is converted to hydrocarbons through photolysis which condenses and as they are heated, release methane which rises to the upper atmosphere. studies by grundy et al. ( 2006 ) indicate active carbon cycles operates on titania, umbriel and ariel and oberon through the ongoing sublimation and deposition of carbon dioxide, though some is lost to space over long periods of time. = = neptune = = neptune's internal heat and convection drives cycles of methane, carbon, and a combination of other volatiles within triton's lithosphere. models predicted the presence of seasonal nitrogen cycles on the moon triton, however this has not been supported by observations to date. = = pluto - charon system = = models predict a seasonal nitrogen cycle on pluto and observations by new horizons appear to support this. = = references = =
denitrification oxygen cycle and ozone β oxygen cycle β a biogeochemical cycle of circulating oxygen between the atmosphere, biosphere ( the global sum of all ecosystems ), and the lithosphere ozone - oxygen cycle β continually regenerates ozone in the atmosphere and converts ultraviolet radiation ( uv ) into heat water cycle β moves water continuously on, above and below the surface shifting between states of liquid, solution, ice and vapour methane cycle β moves methane between geological and biogeochemical sources and reactions in the atmosphere hydrogen cycle β a biogeochemical cycle brought about by a combination of biological and abiological processes phosphorus cycle β the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere sulfur cycle β a biogeochemical process resulting form the mineralization of organic sulfur, oxidation, reduction and incorporation into organic compounds carbonate β silicate cycle transforms silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation and transforms carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism. rock cycle β switches rock between its three forms : sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous mercury cycle β a biogeochemical process in which naturally occurring mercury is bioaccumulated before recombining with sulfur and returning to geological sources as sediments other chemical cycles include hydrogen peroxide. = = mars = = recent evidence suggests that similar chemical cycles to earth's occur on a lesser scale on mars, facilitated by the thin atmosphere, including carbon dioxide ( and possibly carbon ), water, sulphur, methane, oxygen, ozone, and nitrogen cycles. many studies point to significantly more active chemical cycles on mars in the past, however the faint young sun paradox has proved problematic in determining chemical cycles involved in early climate models of the planet. = = jupiter = = jupiter, like all the gas giants, has an atmospheric methane cycle. recent studies indicate a hydrological cycle of water - ammonia vastly different to the type operating on terrestrial planets like earth and also a cycle of hydrogen sulfide. significant chemical cycles exist on jupiter's moons. recent evidence points to europa possessing several active cycles, most notably a water cycle. other studies suggest an oxygen and radiation induced carbon dioxide cycle. io and europa, appear to have radiolytic sulphur cycles involving their lithospheres. in addition, europa is thought to have a sulfur dioxide cycle. in addition, the io plasma torus contributes to a sulphur cycle on jupiter and ganymede. studies also
Answer:
|
space
| 0.3 |
Which would mandate replacing natural resources?
0. camping
1. a national park
2. overlogging
3. a garden
solar wind hybrid park. all of the parks in india have changed the way the economy works overall. they have decreased the amount of money it cost using fossil fuels because they are using natural energy. they have also implemented a self - cleaning tool that cleans the solar panels in the solar parks they created. solar panels can get dirty from weathering. this tool cleans the top of the solar panel so that the maximum amount of energy is produced. = = remedial efforts = = = = = restoration and protection of parks = = = the restoration and protection of parks begins with the acknowledgement of the need for actions. after a government or state is aware of the need for restoration, protection, and the creation of these sustainable habitats, action takes place. the need for funding creates the foundational roadblock in protecting and restoring parks. funding can be received by state legislations and fundraising projects hosted by supporting organizations. this funding can then be systematically distributed to encompass movements that make a significant stride towards protecting and restoring parks. these movements include but are not limited to setting up fences around parks, establishing park security, and supplying and resupplying proper nutritional elements to the parks to sustain and promote growth of habitats. = = = ocean governance = = = ocean governance is defined as the β integrated conduct of the policy, actions, and affairs regarding the world β s oceans to protect ocean environment, sustainable use of coastal and marine resources as well as to conserve its biodiversity. β ocean governance as a process is recommended to be integrated horizontally and vertically. integrating a process horizontally entails requiring the participation of β governmental institutions, the private sector, ngos, academics, [ and ] scientists β, while integrating a process vertically entails essential communication, collaboration, and coordination between the chosen governmental institutions and other participatory agencies. partnership is an essential aspect of ocean governance as it covers all bases of collective remedial efforts. essentially, it connects local and state governments who both want to induce the remedial efforts. communication between inter - governmental agencies and regional institutions aids in strengthening collective efforts that are set into motion. coastal national parks and oceans are facing many threatening changes to their equilibrium. these include but are not limited to rising sea levels, damaged coral reefs, storm activity, and erosion. at the timucuan ecological & historic preserve and the cumberland island national seashore, teams such as the national park foundation ( npf ), national park services ( nps ), and the green team youth corps at groundwork jacksonville are all making strides to
and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of rainfall when water restrictions are implemented, native landscaped plants will survive, while other plants may not increased habitat for native flora and fauna increased beneficial insect population reduces pests where heavily forested, provides shade on homes and businesses saving energy native plants rarely become invasive more carbon storage = = disadvantages = = not good for outdoor games that require a manicured turf. in certain areas, wildfires or brushfires may be of great concern. may look less conventionally attractive due to reduced available range of plants to choose from. may be hard to find native plants which produce adequate quantities of edible matter. = = effect of new construction = = in new construction, builders can either avoid clear cutting or clearing an entire property and disturbing other large flora or builders can completely clear an area of all flora to save construction time and replace the clearing with juvenile specimens once the job is complete. the downside to this is additional costs involved with purchasing replacements. the builder may also choose to plant additional native trees and other flora after construction to help the property blend with natural surroundings. in some planned developments, natural landscaping is the requirement. builders may not remove trees larger than a specific diameter and owners may not arbitrarily cut trees without a permit. = = land reclamation = = throughout the world, forested areas are often turned into cattle grazing or farmland. often this land is then turned into residential or commercial use property. by returning the land back to its original state prior to human disturbance, vast amounts of energy usage and increasing pollution can be reduced. natural landscaping costs less to install than traditional landscaping and, after the initial few years, reduces maintenance costs, combats erosion, and accommodates storm and flood waters better. = = native plant societies = = in many parts of the world there are societies, clubs or local groups, such as bushcare or australian native plants society in australia, the north american native plant society, pennsylvania native plant society, or the california native plant society, which are made up of gardeners interested in growing plants local to their area, state or country. in the united states, wild ones β native plants, natural landscapes is a national organization with local chapters in many states. new england wildflower society, and lady bird johnson wildflower center. provide information on native plants and promote natural landscaping. these organizations
ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems ( e. g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air ). type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and greening cities. constructed wetlands are one example for a type 3 nbs. = = applications = = = = = climate change mitigation and adaptation = = = the 2019 un climate action summit highlighted nature - based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. for example, nbs in the context of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes. : 310 the paris agreement calls on all parties to recognise the role of natural ecosystems in providing services such as that of carbon sinks. article 5. 2 encourages parties to adopt conservation and management as a tool for increasing carbon stocks and article 7. 1 encourages parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. the agreement refers to nature ( ecosystems, natural resources, forests ) in 13 distinct places. an in - depth analysis of all nationally determined contributions submitted to unfccc, revealed that around 130 ndcs or 65 % of signatories commit to nature - based solutions in their climate pledges. this suggests a broad consensus for the role of nature in helping to meet climate change goals. however, high - level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on - the - ground. a global systemic map of evidence was produced to determine and illustrate the effectiveness of nbs for climate change adaptation. after sorting through 386 case studies with computer programs, the study found that nbs were just as, if not more, effective than traditional or alternative flood management strategies. 66 % of cases evaluated reported positive ecological outcomes, 24 % did not identify a change in ecological conditions and less than 1 % reported negative impacts. furthermore, nbs always had better social and climate change mitigation impacts. in the 2019 un climate action summit, nature - based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. a " nature - based solution coalition " was created, including dozens of countries, led by china and new zealand. = = = urban areas = = = since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature - based solutions in urban areas. it is crucial
are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. human consumption does not affect their quantity. many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. some of these, such as crops, take a short time for renewal ; others, such as water, take a comparatively longer time, while others, such as forests, need even longer periods. depending upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or the total and everlasting destruction of a resource. important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource or as a subtype of renewable resources. conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long - term use of such resources is within the so - called zero ecological footprint, where humans use less than the earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. natural resources are also categorized based on distribution : ubiquitous resources are found everywhere ( for example, air, light, and water ). localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world ( for example metal ores and geothermal power ). actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows : actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them. potential resources are those of which we have insufficient knowledge or do not have the technology to exploit them at present. based on ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. = = labour or human resources = = in economics, labor or human resources refers to the human work in the production of goods and rendering of services. human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. in a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. = = capital or infrastructure = = in economics, capital goods or capital are " those durable produced goods that are in turn used as productive inputs for further production " of goods and services. a typical example is the machinery used in a factory. at the macroeconomic level, " the nation's capital stock includes buildings, equipment, software, and inventories during a given year. " capitals are the most important economic resource. = = tangible versus intangible = = whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, int
gas than co2. the emissions emanating from rewetted peatland with paludiculture will also be affected by the land - use in terms of type of use ( agriculture, forestry, grazing etc. ), but also in terms of used species and intensity. traditional use of peatland has often less impact on the environment than industrial use has, but need not be sustainable in the long run and if used at a larger scale. = = = management = = = the most obvious way to maintain the ecosystem services that peatland provides is conservation of intact peatlands. this is even more true given the limited success of restoration projects especially in tropical peatlands. the conserved peatland still holds value for humans and hence provides a number of ecosystem services e. g. carbon storage, water storage and discharge. conserving peatlands also avoids costly investments. conservation is suggested to be a very cost - effective management practice for peatlands. the most obvious ecosystem services that the conservation management provides - i. e. carbon storage and water storage - are not easily priced on the market. therefore, peatland conservation may need to be subsidised. to rewet peatland and thereby restore the water table level is the first step in the restoration. the intention is to recreate the hydrological function and processes of the peatland. this takes a longer time than may be expected. studies have found that rewetted previously drained peatland had the hydrological functions - e. g. water storage and discharge capacity - somewhere between a drained and an intact peatland six years after the restoration. undrained peatlands are recommended to be left for conservation and not used for paludiculture. drained peatlands, on the other hand, can be rewetted and used for paludiculture often using traditional knowledge together with new science. however local communities, especially in the tropics, maintain their livelihood by draining and using the peatland in various ways e. g. agriculture, grazing, and peat mining. paludiculture can be a way to restore degraded and drained peatlands as well as maintaining an outcome for the local community. for example, studies of sphagnum cultivation on re - wetted peat bogs in germany shows a significant decrease of greenhouse gas emission compared to a control with irrigated ditches. the economic feasibility of sphagnum cultivation on peat bogs are however still unclear. the basis for paludiculture is however very different in the south, among other things because of higher population and economic pressure
Answer:
|
overlogging
| null |
Which would mandate replacing natural resources?
0. camping
1. a national park
2. overlogging
3. a garden
solar wind hybrid park. all of the parks in india have changed the way the economy works overall. they have decreased the amount of money it cost using fossil fuels because they are using natural energy. they have also implemented a self - cleaning tool that cleans the solar panels in the solar parks they created. solar panels can get dirty from weathering. this tool cleans the top of the solar panel so that the maximum amount of energy is produced. = = remedial efforts = = = = = restoration and protection of parks = = = the restoration and protection of parks begins with the acknowledgement of the need for actions. after a government or state is aware of the need for restoration, protection, and the creation of these sustainable habitats, action takes place. the need for funding creates the foundational roadblock in protecting and restoring parks. funding can be received by state legislations and fundraising projects hosted by supporting organizations. this funding can then be systematically distributed to encompass movements that make a significant stride towards protecting and restoring parks. these movements include but are not limited to setting up fences around parks, establishing park security, and supplying and resupplying proper nutritional elements to the parks to sustain and promote growth of habitats. = = = ocean governance = = = ocean governance is defined as the β integrated conduct of the policy, actions, and affairs regarding the world β s oceans to protect ocean environment, sustainable use of coastal and marine resources as well as to conserve its biodiversity. β ocean governance as a process is recommended to be integrated horizontally and vertically. integrating a process horizontally entails requiring the participation of β governmental institutions, the private sector, ngos, academics, [ and ] scientists β, while integrating a process vertically entails essential communication, collaboration, and coordination between the chosen governmental institutions and other participatory agencies. partnership is an essential aspect of ocean governance as it covers all bases of collective remedial efforts. essentially, it connects local and state governments who both want to induce the remedial efforts. communication between inter - governmental agencies and regional institutions aids in strengthening collective efforts that are set into motion. coastal national parks and oceans are facing many threatening changes to their equilibrium. these include but are not limited to rising sea levels, damaged coral reefs, storm activity, and erosion. at the timucuan ecological & historic preserve and the cumberland island national seashore, teams such as the national park foundation ( npf ), national park services ( nps ), and the green team youth corps at groundwork jacksonville are all making strides to
and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of rainfall when water restrictions are implemented, native landscaped plants will survive, while other plants may not increased habitat for native flora and fauna increased beneficial insect population reduces pests where heavily forested, provides shade on homes and businesses saving energy native plants rarely become invasive more carbon storage = = disadvantages = = not good for outdoor games that require a manicured turf. in certain areas, wildfires or brushfires may be of great concern. may look less conventionally attractive due to reduced available range of plants to choose from. may be hard to find native plants which produce adequate quantities of edible matter. = = effect of new construction = = in new construction, builders can either avoid clear cutting or clearing an entire property and disturbing other large flora or builders can completely clear an area of all flora to save construction time and replace the clearing with juvenile specimens once the job is complete. the downside to this is additional costs involved with purchasing replacements. the builder may also choose to plant additional native trees and other flora after construction to help the property blend with natural surroundings. in some planned developments, natural landscaping is the requirement. builders may not remove trees larger than a specific diameter and owners may not arbitrarily cut trees without a permit. = = land reclamation = = throughout the world, forested areas are often turned into cattle grazing or farmland. often this land is then turned into residential or commercial use property. by returning the land back to its original state prior to human disturbance, vast amounts of energy usage and increasing pollution can be reduced. natural landscaping costs less to install than traditional landscaping and, after the initial few years, reduces maintenance costs, combats erosion, and accommodates storm and flood waters better. = = native plant societies = = in many parts of the world there are societies, clubs or local groups, such as bushcare or australian native plants society in australia, the north american native plant society, pennsylvania native plant society, or the california native plant society, which are made up of gardeners interested in growing plants local to their area, state or country. in the united states, wild ones β native plants, natural landscapes is a national organization with local chapters in many states. new england wildflower society, and lady bird johnson wildflower center. provide information on native plants and promote natural landscaping. these organizations
ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems ( e. g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air ). type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and greening cities. constructed wetlands are one example for a type 3 nbs. = = applications = = = = = climate change mitigation and adaptation = = = the 2019 un climate action summit highlighted nature - based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. for example, nbs in the context of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes. : 310 the paris agreement calls on all parties to recognise the role of natural ecosystems in providing services such as that of carbon sinks. article 5. 2 encourages parties to adopt conservation and management as a tool for increasing carbon stocks and article 7. 1 encourages parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. the agreement refers to nature ( ecosystems, natural resources, forests ) in 13 distinct places. an in - depth analysis of all nationally determined contributions submitted to unfccc, revealed that around 130 ndcs or 65 % of signatories commit to nature - based solutions in their climate pledges. this suggests a broad consensus for the role of nature in helping to meet climate change goals. however, high - level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on - the - ground. a global systemic map of evidence was produced to determine and illustrate the effectiveness of nbs for climate change adaptation. after sorting through 386 case studies with computer programs, the study found that nbs were just as, if not more, effective than traditional or alternative flood management strategies. 66 % of cases evaluated reported positive ecological outcomes, 24 % did not identify a change in ecological conditions and less than 1 % reported negative impacts. furthermore, nbs always had better social and climate change mitigation impacts. in the 2019 un climate action summit, nature - based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. a " nature - based solution coalition " was created, including dozens of countries, led by china and new zealand. = = = urban areas = = = since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature - based solutions in urban areas. it is crucial
are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. human consumption does not affect their quantity. many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. some of these, such as crops, take a short time for renewal ; others, such as water, take a comparatively longer time, while others, such as forests, need even longer periods. depending upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or the total and everlasting destruction of a resource. important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource or as a subtype of renewable resources. conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long - term use of such resources is within the so - called zero ecological footprint, where humans use less than the earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. natural resources are also categorized based on distribution : ubiquitous resources are found everywhere ( for example, air, light, and water ). localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world ( for example metal ores and geothermal power ). actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows : actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them. potential resources are those of which we have insufficient knowledge or do not have the technology to exploit them at present. based on ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. = = labour or human resources = = in economics, labor or human resources refers to the human work in the production of goods and rendering of services. human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. in a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. = = capital or infrastructure = = in economics, capital goods or capital are " those durable produced goods that are in turn used as productive inputs for further production " of goods and services. a typical example is the machinery used in a factory. at the macroeconomic level, " the nation's capital stock includes buildings, equipment, software, and inventories during a given year. " capitals are the most important economic resource. = = tangible versus intangible = = whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, int
gas than co2. the emissions emanating from rewetted peatland with paludiculture will also be affected by the land - use in terms of type of use ( agriculture, forestry, grazing etc. ), but also in terms of used species and intensity. traditional use of peatland has often less impact on the environment than industrial use has, but need not be sustainable in the long run and if used at a larger scale. = = = management = = = the most obvious way to maintain the ecosystem services that peatland provides is conservation of intact peatlands. this is even more true given the limited success of restoration projects especially in tropical peatlands. the conserved peatland still holds value for humans and hence provides a number of ecosystem services e. g. carbon storage, water storage and discharge. conserving peatlands also avoids costly investments. conservation is suggested to be a very cost - effective management practice for peatlands. the most obvious ecosystem services that the conservation management provides - i. e. carbon storage and water storage - are not easily priced on the market. therefore, peatland conservation may need to be subsidised. to rewet peatland and thereby restore the water table level is the first step in the restoration. the intention is to recreate the hydrological function and processes of the peatland. this takes a longer time than may be expected. studies have found that rewetted previously drained peatland had the hydrological functions - e. g. water storage and discharge capacity - somewhere between a drained and an intact peatland six years after the restoration. undrained peatlands are recommended to be left for conservation and not used for paludiculture. drained peatlands, on the other hand, can be rewetted and used for paludiculture often using traditional knowledge together with new science. however local communities, especially in the tropics, maintain their livelihood by draining and using the peatland in various ways e. g. agriculture, grazing, and peat mining. paludiculture can be a way to restore degraded and drained peatlands as well as maintaining an outcome for the local community. for example, studies of sphagnum cultivation on re - wetted peat bogs in germany shows a significant decrease of greenhouse gas emission compared to a control with irrigated ditches. the economic feasibility of sphagnum cultivation on peat bogs are however still unclear. the basis for paludiculture is however very different in the south, among other things because of higher population and economic pressure
Answer:
|
camping
| 0.3 |
At the end of their season lumberjacks will seed a new
0. batch of chickens
1. track of land
2. popcorn machine
3. home garden
. colossal plans to revive or rediscover the species through genome editing of its closest living relatives, such as the pileated woodpecker and using drones and ai to identify any potential remaining individuals in the wild. = = = heath hen = = = the heath hen ( tympanuchus cupido cupido ) was a subspecies of greater prairie chicken endemic to the heathland barrens of coastal north america. it is even speculated that the pilgrims'first thanksgiving featured this bird as the main course instead of wild turkey. due to overhunting caused by its perceived abundancy, the population became extinct in mainland north america by 1870, leaving a population of 300 individuals left on martha's vineyard. despite conservation efforts, the subspecies became extinct in 1932 following the disappearance and presumed death of booming ben, the final known member of the subspecies. in the summer of 2014, non - profit organisation, revive & restore held a meeting with the community of martha's vineyard to announce their project to revive the heath hen in hopes of restoring and maintaining the sandplain grasslands. on april 8, 2020, germs cells were collected from greater prairie chicken eggs at texas a & m. = = = yangtze giant softshell turtle = = = the yangtze giant softshell turtle ( rafetus swinhoei ) is a softshell turtle endemic to china and vietnam and is possibly the largest living freshwater turtle. due to various factors such as habitat loss, wildlife trafficking, trophy hunting, and the vietnam war, the species population has been reduced to only three male individuals, rendering it functionally extinct similar to the northern white rhinoceros and ivory - billed woodpecker. there is one captive individual in suzhou zoo in china, and two wild individuals at dong mo lake in vietnam. efforts to save the species from extinction through various means of assisted reproduction in captivity have been ongoing since 2009 by the suzhou zoo and turtle survival alliance. despite efforts to breed the turtles naturally, the eggs laid by the final known female were all infertile and unviable. in may 2015, artificial insemination was performed for the first time in the species. in july of the same year, the female laid 89 eggs, but like all previous natural attempts, they were all unviable. in april 2019, the female individual at the zoo died after another failed artificial insemination attempt. in 2020, a female was discovered in the wild, reigniting hope for the survival of the species. however, this individual was found
be so effective in breeding cereal grains indicated that there was no link of necessity between their improvement and the publicly funded research that was to so dominate this sector over so much of the next century. " in 1903 professor willet m. hays ( 1859 β 1927 ) of the agricultural experiment station in minnesota, usa said'no one has done more brilliant work in agricultural plant breeding than messrs. garton, and this is from now on to be recognised.'= = = attempted intellectual property donation = = = the introduction to their 1899 spring catalogue reads : our original idea for the dissemination of the seed of these new breeds as the stocks became sufficiently large for the purpose, was through some public body as in the form of an annual free seed distribution upon similar lines to the free seed distributions carried out by the governments of the united states, canada, and several of the british colonies. on three successive occasions we approached her majesty's government with this object in view, the first occasion being on the formation of the board of agriculture, in 1889, when we offered to hand over the whole of the valuable results, providing that body would undertake their dissemination and the continuance of the work, either in the form of an annual free seed distribution or at current market price. upon the last occasion our offer was accompanied by letters and reports from all the leading agricultural professors, botanists, and scientists in the kingdom, setting forth the national benefit which would accrue from the dissemination of the results in the form we had suggested. the final reply of her majesty's government, however, was that whilst fully recognising the value of the work, owing to there being no precedent upon which to act in such a matter, they were unable to avail themselves of the offer. this was much to be regretted for had our ideas been carried into effect the british farmer would have been placed in immediate possession of important results, which in the hands of a public company would not reach him for many years. our efforts in this direction not having been successful, and as we were not in a position to undertake the work of distribution ourselves, we have placed it in the lands of a public company, and we trust that the continued efforts made by us on behalf of the british farmer will be fully appreciated by him, through his support of the company responsible for the distribution of the seed of our new breeds of agricultural plants r. & j. garton'' = = = crop innovations = = = the firm's first historic introduction was'abundance'oat,
##2 at the wayback machine. meet the plants - national tropical botanical garden. archived 16 june 2007. lady bird johnson wildflower center β native plant information network at university of texas, austin united states department of agriculture not limited to continental us species.
##posting q and a ". production management featured articles web site. retrieved august 27, 2009. { { cite web } } : cs1 maint : multiple names : authors list ( link ) = = external links = = windrow dynamics glossary composting windrow composting - grass straw ( retrieved march 17, 2009 ) organic composting
cellular agriculture offers " opportunities such as growing crops as ingredients for feedstock for cultured meat ; raising animals for genetic material for cultured meat ; producing cultured meat in bioreactors at the farm level ; transitioning into new sectors ; new market opportunities for blended and hybrid animal - and alt - meat products ; and new value around regenerative or high - animal welfare farming. " some challenges are also identified, with possible " loss of livelihood or income for ranchers and livestock producers and for farmers growing crops for animal feed ; barriers to transitioning into emerging alt - meat sectors ; and the possibility of exclusion from those sectors. " some farmers already see the potential of cellular agriculture. for instance, illtud dunsford comes from a long line of farmers in wales and established his cultured meat company cellular agriculture ltd in 2016. = = continuing development = = = = = education = = = in 2015, maastricht university hosted the first international conference on cultured meat. new harvest β a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) research institute β as well as the good food institute host annual conferences to convene industry leaders, scientists, investors, and potential collaborators. the two organizations also fund public research and produce educational content. organizations such as the cellular agriculture society and similar organizations in canada, france, australia, and new zealand were founded to advocate for cultured meat in their respective countries. publications such as cell agri and protein report have also provided updates concerning technology and business within the field. = = = research = = = research continues on many fronts, including entomoculture, interactome maps of cardiac tissue, substrate design, scaffold design, nutritional profile, reaction kinetics, transport phenomena, mass transfer limitations and metabolic stoichiometric requirements, and bioprinting process. = = = accelerators and incubators = = = multiple venture capital firms and accelerator / incubator programs focus on assisting cultured technology startups, or plant - based protein companies in general. the big idea ventures ( biv ) venture capital firm launched their new protein fund to invest in emerging cell and plant - based food companies in new york and singapore. they invested in melibio, actual veggies, biftek. co, orbillion bio, yoconut, evo, wildfor and novel farms. indie bio is a biology oriented accelerator program that has invested in memphis meats, geltor, new age meats and finless foods. = = in popular culture = = culture
Answer:
|
track of land
| null |
At the end of their season lumberjacks will seed a new
0. batch of chickens
1. track of land
2. popcorn machine
3. home garden
. colossal plans to revive or rediscover the species through genome editing of its closest living relatives, such as the pileated woodpecker and using drones and ai to identify any potential remaining individuals in the wild. = = = heath hen = = = the heath hen ( tympanuchus cupido cupido ) was a subspecies of greater prairie chicken endemic to the heathland barrens of coastal north america. it is even speculated that the pilgrims'first thanksgiving featured this bird as the main course instead of wild turkey. due to overhunting caused by its perceived abundancy, the population became extinct in mainland north america by 1870, leaving a population of 300 individuals left on martha's vineyard. despite conservation efforts, the subspecies became extinct in 1932 following the disappearance and presumed death of booming ben, the final known member of the subspecies. in the summer of 2014, non - profit organisation, revive & restore held a meeting with the community of martha's vineyard to announce their project to revive the heath hen in hopes of restoring and maintaining the sandplain grasslands. on april 8, 2020, germs cells were collected from greater prairie chicken eggs at texas a & m. = = = yangtze giant softshell turtle = = = the yangtze giant softshell turtle ( rafetus swinhoei ) is a softshell turtle endemic to china and vietnam and is possibly the largest living freshwater turtle. due to various factors such as habitat loss, wildlife trafficking, trophy hunting, and the vietnam war, the species population has been reduced to only three male individuals, rendering it functionally extinct similar to the northern white rhinoceros and ivory - billed woodpecker. there is one captive individual in suzhou zoo in china, and two wild individuals at dong mo lake in vietnam. efforts to save the species from extinction through various means of assisted reproduction in captivity have been ongoing since 2009 by the suzhou zoo and turtle survival alliance. despite efforts to breed the turtles naturally, the eggs laid by the final known female were all infertile and unviable. in may 2015, artificial insemination was performed for the first time in the species. in july of the same year, the female laid 89 eggs, but like all previous natural attempts, they were all unviable. in april 2019, the female individual at the zoo died after another failed artificial insemination attempt. in 2020, a female was discovered in the wild, reigniting hope for the survival of the species. however, this individual was found
be so effective in breeding cereal grains indicated that there was no link of necessity between their improvement and the publicly funded research that was to so dominate this sector over so much of the next century. " in 1903 professor willet m. hays ( 1859 β 1927 ) of the agricultural experiment station in minnesota, usa said'no one has done more brilliant work in agricultural plant breeding than messrs. garton, and this is from now on to be recognised.'= = = attempted intellectual property donation = = = the introduction to their 1899 spring catalogue reads : our original idea for the dissemination of the seed of these new breeds as the stocks became sufficiently large for the purpose, was through some public body as in the form of an annual free seed distribution upon similar lines to the free seed distributions carried out by the governments of the united states, canada, and several of the british colonies. on three successive occasions we approached her majesty's government with this object in view, the first occasion being on the formation of the board of agriculture, in 1889, when we offered to hand over the whole of the valuable results, providing that body would undertake their dissemination and the continuance of the work, either in the form of an annual free seed distribution or at current market price. upon the last occasion our offer was accompanied by letters and reports from all the leading agricultural professors, botanists, and scientists in the kingdom, setting forth the national benefit which would accrue from the dissemination of the results in the form we had suggested. the final reply of her majesty's government, however, was that whilst fully recognising the value of the work, owing to there being no precedent upon which to act in such a matter, they were unable to avail themselves of the offer. this was much to be regretted for had our ideas been carried into effect the british farmer would have been placed in immediate possession of important results, which in the hands of a public company would not reach him for many years. our efforts in this direction not having been successful, and as we were not in a position to undertake the work of distribution ourselves, we have placed it in the lands of a public company, and we trust that the continued efforts made by us on behalf of the british farmer will be fully appreciated by him, through his support of the company responsible for the distribution of the seed of our new breeds of agricultural plants r. & j. garton'' = = = crop innovations = = = the firm's first historic introduction was'abundance'oat,
##2 at the wayback machine. meet the plants - national tropical botanical garden. archived 16 june 2007. lady bird johnson wildflower center β native plant information network at university of texas, austin united states department of agriculture not limited to continental us species.
##posting q and a ". production management featured articles web site. retrieved august 27, 2009. { { cite web } } : cs1 maint : multiple names : authors list ( link ) = = external links = = windrow dynamics glossary composting windrow composting - grass straw ( retrieved march 17, 2009 ) organic composting
cellular agriculture offers " opportunities such as growing crops as ingredients for feedstock for cultured meat ; raising animals for genetic material for cultured meat ; producing cultured meat in bioreactors at the farm level ; transitioning into new sectors ; new market opportunities for blended and hybrid animal - and alt - meat products ; and new value around regenerative or high - animal welfare farming. " some challenges are also identified, with possible " loss of livelihood or income for ranchers and livestock producers and for farmers growing crops for animal feed ; barriers to transitioning into emerging alt - meat sectors ; and the possibility of exclusion from those sectors. " some farmers already see the potential of cellular agriculture. for instance, illtud dunsford comes from a long line of farmers in wales and established his cultured meat company cellular agriculture ltd in 2016. = = continuing development = = = = = education = = = in 2015, maastricht university hosted the first international conference on cultured meat. new harvest β a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) research institute β as well as the good food institute host annual conferences to convene industry leaders, scientists, investors, and potential collaborators. the two organizations also fund public research and produce educational content. organizations such as the cellular agriculture society and similar organizations in canada, france, australia, and new zealand were founded to advocate for cultured meat in their respective countries. publications such as cell agri and protein report have also provided updates concerning technology and business within the field. = = = research = = = research continues on many fronts, including entomoculture, interactome maps of cardiac tissue, substrate design, scaffold design, nutritional profile, reaction kinetics, transport phenomena, mass transfer limitations and metabolic stoichiometric requirements, and bioprinting process. = = = accelerators and incubators = = = multiple venture capital firms and accelerator / incubator programs focus on assisting cultured technology startups, or plant - based protein companies in general. the big idea ventures ( biv ) venture capital firm launched their new protein fund to invest in emerging cell and plant - based food companies in new york and singapore. they invested in melibio, actual veggies, biftek. co, orbillion bio, yoconut, evo, wildfor and novel farms. indie bio is a biology oriented accelerator program that has invested in memphis meats, geltor, new age meats and finless foods. = = in popular culture = = culture
Answer:
|
popcorn machine
| 0.3 |
You find a furry creature walking around. What feature would also describe this animal?
0. dead, cold-blooded, and scaly
1. cold, cold-blooded, hungry, alive
2. horned, warm-blooded, hungry, alive
3. warm, warm-blooded, and also dead
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
includes the cats, dogs, and bears ), 177 are solitary ; and 35 of the 37 wild cats are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. however, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill, and the coyote can be either solitary or social. other solitary predators include the northern pike, wolf spiders and all the thousands of species of solitary wasps among arthropods, and many microorganisms and zooplankton. = = specialization = = = = = physical adaptations = = = under the pressure of natural selection, predators have evolved a variety of physical adaptations for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. these include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems. for detecting prey, predators have well - developed vision, smell, or hearing. predators as diverse as owls and jumping spiders have forward - facing eyes, providing accurate binocular vision over a relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all - round vision. animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet ( 60 cm ) of snow or earth. many predators have acute hearing, and some such as echolocating bats hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound. predators including big cats, birds of prey, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. some predators such as snakes and fish - eating birds like herons and cormorants swallow their prey whole ; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish - eating birds have long spear - like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast - moving and slippery prey. fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs. many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves ; this applies as much to small predators such as ants and shrews as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the cougar and lion. = = = diet and behaviour = = = predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour ; for example, the eurasian lynx only hunts small ungulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when
. encyclopedia of animal behavior. greenwood press, 2004. isbn 0313327459. bruce, jenni. the encyclopedia of animals : a complete visual guide. university of california press, 2004. isbn 0520244060. burton, maurice, robert burton. international wildlife encyclopedia. marshall cavendish, 2002. isbn 0761472665. encyclopedia of animal behavior. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal biology. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal ecology. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal evolution. facts on file, 1987. grzimek, bernhard. grzimek's animal life encyclopedia. van nostrand, 1972 β 1975. grzimek's encyclopedia of ethology. van nostrand, 1972 β 1977. the illustrated encyclopedia of wildlife. grey castle press, 1991. knobil, ernst and jimmy d. neill. encyclopedia of reproduction. academic press, 1998. isbn 0122270207. macmillan illustrated animal encyclopedia. macmillan, 1984. marshall cavendish international wildlife encyclopedia. marshall cavendish, 1990. nowak, ronald m., david w. macdonald, roland w. kays. walker's carnivores of the world. johns hopkins university press, 2005. isbn 0801880335. the oxford companion to animal behaviour. oxford, 1987. world nature encyclopedia. raintree / steck - vaughn, 1989. = = = = = aquatic = = = = = banister, keith & andrew campbell. the encyclopedia of aquatic life. facts on file, 1985. dakin, nick. macmillan book of the marine aquarium. macmillan, 1993. the encyclopedia of marine invertebrates. t. f. h. publications, 1983. folkens, pieter a., randall r. reeves, national audubon society. guide to marine mammals of the world. a. a. knopf, 2002. isbn 0375411410. george, david and jennifer. marine life : an illustrated encyclopedia of invertebrates in the sea. wiley, 1979. halstead, bruce. dangerous aquatic animals of the world : a color atlas. darwin press, 1992. sterba, gunther. the aquarium encyclopedia. mit press, 1983. stickney, robert r. encyclopedia of aquaculture. wiley, 2000. isbn 0471291013. = = = = = = fishes = = = = = = dr. axelrod's atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes. t. f. h. publications, 6th ed
dogs = = = = = = = = list of brachycephalic cats = = = = cheetah leopard jaguar snow leopard mountain lion = = = = list of brachycephalic pigs = = = = middle white neijiang = = = = list of brachycephalic rabbits = = = = lionhead rabbit lop rabbit netherland dwarf rabbit dwarf papillon rabbit dwarf hotot rabbit jersey wooly rabbit american fuzzylop rabbit = = = = other = = = = elephant giant panda ross seal spectacled bear walrus wombat australian lowline brachycephalic arabian horse niata cattle tortoise raccoon dog european bison otter sloth = = = mesaticephalic animals = = = a mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. when dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not " mesocephalic ", but rather " mesaticephalic ", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. the breeds below exemplify this category. = = = = list of mesaticephalic canines = = = = = = = = list of mesaticephalic cats = = = = note : almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic ( β medium - headed β ) = = = = list of mesaticephalic rabbits = = = = dutch rabbit mini rex polish rabbit new zealand rabbit american sable = = = = other = = = = aardwolf alligator american black bear brown bear brown hyena fur seal guinea pig leopard seal raccoon sea lion sloth bear spotted hyena striped hyena sun bear tasmanian devil = = = dolichocephalic animals = = = a dolichocephalic skull is relatively long - headed ( typically with the breadth less than 80 % or 75 % of the length ). note : almost all representatives of the infraphylum gnathostomata ( with rare exceptions ) are dolichocephalic. = = = = list of dolichocephalic canids = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic felines = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic leporids = = = = english spot english lop belgian hare all true hares =
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
Answer:
|
horned, warm-blooded, hungry, alive
| null |
You find a furry creature walking around. What feature would also describe this animal?
0. dead, cold-blooded, and scaly
1. cold, cold-blooded, hungry, alive
2. horned, warm-blooded, hungry, alive
3. warm, warm-blooded, and also dead
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
includes the cats, dogs, and bears ), 177 are solitary ; and 35 of the 37 wild cats are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. however, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill, and the coyote can be either solitary or social. other solitary predators include the northern pike, wolf spiders and all the thousands of species of solitary wasps among arthropods, and many microorganisms and zooplankton. = = specialization = = = = = physical adaptations = = = under the pressure of natural selection, predators have evolved a variety of physical adaptations for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. these include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems. for detecting prey, predators have well - developed vision, smell, or hearing. predators as diverse as owls and jumping spiders have forward - facing eyes, providing accurate binocular vision over a relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all - round vision. animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet ( 60 cm ) of snow or earth. many predators have acute hearing, and some such as echolocating bats hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound. predators including big cats, birds of prey, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. some predators such as snakes and fish - eating birds like herons and cormorants swallow their prey whole ; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish - eating birds have long spear - like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast - moving and slippery prey. fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs. many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves ; this applies as much to small predators such as ants and shrews as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the cougar and lion. = = = diet and behaviour = = = predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour ; for example, the eurasian lynx only hunts small ungulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when
. encyclopedia of animal behavior. greenwood press, 2004. isbn 0313327459. bruce, jenni. the encyclopedia of animals : a complete visual guide. university of california press, 2004. isbn 0520244060. burton, maurice, robert burton. international wildlife encyclopedia. marshall cavendish, 2002. isbn 0761472665. encyclopedia of animal behavior. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal biology. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal ecology. facts on file, 1987. encyclopedia of animal evolution. facts on file, 1987. grzimek, bernhard. grzimek's animal life encyclopedia. van nostrand, 1972 β 1975. grzimek's encyclopedia of ethology. van nostrand, 1972 β 1977. the illustrated encyclopedia of wildlife. grey castle press, 1991. knobil, ernst and jimmy d. neill. encyclopedia of reproduction. academic press, 1998. isbn 0122270207. macmillan illustrated animal encyclopedia. macmillan, 1984. marshall cavendish international wildlife encyclopedia. marshall cavendish, 1990. nowak, ronald m., david w. macdonald, roland w. kays. walker's carnivores of the world. johns hopkins university press, 2005. isbn 0801880335. the oxford companion to animal behaviour. oxford, 1987. world nature encyclopedia. raintree / steck - vaughn, 1989. = = = = = aquatic = = = = = banister, keith & andrew campbell. the encyclopedia of aquatic life. facts on file, 1985. dakin, nick. macmillan book of the marine aquarium. macmillan, 1993. the encyclopedia of marine invertebrates. t. f. h. publications, 1983. folkens, pieter a., randall r. reeves, national audubon society. guide to marine mammals of the world. a. a. knopf, 2002. isbn 0375411410. george, david and jennifer. marine life : an illustrated encyclopedia of invertebrates in the sea. wiley, 1979. halstead, bruce. dangerous aquatic animals of the world : a color atlas. darwin press, 1992. sterba, gunther. the aquarium encyclopedia. mit press, 1983. stickney, robert r. encyclopedia of aquaculture. wiley, 2000. isbn 0471291013. = = = = = = fishes = = = = = = dr. axelrod's atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes. t. f. h. publications, 6th ed
dogs = = = = = = = = list of brachycephalic cats = = = = cheetah leopard jaguar snow leopard mountain lion = = = = list of brachycephalic pigs = = = = middle white neijiang = = = = list of brachycephalic rabbits = = = = lionhead rabbit lop rabbit netherland dwarf rabbit dwarf papillon rabbit dwarf hotot rabbit jersey wooly rabbit american fuzzylop rabbit = = = = other = = = = elephant giant panda ross seal spectacled bear walrus wombat australian lowline brachycephalic arabian horse niata cattle tortoise raccoon dog european bison otter sloth = = = mesaticephalic animals = = = a mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. when dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not " mesocephalic ", but rather " mesaticephalic ", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. the breeds below exemplify this category. = = = = list of mesaticephalic canines = = = = = = = = list of mesaticephalic cats = = = = note : almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic ( β medium - headed β ) = = = = list of mesaticephalic rabbits = = = = dutch rabbit mini rex polish rabbit new zealand rabbit american sable = = = = other = = = = aardwolf alligator american black bear brown bear brown hyena fur seal guinea pig leopard seal raccoon sea lion sloth bear spotted hyena striped hyena sun bear tasmanian devil = = = dolichocephalic animals = = = a dolichocephalic skull is relatively long - headed ( typically with the breadth less than 80 % or 75 % of the length ). note : almost all representatives of the infraphylum gnathostomata ( with rare exceptions ) are dolichocephalic. = = = = list of dolichocephalic canids = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic felines = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic leporids = = = = english spot english lop belgian hare all true hares =
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
Answer:
|
cold, cold-blooded, hungry, alive
| 0.3 |
What is part of an ecological system?
0. waterfalls
1. pulsars
2. black holes
3. asteroids
any unit that includes all of the organisms ( i. e. : the " community " ) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles ( i. e. : exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts ) within the system is an ecosystem. " within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with their environment. the human ecosystem concept is based on the human / nature dichotomy and the idea that all species are ecologically dependent on each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope. a smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem. for example, a microsystem can be a stone and all the life under it. a macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin. = = = wilderness = = = wilderness is generally defined as areas that have not been significantly modified by human activity. wilderness areas can be found in preserves, estates, farms, conservation preserves, ranches, national forests, national parks, and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches, or otherwise undeveloped areas. wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, and solitude. some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity, and some ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the earth's self - sustaining natural ecosystem ( the biosphere ). they may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult or impossible to recreate in zoos, arboretums, or laboratories. = = life = = although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. present day organisms from viruses to humans possess a self - replicating informational molecule ( genome ), either dna or rna ( as in some viruses ), and such an informational molecule is probably intrinsic to life. it is likely that the earliest forms of life were based on a self - replicating informational molecule ( genome ), perhaps rna or a molecule more primitive than rna or dna. the specific deoxyribonuc
readily used by plants and microbes. ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of. ecosystem goods include the " tangible, material products " of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants. ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally " improvements in the condition or location of things of value ". these include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species. these threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered " collapsed ". ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the sustainable development goals. = = definition = = an ecosystem ( or ecological system ) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools ( or physical environment ) with which they interact. : 5 : 458 the biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. " ecosystem processes " are the transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another. : 458 ecosystem processes are known to " take place at a wide range of scales ". therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked. : 5 = = = origin and development of the term = = = the term " ecosystem " was first used in 1935 in a publication by british ecologist arthur tansley. the term was coined by arthur roy clapham, who came up with the word at tansley's request. tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. : 9 he later refined the term, describing it as " the whole system,... including not only the organism - complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment ". tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as " mental isolates ". tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term " ecotope ". g. evelyn hutchinson, a limnologist who was a contemporary of tansley's, combined charles elton's ideas about trophic ecology with those of russian geochemist vladimir vernadsky
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
##ly but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs. the importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes, as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers. not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. some terrestrial ecosystems β for example, those of the open deserts and similar arid environments β exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. while there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and ( at other places or times ) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. hyporheic zones ( the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater ) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater. a 2021 study found that of ~ 39 million investigated groundwater wells 6 β 20 % are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by a few meters, or β as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers β continue to decline. fresh - water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as meteoric water, can be over - exploited and depending on the local hydrogeology, may draw in non - potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. this can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. = = = subsidence = = = subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above - surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. the result can look like craters on plots of land. this occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. when groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the
connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system. = = = ecosystem ecology = = = ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. this science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact. the relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. however, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems. = = = industrial ecology = = = industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear ( open loop ) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes. = = see also = = = = references = = = = bibliography = = = = external links = = organisations systems ecology department at the stockholm university. systems ecology department at the university of amsterdam. systems ecology lab at suny - esf. systems ecology program at the university of florida systems ecology program at the university of montana terrestrial systems ecology of eth zurich.
Answer:
|
waterfalls
| null |
What is part of an ecological system?
0. waterfalls
1. pulsars
2. black holes
3. asteroids
any unit that includes all of the organisms ( i. e. : the " community " ) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles ( i. e. : exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts ) within the system is an ecosystem. " within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with their environment. the human ecosystem concept is based on the human / nature dichotomy and the idea that all species are ecologically dependent on each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope. a smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem. for example, a microsystem can be a stone and all the life under it. a macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin. = = = wilderness = = = wilderness is generally defined as areas that have not been significantly modified by human activity. wilderness areas can be found in preserves, estates, farms, conservation preserves, ranches, national forests, national parks, and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches, or otherwise undeveloped areas. wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, and solitude. some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity, and some ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the earth's self - sustaining natural ecosystem ( the biosphere ). they may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult or impossible to recreate in zoos, arboretums, or laboratories. = = life = = although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. present day organisms from viruses to humans possess a self - replicating informational molecule ( genome ), either dna or rna ( as in some viruses ), and such an informational molecule is probably intrinsic to life. it is likely that the earliest forms of life were based on a self - replicating informational molecule ( genome ), perhaps rna or a molecule more primitive than rna or dna. the specific deoxyribonuc
readily used by plants and microbes. ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of. ecosystem goods include the " tangible, material products " of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants. ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally " improvements in the condition or location of things of value ". these include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species. these threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered " collapsed ". ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the sustainable development goals. = = definition = = an ecosystem ( or ecological system ) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools ( or physical environment ) with which they interact. : 5 : 458 the biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. " ecosystem processes " are the transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another. : 458 ecosystem processes are known to " take place at a wide range of scales ". therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked. : 5 = = = origin and development of the term = = = the term " ecosystem " was first used in 1935 in a publication by british ecologist arthur tansley. the term was coined by arthur roy clapham, who came up with the word at tansley's request. tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. : 9 he later refined the term, describing it as " the whole system,... including not only the organism - complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment ". tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as " mental isolates ". tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term " ecotope ". g. evelyn hutchinson, a limnologist who was a contemporary of tansley's, combined charles elton's ideas about trophic ecology with those of russian geochemist vladimir vernadsky
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
##ly but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs. the importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes, as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers. not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. some terrestrial ecosystems β for example, those of the open deserts and similar arid environments β exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. while there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and ( at other places or times ) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. hyporheic zones ( the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater ) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater. a 2021 study found that of ~ 39 million investigated groundwater wells 6 β 20 % are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by a few meters, or β as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers β continue to decline. fresh - water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as meteoric water, can be over - exploited and depending on the local hydrogeology, may draw in non - potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. this can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. = = = subsidence = = = subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above - surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. the result can look like craters on plots of land. this occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. when groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the
connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system. = = = ecosystem ecology = = = ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. this science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact. the relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. however, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems. = = = industrial ecology = = = industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear ( open loop ) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes. = = see also = = = = references = = = = bibliography = = = = external links = = organisations systems ecology department at the stockholm university. systems ecology department at the university of amsterdam. systems ecology lab at suny - esf. systems ecology program at the university of florida systems ecology program at the university of montana terrestrial systems ecology of eth zurich.
Answer:
|
asteroids
| 0.3 |
If something is in an ecosystem, it could be
0. invisible
1. vacuum of space
2. lacking life
3. alien
such compounds could produce the radiolabeled co2 recorded by the landers. in operation since 2012, nasa's curiosity rover has found evidence of historical conditions on mars being suitable for life, such as organic matter being preserved in rocks and evidence of past groundwater, though no lifeforms have been found. in 2014, vladimir solovyov of russia's tass news agency claimed that cosmonauts found plankton on the international space station. nasa officials found no evidence for the claims, though they predicted that some extremophile microorganisms could survive in space. = = = future missions = = = = = experimentation = = = = = earth = = = many studies on earth have been conducted to collect data on the response of terrestrial microbes to various simulated environmental conditions of outer space. the responses of microbes, such as viruses, bacterial cells, bacterial and fungal spores, and lichens, to isolated factors of outer space ( microgravity, galactic cosmic radiation, solar uv radiation, and space vacuum ) were determined in space and laboratory simulation experiments. in general, microorganisms tended to thrive in the simulated space flight environment β subjects showed symptoms of enhanced growth and an uncharacteristic ability to proliferate despite the presence of normally suppressive levels of antibiotics. in fact, in one study, trace ( background levels ) of antibiotic exposure resulted in acquisition of antibiotic resistance under simulated microgravity. the mechanisms responsible for explaining these enhanced responses have yet to be discovered. = = = space = = = the ability of microorganisms to survive in an outer space environment was investigated to approximate upper boundaries of the biosphere and to determine the accuracy of the interplanetary transport theory for microorganisms. among the investigated variables, solar uv radiation had the most harmful effect on microbial samples. among all the samples, only lichens ( rhizocarpon geographicum and xanthoria elegans ) fully survived the 2 weeks of exposure to outer space. earth's ozone layer greatly protects against the deleterious effects of solar uv, which is why organisms typically are unable to survive without ozone protection. when shielded against solar uv, various samples were able to survive for long periods of times ; spores of b. subtilis, for example, were able to proliferate in space for up to 6 years. the data support the likelihood of interplanetary transfer of microorganisms within meteorites, called lithopanspermia hypothesis
the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. astrobiology considers the question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. the term exobiology is similar. astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on earth. the origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. this interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock - water - carbon interactions, abiogenesis on earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on earth and in outer space. = = = physical cosmology = = = cosmology ( from the greek ΞΊΞΏΟΞΌΞΏΟ ( kosmos ) " world, universe " and Ξ»ΞΏΞ³ΞΏΟ ( logos ) " word, study " or literally " logic " ) could be considered the study of the universe as a whole. observations of the large - scale structure of the universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. fundamental to modern cosmology is the well - accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13. 8 billion years to its present condition. the concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965. in the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages. in the very early moments, it is theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized the starting conditions. thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe. ( see also nucleocosmochronology. ) when the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. the expanding universe then underwent a dark age due to the lack of stellar energy sources. a hierarchical structure of matter began to form
the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. astrobiology considers the question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. the term exobiology is similar. astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on earth. the origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. this interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock - water - carbon interactions, abiogenesis on earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on earth and in outer space. = = = physical cosmology = = = cosmology ( from the greek ΞΊΞΏΟΞΌΞΏΟ ( kosmos ) " world, universe " and Ξ»ΞΏΞ³ΞΏΟ ( logos ) " word, study " or literally " logic " ) could be considered the study of the universe as a whole. observations of the large - scale structure of the universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. fundamental to modern cosmology is the well - accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13. 8 billion years to its present condition. the concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965. in the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages. in the very early moments, it is theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized the starting conditions. thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe. ( see also nucleocosmochronology. ) when the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. the expanding universe then underwent a dark age due to the lack of stellar energy sources. a hierarchical structure of matter began to form
soap molecules and heat them up ; and the work of the institute for complex adaptive matter at the university of california. = = chapter 6 = = viking. a discussion of the experiments by engineer gilbert levin to search for life on mars in the 1970s as part of the viking program. levin's labeled release experiment appeared to conclusively show that life does exist on mars, but as his results were not supported by the other three viking biological experiments, they were called into question and eventually not accepted by nasa, which instead hypothesized that the gases observed being generated may not have been a product of living metabolism but of a chemical reaction of hydrogen peroxide. brooks goes into detail on some of levin's other experiments and also describes how nasa's subsequent missions to mars have focused on the geology and climate of the planet rather than looking for life on the planet. ( several missions are searching for water and geological conditions which could support life on mars currently or in the past. ) = = chapter 7 = = the wow! signal. brooks discusses whether or not the signal spotted by astronomer jerry r. ehman at the big ear radio telescope of ohio state university in 1977 was a genuine indication of intelligent life in outer space. this was a remarkably clear signal and big ear was the largest and longest running seti ( search for extra - terrestrial intelligence ) radio - telescope project in the world. brooks goes on to discuss the abandonment of nasa's microwave observing program after government funding was stopped by the efforts of senator richard bryan of nevada. there is no public funding for similar observations today while the seti institute, which continues nasa's work, is funded by private donation, as are a number of other initiatives. = = chapter 8 = = a giant virus. brooks describes the huge and highly resistant mimivirus found in bradford, england in 1992 and whether this challenges the traditional view of viruses being inanimate chemicals rather than living things. mimivirus is not only much larger than most viruses but it also has a much more complex genetic structure. the discovery of mimivirus has given weight to the theories of microbiologist philip bell and others that viral infection was indeed the reason for the emergence from primitive life forms of complex cell structures based on a cell nucleus. ( see viral eukaryogenesis. ) study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing. = = chapter 9 = = death. beginning with the example of blanding's turtle and certain species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older
the biosphere ( from ancient greek Ξ²ΞΉΞΏΟ ( bios )'life'and ΟΟΞ±ΞΉΟΞ± ( sphaira )'sphere'), also called the ecosphere ( from ancient greek ΞΏΞΉΞΊΞΏΟ ( oikos )'settlement, house'and ΟΟΞ±ΞΉΟΞ± ( sphaira )'sphere'), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. it can also be termed the zone of life on the earth. the biosphere ( which is technically a spherical shell ) is virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs. regarding energy, it is an open system, with photosynthesis capturing solar energy at a rate of around 100 terawatts. by the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. the biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis ( life created naturally from non - living matter, such as simple organic compounds ) or biogenesis ( life created from living matter ), at least some 3. 5 billion years ago. in a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self - regulating systems containing ecosystems. this includes artificial biospheres such as biosphere 2 and bios - 3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons. = = origin and use of the term = = the term " biosphere " was coined in 1875 by geologist eduard suess, who defined it as the place on earth's surface where life dwells. while the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both charles darwin and matthew f. maury on the earth sciences. the biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s ( see vladimir i. vernadsky ), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term " ecosystem " by sir arthur tansley ( see ecology history ). vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. it is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences. = = = narrow definition = = = geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms ( the " biomass " or " biota " as referred to by biologists and ecologists ).
Answer:
|
lacking life
| null |
If something is in an ecosystem, it could be
0. invisible
1. vacuum of space
2. lacking life
3. alien
such compounds could produce the radiolabeled co2 recorded by the landers. in operation since 2012, nasa's curiosity rover has found evidence of historical conditions on mars being suitable for life, such as organic matter being preserved in rocks and evidence of past groundwater, though no lifeforms have been found. in 2014, vladimir solovyov of russia's tass news agency claimed that cosmonauts found plankton on the international space station. nasa officials found no evidence for the claims, though they predicted that some extremophile microorganisms could survive in space. = = = future missions = = = = = experimentation = = = = = earth = = = many studies on earth have been conducted to collect data on the response of terrestrial microbes to various simulated environmental conditions of outer space. the responses of microbes, such as viruses, bacterial cells, bacterial and fungal spores, and lichens, to isolated factors of outer space ( microgravity, galactic cosmic radiation, solar uv radiation, and space vacuum ) were determined in space and laboratory simulation experiments. in general, microorganisms tended to thrive in the simulated space flight environment β subjects showed symptoms of enhanced growth and an uncharacteristic ability to proliferate despite the presence of normally suppressive levels of antibiotics. in fact, in one study, trace ( background levels ) of antibiotic exposure resulted in acquisition of antibiotic resistance under simulated microgravity. the mechanisms responsible for explaining these enhanced responses have yet to be discovered. = = = space = = = the ability of microorganisms to survive in an outer space environment was investigated to approximate upper boundaries of the biosphere and to determine the accuracy of the interplanetary transport theory for microorganisms. among the investigated variables, solar uv radiation had the most harmful effect on microbial samples. among all the samples, only lichens ( rhizocarpon geographicum and xanthoria elegans ) fully survived the 2 weeks of exposure to outer space. earth's ozone layer greatly protects against the deleterious effects of solar uv, which is why organisms typically are unable to survive without ozone protection. when shielded against solar uv, various samples were able to survive for long periods of times ; spores of b. subtilis, for example, were able to proliferate in space for up to 6 years. the data support the likelihood of interplanetary transfer of microorganisms within meteorites, called lithopanspermia hypothesis
the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. astrobiology considers the question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. the term exobiology is similar. astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on earth. the origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. this interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock - water - carbon interactions, abiogenesis on earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on earth and in outer space. = = = physical cosmology = = = cosmology ( from the greek ΞΊΞΏΟΞΌΞΏΟ ( kosmos ) " world, universe " and Ξ»ΞΏΞ³ΞΏΟ ( logos ) " word, study " or literally " logic " ) could be considered the study of the universe as a whole. observations of the large - scale structure of the universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. fundamental to modern cosmology is the well - accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13. 8 billion years to its present condition. the concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965. in the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages. in the very early moments, it is theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized the starting conditions. thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe. ( see also nucleocosmochronology. ) when the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. the expanding universe then underwent a dark age due to the lack of stellar energy sources. a hierarchical structure of matter began to form
the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. astrobiology considers the question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. the term exobiology is similar. astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on earth. the origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. this interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock - water - carbon interactions, abiogenesis on earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on earth and in outer space. = = = physical cosmology = = = cosmology ( from the greek ΞΊΞΏΟΞΌΞΏΟ ( kosmos ) " world, universe " and Ξ»ΞΏΞ³ΞΏΟ ( logos ) " word, study " or literally " logic " ) could be considered the study of the universe as a whole. observations of the large - scale structure of the universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. fundamental to modern cosmology is the well - accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13. 8 billion years to its present condition. the concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965. in the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages. in the very early moments, it is theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized the starting conditions. thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe. ( see also nucleocosmochronology. ) when the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. the expanding universe then underwent a dark age due to the lack of stellar energy sources. a hierarchical structure of matter began to form
soap molecules and heat them up ; and the work of the institute for complex adaptive matter at the university of california. = = chapter 6 = = viking. a discussion of the experiments by engineer gilbert levin to search for life on mars in the 1970s as part of the viking program. levin's labeled release experiment appeared to conclusively show that life does exist on mars, but as his results were not supported by the other three viking biological experiments, they were called into question and eventually not accepted by nasa, which instead hypothesized that the gases observed being generated may not have been a product of living metabolism but of a chemical reaction of hydrogen peroxide. brooks goes into detail on some of levin's other experiments and also describes how nasa's subsequent missions to mars have focused on the geology and climate of the planet rather than looking for life on the planet. ( several missions are searching for water and geological conditions which could support life on mars currently or in the past. ) = = chapter 7 = = the wow! signal. brooks discusses whether or not the signal spotted by astronomer jerry r. ehman at the big ear radio telescope of ohio state university in 1977 was a genuine indication of intelligent life in outer space. this was a remarkably clear signal and big ear was the largest and longest running seti ( search for extra - terrestrial intelligence ) radio - telescope project in the world. brooks goes on to discuss the abandonment of nasa's microwave observing program after government funding was stopped by the efforts of senator richard bryan of nevada. there is no public funding for similar observations today while the seti institute, which continues nasa's work, is funded by private donation, as are a number of other initiatives. = = chapter 8 = = a giant virus. brooks describes the huge and highly resistant mimivirus found in bradford, england in 1992 and whether this challenges the traditional view of viruses being inanimate chemicals rather than living things. mimivirus is not only much larger than most viruses but it also has a much more complex genetic structure. the discovery of mimivirus has given weight to the theories of microbiologist philip bell and others that viral infection was indeed the reason for the emergence from primitive life forms of complex cell structures based on a cell nucleus. ( see viral eukaryogenesis. ) study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing. = = chapter 9 = = death. beginning with the example of blanding's turtle and certain species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older
the biosphere ( from ancient greek Ξ²ΞΉΞΏΟ ( bios )'life'and ΟΟΞ±ΞΉΟΞ± ( sphaira )'sphere'), also called the ecosphere ( from ancient greek ΞΏΞΉΞΊΞΏΟ ( oikos )'settlement, house'and ΟΟΞ±ΞΉΟΞ± ( sphaira )'sphere'), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. it can also be termed the zone of life on the earth. the biosphere ( which is technically a spherical shell ) is virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs. regarding energy, it is an open system, with photosynthesis capturing solar energy at a rate of around 100 terawatts. by the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. the biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis ( life created naturally from non - living matter, such as simple organic compounds ) or biogenesis ( life created from living matter ), at least some 3. 5 billion years ago. in a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self - regulating systems containing ecosystems. this includes artificial biospheres such as biosphere 2 and bios - 3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons. = = origin and use of the term = = the term " biosphere " was coined in 1875 by geologist eduard suess, who defined it as the place on earth's surface where life dwells. while the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both charles darwin and matthew f. maury on the earth sciences. the biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s ( see vladimir i. vernadsky ), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term " ecosystem " by sir arthur tansley ( see ecology history ). vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. it is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences. = = = narrow definition = = = geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms ( the " biomass " or " biota " as referred to by biologists and ecologists ).
Answer:
|
invisible
| 0.3 |
The crust is made of different kinds of
0. flour
1. pastries
2. stars
3. stone
##llimanite, kyanite, hercynite ( a green spinel ), rutile, orthite and tourmaline. though occasionally we may find larger grains of feldspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped individuals. on account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of saxony ( in the area of rosswein and penig ) in germany may be considered the typical region for rocks of this group. it should be remembered that though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types. all of these rocks show more - or - less metamorphism either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. the granites pass into gneiss and granulite ; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and amphibolite ; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and show transitions to mica schists. at one time these rocks were regarded as archean gneisses of a special type. johannes georg lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them together into coherent rock. it is now believed, however, that they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. these have been developed largely by the injection of semi - consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. meanwhile, however, lehmanns advocacy of post - consolidation crushing as a factor in the development of granulites has been so successful that the terms granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period long after their solidification. the saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. there
) : 2 β 10. issn 1052 - 5173. wikidata q97990697. shervais, j. ( n. d. ). john w. shervais : research projects - ophiolites and oceanic crust. retrieved september 6, 2014.
mineralogy and texture that accompany increasing metamorphic temperatures. these chondrites show little evidence of the effects of aqueous alteration : type 3 chondrites show low degrees of metamorphism. they are often referred to as unequilibrated chondrites because minerals such as olivine and pyroxene show a wide range of compositions, reflecting formation under a wide variety of conditions in the solar nebula. ( type 1 and 2 chondrites are also unequilibrated. ) chondrites that remain in nearly pristine condition, with all components ( chondrules, matrix, etc. ) having nearly the same composition and mineralogy as when they accreted to the parent asteroid, are designated type 3. 0. as petrologic type increases from type 3. 1 through 3. 9, profound mineralogical changes occur, starting in the dusty matrix, and then increasingly affecting the coarser - grained components like chondrules. type 3. 9 chondrites still look superficially unchanged because chondrules retain their original appearances, but all of the minerals have been affected, mostly due to diffusion of elements between grains of different composition. types 4, 5, and 6 chondrites have been increasingly altered by thermal metamorphism. these are equilibrated chondrites, in which the compositions of most minerals have become quite homogeneous due to high temperatures. by type 4, the matrix has thoroughly recrystallized and coarsened in grain size. by type 5, chondrules begin to become indistinct and matrix cannot be discerned. in type 6 chondrites, chondrules begin to integrate with what was once matrix, and small chondrules may no longer be recognizable. as metamorphism proceeds, many minerals coarsen and new, metamorphic minerals such as feldspar form. some workers have extended the van schmus and wood metamorphic scheme to include a type 7, although there is not consensus on whether this is necessary. type 7 chondrites have experienced the highest temperatures possible, short of that required to produce melting. should the onset of melting occur the meteorite would probably be classified as a primitive achondrite instead of a chondrite. all groups of ordinary and enstatite chondrites, as well as r and ck chondrites, show the complete metamorphic range from type 3 to 6. co chondrites comprise only type 3 members, although these span a range of petrologic types from
previous models. = = = common piezometers = = = quartz is abundant in the crust and contains creep microstructures that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. before starting to infer flow stress magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration ( dislocation creep ), subgrain rotation ( sgr ) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size. other common minerals used for grain size piezometers are calcite and halite, that have gone through syn - tectonic deformation or manual high - temperature creep, which also demonstrate difference in piezometer relation for distinct recrystallization mechanisms. = = references = = = = further reading = = angelier, j., 1994, fault slip analysis and paleostress reconstruction. in : hancock, p. l. ( ed. ), continental deformation. pergamon, oxford, p. 101 β 120. celerier, b., etchecopar, a., bergerat, f., vergely, p., arthaud, f., laurent, p., 2012. inferring stress from faulting : from early concepts to inverse methods. tectonophysics, crustal stresses, fractures, and fault zones : the legacy of jacques angelier 581, 206 β 219. pascal, c., 2021. paleostress inversion techniques : methods and applications for tectonics, elsevier, 400 p. https : / / www. elsevier. com / books / paleostress - inversion - techniques / pascal / 978 - 0 - 12 - 811910 - 5 ramsay, j. g., lisle, r. j., 2000. the techniques of modern structural geology. volume 3 : applications of continuum mechanics in structural geology ( session 32 : fault slip analysis and stress tensor calculations ), academic press, london. yamaji, a., 2007. an introduction to tectonophysics : theoretical aspects of structural geology ( chapter 11 : determination of stress from faults ), terrapub, tokyo. http : / / www. terrapub. co. jp / e - library / yamaji /
previous models. = = = common piezometers = = = quartz is abundant in the crust and contains creep microstructures that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. before starting to infer flow stress magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration ( dislocation creep ), subgrain rotation ( sgr ) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size. other common minerals used for grain size piezometers are calcite and halite, that have gone through syn - tectonic deformation or manual high - temperature creep, which also demonstrate difference in piezometer relation for distinct recrystallization mechanisms. = = references = = = = further reading = = angelier, j., 1994, fault slip analysis and paleostress reconstruction. in : hancock, p. l. ( ed. ), continental deformation. pergamon, oxford, p. 101 β 120. celerier, b., etchecopar, a., bergerat, f., vergely, p., arthaud, f., laurent, p., 2012. inferring stress from faulting : from early concepts to inverse methods. tectonophysics, crustal stresses, fractures, and fault zones : the legacy of jacques angelier 581, 206 β 219. pascal, c., 2021. paleostress inversion techniques : methods and applications for tectonics, elsevier, 400 p. https : / / www. elsevier. com / books / paleostress - inversion - techniques / pascal / 978 - 0 - 12 - 811910 - 5 ramsay, j. g., lisle, r. j., 2000. the techniques of modern structural geology. volume 3 : applications of continuum mechanics in structural geology ( session 32 : fault slip analysis and stress tensor calculations ), academic press, london. yamaji, a., 2007. an introduction to tectonophysics : theoretical aspects of structural geology ( chapter 11 : determination of stress from faults ), terrapub, tokyo. http : / / www. terrapub. co. jp / e - library / yamaji /
Answer:
|
stone
| null |
The crust is made of different kinds of
0. flour
1. pastries
2. stars
3. stone
##llimanite, kyanite, hercynite ( a green spinel ), rutile, orthite and tourmaline. though occasionally we may find larger grains of feldspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped individuals. on account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of saxony ( in the area of rosswein and penig ) in germany may be considered the typical region for rocks of this group. it should be remembered that though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types. all of these rocks show more - or - less metamorphism either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. the granites pass into gneiss and granulite ; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and amphibolite ; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and show transitions to mica schists. at one time these rocks were regarded as archean gneisses of a special type. johannes georg lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them together into coherent rock. it is now believed, however, that they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. these have been developed largely by the injection of semi - consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. meanwhile, however, lehmanns advocacy of post - consolidation crushing as a factor in the development of granulites has been so successful that the terms granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period long after their solidification. the saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. there
) : 2 β 10. issn 1052 - 5173. wikidata q97990697. shervais, j. ( n. d. ). john w. shervais : research projects - ophiolites and oceanic crust. retrieved september 6, 2014.
mineralogy and texture that accompany increasing metamorphic temperatures. these chondrites show little evidence of the effects of aqueous alteration : type 3 chondrites show low degrees of metamorphism. they are often referred to as unequilibrated chondrites because minerals such as olivine and pyroxene show a wide range of compositions, reflecting formation under a wide variety of conditions in the solar nebula. ( type 1 and 2 chondrites are also unequilibrated. ) chondrites that remain in nearly pristine condition, with all components ( chondrules, matrix, etc. ) having nearly the same composition and mineralogy as when they accreted to the parent asteroid, are designated type 3. 0. as petrologic type increases from type 3. 1 through 3. 9, profound mineralogical changes occur, starting in the dusty matrix, and then increasingly affecting the coarser - grained components like chondrules. type 3. 9 chondrites still look superficially unchanged because chondrules retain their original appearances, but all of the minerals have been affected, mostly due to diffusion of elements between grains of different composition. types 4, 5, and 6 chondrites have been increasingly altered by thermal metamorphism. these are equilibrated chondrites, in which the compositions of most minerals have become quite homogeneous due to high temperatures. by type 4, the matrix has thoroughly recrystallized and coarsened in grain size. by type 5, chondrules begin to become indistinct and matrix cannot be discerned. in type 6 chondrites, chondrules begin to integrate with what was once matrix, and small chondrules may no longer be recognizable. as metamorphism proceeds, many minerals coarsen and new, metamorphic minerals such as feldspar form. some workers have extended the van schmus and wood metamorphic scheme to include a type 7, although there is not consensus on whether this is necessary. type 7 chondrites have experienced the highest temperatures possible, short of that required to produce melting. should the onset of melting occur the meteorite would probably be classified as a primitive achondrite instead of a chondrite. all groups of ordinary and enstatite chondrites, as well as r and ck chondrites, show the complete metamorphic range from type 3 to 6. co chondrites comprise only type 3 members, although these span a range of petrologic types from
previous models. = = = common piezometers = = = quartz is abundant in the crust and contains creep microstructures that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. before starting to infer flow stress magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration ( dislocation creep ), subgrain rotation ( sgr ) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size. other common minerals used for grain size piezometers are calcite and halite, that have gone through syn - tectonic deformation or manual high - temperature creep, which also demonstrate difference in piezometer relation for distinct recrystallization mechanisms. = = references = = = = further reading = = angelier, j., 1994, fault slip analysis and paleostress reconstruction. in : hancock, p. l. ( ed. ), continental deformation. pergamon, oxford, p. 101 β 120. celerier, b., etchecopar, a., bergerat, f., vergely, p., arthaud, f., laurent, p., 2012. inferring stress from faulting : from early concepts to inverse methods. tectonophysics, crustal stresses, fractures, and fault zones : the legacy of jacques angelier 581, 206 β 219. pascal, c., 2021. paleostress inversion techniques : methods and applications for tectonics, elsevier, 400 p. https : / / www. elsevier. com / books / paleostress - inversion - techniques / pascal / 978 - 0 - 12 - 811910 - 5 ramsay, j. g., lisle, r. j., 2000. the techniques of modern structural geology. volume 3 : applications of continuum mechanics in structural geology ( session 32 : fault slip analysis and stress tensor calculations ), academic press, london. yamaji, a., 2007. an introduction to tectonophysics : theoretical aspects of structural geology ( chapter 11 : determination of stress from faults ), terrapub, tokyo. http : / / www. terrapub. co. jp / e - library / yamaji /
previous models. = = = common piezometers = = = quartz is abundant in the crust and contains creep microstructures that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. before starting to infer flow stress magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration ( dislocation creep ), subgrain rotation ( sgr ) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size. other common minerals used for grain size piezometers are calcite and halite, that have gone through syn - tectonic deformation or manual high - temperature creep, which also demonstrate difference in piezometer relation for distinct recrystallization mechanisms. = = references = = = = further reading = = angelier, j., 1994, fault slip analysis and paleostress reconstruction. in : hancock, p. l. ( ed. ), continental deformation. pergamon, oxford, p. 101 β 120. celerier, b., etchecopar, a., bergerat, f., vergely, p., arthaud, f., laurent, p., 2012. inferring stress from faulting : from early concepts to inverse methods. tectonophysics, crustal stresses, fractures, and fault zones : the legacy of jacques angelier 581, 206 β 219. pascal, c., 2021. paleostress inversion techniques : methods and applications for tectonics, elsevier, 400 p. https : / / www. elsevier. com / books / paleostress - inversion - techniques / pascal / 978 - 0 - 12 - 811910 - 5 ramsay, j. g., lisle, r. j., 2000. the techniques of modern structural geology. volume 3 : applications of continuum mechanics in structural geology ( session 32 : fault slip analysis and stress tensor calculations ), academic press, london. yamaji, a., 2007. an introduction to tectonophysics : theoretical aspects of structural geology ( chapter 11 : determination of stress from faults ), terrapub, tokyo. http : / / www. terrapub. co. jp / e - library / yamaji /
Answer:
|
stars
| 0.3 |
If a species of animal is endangered or going extinct, it's because too many of them have stopped
0. mating
1. hugging
2. nothing
3. dying
most susceptible to stress - induced delay or inhibition of ovulation are the most frequent targets of female coalition attacks. female attackers are often in advanced stages of pregnancy and have the most to lose if the number of infants in the group reaches an unsustainable level. a similar study of chacma baboons ( papio ursinus ) noted high levels of female - female aggression around the mating season when the number of ovulating females was high ( indicated by sexual swellings ) and that aggression directed toward suppressing the mating opportunities of ovulating females. among elephant seals ( mirounga ), high neonatal mortality occurs when the number of pups born in a season is high, with deaths resulting from injury and starvation. to counteract loss of their pups elephant seals conceive next year's offspring immediately after giving birth to this year's young, but delay implantation for 4 months. female striped mice ( rhabdomys pumilio ) in monogamous social groups do not experience reproductive suppression, but those living in communally breeding groups with high population density and large numbers of old breeding females do. = = = social cues = = = = = = = aggression = = = = chronic physiological stress resulting from aggression by dominant toward subordinate individuals is thought to be a major cause of delayed maturation and suppressed ovulation in subordinate individuals of a wide range of species. in response to stress the hpa axis ( hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenocortical axis ) is activated, producing high concentrations of circulating adrenal glucocorticoids which, when chronically present, negatively influence an animal's health and can lead to reproductive suppression in male marmots ( marmota marmota ), and blocks of ovulatory cycles of female talapoin monkeys ( miopithecus talapoin ), meerkats ( suricata suricatta ) and marmots. in cooperatively breeding meerkats ( suricata suricatta ) the dominant breeding female is the oldest and heaviest female who is highly aggressive toward subordinate females during the breeding season and temporarily evicts subordinate females from the group. evicted subordinates suffer repeated attacks during the later stages of the breeding female's pregnancy and showed glucocorticoid levels twice normal. approximately 3 days after giving birth, subordinate females return to the group to help rear the breeding female's pups, at which time the dominant
the last universally accepted sighting in 1944 ; and the slender - billed curlew ( numenius tenuirostris ), not seen since 2007. = = causes = = as long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. it is estimated that over 99. 9 % of all species that ever lived are extinct. the average lifespan of a species is 1 β 10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. a variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. " just as each species is unique ", write beverly and stephen c. stearns, " so is each extinction... the causes for each are varied β some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple ". most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable ; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture. the question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion ; mark newman, the author of modeling extinction, argues for a mathematical model that falls in all positions. by contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. when concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in sir martin rees'2003 book our final hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster. human - driven extinction started as humans migrated out of africa more than 60, 000 years ago. currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species ( such as new predators and food competitors ), overhunting, and other influences. explosive, unsustainable human population growth and increasing per capita consumption are essential drivers of the extinction
time, which might have qualified for inclusion in the " big five " if it were not overshadowed by the " great dying " at the end of the permian. = = = = human activities = = = = scientists have been concerned that human activities could cause more plants and animals to become extinct than any point in the past. along with human - made changes in climate ( see above ), some of these extinctions could be caused by overhunting, overfishing, invasive species, or habitat loss. a study published in may 2017 in proceedings of the national academy of sciences argued that a " biological annihilation " akin to a sixth mass extinction event is underway as a result of anthropogenic causes, such as over - population and over - consumption. the study suggested that as much as 50 % of the number of animal individuals that once lived on earth were already extinct, threatening the basis for human existence too. = = = = other hypotheses = = = = many other hypotheses have been proposed, such as the spread of a new disease, or simple out - competition following an especially successful biological innovation. but all have been rejected, usually for one of the following reasons : they require events or processes for which there is no evidence ; they assume mechanisms that are contrary to the available evidence ; they are based on other theories that have been rejected or superseded. = = = = future biosphere extinction / sterilization = = = = the eventual warming and expanding of the sun, combined with the eventual decline of atmospheric carbon dioxide, could actually cause an even greater mass extinction, having the potential to wipe out even microbes ( in other words, the earth would be completely sterilized ) : rising global temperatures caused by the expanding sun would gradually increase the rate of weathering, which would in turn remove more and more co2 from the atmosphere. when co2 levels get too low ( perhaps at 50 ppm ), most plant life will die out, although simpler plants like grasses and mosses can survive much longer, until co2 levels drop to 10 ppm. with all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and it is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. when the sun becomes 10 % brighter in about a billion years, earth will suffer a moist
##yrenean ibex ) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah. however, cloning of animals is opposed by animal - groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die. = = = interspecific pregnancy = = = a potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. it has been used for the spanish ibex and houbara bustard. = = conservation education = = captive breeding is an important tool used in modern education of conservation issues because it provides a framework for how we care about species and allows institutions to show the beauty that is contained in our natural environment. these practices of captive breeding can be used to explain the function of the modern - day facilities and their importance in conservation. through continued breeding efforts populations can continue to be displayed in closer proximity to the public and their role in conservation can be explained. these explanations help show a side of the world many people will not engage with because conservation is not something that is inherently known about, it must be shown and taught to others to raise awareness of the issues around the globe. by allowing people to view these species in captivity, it allows facilities to explain the issues they face in the wild and advocate for the conservation of these species and their natural habitats. institutions focus efforts on large charismatic species, such as elephants, giraffes, rhinos etc., because these draw more visitors to institutions and garner more attention from the public. while a lot of these charismatic megafauna do draw more attention than other species, we can still use captive breeding programs and facilities involving other species to educate the public about a broader range of issues. bristol zoo gardens in the united kingdom has maintained a species of medicinal leech ( hirudo medicinalis ) in their facility to use as an education exhibit. leeches normally have a negative connotation surrounded by them but they have been used as an important tool in medicine. the display at bristol zoo gardens provides an educational piece and tells the story of a woman who sold leeches to the locals around her for medicinal purposes. this display advocates for a smaller species that would not normally be covered by facilities, but they are well maintained in this facility and are active conservation of the species is being done because of its significance around humans and in
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 β 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 β 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
Answer:
|
mating
| null |
If a species of animal is endangered or going extinct, it's because too many of them have stopped
0. mating
1. hugging
2. nothing
3. dying
most susceptible to stress - induced delay or inhibition of ovulation are the most frequent targets of female coalition attacks. female attackers are often in advanced stages of pregnancy and have the most to lose if the number of infants in the group reaches an unsustainable level. a similar study of chacma baboons ( papio ursinus ) noted high levels of female - female aggression around the mating season when the number of ovulating females was high ( indicated by sexual swellings ) and that aggression directed toward suppressing the mating opportunities of ovulating females. among elephant seals ( mirounga ), high neonatal mortality occurs when the number of pups born in a season is high, with deaths resulting from injury and starvation. to counteract loss of their pups elephant seals conceive next year's offspring immediately after giving birth to this year's young, but delay implantation for 4 months. female striped mice ( rhabdomys pumilio ) in monogamous social groups do not experience reproductive suppression, but those living in communally breeding groups with high population density and large numbers of old breeding females do. = = = social cues = = = = = = = aggression = = = = chronic physiological stress resulting from aggression by dominant toward subordinate individuals is thought to be a major cause of delayed maturation and suppressed ovulation in subordinate individuals of a wide range of species. in response to stress the hpa axis ( hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenocortical axis ) is activated, producing high concentrations of circulating adrenal glucocorticoids which, when chronically present, negatively influence an animal's health and can lead to reproductive suppression in male marmots ( marmota marmota ), and blocks of ovulatory cycles of female talapoin monkeys ( miopithecus talapoin ), meerkats ( suricata suricatta ) and marmots. in cooperatively breeding meerkats ( suricata suricatta ) the dominant breeding female is the oldest and heaviest female who is highly aggressive toward subordinate females during the breeding season and temporarily evicts subordinate females from the group. evicted subordinates suffer repeated attacks during the later stages of the breeding female's pregnancy and showed glucocorticoid levels twice normal. approximately 3 days after giving birth, subordinate females return to the group to help rear the breeding female's pups, at which time the dominant
the last universally accepted sighting in 1944 ; and the slender - billed curlew ( numenius tenuirostris ), not seen since 2007. = = causes = = as long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. it is estimated that over 99. 9 % of all species that ever lived are extinct. the average lifespan of a species is 1 β 10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. a variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. " just as each species is unique ", write beverly and stephen c. stearns, " so is each extinction... the causes for each are varied β some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple ". most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable ; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture. the question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion ; mark newman, the author of modeling extinction, argues for a mathematical model that falls in all positions. by contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. when concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in sir martin rees'2003 book our final hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster. human - driven extinction started as humans migrated out of africa more than 60, 000 years ago. currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species ( such as new predators and food competitors ), overhunting, and other influences. explosive, unsustainable human population growth and increasing per capita consumption are essential drivers of the extinction
time, which might have qualified for inclusion in the " big five " if it were not overshadowed by the " great dying " at the end of the permian. = = = = human activities = = = = scientists have been concerned that human activities could cause more plants and animals to become extinct than any point in the past. along with human - made changes in climate ( see above ), some of these extinctions could be caused by overhunting, overfishing, invasive species, or habitat loss. a study published in may 2017 in proceedings of the national academy of sciences argued that a " biological annihilation " akin to a sixth mass extinction event is underway as a result of anthropogenic causes, such as over - population and over - consumption. the study suggested that as much as 50 % of the number of animal individuals that once lived on earth were already extinct, threatening the basis for human existence too. = = = = other hypotheses = = = = many other hypotheses have been proposed, such as the spread of a new disease, or simple out - competition following an especially successful biological innovation. but all have been rejected, usually for one of the following reasons : they require events or processes for which there is no evidence ; they assume mechanisms that are contrary to the available evidence ; they are based on other theories that have been rejected or superseded. = = = = future biosphere extinction / sterilization = = = = the eventual warming and expanding of the sun, combined with the eventual decline of atmospheric carbon dioxide, could actually cause an even greater mass extinction, having the potential to wipe out even microbes ( in other words, the earth would be completely sterilized ) : rising global temperatures caused by the expanding sun would gradually increase the rate of weathering, which would in turn remove more and more co2 from the atmosphere. when co2 levels get too low ( perhaps at 50 ppm ), most plant life will die out, although simpler plants like grasses and mosses can survive much longer, until co2 levels drop to 10 ppm. with all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and it is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. when the sun becomes 10 % brighter in about a billion years, earth will suffer a moist
##yrenean ibex ) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah. however, cloning of animals is opposed by animal - groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die. = = = interspecific pregnancy = = = a potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. it has been used for the spanish ibex and houbara bustard. = = conservation education = = captive breeding is an important tool used in modern education of conservation issues because it provides a framework for how we care about species and allows institutions to show the beauty that is contained in our natural environment. these practices of captive breeding can be used to explain the function of the modern - day facilities and their importance in conservation. through continued breeding efforts populations can continue to be displayed in closer proximity to the public and their role in conservation can be explained. these explanations help show a side of the world many people will not engage with because conservation is not something that is inherently known about, it must be shown and taught to others to raise awareness of the issues around the globe. by allowing people to view these species in captivity, it allows facilities to explain the issues they face in the wild and advocate for the conservation of these species and their natural habitats. institutions focus efforts on large charismatic species, such as elephants, giraffes, rhinos etc., because these draw more visitors to institutions and garner more attention from the public. while a lot of these charismatic megafauna do draw more attention than other species, we can still use captive breeding programs and facilities involving other species to educate the public about a broader range of issues. bristol zoo gardens in the united kingdom has maintained a species of medicinal leech ( hirudo medicinalis ) in their facility to use as an education exhibit. leeches normally have a negative connotation surrounded by them but they have been used as an important tool in medicine. the display at bristol zoo gardens provides an educational piece and tells the story of a woman who sold leeches to the locals around her for medicinal purposes. this display advocates for a smaller species that would not normally be covered by facilities, but they are well maintained in this facility and are active conservation of the species is being done because of its significance around humans and in
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 β 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 β 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
Answer:
|
dying
| 0.3 |
Which is an example of solid matter
0. an egg in a carton
1. molten copper in a vat
2. water in a glass
3. mercury in a thermometer
, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. similarly, the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. in some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals. = = = = states of matter = = = = another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter ( phase ), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at standard temperature and pressure ( stp ). most elements are solids at stp, while several are gases. only bromine and mercury are liquid at 0 degrees celsius ( 32 degrees fahrenheit ) and 1 atmosphere pressure ; caesium and gallium are solid at that temperature, but melt at 28. 4Β°c ( 83. 2Β°f ) and 29. 8Β°c ( 85. 6Β°f ), respectively. = = = = melting and boiling points = = = = melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. while known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations. = = = = densities = = = = the density at selected standard temperature and pressure ( stp ) is often used in characterizing the elements. density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimetre ( g / cm3 ). since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms ; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements. when an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. for example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon ( amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond ) have densities of 1. 8 β 2. 1, 2. 267, and 3. 515 g / cm3, respectively. = = = = crystal structures = = = = the elements studied to date as solid samples
while chemically pure materials have a single melting point, chemical mixtures often partially melt at the temperature known as the solidus ( ts or tsol ), and fully melt at the higher liquidus temperature ( tl or tliq ). the solidus is always less than or equal to the liquidus, but they need not coincide. if a gap exists between the solidus and liquidus it is called the freezing range, and within that gap, the substance consists of a mixture of solid and liquid phases ( like a slurry ). such is the case, for example, with the olivine ( forsterite - fayalite ) system, which is common in earth's mantle. = = definitions = = in chemistry, materials science, and physics, the liquidus temperature specifies the temperature above which a material is completely liquid, and the maximum temperature at which crystals can co - exist with the melt in thermodynamic equilibrium. the solidus is the locus of temperatures ( a curve on a phase diagram ) below which a given substance is completely solid ( crystallized ). the solidus temperature specifies the temperature below which a material is completely solid, and the minimum temperature at which a melt can co - exist with crystals in thermodynamic equilibrium. liquidus and solidus are mostly used for impure substances ( mixtures ) such as glasses, metal alloys, ceramics, rocks, and minerals. lines of liquidus and solidus appear in the phase diagrams of binary solid solutions, as well as in eutectic systems away from the invariant point. = = = when distinction is irrelevant = = = for pure elements or compounds, e. g. pure copper, pure water, etc. the liquidus and solidus are at the same temperature, and the term melting point may be used. there are also some mixtures which melt at a particular temperature, known as congruent melting. one example is eutectic mixture. in a eutectic system, there is particular mixing ratio where the solidus and liquidus temperatures coincide at a point known as the invariant point. at the invariant point, the mixture undergoes a eutectic reaction where both solids melt at the same temperature. = = modeling and measurement = = there are several models used to predict liquidus and solidus curves for various systems. detailed measurements of solidus and liquidus can be made using techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry and differential thermal analysis. = = effects = = for impure substances, e
, crc press ( taylor and francis group, usa ), 2009, isbn 978 - 1 - 4200 - 7368 - 3 properties of matter, b. h. flowers, e. mendoza, manchester physics series, j. wiley and sons, 1970, isbn 978 - 0 - 471 - 26498 - 9
gas layers as a function of their relative density. diffusion forces efficiently counteract gravitation forces under normal conditions prevailing on earth. the case of condensable vapors is different : once the saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature is reached, vapor excess condenses into the liquid state. = = = liquid solutions = = = liquids dissolve gases, other liquids, and solids. an example of a dissolved gas is oxygen in water, which allows fish to breathe under water. an examples of a dissolved liquid is ethanol in water, as found in alcoholic beverages. an example of a dissolved solid is sugar water, which contains dissolved sucrose. = = = solid solutions = = = if the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. gas in solids : hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium ; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage. liquid in solid : mercury in gold, forming an amalgam water in solid salt or sugar, forming moist solids hexane in paraffin wax polymers containing plasticizers such as phthalate ( liquid ) in pvc ( solid ) solid in solid : steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms alloys like bronze and many others radium sulfate dissolved in barium sulfate : a true solid solution of ra in baso4 = = solubility = = the ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. when a liquid can completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. two substances that can never mix to form a solution are said to be immiscible. all solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. the interactions between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or not. if interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. at some point, the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be dissolved ; the solution is said to be saturated. however, the point at which a solution can become saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. for some solute - solvent combinations, a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the solubility ( for example by increasing the temperature ) to dissolve more solute and then lowering it ( for example by cooling ). usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. however, most
the chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. ( the horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. ) the elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases. = = = states = = = quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. by varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. an example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond. gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone. at temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a bose β einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. this super - cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior. = = identification = = while atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the scanning tunneling microscope ( stm ) enable their visualization at the surfaces of solids. the microscope uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the classical perspective. electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two biased electrodes, providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on their separation. one electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom. at each point of the scan of the surface the tip's height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value. how much the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the height profile. for low bias, the microscope images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels β the local density of the electronic states near the fermi level. because of the distances involved, both electrodes need to be extremely stable ; only then periodicities can be observed that correspond to individual atoms. the method alone is not chemically specific, and cannot identify the atomic species present at the surface. atoms can be easily identified by their mass. if an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons
Answer:
|
an egg in a carton
| null |
Which is an example of solid matter
0. an egg in a carton
1. molten copper in a vat
2. water in a glass
3. mercury in a thermometer
, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. similarly, the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. in some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals. = = = = states of matter = = = = another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter ( phase ), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at standard temperature and pressure ( stp ). most elements are solids at stp, while several are gases. only bromine and mercury are liquid at 0 degrees celsius ( 32 degrees fahrenheit ) and 1 atmosphere pressure ; caesium and gallium are solid at that temperature, but melt at 28. 4Β°c ( 83. 2Β°f ) and 29. 8Β°c ( 85. 6Β°f ), respectively. = = = = melting and boiling points = = = = melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. while known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations. = = = = densities = = = = the density at selected standard temperature and pressure ( stp ) is often used in characterizing the elements. density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimetre ( g / cm3 ). since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms ; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements. when an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. for example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon ( amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond ) have densities of 1. 8 β 2. 1, 2. 267, and 3. 515 g / cm3, respectively. = = = = crystal structures = = = = the elements studied to date as solid samples
while chemically pure materials have a single melting point, chemical mixtures often partially melt at the temperature known as the solidus ( ts or tsol ), and fully melt at the higher liquidus temperature ( tl or tliq ). the solidus is always less than or equal to the liquidus, but they need not coincide. if a gap exists between the solidus and liquidus it is called the freezing range, and within that gap, the substance consists of a mixture of solid and liquid phases ( like a slurry ). such is the case, for example, with the olivine ( forsterite - fayalite ) system, which is common in earth's mantle. = = definitions = = in chemistry, materials science, and physics, the liquidus temperature specifies the temperature above which a material is completely liquid, and the maximum temperature at which crystals can co - exist with the melt in thermodynamic equilibrium. the solidus is the locus of temperatures ( a curve on a phase diagram ) below which a given substance is completely solid ( crystallized ). the solidus temperature specifies the temperature below which a material is completely solid, and the minimum temperature at which a melt can co - exist with crystals in thermodynamic equilibrium. liquidus and solidus are mostly used for impure substances ( mixtures ) such as glasses, metal alloys, ceramics, rocks, and minerals. lines of liquidus and solidus appear in the phase diagrams of binary solid solutions, as well as in eutectic systems away from the invariant point. = = = when distinction is irrelevant = = = for pure elements or compounds, e. g. pure copper, pure water, etc. the liquidus and solidus are at the same temperature, and the term melting point may be used. there are also some mixtures which melt at a particular temperature, known as congruent melting. one example is eutectic mixture. in a eutectic system, there is particular mixing ratio where the solidus and liquidus temperatures coincide at a point known as the invariant point. at the invariant point, the mixture undergoes a eutectic reaction where both solids melt at the same temperature. = = modeling and measurement = = there are several models used to predict liquidus and solidus curves for various systems. detailed measurements of solidus and liquidus can be made using techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry and differential thermal analysis. = = effects = = for impure substances, e
, crc press ( taylor and francis group, usa ), 2009, isbn 978 - 1 - 4200 - 7368 - 3 properties of matter, b. h. flowers, e. mendoza, manchester physics series, j. wiley and sons, 1970, isbn 978 - 0 - 471 - 26498 - 9
gas layers as a function of their relative density. diffusion forces efficiently counteract gravitation forces under normal conditions prevailing on earth. the case of condensable vapors is different : once the saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature is reached, vapor excess condenses into the liquid state. = = = liquid solutions = = = liquids dissolve gases, other liquids, and solids. an example of a dissolved gas is oxygen in water, which allows fish to breathe under water. an examples of a dissolved liquid is ethanol in water, as found in alcoholic beverages. an example of a dissolved solid is sugar water, which contains dissolved sucrose. = = = solid solutions = = = if the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. gas in solids : hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium ; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage. liquid in solid : mercury in gold, forming an amalgam water in solid salt or sugar, forming moist solids hexane in paraffin wax polymers containing plasticizers such as phthalate ( liquid ) in pvc ( solid ) solid in solid : steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms alloys like bronze and many others radium sulfate dissolved in barium sulfate : a true solid solution of ra in baso4 = = solubility = = the ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. when a liquid can completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. two substances that can never mix to form a solution are said to be immiscible. all solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. the interactions between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or not. if interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. at some point, the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be dissolved ; the solution is said to be saturated. however, the point at which a solution can become saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. for some solute - solvent combinations, a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the solubility ( for example by increasing the temperature ) to dissolve more solute and then lowering it ( for example by cooling ). usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. however, most
the chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. ( the horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. ) the elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases. = = = states = = = quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. by varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. an example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond. gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone. at temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a bose β einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. this super - cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior. = = identification = = while atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the scanning tunneling microscope ( stm ) enable their visualization at the surfaces of solids. the microscope uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the classical perspective. electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two biased electrodes, providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on their separation. one electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom. at each point of the scan of the surface the tip's height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value. how much the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the height profile. for low bias, the microscope images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels β the local density of the electronic states near the fermi level. because of the distances involved, both electrodes need to be extremely stable ; only then periodicities can be observed that correspond to individual atoms. the method alone is not chemically specific, and cannot identify the atomic species present at the surface. atoms can be easily identified by their mass. if an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons
Answer:
|
mercury in a thermometer
| 0.3 |
What typically occurs between a sixth and a half of a minute?
0. a volcano
1. a television series
2. an hour
3. an earthquake
prediction of volcanic activity, and volcanic eruption forecasting, is an interdisciplinary monitoring and research effort to predict the time and severity of a volcano's eruption. of particular importance is the prediction of hazardous eruptions that could lead to catastrophic loss of life, property, and disruption of human activities. risk and uncertainty are central to forecasting and prediction, which are not necessarily the same thing in the context of volcanoes, where opinions have often played a role, and the prediction in time ( forecasting ) for an individual volcano is different from predicting eruption characteristics for apparently similar volcanoes. both forecasting and prediction have processes based on past and present data. = = seismic waves ( seismicity ) = = = = = general principles of volcano seismology = = = seismic activity ( earthquakes and tremors ) always occurs as volcanoes awaken and prepare to erupt and are a very important link to eruptions. some volcanoes normally have continuing low - level seismic activity, but an increase may signal a greater likelihood of an eruption. the types of earthquakes that occur and where they start and end are also key signs. volcanic seismicity has three major forms : short - period earthquake, long - period earthquake, and harmonic tremor. short - period earthquakes are like normal fault - generated earthquakes. they are caused by the fracturing of brittle rock as magma forces its way upward. these short - period earthquakes signify the growth of a magma body near the surface and are known as'a'waves. these type of seismic events are often also referred to as volcano - tectonic ( or vt ) events or earthquakes. long - period earthquakes are believed to indicate increased gas pressure in a volcano's plumbing system. they are similar to the clanging sometimes heard in a house's plumbing system, which is known as " water hammer ". these oscillations are the equivalent of acoustic vibrations in a chamber, in the context of magma chambers within the volcanic dome and are known as'b'waves. these are also known as resonance waves and long period resonance events. harmonic tremors are often the result of magma pushing against the overlying rock below the surface. they can sometimes be strong enough to be felt as humming or buzzing by people and animals, hence the name. patterns of seismicity are complex and often difficult to interpret ; however, increasing seismic activity is a good indicator of increasing eruption risk, especially if long - period events become dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear. using a similar method, researchers can detect volcanic eruptions by monitoring infra - sound β sub -
a harmonic tremor is a sustained release of seismic and infrasonic energy typically associated with the underground movement of magma, the venting of volcanic gases from magma, or both in volcanoes, and with repetitive stick - slip or other impulsive activity in non - volcanic systems. it is a long - duration release of seismic energy, often containing distinct spectral lines. volcanic tremor often precedes or accompanies a volcanic eruption. being a long - duration continuous signal from a temporally extended source tremor contrasts distinctly with transient and often impulsive sources of seismic radiation typically associated with earthquakes and explosions. nonvolcanic, episodic tremor at plate boundaries ( particularly in subduction zones ) has been attributed to swarms of long - period earthquakes and is distinguished by the term episodic tremor and slip ( ets ) and may occur during slow earthquakes. iceberg impacts with the seafloor or other icebergs can also generate distinct iceberg harmonic tremor signals that propagate to large distances as ocean acoustic and solid earth seismic wavefields. the source process of iceberg harmonic tremor has been attributed to highly repetitive quasi - periodic stick - slip at ice - seafloor or ice - ice contacts. the relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption was first observed by bernard chouet, a volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey. = = see also = = volcano tectonic earthquake = = notes = = = = external links = = vogfjord, k. s. ( 2006 ). " seismicity, low frequency events and tremor at the katla subglacial volcano, iceland ". agu fall meeting abstracts. 2006. bibcode : 2006agufm. v41a1694v. the harmonic tremors of a volcanic eruption archived 2012 - 03 - 16 at the wayback machine
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
interpret ; however, increasing seismic activity is a good indicator of increasing eruption risk, especially if long - period events become dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear. using a similar method, researchers can detect volcanic eruptions by monitoring infra - sound β sub - audible sound below 20 hz. the ims global infrasound network, originally set up to verify compliance with nuclear test ban treaties, has 60 stations around the world that work to detect and locate erupting volcanoes. = = = seismic case studies = = = a relation between long - period events and imminent volcanic eruptions was first observed in the seismic records of the 1985 eruption of nevado del ruiz in colombia. the occurrence of long - period events were then used to predict the 1989 eruption of mount redoubt in alaska and the 1993 eruption of galeras in colombia. in december 2000, scientists at the national center for prevention of disasters in mexico city predicted an eruption within two days at popocatepetl, on the outskirts of mexico city. their prediction used research that had been done by bernard chouet, a swiss volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey and who first observed a relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption. the government evacuated tens of thousands of people ; 48 hours later, the volcano erupted as predicted. it was popocatepetl's largest eruption for a thousand years, yet no one was hurt. = = = iceberg tremors = = = similarities between iceberg tremors, which can be observed when they run aground, and volcanic tremors were postulated to help experts develop a better method for predicting volcanic eruptions. as icebergs have much simpler structures than volcanoes, the cause of tremors is easier to model. the similarities between volcanic and iceberg tremors included long durations and amplitudes, as well as common shifts in frequencies. these observations with refinement modelling of the causes of both types of tremors allowed the later development of better automatic detection mechanisms for some volcanic eruptions. = = = gas emissions = = = as magma nears the surface and its pressure decreases, gases escape. this process is much like what happens when you open a bottle of fizzy drink and carbon dioxide escapes. sulfur dioxide is one of the main components of volcanic gases, and increasing amounts of it herald the arrival of increasing amounts of magma near the surface. for example, on may 13, 1991, an increasing amount of sulfur dioxide was released from mount pinatubo in the philippines. on may 28, just two
the yellowstone hotspot. however, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. = = = continental rifting = = = sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. a divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. however, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere ( such as in an aulacogen ), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites. examples include the volcanoes of the east african rift. = = volcanic features = = a volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma ( e. g. a magma chamber ), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. the erupted volcanic material ( lava and tephra ) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic edifice, typically a volcanic cone or mountain. the most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit ; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. the features of volcanoes are varied. the structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus. vents that issue volcanic material ( including lava and ash ) and gases ( mainly steam and magmatic gases ) can develop anywhere on the landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as puΚ»u Κ»oΚ»o on a flank of kilauea in hawaii. volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with lake taupo in new zealand. some volcanoes can be low - relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes. other types of volcano include mud volcanoes, which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity ; and cryovolcanoes ( or ice volcanoes ), particularly on some moons of jupiter, saturn, and neptune. active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. = = = fissure vents = = = volcanic fissure vents are
Answer:
|
an earthquake
| null |
What typically occurs between a sixth and a half of a minute?
0. a volcano
1. a television series
2. an hour
3. an earthquake
prediction of volcanic activity, and volcanic eruption forecasting, is an interdisciplinary monitoring and research effort to predict the time and severity of a volcano's eruption. of particular importance is the prediction of hazardous eruptions that could lead to catastrophic loss of life, property, and disruption of human activities. risk and uncertainty are central to forecasting and prediction, which are not necessarily the same thing in the context of volcanoes, where opinions have often played a role, and the prediction in time ( forecasting ) for an individual volcano is different from predicting eruption characteristics for apparently similar volcanoes. both forecasting and prediction have processes based on past and present data. = = seismic waves ( seismicity ) = = = = = general principles of volcano seismology = = = seismic activity ( earthquakes and tremors ) always occurs as volcanoes awaken and prepare to erupt and are a very important link to eruptions. some volcanoes normally have continuing low - level seismic activity, but an increase may signal a greater likelihood of an eruption. the types of earthquakes that occur and where they start and end are also key signs. volcanic seismicity has three major forms : short - period earthquake, long - period earthquake, and harmonic tremor. short - period earthquakes are like normal fault - generated earthquakes. they are caused by the fracturing of brittle rock as magma forces its way upward. these short - period earthquakes signify the growth of a magma body near the surface and are known as'a'waves. these type of seismic events are often also referred to as volcano - tectonic ( or vt ) events or earthquakes. long - period earthquakes are believed to indicate increased gas pressure in a volcano's plumbing system. they are similar to the clanging sometimes heard in a house's plumbing system, which is known as " water hammer ". these oscillations are the equivalent of acoustic vibrations in a chamber, in the context of magma chambers within the volcanic dome and are known as'b'waves. these are also known as resonance waves and long period resonance events. harmonic tremors are often the result of magma pushing against the overlying rock below the surface. they can sometimes be strong enough to be felt as humming or buzzing by people and animals, hence the name. patterns of seismicity are complex and often difficult to interpret ; however, increasing seismic activity is a good indicator of increasing eruption risk, especially if long - period events become dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear. using a similar method, researchers can detect volcanic eruptions by monitoring infra - sound β sub -
a harmonic tremor is a sustained release of seismic and infrasonic energy typically associated with the underground movement of magma, the venting of volcanic gases from magma, or both in volcanoes, and with repetitive stick - slip or other impulsive activity in non - volcanic systems. it is a long - duration release of seismic energy, often containing distinct spectral lines. volcanic tremor often precedes or accompanies a volcanic eruption. being a long - duration continuous signal from a temporally extended source tremor contrasts distinctly with transient and often impulsive sources of seismic radiation typically associated with earthquakes and explosions. nonvolcanic, episodic tremor at plate boundaries ( particularly in subduction zones ) has been attributed to swarms of long - period earthquakes and is distinguished by the term episodic tremor and slip ( ets ) and may occur during slow earthquakes. iceberg impacts with the seafloor or other icebergs can also generate distinct iceberg harmonic tremor signals that propagate to large distances as ocean acoustic and solid earth seismic wavefields. the source process of iceberg harmonic tremor has been attributed to highly repetitive quasi - periodic stick - slip at ice - seafloor or ice - ice contacts. the relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption was first observed by bernard chouet, a volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey. = = see also = = volcano tectonic earthquake = = notes = = = = external links = = vogfjord, k. s. ( 2006 ). " seismicity, low frequency events and tremor at the katla subglacial volcano, iceland ". agu fall meeting abstracts. 2006. bibcode : 2006agufm. v41a1694v. the harmonic tremors of a volcanic eruption archived 2012 - 03 - 16 at the wayback machine
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
interpret ; however, increasing seismic activity is a good indicator of increasing eruption risk, especially if long - period events become dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear. using a similar method, researchers can detect volcanic eruptions by monitoring infra - sound β sub - audible sound below 20 hz. the ims global infrasound network, originally set up to verify compliance with nuclear test ban treaties, has 60 stations around the world that work to detect and locate erupting volcanoes. = = = seismic case studies = = = a relation between long - period events and imminent volcanic eruptions was first observed in the seismic records of the 1985 eruption of nevado del ruiz in colombia. the occurrence of long - period events were then used to predict the 1989 eruption of mount redoubt in alaska and the 1993 eruption of galeras in colombia. in december 2000, scientists at the national center for prevention of disasters in mexico city predicted an eruption within two days at popocatepetl, on the outskirts of mexico city. their prediction used research that had been done by bernard chouet, a swiss volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey and who first observed a relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption. the government evacuated tens of thousands of people ; 48 hours later, the volcano erupted as predicted. it was popocatepetl's largest eruption for a thousand years, yet no one was hurt. = = = iceberg tremors = = = similarities between iceberg tremors, which can be observed when they run aground, and volcanic tremors were postulated to help experts develop a better method for predicting volcanic eruptions. as icebergs have much simpler structures than volcanoes, the cause of tremors is easier to model. the similarities between volcanic and iceberg tremors included long durations and amplitudes, as well as common shifts in frequencies. these observations with refinement modelling of the causes of both types of tremors allowed the later development of better automatic detection mechanisms for some volcanic eruptions. = = = gas emissions = = = as magma nears the surface and its pressure decreases, gases escape. this process is much like what happens when you open a bottle of fizzy drink and carbon dioxide escapes. sulfur dioxide is one of the main components of volcanic gases, and increasing amounts of it herald the arrival of increasing amounts of magma near the surface. for example, on may 13, 1991, an increasing amount of sulfur dioxide was released from mount pinatubo in the philippines. on may 28, just two
the yellowstone hotspot. however, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. = = = continental rifting = = = sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. a divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. however, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere ( such as in an aulacogen ), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites. examples include the volcanoes of the east african rift. = = volcanic features = = a volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma ( e. g. a magma chamber ), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. the erupted volcanic material ( lava and tephra ) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic edifice, typically a volcanic cone or mountain. the most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit ; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. the features of volcanoes are varied. the structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus. vents that issue volcanic material ( including lava and ash ) and gases ( mainly steam and magmatic gases ) can develop anywhere on the landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as puΚ»u Κ»oΚ»o on a flank of kilauea in hawaii. volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with lake taupo in new zealand. some volcanoes can be low - relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes. other types of volcano include mud volcanoes, which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity ; and cryovolcanoes ( or ice volcanoes ), particularly on some moons of jupiter, saturn, and neptune. active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. = = = fissure vents = = = volcanic fissure vents are
Answer:
|
a television series
| 0.3 |
An example of camouflage is when an organism looks like what?
0. clouds
1. local flora
2. buildings
3. oceans
##pillars. = = = in marine ecosystems = = = the existence of aposematism in marine ecosystems has been debated. many marine organisms, particularly those on coral reefs, are brightly coloured or patterned, including sponges, corals, molluscs, and fish, with little or no connection to chemical or physical defenses. caribbean reef sponges are brightly coloured, and many species are full of toxic chemicals, but there is no statistical relationship between the two factors. nudibranch molluscs are the most commonly cited examples of aposematism in marine ecosystems, but the evidence for this has been contested, mostly because ( 1 ) there are few examples of mimicry among species, ( 2 ) many species are nocturnal or cryptic, and ( 3 ) bright colours at the red end of the colour spectrum are rapidly attenuated as a function of water depth. for example, the spanish dancer nudibranch ( genus hexabranchus ), among the largest of tropical marine slugs, potently chemically defended, and brilliantly red and white, is nocturnal and has no known mimics. mimicry is to be expected as batesian mimics with weak defences can gain a measure of protection from their resemblance to aposematic species. other studies have concluded that nudibranchs such as the slugs of the family phyllidiidae from indo - pacific coral reefs are aposematically coloured. mullerian mimicry has been implicated in the coloration of some mediterranean nudibranchs, all of which derive defensive chemicals from their sponge diet. the crown - of - thorns starfish, like other starfish such as metrodira subulata, has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long, sharp spines, as well as cytolytic saponins, chemicals which could function as an effective defence ; this evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be considered aposematic. it has been proposed that aposematism and mimicry is less evident in marine invertebrates than terrestrial insects because predation is a more intense selective force for many insects, which disperse as adults rather than as larvae and have much shorter generation times. further, there is evidence that fish predators such as blueheads may adapt to visual cues more rapidly than do birds, making aposematism less effective. however, there is experimental evidence that pink warty sea cucumbers are aposematic, and that the chromatic and achromatic signals that they provide to predators both independently reduce the rate of attack
organisms. = = = artificial illumination = = = artificial illumination refers to illumination by man - made sources such as flashlights and lanterns. underwater, artificial illumination is generally rare, but its sources are often lights equipped to divers and submersibles. = = = light absorption and scattering = = = backscatter has a greater effect when from artificial illumination as the light source is more likely to be close to the viewer than for natural light. = = evolution of the eye = = eyes originated, developed and diversified by natural selection as organs of photosensitivity and vision in living organisms. the eye exemplifies convergent evolution of an organ found in many animal forms. simple light detection is found in bacteria, single - celled organisms, plants and animals. complex, image - forming eyes have evolved independently several times. = = = types of eye = = = there are several types of eye, comprising simple eyes, with one concave photoreceptive surface, and compound eyes which include a group of individual lenses laid out over a convex surface. each of these major types has several lesser variations, with about 10 significant types recognised. all of these originated in aquatic organisms, and therefore have, at some stages of their evolution, been adapted primarily for underwater vision. some lineages took to terrestrial life, and their eyes evolved further in that environment, and of those, a few returned to an amphibious or aquatic lifestyle, with further adaptation in some cases. = = photosensitivity = = = = focus = = water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. most animals'eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment. = = variations by taxa = = invertebrates have a large variety of eye structures. most, possibly all, originated in an aquatic environment, but some have later adapted to a terrestrial environment, and later re - adapted to an aquatic environment. vertebrates all evolved from a common marine vertebrate ancestor, which already had well developed underwater vision and a specific eye structure, which has been conserved, or in some cases atrophied in animals living in the lightless cave environment. = = = arthropods = = = most arthropods have at least one of two types of eye : lateral compound eyes, and smaller median ocelli, which are simple eyes. when both are present, the two eye types are used in concert because each has its own advantage. ocelli
use these relationships between fungi and plants to make crops more thermo - tolerant, allowing them to resist damage by heat. the most famous of these ecological groups of organisms are : deinococcota, including thermus aquaticus, a species of bacteria. cyanobacteria, blue - green algae. oscillatoria terebriformis oscillatoria brevis heterohormogonium ( motile cell filaments formed by cyanobacteria ) synechococcus elongatus scytonema panic grass ( panic grass with a fungal association with curvularia ) = = see also = = thermophylae cyanobacteria thermophylae cyanobacteria mycovirus algae curvularia protuberata = = references = =
the species relying upon camouflage exhibit the greatest diversity in fluorescence, likely because camouflage may be one of the uses of fluorescence. it is suspected by some scientists that gfps and gfp - like proteins began as electron donors activated by light. these electrons were then used for reactions requiring light energy. functions of fluorescent proteins, such as protection from the sun, conversion of light into different wavelengths, or for signaling are thought to have evolved secondarily. = = = = adaptive functions = = = = currently, relatively little is known about the functional significance of fluorescence and fluorescent proteins. however, it is suspected that fluorescence may serve important functions in signaling and communication, mating, lures, camouflage, uv protection and antioxidation, photoacclimation, dinoflagellate regulation, and in coral health. = = = aquatic = = = water absorbs light of long wavelengths, so less light from these wavelengths reflects back to reach the eye. therefore, warm colors from the visual light spectrum appear less vibrant at increasing depths. water scatters light of shorter wavelengths above violet, meaning cooler colors dominate the visual field in the photic zone. light intensity decreases 10 fold with every 75 m of depth, so at depths of 75 m, light is 10 % as intense as it is on the surface, and is only 1 % as intense at 150 m as it is on the surface. because the water filters out the wavelengths and intensity of water reaching certain depths, different proteins, because of the wavelengths and intensities of light they are capable of absorbing, are better suited to different depths. theoretically, some fish eyes can detect light as deep as 1000 m. at these depths of the aphotic zone, the only sources of light are organisms themselves, giving off light through chemical reactions in a process called bioluminescence. fluorescence is simply defined as the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at one wavelength and its reemission at another, lower energy wavelength. thus any type of fluorescence depends on the presence of external sources of light. biologically functional fluorescence is found in the photic zone, where there is not only enough light to cause fluorescence, but enough light for other organisms to detect it. the visual field in the photic zone is naturally blue, so colors of fluorescence can be detected as bright reds, oranges, yellows, and greens. green is the most commonly found color in the marine spectrum, yellow the second most, orange the third, and red is the rarest
colours of animals, written during darwinism's lowest ebb, used all the forms of coloration to argue the case for natural selection. cott described many kinds of camouflage, mimicry and warning coloration in his 1940 book adaptive coloration in animals, and in particular his drawings of coincident disruptive coloration in frogs convinced other biologists that these deceptive markings were products of natural selection. kettlewell experimented on peppered moth evolution, showing that the species had adapted as pollution changed the environment ; this provided compelling evidence of darwinian evolution. = = evidence from behavior = = some primitive reflexes are critical for the survival of neonates. there is evidence confirming that closely related species share more similar primitive reflexes, such as the type of fur - grasping in primates and their relationship to manual dexterity. the exact selection pressures for their development are not fully determined and some reflexes are understood to have evolved multiple times independently ( convergent evolution ). = = evidence from mathematical modeling and simulation = = computer science allows the iteration of self - changing complex systems to be studied, allowing a mathematical understanding of the nature of the processes behind evolution ; providing evidence for the hidden causes of known evolutionary events. the evolution of specific cellular mechanisms like spliceosomes that can turn the cell's genome into a vast workshop of billions of interchangeable parts that can create tools that create us can be studied for the first time in an exact way. " it has taken more than five decades, but the electronic computer is now powerful enough to simulate evolution ", assisting bioinformatics in its attempt to solve biological problems. computational evolutionary biology has enabled researchers to trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their dna, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone. it has compared entire genomes permitting the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in speciation. it has also helped build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time and track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms. future endeavors are to reconstruct a now more complex tree of life. christoph adami, a professor at the keck graduate institute made this point in evolution of biological complexity : to make a case for or against a trend in the evolution of complexity in biological evolution, complexity must be both rigorously defined and measurable. a recent information - theoretic ( but intuitively evident ) definition identifies genomic complexity with the amount of
Answer:
|
local flora
| null |
An example of camouflage is when an organism looks like what?
0. clouds
1. local flora
2. buildings
3. oceans
##pillars. = = = in marine ecosystems = = = the existence of aposematism in marine ecosystems has been debated. many marine organisms, particularly those on coral reefs, are brightly coloured or patterned, including sponges, corals, molluscs, and fish, with little or no connection to chemical or physical defenses. caribbean reef sponges are brightly coloured, and many species are full of toxic chemicals, but there is no statistical relationship between the two factors. nudibranch molluscs are the most commonly cited examples of aposematism in marine ecosystems, but the evidence for this has been contested, mostly because ( 1 ) there are few examples of mimicry among species, ( 2 ) many species are nocturnal or cryptic, and ( 3 ) bright colours at the red end of the colour spectrum are rapidly attenuated as a function of water depth. for example, the spanish dancer nudibranch ( genus hexabranchus ), among the largest of tropical marine slugs, potently chemically defended, and brilliantly red and white, is nocturnal and has no known mimics. mimicry is to be expected as batesian mimics with weak defences can gain a measure of protection from their resemblance to aposematic species. other studies have concluded that nudibranchs such as the slugs of the family phyllidiidae from indo - pacific coral reefs are aposematically coloured. mullerian mimicry has been implicated in the coloration of some mediterranean nudibranchs, all of which derive defensive chemicals from their sponge diet. the crown - of - thorns starfish, like other starfish such as metrodira subulata, has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long, sharp spines, as well as cytolytic saponins, chemicals which could function as an effective defence ; this evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be considered aposematic. it has been proposed that aposematism and mimicry is less evident in marine invertebrates than terrestrial insects because predation is a more intense selective force for many insects, which disperse as adults rather than as larvae and have much shorter generation times. further, there is evidence that fish predators such as blueheads may adapt to visual cues more rapidly than do birds, making aposematism less effective. however, there is experimental evidence that pink warty sea cucumbers are aposematic, and that the chromatic and achromatic signals that they provide to predators both independently reduce the rate of attack
organisms. = = = artificial illumination = = = artificial illumination refers to illumination by man - made sources such as flashlights and lanterns. underwater, artificial illumination is generally rare, but its sources are often lights equipped to divers and submersibles. = = = light absorption and scattering = = = backscatter has a greater effect when from artificial illumination as the light source is more likely to be close to the viewer than for natural light. = = evolution of the eye = = eyes originated, developed and diversified by natural selection as organs of photosensitivity and vision in living organisms. the eye exemplifies convergent evolution of an organ found in many animal forms. simple light detection is found in bacteria, single - celled organisms, plants and animals. complex, image - forming eyes have evolved independently several times. = = = types of eye = = = there are several types of eye, comprising simple eyes, with one concave photoreceptive surface, and compound eyes which include a group of individual lenses laid out over a convex surface. each of these major types has several lesser variations, with about 10 significant types recognised. all of these originated in aquatic organisms, and therefore have, at some stages of their evolution, been adapted primarily for underwater vision. some lineages took to terrestrial life, and their eyes evolved further in that environment, and of those, a few returned to an amphibious or aquatic lifestyle, with further adaptation in some cases. = = photosensitivity = = = = focus = = water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. most animals'eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment. = = variations by taxa = = invertebrates have a large variety of eye structures. most, possibly all, originated in an aquatic environment, but some have later adapted to a terrestrial environment, and later re - adapted to an aquatic environment. vertebrates all evolved from a common marine vertebrate ancestor, which already had well developed underwater vision and a specific eye structure, which has been conserved, or in some cases atrophied in animals living in the lightless cave environment. = = = arthropods = = = most arthropods have at least one of two types of eye : lateral compound eyes, and smaller median ocelli, which are simple eyes. when both are present, the two eye types are used in concert because each has its own advantage. ocelli
use these relationships between fungi and plants to make crops more thermo - tolerant, allowing them to resist damage by heat. the most famous of these ecological groups of organisms are : deinococcota, including thermus aquaticus, a species of bacteria. cyanobacteria, blue - green algae. oscillatoria terebriformis oscillatoria brevis heterohormogonium ( motile cell filaments formed by cyanobacteria ) synechococcus elongatus scytonema panic grass ( panic grass with a fungal association with curvularia ) = = see also = = thermophylae cyanobacteria thermophylae cyanobacteria mycovirus algae curvularia protuberata = = references = =
the species relying upon camouflage exhibit the greatest diversity in fluorescence, likely because camouflage may be one of the uses of fluorescence. it is suspected by some scientists that gfps and gfp - like proteins began as electron donors activated by light. these electrons were then used for reactions requiring light energy. functions of fluorescent proteins, such as protection from the sun, conversion of light into different wavelengths, or for signaling are thought to have evolved secondarily. = = = = adaptive functions = = = = currently, relatively little is known about the functional significance of fluorescence and fluorescent proteins. however, it is suspected that fluorescence may serve important functions in signaling and communication, mating, lures, camouflage, uv protection and antioxidation, photoacclimation, dinoflagellate regulation, and in coral health. = = = aquatic = = = water absorbs light of long wavelengths, so less light from these wavelengths reflects back to reach the eye. therefore, warm colors from the visual light spectrum appear less vibrant at increasing depths. water scatters light of shorter wavelengths above violet, meaning cooler colors dominate the visual field in the photic zone. light intensity decreases 10 fold with every 75 m of depth, so at depths of 75 m, light is 10 % as intense as it is on the surface, and is only 1 % as intense at 150 m as it is on the surface. because the water filters out the wavelengths and intensity of water reaching certain depths, different proteins, because of the wavelengths and intensities of light they are capable of absorbing, are better suited to different depths. theoretically, some fish eyes can detect light as deep as 1000 m. at these depths of the aphotic zone, the only sources of light are organisms themselves, giving off light through chemical reactions in a process called bioluminescence. fluorescence is simply defined as the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at one wavelength and its reemission at another, lower energy wavelength. thus any type of fluorescence depends on the presence of external sources of light. biologically functional fluorescence is found in the photic zone, where there is not only enough light to cause fluorescence, but enough light for other organisms to detect it. the visual field in the photic zone is naturally blue, so colors of fluorescence can be detected as bright reds, oranges, yellows, and greens. green is the most commonly found color in the marine spectrum, yellow the second most, orange the third, and red is the rarest
colours of animals, written during darwinism's lowest ebb, used all the forms of coloration to argue the case for natural selection. cott described many kinds of camouflage, mimicry and warning coloration in his 1940 book adaptive coloration in animals, and in particular his drawings of coincident disruptive coloration in frogs convinced other biologists that these deceptive markings were products of natural selection. kettlewell experimented on peppered moth evolution, showing that the species had adapted as pollution changed the environment ; this provided compelling evidence of darwinian evolution. = = evidence from behavior = = some primitive reflexes are critical for the survival of neonates. there is evidence confirming that closely related species share more similar primitive reflexes, such as the type of fur - grasping in primates and their relationship to manual dexterity. the exact selection pressures for their development are not fully determined and some reflexes are understood to have evolved multiple times independently ( convergent evolution ). = = evidence from mathematical modeling and simulation = = computer science allows the iteration of self - changing complex systems to be studied, allowing a mathematical understanding of the nature of the processes behind evolution ; providing evidence for the hidden causes of known evolutionary events. the evolution of specific cellular mechanisms like spliceosomes that can turn the cell's genome into a vast workshop of billions of interchangeable parts that can create tools that create us can be studied for the first time in an exact way. " it has taken more than five decades, but the electronic computer is now powerful enough to simulate evolution ", assisting bioinformatics in its attempt to solve biological problems. computational evolutionary biology has enabled researchers to trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their dna, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone. it has compared entire genomes permitting the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in speciation. it has also helped build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time and track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms. future endeavors are to reconstruct a now more complex tree of life. christoph adami, a professor at the keck graduate institute made this point in evolution of biological complexity : to make a case for or against a trend in the evolution of complexity in biological evolution, complexity must be both rigorously defined and measurable. a recent information - theoretic ( but intuitively evident ) definition identifies genomic complexity with the amount of
Answer:
|
buildings
| 0.3 |
This animal is able to blend into its environment by changing its appearence
0. an Elephant
1. a Bottlenose dolphin
2. a Phyllomimus
3. a Hammerhead shark
and a half minutes so that the fish is able to scan the mouth. then, the fish passes further into the mouth to examine the gills, specifically the buccopharyngeal area, which typically holds the most parasites. when the shark begins to close its mouth, the wrasse finishes its examination and goes elsewhere. male bull sharks exhibit slightly different behavior at cleaning stations : as the shark swims into a colony of wrasse fish, it drastically slows its speed to allow the cleaners to do their job. after approximately one minute, the shark returns to normal swimming speed. = = role in evolution = = symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution ; many species have a long history of interdependent co - evolution. although symbiosis was once discounted as an anecdotal evolutionary phenomenon, evidence is now overwhelming that obligate or facultative associations among microorganisms and between microorganisms and multicellular hosts had crucial consequences in many landmark events in evolution and in the generation of phenotypic diversity and complex phenotypes able to colonise new environments. mutualistic symbiosis can sometimes evolve from parasitism or commensalism, fungi's relationship to plants in the form of mycelium evolved from parasitism and commensalism. under certain conditions species of fungi previously in a state of mutualism can turn parasitic on weak or dying plants. likewise the symbiotic relationship of clown fish and sea anemones emerged from a commensalist relationship. = = = hologenome development and evolution = = = evolution originated from changes in development where variations within species are selected for or against because of the symbionts involved. the hologenome theory relates to the holobiont and symbionts genome together as a whole. microbes live everywhere in and on every multicellular organism. many organisms rely on their symbionts in order to develop properly, this is known as co - development. in cases of co - development the symbionts send signals to their host which determine developmental processes. co - development is commonly seen in both arthropods and vertebrates. = = = symbiogenesis = = = one hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in eukaryotes ( plants, animals, fungi, and protists ) is that it developed from a symbiogenesis between bacteria and archaea. it is hypoth
##2 : rasn ( gtpase nras ), rask ( gtpase kras ), and cd81. = = homology = = there are at least 203 organisms with an ortholog of c2orf72. the most evolutionarily distant reported ortholog of c2orf72 is in the australian ghost shark ( callorhincus milii ) ;, and it is broadly conserved from actinopterygii ( bony fish ) to mammalia. = = references = =
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
##theres = = = = horseshoe bats ( of the family rhinolophidae ) are a bat genus that possess air pouches, or chambers, around their larynx which act as helmholtz resonators. the male hammerhead bat has an extremely large larynx that extends through most of his thoracic cavity, displacing his other internal organs. a pharyngeal air sac connects to a large sinus in the bat's snout ; these structures act as resonating chambers to further amplify the bat's voice. so specialized are these structures that scientists herbert lang and james chapin remarked ; " in no other mammal is everything so entirely subordinated to the organs of voice ". pinnipeds have been noted to employ this structure ; the expanded nasal chambers of elephant and hooded seals act as resonant spaces that enhance their calls. the expanded laryngeal lumen of california sea lions, the pharyngeal pouch of walrus, and the tracheal sacs of various phocids may also function in a similar manner. mysticetes, such as the blue whale, use their greatly expanded larynx as a resonant cavity. even in juveniles, the larynx is bigger than either one of the whale's lungs. this organ, along with the nasal passages, act as resonant spaces that produce the signature drawn - out calls of the baleen whales. = = = sauropsida = = = = = = = crocodylians = = = = the ghara of the indian gharial is a specialized organ that acts as a resonating chamber ; as a result, the call of a mature male can be heard up to 75 metres ( 82 yd ) away. = = = = lambeosaurines = = = = the crests of a number of lambeosaurine dinosaurs have been hypothesized to act as resonating chambers ; reconstructed upper airways, specifically, the nasal passsages of parasaurolophus, lambeosaurus, hypacrosaurus and corythosaurus have been examined, and they were concluded to be able to enhance the vocalizations in life, and the different cranial crest shapes would have distinguished the sounds produced between genera. = = = = birds = = = = the avian syrinx is the primary vocal organ in most birds, with the trachea being the primary resonator in the system. in some
of cetaceans and hippopotamuses split apart. giraffidae are a sister taxon to antilocapridae, with an estimated split of more than 20 million years ago, according to a 2019 genome study. rhinoceroses may originate from hyrachyus, an animal whose remains date back to the late eocene. : 17 megaherbivores and other large herbivores are becoming less common throughout their natural distribution, which is having an impact on animal species within the ecosystem. this is mainly attributed to the destruction of their natural environment, agriculture, overhunting, and human invasion of their habitats. as a consequence of their slow reproductive rate and the preference for targeting larger species, overexploitation poses the greatest threat to megaherbivores. as time progresses, it is thought that the situation will only worsen. = = ecology of recent megaherbivory = = = = = browsers and grazers = = = living species exhibit the following adaptations : they have dietary tolerance, a strong effect on vegetation and with the exception of calves, face little threat from predators. elephants and indian rhinoceroses exhibit both grazing and browsing feeding habits. the hippopotamus and white rhinoceros prefer grazing herbivory, while giraffes and the three other rhinoceros species most often select browsing herbivory. mammalian megaherbivores predominantly consume graminoids. they prefer eating the leaves and stem of the plant, as well as its fruits. they also exhibit both foregut and hindgut fermentation, with rhinos, hippos, and elephants displaying the former and giraffes displaying the latter. : 16 their metabolic rate is lethargic, and as a result, digestion is slowed. during this prolonged digestion period, high - fiber plant matter is disintegrated. due to their size, megaherbivores can defoliate the landscape ; because of this, they are considered keystone species in their environment. megaherbivores affect the composition of plant species, which alters the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. they can open up areas through feeding behavior, which over time clears vegetation, including invasive alien plants. the number of seeds that megaherbivores spread is greater than that of other frugivores. in addition, megaherbivore grazers, like the white rhino, have a profound impact on short grass
Answer:
|
a Phyllomimus
| null |
This animal is able to blend into its environment by changing its appearence
0. an Elephant
1. a Bottlenose dolphin
2. a Phyllomimus
3. a Hammerhead shark
and a half minutes so that the fish is able to scan the mouth. then, the fish passes further into the mouth to examine the gills, specifically the buccopharyngeal area, which typically holds the most parasites. when the shark begins to close its mouth, the wrasse finishes its examination and goes elsewhere. male bull sharks exhibit slightly different behavior at cleaning stations : as the shark swims into a colony of wrasse fish, it drastically slows its speed to allow the cleaners to do their job. after approximately one minute, the shark returns to normal swimming speed. = = role in evolution = = symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution ; many species have a long history of interdependent co - evolution. although symbiosis was once discounted as an anecdotal evolutionary phenomenon, evidence is now overwhelming that obligate or facultative associations among microorganisms and between microorganisms and multicellular hosts had crucial consequences in many landmark events in evolution and in the generation of phenotypic diversity and complex phenotypes able to colonise new environments. mutualistic symbiosis can sometimes evolve from parasitism or commensalism, fungi's relationship to plants in the form of mycelium evolved from parasitism and commensalism. under certain conditions species of fungi previously in a state of mutualism can turn parasitic on weak or dying plants. likewise the symbiotic relationship of clown fish and sea anemones emerged from a commensalist relationship. = = = hologenome development and evolution = = = evolution originated from changes in development where variations within species are selected for or against because of the symbionts involved. the hologenome theory relates to the holobiont and symbionts genome together as a whole. microbes live everywhere in and on every multicellular organism. many organisms rely on their symbionts in order to develop properly, this is known as co - development. in cases of co - development the symbionts send signals to their host which determine developmental processes. co - development is commonly seen in both arthropods and vertebrates. = = = symbiogenesis = = = one hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in eukaryotes ( plants, animals, fungi, and protists ) is that it developed from a symbiogenesis between bacteria and archaea. it is hypoth
##2 : rasn ( gtpase nras ), rask ( gtpase kras ), and cd81. = = homology = = there are at least 203 organisms with an ortholog of c2orf72. the most evolutionarily distant reported ortholog of c2orf72 is in the australian ghost shark ( callorhincus milii ) ;, and it is broadly conserved from actinopterygii ( bony fish ) to mammalia. = = references = =
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
##theres = = = = horseshoe bats ( of the family rhinolophidae ) are a bat genus that possess air pouches, or chambers, around their larynx which act as helmholtz resonators. the male hammerhead bat has an extremely large larynx that extends through most of his thoracic cavity, displacing his other internal organs. a pharyngeal air sac connects to a large sinus in the bat's snout ; these structures act as resonating chambers to further amplify the bat's voice. so specialized are these structures that scientists herbert lang and james chapin remarked ; " in no other mammal is everything so entirely subordinated to the organs of voice ". pinnipeds have been noted to employ this structure ; the expanded nasal chambers of elephant and hooded seals act as resonant spaces that enhance their calls. the expanded laryngeal lumen of california sea lions, the pharyngeal pouch of walrus, and the tracheal sacs of various phocids may also function in a similar manner. mysticetes, such as the blue whale, use their greatly expanded larynx as a resonant cavity. even in juveniles, the larynx is bigger than either one of the whale's lungs. this organ, along with the nasal passages, act as resonant spaces that produce the signature drawn - out calls of the baleen whales. = = = sauropsida = = = = = = = crocodylians = = = = the ghara of the indian gharial is a specialized organ that acts as a resonating chamber ; as a result, the call of a mature male can be heard up to 75 metres ( 82 yd ) away. = = = = lambeosaurines = = = = the crests of a number of lambeosaurine dinosaurs have been hypothesized to act as resonating chambers ; reconstructed upper airways, specifically, the nasal passsages of parasaurolophus, lambeosaurus, hypacrosaurus and corythosaurus have been examined, and they were concluded to be able to enhance the vocalizations in life, and the different cranial crest shapes would have distinguished the sounds produced between genera. = = = = birds = = = = the avian syrinx is the primary vocal organ in most birds, with the trachea being the primary resonator in the system. in some
of cetaceans and hippopotamuses split apart. giraffidae are a sister taxon to antilocapridae, with an estimated split of more than 20 million years ago, according to a 2019 genome study. rhinoceroses may originate from hyrachyus, an animal whose remains date back to the late eocene. : 17 megaherbivores and other large herbivores are becoming less common throughout their natural distribution, which is having an impact on animal species within the ecosystem. this is mainly attributed to the destruction of their natural environment, agriculture, overhunting, and human invasion of their habitats. as a consequence of their slow reproductive rate and the preference for targeting larger species, overexploitation poses the greatest threat to megaherbivores. as time progresses, it is thought that the situation will only worsen. = = ecology of recent megaherbivory = = = = = browsers and grazers = = = living species exhibit the following adaptations : they have dietary tolerance, a strong effect on vegetation and with the exception of calves, face little threat from predators. elephants and indian rhinoceroses exhibit both grazing and browsing feeding habits. the hippopotamus and white rhinoceros prefer grazing herbivory, while giraffes and the three other rhinoceros species most often select browsing herbivory. mammalian megaherbivores predominantly consume graminoids. they prefer eating the leaves and stem of the plant, as well as its fruits. they also exhibit both foregut and hindgut fermentation, with rhinos, hippos, and elephants displaying the former and giraffes displaying the latter. : 16 their metabolic rate is lethargic, and as a result, digestion is slowed. during this prolonged digestion period, high - fiber plant matter is disintegrated. due to their size, megaherbivores can defoliate the landscape ; because of this, they are considered keystone species in their environment. megaherbivores affect the composition of plant species, which alters the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. they can open up areas through feeding behavior, which over time clears vegetation, including invasive alien plants. the number of seeds that megaherbivores spread is greater than that of other frugivores. in addition, megaherbivore grazers, like the white rhino, have a profound impact on short grass
Answer:
|
a Bottlenose dolphin
| 0.3 |
A cougar eats
0. unwary dandelions
1. clouds
2. carrots
3. voles
the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. animals can also eat each other ; the bullfrog eats crayfish and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. the feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up. the fisheries scientist daniel pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores ( primary consumers ), three in secondary consumers, and so on. the definition of the trophic level, tl, for any consumer species is : t l i = 1 + j ( t l j β
d c i j ) { \ displaystyle tl _ { i } = 1 + \ sum _ { j } ( tl _ { j } \ cdot dc _ { ij } ) \! } where t l j { \ displaystyle tl _ { j } } is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and d c i j { \ displaystyle dc _ { ij } } represents the fraction of j in the diet of i. that is, the consumer trophic level is one plus the weighted average of how much different trophic levels contribute to its food. in the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes a value between 2. 0 and 5. 0. the upper value, 5. 0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and orcas. in addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through stable isotope analysis of animal tissues such as muscle, skin, hair, bone collagen. this is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules ; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3 β 4 β°. = = mean trophic level = = in fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year y as : t l y = i ( t l i β
y i y ) i y i y { \ displaystyle tl _ { y } = { \ frac { \ sum _ { i
again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi ( mushrooms ), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again. trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain. level 1 plants and algae make their own food and are called producers. level 2 herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers. level 3 carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers. level 4 carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. apex predator by definition, healthy adult apex predators have no predators ( with members of their own species a possible exception ) and are at the highest numbered level of their food web. in real - world ecosystems, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. a diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web. decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain. thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level. the trophic level of a species may vary if it has a choice of diet. virtually all plants and phytoplankton are purely phototrophic and are at exactly level 1. 0. many worms are at around 2. 1 ; insects 2. 2 ; jellyfish 3. 0 ; birds 3. 6. a 2013 study estimates the average trophic level of human beings at 2. 21, similar to pigs or anchovies. this is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. for example, a traditional inuit living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5. = = biomass transfer efficiency = = in general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level
time for prey1. since it is always favorable to choose to eat prey1, the choice to eat prey1 is not dependent on the abundance of prey2. but since the length of s1 ( i. e. how difficult it is to find prey1 ) is logically dependent on the density of prey1, the choice to eat prey2 is dependent on the abundance of prey1. = = = generalist and specialist diets = = = the optimal diet model also predicts that different types of animals should adopt different diets based on variations in search time. this idea is an extension of the model of prey choice that was discussed above. the equation, e2 / h2 > e1 / ( h1 + s1 ), can be rearranged to give : s1 > [ ( e1h2 ) / e2 ] β h1. this rearranged form gives the threshold for how long s1 must be for an animal to choose to eat both prey1 and prey2. animals that have s1s that reach the threshold are defined as generalists. in nature, generalists include a wide range of prey items in their diet. an example of a generalist is a mouse, which consumes a large variety of seeds, grains, and nuts. in contrast, predators with relatively short s1s are still better off choosing to eat only prey1. these types of animals are defined as specialists and have very exclusive diets in nature. an example of a specialist is the koala, which solely consumes eucalyptus leaves. in general, different animals across the four functional classes of predators exhibit strategies ranging across a continuum between being a generalist and a specialist. additionally, since the choice to eat prey2 is dependent on the abundance of prey1 ( as discussed earlier ), if prey1 becomes so scarce that s1 reaches the threshold, then the animal should switch from exclusively eating prey1 to eating both prey1 and prey2. in other words, if the food within a specialist's diet becomes very scarce, a specialist can sometimes switch to being a generalist. = = = functional response curves = = = as previously mentioned, the amount of time it takes to search for a prey item depends on the density of the prey. functional response curves show the rate of prey capture as a function of food density and can be used in conjunction with the optimal diet theory to predict foraging behavior of predators. there are three different types of functional response curves. for a type i functional response curve,
carrion ( from latin caro'meat'), also known as a carcass, is the decaying flesh of dead animals. = = overview = = carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. examples of carrion - eaters ( or scavengers ) include crows, vultures, humans, hawks, eagles, hyenas, virginia opossum, tasmanian devils, coyotes and komodo dragons. many invertebrates, such as the carrion and burying beetles, as well as maggots of calliphorid flies ( such as one of the most important species in calliphora vomitoria ) and flesh - flies, also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains. carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine. some plants and fungi smell like decomposing carrion and attract insects that aid in reproduction. plants that exhibit this behavior are known as carrion flowers. stinkhorn mushrooms are examples of fungi with this characteristic. sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. an example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in william shakespeare's play julius caesar ( iii. i ) : another example can be found in daniel defoe's robinson crusoe when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds " its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing ". = = consumption by humans = = = = = in noahide law = = = the thirty - count laws of ulla ( talmudist ) include the prohibition of humans consuming carrion. this count is in addition to the standard seven law count and has been recently published from the judeo - arabic writing of shmuel ben hophni gaon after having been lost for centuries. = = = in islam = = = animals killed by strangling, a violent blow, a headlong fall, being gored to death, or from which a predatory animal has partially eaten are considered types of carrion, and are forbidden in islam. = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of carrion at wikti
species form a central supporting hub unique to their ecosystem. the loss of such a species results in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species. keystone species are usually predators due to their ability to control the population of prey in their ecosystem. the importance of a keystone species was shown by the extinction of the steller's sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) through its interaction with sea otters, sea urchins, and kelp. kelp beds grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that support the food chain. sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. with the rapid decline of sea otters due to overhunting, sea urchin populations grazed unrestricted on the kelp beds and the ecosystem collapsed. left unchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the steller's sea cow's diet and hastened their demise. the sea otter was thought to be a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associates in the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival. however this was later questioned by turvey and risley, who showed that hunting alone would have driven the steller's sea cow extinct. = = = = indicator species = = = = an indicator species has a narrow set of ecological requirements, therefore they become useful targets for observing the health of an ecosystem. some animals, such as amphibians with their semi - permeable skin and linkages to wetlands, have an acute sensitivity to environmental harm and thus may serve as a miner's canary. indicator species are monitored in an effort to capture environmental degradation through pollution or some other link to proximate human activities. monitoring an indicator species is a measure to determine if there is a significant environmental impact that can serve to advise or modify practice, such as through different forest silviculture treatments and management scenarios, or to measure the degree of harm that a pesticide may impart on the health of an ecosystem. government regulators, consultants, or ngos regularly monitor indicator species, however, there are limitations coupled with many practical considerations that must be followed for the approach to be effective. it is generally recommended that multiple indicators ( genes, populations, species, communities, and landscape ) be monitored for effective conservation measurement that prevents harm to the complex, and often unpredictable, response from ecosystem dynamics ( noss, 1997 : 88 β 89 ). = =
Answer:
|
voles
| null |
A cougar eats
0. unwary dandelions
1. clouds
2. carrots
3. voles
the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. animals can also eat each other ; the bullfrog eats crayfish and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. the feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up. the fisheries scientist daniel pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores ( primary consumers ), three in secondary consumers, and so on. the definition of the trophic level, tl, for any consumer species is : t l i = 1 + j ( t l j β
d c i j ) { \ displaystyle tl _ { i } = 1 + \ sum _ { j } ( tl _ { j } \ cdot dc _ { ij } ) \! } where t l j { \ displaystyle tl _ { j } } is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and d c i j { \ displaystyle dc _ { ij } } represents the fraction of j in the diet of i. that is, the consumer trophic level is one plus the weighted average of how much different trophic levels contribute to its food. in the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes a value between 2. 0 and 5. 0. the upper value, 5. 0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and orcas. in addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through stable isotope analysis of animal tissues such as muscle, skin, hair, bone collagen. this is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules ; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3 β 4 β°. = = mean trophic level = = in fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year y as : t l y = i ( t l i β
y i y ) i y i y { \ displaystyle tl _ { y } = { \ frac { \ sum _ { i
again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi ( mushrooms ), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again. trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain. level 1 plants and algae make their own food and are called producers. level 2 herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers. level 3 carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers. level 4 carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. apex predator by definition, healthy adult apex predators have no predators ( with members of their own species a possible exception ) and are at the highest numbered level of their food web. in real - world ecosystems, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. a diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web. decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain. thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level. the trophic level of a species may vary if it has a choice of diet. virtually all plants and phytoplankton are purely phototrophic and are at exactly level 1. 0. many worms are at around 2. 1 ; insects 2. 2 ; jellyfish 3. 0 ; birds 3. 6. a 2013 study estimates the average trophic level of human beings at 2. 21, similar to pigs or anchovies. this is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. for example, a traditional inuit living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5. = = biomass transfer efficiency = = in general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level
time for prey1. since it is always favorable to choose to eat prey1, the choice to eat prey1 is not dependent on the abundance of prey2. but since the length of s1 ( i. e. how difficult it is to find prey1 ) is logically dependent on the density of prey1, the choice to eat prey2 is dependent on the abundance of prey1. = = = generalist and specialist diets = = = the optimal diet model also predicts that different types of animals should adopt different diets based on variations in search time. this idea is an extension of the model of prey choice that was discussed above. the equation, e2 / h2 > e1 / ( h1 + s1 ), can be rearranged to give : s1 > [ ( e1h2 ) / e2 ] β h1. this rearranged form gives the threshold for how long s1 must be for an animal to choose to eat both prey1 and prey2. animals that have s1s that reach the threshold are defined as generalists. in nature, generalists include a wide range of prey items in their diet. an example of a generalist is a mouse, which consumes a large variety of seeds, grains, and nuts. in contrast, predators with relatively short s1s are still better off choosing to eat only prey1. these types of animals are defined as specialists and have very exclusive diets in nature. an example of a specialist is the koala, which solely consumes eucalyptus leaves. in general, different animals across the four functional classes of predators exhibit strategies ranging across a continuum between being a generalist and a specialist. additionally, since the choice to eat prey2 is dependent on the abundance of prey1 ( as discussed earlier ), if prey1 becomes so scarce that s1 reaches the threshold, then the animal should switch from exclusively eating prey1 to eating both prey1 and prey2. in other words, if the food within a specialist's diet becomes very scarce, a specialist can sometimes switch to being a generalist. = = = functional response curves = = = as previously mentioned, the amount of time it takes to search for a prey item depends on the density of the prey. functional response curves show the rate of prey capture as a function of food density and can be used in conjunction with the optimal diet theory to predict foraging behavior of predators. there are three different types of functional response curves. for a type i functional response curve,
carrion ( from latin caro'meat'), also known as a carcass, is the decaying flesh of dead animals. = = overview = = carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. examples of carrion - eaters ( or scavengers ) include crows, vultures, humans, hawks, eagles, hyenas, virginia opossum, tasmanian devils, coyotes and komodo dragons. many invertebrates, such as the carrion and burying beetles, as well as maggots of calliphorid flies ( such as one of the most important species in calliphora vomitoria ) and flesh - flies, also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains. carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine. some plants and fungi smell like decomposing carrion and attract insects that aid in reproduction. plants that exhibit this behavior are known as carrion flowers. stinkhorn mushrooms are examples of fungi with this characteristic. sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. an example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in william shakespeare's play julius caesar ( iii. i ) : another example can be found in daniel defoe's robinson crusoe when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds " its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing ". = = consumption by humans = = = = = in noahide law = = = the thirty - count laws of ulla ( talmudist ) include the prohibition of humans consuming carrion. this count is in addition to the standard seven law count and has been recently published from the judeo - arabic writing of shmuel ben hophni gaon after having been lost for centuries. = = = in islam = = = animals killed by strangling, a violent blow, a headlong fall, being gored to death, or from which a predatory animal has partially eaten are considered types of carrion, and are forbidden in islam. = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of carrion at wikti
species form a central supporting hub unique to their ecosystem. the loss of such a species results in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species. keystone species are usually predators due to their ability to control the population of prey in their ecosystem. the importance of a keystone species was shown by the extinction of the steller's sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) through its interaction with sea otters, sea urchins, and kelp. kelp beds grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that support the food chain. sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. with the rapid decline of sea otters due to overhunting, sea urchin populations grazed unrestricted on the kelp beds and the ecosystem collapsed. left unchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the steller's sea cow's diet and hastened their demise. the sea otter was thought to be a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associates in the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival. however this was later questioned by turvey and risley, who showed that hunting alone would have driven the steller's sea cow extinct. = = = = indicator species = = = = an indicator species has a narrow set of ecological requirements, therefore they become useful targets for observing the health of an ecosystem. some animals, such as amphibians with their semi - permeable skin and linkages to wetlands, have an acute sensitivity to environmental harm and thus may serve as a miner's canary. indicator species are monitored in an effort to capture environmental degradation through pollution or some other link to proximate human activities. monitoring an indicator species is a measure to determine if there is a significant environmental impact that can serve to advise or modify practice, such as through different forest silviculture treatments and management scenarios, or to measure the degree of harm that a pesticide may impart on the health of an ecosystem. government regulators, consultants, or ngos regularly monitor indicator species, however, there are limitations coupled with many practical considerations that must be followed for the approach to be effective. it is generally recommended that multiple indicators ( genes, populations, species, communities, and landscape ) be monitored for effective conservation measurement that prevents harm to the complex, and often unpredictable, response from ecosystem dynamics ( noss, 1997 : 88 β 89 ). = =
Answer:
|
carrots
| 0.3 |
People are switching to electric cars because cars that use gas
0. dirty the air
1. cry
2. nothing
3. cleans the air
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
adopted by the bundesrat in october 2016. norway, on the other hand, already wants no cars with petrol or diesel engines to be registered from 2025 and ships and ferries only to be registered without fossil fuels from 2030, and is therefore considered a leading nation in electromobility. the netherlands are also planning a ban on the registration of conventional drives in cars from 2025. in china, all automotive groups are obliged to meet a quota for the production and sale of purely electric or plug - in hybrid drives. there are numerous electromobility projects in germany, such as the modellregionen elektromobilitat and bemobility. the german association of towns and municipalities ( dstgb ) sees towns and municipalities as drivers and designers of the mobility transition and also supports a number of projects. critical mass is a form of direct action for promoting more and safer cycling in cities around the world. when riding together through inner cities, cyclists draw attention to cycling as a form of individual transport, advocate for mobility transition and, in particular, more rights for cyclists, better cycling traffic networks and infrastructure, and more room for non - motorised traffic. the first critical mass action took place in september 1992 in san francisco. to improve air quality, efforts across europe are being stepped up to introduce low - emission zones. a progressive approach is the french crit'air, which provides for different restrictions depending on air pollution. the applicable prohibitions can be viewed on the internet or via phone app. electric vehicles or hydrogen - powered vehicles receive category 0 ( green vignette ) and can always drive anywhere. diesel driving bans were also issued in germany. instead of a company car, individual companies offer their employees a mobility budget that can be used to pay for different means of transport for business purposes. the island city - state of singapore has not allowed additional private cars since 1 february 2018 under its vehicular quota system. this is intended to promote the switch to public transport and active mobility. it is also the only country in the world which requires all prospective vehicle owners to bid for a certificate of entitlement before they are allowed to own a vehicle for up to 10 years. the state only gives permission for a new car if another has been de - registered. singapore was also the first country in the world to implement congestion pricing in 1975. since 2003, there has been a london congestion charge which drivers have to pay in central london. from october 2017 on, an additional, new fee for older and more polluting cars
car ). compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. as of november 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in berlin, bonn, dusseldorf, cologne, munich, stuttgart and wuppertal. continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. as a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post - communist countries. = = = propulsion and energy transition in transport = = = in order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning petroleum - based fuel and to use more climate - friendly propulsion technologies or fuels. electricity from renewable sources, or e - fuels or biofuels produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel. since the overall efficiency of e - fuels is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the german advisory council on the environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity - based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. for example, hydrogen - powered fuel cell vehicles ( fcvs ) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as battery electric vehicles ( bevs ), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by power - to - liquid fuels even need between four and six times as much. battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e - fuels. in general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kwh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kwh per 100 km. at the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated. in china in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons ( to avoid smog ) in order to counteract the massive air pollution in the cities. according to canzler & wittowsky ( 2016 ), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of germany's energiewende, while the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. however, disruptive technologies ( such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving ) and new business models ( especially in the field of digitalisation ) can also lead to unpredictable
also reduce the land consumption of parking spaces and free up space for other uses. in 2002 and 2008, vehicles in germany were occupied by an average of 1. 5 people. : 87 one method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of carpools and the operation of ridesharing companies. needs - based use of various sorts of low emission vehicles can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. the latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency. another component in the future mobility mix could be neighborhood electric vehicles. numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example congestion charges, aviation taxation and subsidies ( such as a jet fuel tax and a departure tax ), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management ( for example through pay and display ), or an extension of emissions trading to road traffic. the introduction of speed limits, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as co2 ( carbon dioxide ) and nox ( nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide ). passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. a speed limit can also have secondary emissions - reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty : lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power. the externalities of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here. the 2019 dutch nitrogen emissions crisis, which indirectly caused the dutch farmers'protests, convinced the government in november 2019 to lower the speed limits in the netherlands on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. in the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained. meanwhile, the state of the netherlands v. urgenda foundation court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff urgenda ( initially in june 2015, upheld on appeal in october 2018, and finally confirmed by the supreme court of the netherlands on 20 december 2019 ), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the netherlands'co2 emissions from 1990 levels by 25 % by 2020. although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so. similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been proposed in germany. as one of several methods to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation
. initially coal and peat were gasified to produce town gas for lighting and cooking, with the first public street lighting installed in pall mall, london on january 28, 1807, spreading shortly to supply commercial gas lighting to most industrialized cities until the end of the 19th century when it was replaced with electrical lighting. gasification and syngas continued to be used in blast furnaces and more significantly in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s. the thousands of sites left toxic residue. some sites have been remediated, while others are still polluted. during both world wars, especially the world war ii, the need for fuel produced by gasification reemerged due to the shortage of petroleum. wood gas generators, called gasogene or gazogene, were used to power motor vehicles in europe. by 1945 there were trucks, buses and agricultural machines that were powered by gasification. it is estimated that there were close to 9, 000, 000 vehicles running on producer gas all over the world. another example, the xe than ( literally, " coal car " in vietnamese ) was a minibus that has been converted to run on coal instead of gasoline. this modification regained popularity in vietnam during the subsidy period, when gasoline was in short supply. xe than became much less common during the Δoi moi period, when gasoline became widely accessible again. = = chemical reactions = = in a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes : the dehydration or drying process occurs at around 100 Β°c. typically the resulting steam is mixed into the gas flow and may be involved with subsequent chemical reactions, notably the water - gas reaction if the temperature is sufficiently high ( see step # 5 ). the pyrolysis ( or devolatilization ) process occurs at around 200 β 300 Β°c. volatiles are released and char is produced, resulting in up to 70 % weight loss for coal. the process is dependent on the properties of the carbonaceous material and determines the structure and composition of the char, which will then undergo gasification reactions. the combustion process occurs as the volatile products and some of the char react with oxygen to primarily form carbon dioxide and small amounts of carbon monoxide, which provides heat for the subsequent gasification reactions. letting c represent a carbon - containing organic compound, the basic reaction here is c + o2 β co2. the gasification process occurs as the char reacts with steam and carbon dioxide to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen, via the reactions
Answer:
|
dirty the air
| null |
People are switching to electric cars because cars that use gas
0. dirty the air
1. cry
2. nothing
3. cleans the air
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
adopted by the bundesrat in october 2016. norway, on the other hand, already wants no cars with petrol or diesel engines to be registered from 2025 and ships and ferries only to be registered without fossil fuels from 2030, and is therefore considered a leading nation in electromobility. the netherlands are also planning a ban on the registration of conventional drives in cars from 2025. in china, all automotive groups are obliged to meet a quota for the production and sale of purely electric or plug - in hybrid drives. there are numerous electromobility projects in germany, such as the modellregionen elektromobilitat and bemobility. the german association of towns and municipalities ( dstgb ) sees towns and municipalities as drivers and designers of the mobility transition and also supports a number of projects. critical mass is a form of direct action for promoting more and safer cycling in cities around the world. when riding together through inner cities, cyclists draw attention to cycling as a form of individual transport, advocate for mobility transition and, in particular, more rights for cyclists, better cycling traffic networks and infrastructure, and more room for non - motorised traffic. the first critical mass action took place in september 1992 in san francisco. to improve air quality, efforts across europe are being stepped up to introduce low - emission zones. a progressive approach is the french crit'air, which provides for different restrictions depending on air pollution. the applicable prohibitions can be viewed on the internet or via phone app. electric vehicles or hydrogen - powered vehicles receive category 0 ( green vignette ) and can always drive anywhere. diesel driving bans were also issued in germany. instead of a company car, individual companies offer their employees a mobility budget that can be used to pay for different means of transport for business purposes. the island city - state of singapore has not allowed additional private cars since 1 february 2018 under its vehicular quota system. this is intended to promote the switch to public transport and active mobility. it is also the only country in the world which requires all prospective vehicle owners to bid for a certificate of entitlement before they are allowed to own a vehicle for up to 10 years. the state only gives permission for a new car if another has been de - registered. singapore was also the first country in the world to implement congestion pricing in 1975. since 2003, there has been a london congestion charge which drivers have to pay in central london. from october 2017 on, an additional, new fee for older and more polluting cars
car ). compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. as of november 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in berlin, bonn, dusseldorf, cologne, munich, stuttgart and wuppertal. continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. as a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post - communist countries. = = = propulsion and energy transition in transport = = = in order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning petroleum - based fuel and to use more climate - friendly propulsion technologies or fuels. electricity from renewable sources, or e - fuels or biofuels produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel. since the overall efficiency of e - fuels is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the german advisory council on the environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity - based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. for example, hydrogen - powered fuel cell vehicles ( fcvs ) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as battery electric vehicles ( bevs ), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by power - to - liquid fuels even need between four and six times as much. battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e - fuels. in general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kwh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kwh per 100 km. at the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated. in china in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons ( to avoid smog ) in order to counteract the massive air pollution in the cities. according to canzler & wittowsky ( 2016 ), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of germany's energiewende, while the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. however, disruptive technologies ( such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving ) and new business models ( especially in the field of digitalisation ) can also lead to unpredictable
also reduce the land consumption of parking spaces and free up space for other uses. in 2002 and 2008, vehicles in germany were occupied by an average of 1. 5 people. : 87 one method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of carpools and the operation of ridesharing companies. needs - based use of various sorts of low emission vehicles can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. the latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency. another component in the future mobility mix could be neighborhood electric vehicles. numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example congestion charges, aviation taxation and subsidies ( such as a jet fuel tax and a departure tax ), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management ( for example through pay and display ), or an extension of emissions trading to road traffic. the introduction of speed limits, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as co2 ( carbon dioxide ) and nox ( nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide ). passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. a speed limit can also have secondary emissions - reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty : lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power. the externalities of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here. the 2019 dutch nitrogen emissions crisis, which indirectly caused the dutch farmers'protests, convinced the government in november 2019 to lower the speed limits in the netherlands on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. in the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained. meanwhile, the state of the netherlands v. urgenda foundation court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff urgenda ( initially in june 2015, upheld on appeal in october 2018, and finally confirmed by the supreme court of the netherlands on 20 december 2019 ), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the netherlands'co2 emissions from 1990 levels by 25 % by 2020. although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so. similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been proposed in germany. as one of several methods to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation
. initially coal and peat were gasified to produce town gas for lighting and cooking, with the first public street lighting installed in pall mall, london on january 28, 1807, spreading shortly to supply commercial gas lighting to most industrialized cities until the end of the 19th century when it was replaced with electrical lighting. gasification and syngas continued to be used in blast furnaces and more significantly in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s. the thousands of sites left toxic residue. some sites have been remediated, while others are still polluted. during both world wars, especially the world war ii, the need for fuel produced by gasification reemerged due to the shortage of petroleum. wood gas generators, called gasogene or gazogene, were used to power motor vehicles in europe. by 1945 there were trucks, buses and agricultural machines that were powered by gasification. it is estimated that there were close to 9, 000, 000 vehicles running on producer gas all over the world. another example, the xe than ( literally, " coal car " in vietnamese ) was a minibus that has been converted to run on coal instead of gasoline. this modification regained popularity in vietnam during the subsidy period, when gasoline was in short supply. xe than became much less common during the Δoi moi period, when gasoline became widely accessible again. = = chemical reactions = = in a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes : the dehydration or drying process occurs at around 100 Β°c. typically the resulting steam is mixed into the gas flow and may be involved with subsequent chemical reactions, notably the water - gas reaction if the temperature is sufficiently high ( see step # 5 ). the pyrolysis ( or devolatilization ) process occurs at around 200 β 300 Β°c. volatiles are released and char is produced, resulting in up to 70 % weight loss for coal. the process is dependent on the properties of the carbonaceous material and determines the structure and composition of the char, which will then undergo gasification reactions. the combustion process occurs as the volatile products and some of the char react with oxygen to primarily form carbon dioxide and small amounts of carbon monoxide, which provides heat for the subsequent gasification reactions. letting c represent a carbon - containing organic compound, the basic reaction here is c + o2 β co2. the gasification process occurs as the char reacts with steam and carbon dioxide to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen, via the reactions
Answer:
|
cleans the air
| 0.3 |
Why are electric cars better for the atmosphere than traditional cars?
0. they have Bluetooth
1. more breathable air
2. they go faster
3. they are bigger
car ). compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. as of november 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in berlin, bonn, dusseldorf, cologne, munich, stuttgart and wuppertal. continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. as a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post - communist countries. = = = propulsion and energy transition in transport = = = in order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning petroleum - based fuel and to use more climate - friendly propulsion technologies or fuels. electricity from renewable sources, or e - fuels or biofuels produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel. since the overall efficiency of e - fuels is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the german advisory council on the environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity - based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. for example, hydrogen - powered fuel cell vehicles ( fcvs ) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as battery electric vehicles ( bevs ), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by power - to - liquid fuels even need between four and six times as much. battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e - fuels. in general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kwh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kwh per 100 km. at the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated. in china in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons ( to avoid smog ) in order to counteract the massive air pollution in the cities. according to canzler & wittowsky ( 2016 ), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of germany's energiewende, while the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. however, disruptive technologies ( such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving ) and new business models ( especially in the field of digitalisation ) can also lead to unpredictable
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric arc furnaces for steelmaking. for steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean fuel and simultaneously as a low - carbon catalyst replacing coal - derived coke. hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles. for light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other alternative fuel vehicles, especially compared with the rate of adoption of battery electric vehicles, and may not play a significant role in future. disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle. = = = energy usage technologies = = = = = = = transport = = = = transport accounts for 14 % of global greenhouse gas emissions, but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. public transport typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once. short - distance flights can be replaced by high - speed rail, which is more efficient, especially when electrified. promoting non - motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier. the energy efficiency of cars has increased over time, but shifting to electric vehicles is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution. a large proportion of traffic - related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing - down of tyres and brake pads. substantially reducing pollution from these non - tailpipe sources cannot be achieved by electrification ; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less. light - duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using battery technology. 25 % of the world's co2 emissions still originate from the transportation sector. long - distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of batteries needed for long - distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans. where available, freight transport by ship and rail is generally more sustainable than by air and by road. hydrogen vehicles may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries. many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with ammonia ( produced from hydrogen ) a promising candidate for shipping fuel. aviation biofuel may be one
also reduce the land consumption of parking spaces and free up space for other uses. in 2002 and 2008, vehicles in germany were occupied by an average of 1. 5 people. : 87 one method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of carpools and the operation of ridesharing companies. needs - based use of various sorts of low emission vehicles can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. the latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency. another component in the future mobility mix could be neighborhood electric vehicles. numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example congestion charges, aviation taxation and subsidies ( such as a jet fuel tax and a departure tax ), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management ( for example through pay and display ), or an extension of emissions trading to road traffic. the introduction of speed limits, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as co2 ( carbon dioxide ) and nox ( nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide ). passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. a speed limit can also have secondary emissions - reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty : lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power. the externalities of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here. the 2019 dutch nitrogen emissions crisis, which indirectly caused the dutch farmers'protests, convinced the government in november 2019 to lower the speed limits in the netherlands on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. in the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained. meanwhile, the state of the netherlands v. urgenda foundation court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff urgenda ( initially in june 2015, upheld on appeal in october 2018, and finally confirmed by the supreme court of the netherlands on 20 december 2019 ), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the netherlands'co2 emissions from 1990 levels by 25 % by 2020. although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so. similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been proposed in germany. as one of several methods to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation
principle : an empirical investigation ', ecological modelling, volume 190, issues 3 β 4, pages 317 β 335 g. q. chen ( 2006 )'scarcity of exergy and ecological evaluation based on embodied exergy ', communications in nonlinear science and numerical simulation, volume 11, issue 4, july, pages 531 β 552. r. costanza, j. h. cumberland, h. e. daly, r. goodland and r. b. norgaard ( 1997 ) an introduction to ecological economics, crc press β st. lucie press, first edition. f. l. curzon and b. ahlborn ( 1975 )'efficiency of a carnot engine at maximum power output ', am j phys, 43, pp. 22 β 24. c. giannantoni ( 2002 ) the maximum em - power principle as the basis for thermodynamics of quality, servizi grafici editoriali, padova. c. giannantoni ( 2006 ) mathematics for generative processes : living and non - living systems, journal of computational and applied mathematics, volume 189, issue 1 β 2, pages 324 β 340. m. w. gilliland ed. ( 1978 ) energy analysis : a new public policy tool, aaa selected symposia series, westview press, boulder, colorado. c. a. s. hall ( 1995 ) maximum power : the ideas and applications of h. t. odum, colorado university press. c. a. s. hall ( 2004 )'the continuing importance of maximum power ', ecological modelling, volume 178, issue 1 β 2, 15, pages 107 β 113 h. w. jackson ( 1959 ) introduction to electronic circuits, prentice β hall. s. e. jorgensen, m. t. brown, h. t. odum ( 2004 )'energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe ', ecological modelling, 178, pp. 17 β 28 a. l. lehninger ( 1973 ) bioenergetics, w. a. benjamin inc. a. j. lotka ( 1922a )'contribution to the energetics of evolution'[ pdf ]. proc natl acad sci, 8 : pp. 147 β 51. a. j. lotka ( 1922b )'natural selection as a physical principle'[ pdf ]. proc natl acad sci, 8, pp 151 β 4. h. t. odum ( 1963 ) '
Answer:
|
more breathable air
| null |
Why are electric cars better for the atmosphere than traditional cars?
0. they have Bluetooth
1. more breathable air
2. they go faster
3. they are bigger
car ). compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. as of november 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in berlin, bonn, dusseldorf, cologne, munich, stuttgart and wuppertal. continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. as a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post - communist countries. = = = propulsion and energy transition in transport = = = in order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning petroleum - based fuel and to use more climate - friendly propulsion technologies or fuels. electricity from renewable sources, or e - fuels or biofuels produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel. since the overall efficiency of e - fuels is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the german advisory council on the environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity - based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. for example, hydrogen - powered fuel cell vehicles ( fcvs ) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as battery electric vehicles ( bevs ), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by power - to - liquid fuels even need between four and six times as much. battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e - fuels. in general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kwh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kwh per 100 km. at the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated. in china in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons ( to avoid smog ) in order to counteract the massive air pollution in the cities. according to canzler & wittowsky ( 2016 ), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of germany's energiewende, while the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. however, disruptive technologies ( such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving ) and new business models ( especially in the field of digitalisation ) can also lead to unpredictable
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric arc furnaces for steelmaking. for steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean fuel and simultaneously as a low - carbon catalyst replacing coal - derived coke. hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles. for light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other alternative fuel vehicles, especially compared with the rate of adoption of battery electric vehicles, and may not play a significant role in future. disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle. = = = energy usage technologies = = = = = = = transport = = = = transport accounts for 14 % of global greenhouse gas emissions, but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. public transport typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once. short - distance flights can be replaced by high - speed rail, which is more efficient, especially when electrified. promoting non - motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier. the energy efficiency of cars has increased over time, but shifting to electric vehicles is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution. a large proportion of traffic - related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing - down of tyres and brake pads. substantially reducing pollution from these non - tailpipe sources cannot be achieved by electrification ; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less. light - duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using battery technology. 25 % of the world's co2 emissions still originate from the transportation sector. long - distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of batteries needed for long - distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans. where available, freight transport by ship and rail is generally more sustainable than by air and by road. hydrogen vehicles may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries. many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with ammonia ( produced from hydrogen ) a promising candidate for shipping fuel. aviation biofuel may be one
also reduce the land consumption of parking spaces and free up space for other uses. in 2002 and 2008, vehicles in germany were occupied by an average of 1. 5 people. : 87 one method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of carpools and the operation of ridesharing companies. needs - based use of various sorts of low emission vehicles can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. the latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency. another component in the future mobility mix could be neighborhood electric vehicles. numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example congestion charges, aviation taxation and subsidies ( such as a jet fuel tax and a departure tax ), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management ( for example through pay and display ), or an extension of emissions trading to road traffic. the introduction of speed limits, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as co2 ( carbon dioxide ) and nox ( nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide ). passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. a speed limit can also have secondary emissions - reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty : lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power. the externalities of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here. the 2019 dutch nitrogen emissions crisis, which indirectly caused the dutch farmers'protests, convinced the government in november 2019 to lower the speed limits in the netherlands on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. in the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained. meanwhile, the state of the netherlands v. urgenda foundation court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff urgenda ( initially in june 2015, upheld on appeal in october 2018, and finally confirmed by the supreme court of the netherlands on 20 december 2019 ), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the netherlands'co2 emissions from 1990 levels by 25 % by 2020. although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so. similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been proposed in germany. as one of several methods to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation
principle : an empirical investigation ', ecological modelling, volume 190, issues 3 β 4, pages 317 β 335 g. q. chen ( 2006 )'scarcity of exergy and ecological evaluation based on embodied exergy ', communications in nonlinear science and numerical simulation, volume 11, issue 4, july, pages 531 β 552. r. costanza, j. h. cumberland, h. e. daly, r. goodland and r. b. norgaard ( 1997 ) an introduction to ecological economics, crc press β st. lucie press, first edition. f. l. curzon and b. ahlborn ( 1975 )'efficiency of a carnot engine at maximum power output ', am j phys, 43, pp. 22 β 24. c. giannantoni ( 2002 ) the maximum em - power principle as the basis for thermodynamics of quality, servizi grafici editoriali, padova. c. giannantoni ( 2006 ) mathematics for generative processes : living and non - living systems, journal of computational and applied mathematics, volume 189, issue 1 β 2, pages 324 β 340. m. w. gilliland ed. ( 1978 ) energy analysis : a new public policy tool, aaa selected symposia series, westview press, boulder, colorado. c. a. s. hall ( 1995 ) maximum power : the ideas and applications of h. t. odum, colorado university press. c. a. s. hall ( 2004 )'the continuing importance of maximum power ', ecological modelling, volume 178, issue 1 β 2, 15, pages 107 β 113 h. w. jackson ( 1959 ) introduction to electronic circuits, prentice β hall. s. e. jorgensen, m. t. brown, h. t. odum ( 2004 )'energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe ', ecological modelling, 178, pp. 17 β 28 a. l. lehninger ( 1973 ) bioenergetics, w. a. benjamin inc. a. j. lotka ( 1922a )'contribution to the energetics of evolution'[ pdf ]. proc natl acad sci, 8 : pp. 147 β 51. a. j. lotka ( 1922b )'natural selection as a physical principle'[ pdf ]. proc natl acad sci, 8, pp 151 β 4. h. t. odum ( 1963 ) '
Answer:
|
they have Bluetooth
| 0.3 |
Poison causes harm to what things?
0. vibrant
1. mineral
2. dead
3. decaying
a toxic heavy metal is a common but misleading term for a metal - like element noted for its potential toxicity. not all heavy metals are toxic and some toxic metals are not heavy. elements often discussed as toxic include cadmium, mercury and lead, all of which appear in the world health organization's list of 10 chemicals of major public concern. other examples include chromium and nickel, thallium, bismuth, arsenic, antimony and tin. these toxic elements are found naturally in the earth. they become concentrated as a result of human caused activities and can enter plant and animal ( including human ) tissues via inhalation, diet, and manual handling. then, they can bind to and interfere with the functioning of vital cellular components. the toxic effects of arsenic, mercury, and lead were known to the ancients, but methodical studies of the toxicity of some heavy metals appear to date from only 1868. in humans, heavy metal poisoning is generally treated by the administration of chelating agents. some elements otherwise regarded as toxic heavy metals are essential, in small quantities, for human health. = = controversial terminology = = the international union of pure and applied chemistry ( iupac ), which standardizes nomenclature, says the term β heavy metals β is both meaningless and misleading ". the iupac report focuses on the legal and toxicological implications of describing " heavy metals " as toxins when there is no scientific evidence to support a connection. the density implied by the adjective " heavy " has almost no biological consequences and pure metals are rarely the biologically active substance. this characterization has been echoed by numerous reviews. the most widely used toxicology textbook, casarett and doull β s toxicology uses " toxic metal " not " heavy metals ". nevertheless many scientific and science related articles continue to use " heavy metal " as a term for toxic substances. = = major and minor metal toxins = = metals with multiple toxic effects include arsenic ( as ), beryllium ( be ), cadmium ( cd ), chromium ( cr ), lead ( pb ), mercury ( hg ), and nickel ( ni ). elements that are nutritionally essential for animal or plant life but which are considered toxic metals in high doses or other forms include cobalt ( co ), copper ( cu ), iron ( fe ), magnesium ( mg ), manganese ( mn ), molybdenum ( mo ), selenium ( se ), and zinc ( zn ). =
##ted in urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure. only about a third of lead is excreted by a child. continual exposure may result in the bioaccumulation of lead. = = = toxicity = = = lead is a highly poisonous metal ( whether inhaled or swallowed ), affecting almost every organ and system in the human body. at airborne levels of 100 mg / m3, it is immediately dangerous to life and health. most ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream. the primary cause of its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes. it does so by binding to the sulfhydryl groups found on many enzymes, or mimicking and displacing other metals which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions. the essential metals that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc. high levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning ; low levels cause increased susceptibility. = = = effects = = = lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. by mimicking calcium, lead can cross the blood β brain barrier. it degrades the myelin sheaths of neurons, reduces their numbers, interferes with neurotransmission routes, and decreases neuronal growth. in the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin ix, the final step in heme synthesis. this causes ineffective heme synthesis and microcytic anemia. symptoms of lead poisoning include nephropathy, colic - like abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or ankles. small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle - aged and older people, may be apparent and can cause anemia. several studies, mostly cross - sectional, found an association between increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability. in pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. chronic, high - level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males. in a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development ( including that of neurotransmitters ), and the organization of ion channels. early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later childhood. high blood levels are
poisoning is the harmful effect which occurs when toxic substances are introduced into the body. the term " poisoning " is a derivative of poison, a term describing any chemical substance that may harm or kill a living organism upon ingestion. poisoning can be brought on by swallowing, inhaling, injecting or absorbing toxins through the skin. toxicology is the practice and study of symptoms, mechanisms, diagnoses, and treatments correlated to poisoning. = = levels of exposure = = when a living organism is introduced to a poison, the symptoms that follow successful contact develop in close relation to the degree of exposure. = = = acute exposure = = = acute toxicity / poisoning consists of a living organism being harmfully exposed to poison once or more times during a brief period, with symptoms manifesting within 14 days since administration. = = = chronic exposure = = = chronic toxicity / poisoning involves a living organism being exposed to a toxin on multiple instances over an extended period of time, whereas the symptoms either develop gradually or after a protracted latent period. chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate, or are biomagnified, such as mercury, gadolinium, and lead. = = methods of poisoning = = = = = accidental poisoning = = = in 2020, america's poison centers'npds ( national poison data system ) report determined that 76. 9 % of recorded toxin exposures were accidental, with the rest of the statistics either being deliberate or unexpected. a large portion of these accidental incidents occurred due to mistakenly taking the incorrect medicine, or doubling one's dose by mistake. = = = industry and warfare = = = nerve gases are synthetic substances used in industry or warfare that are specifically engineered to bring harm to living organisms. they may paralyze a person in a matter of seconds or cease organ function, quickly resulting in death. they're considered to be biologically derived neurotoxins, which are a genre of toxic agents that act specifically against the nervous system. inhaled or ingested cyanide ( or zyklon b ) was used as a method of execution in gas chambers. this method of poisoning instantly starved the body of energy by inhibiting the enzymes in mitochondria that produce atp. intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration of potassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the united states, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell potential necessary for muscle contraction. = = = pesticide exposure = =
the instrument and method used to take these measurements, including any relevant detection limits ( i. e., the lowest level of a given substance that an instrument or method is capable of detecting ). = = chemical = = chemical hazards are defined in the globally harmonized system and in the european union chemical regulations. they are caused by chemical substances causing significant damage to the environment. the label is particularly applicable towards substances with aquatic toxicity. an example is zinc oxide, a common paint pigment, which is extremely toxic to aquatic life. toxicity or other hazards do not imply an environmental hazard, because elimination by sunlight ( photolysis ), water ( hydrolysis ) or organisms ( biological elimination ) neutralizes many reactive or poisonous substances. persistence towards these elimination mechanisms combined with toxicity gives the substance the ability to do damage in the long term. also, the lack of immediate human toxicity does not mean the substance is environmentally nonhazardous. for example, tanker truck - sized spills of substances such as milk can cause a lot of damage in the local aquatic ecosystems : the added biological oxygen demand causes rapid eutrophication, leading to anoxic conditions in the water body. all hazards in this category are mainly anthropogenic although there exist a number of natural carcinogens and chemical elements like radon and lead may turn up in health - critical concentrations in the natural environment : = = physical = = a physical hazard is a type of occupational hazard that involves environmental hazards that can cause harm with or without contact. below is a list of examples : = = biological = = biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. this can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin ( from a biological source ) that can affect human health. examples include : = = see also = = = = references = =
##acerbate this process by releasing toxic metals trapped in soils. transport through soil can be facilitated by the presence of preferential flow paths ( macropores ) and dissolved organic compounds. plants are exposed to toxic metals through the uptake of water ; animals eat these plants ; ingestion of plant - and animal - based foods are the largest sources of toxic metals in humans. absorption through skin contact, for example from contact with soil, or metal containing toys and jewelry, is another potential source of toxic metal contamination. toxic metals can bioaccumulate in organisms as they are hard to metabolize. = = detrimental effects = = toxic metals " can bind to vital cellular components, such as structural proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids, and interfere with their functioning ". symptoms and effects can vary according to the metal or metal compound, and the dose involved. broadly, long - term exposure to toxic heavy metals can have carcinogenic, central and peripheral nervous system, and circulatory effects. for humans, typical presentations associated with exposure to any of the " classical " toxic heavy metals, or chromium ( another toxic heavy metal ) or arsenic ( a metalloid ), are shown in the table. = = history = = the toxic effects of arsenic, mercury and lead were known to the ancients but methodical studies of the overall toxicity of heavy metals appear to date from only 1868. in that year, wanklyn and chapman speculated on the adverse effects of the heavy metals " arsenic, lead, copper, zinc, iron and manganese " in drinking water. they noted an " absence of investigation " and were reduced to " the necessity of pleading for the collection of data ". in 1884, blake described an apparent connection between toxicity and the atomic weight of an element. the following sections provide historical thumbnails for the " classical " toxic heavy metals ( arsenic, mercury and lead ) and some more recent examples ( chromium and cadmium ). = = = arsenic = = = arsenic, as realgar ( as4s4 ) and orpiment ( as2s3 ), was known in ancient times. strabo ( 64 β 50 bce β c. ad 24? ), a greek geographer and historian, wrote that only slaves were employed in realgar and orpiment mines since they would inevitably die from the toxic effects of the fumes given off from the ores. arsenic - contaminated beer poisoned over 6, 000 people in the manchester area of england in 1900, and
Answer:
|
vibrant
| null |
Poison causes harm to what things?
0. vibrant
1. mineral
2. dead
3. decaying
a toxic heavy metal is a common but misleading term for a metal - like element noted for its potential toxicity. not all heavy metals are toxic and some toxic metals are not heavy. elements often discussed as toxic include cadmium, mercury and lead, all of which appear in the world health organization's list of 10 chemicals of major public concern. other examples include chromium and nickel, thallium, bismuth, arsenic, antimony and tin. these toxic elements are found naturally in the earth. they become concentrated as a result of human caused activities and can enter plant and animal ( including human ) tissues via inhalation, diet, and manual handling. then, they can bind to and interfere with the functioning of vital cellular components. the toxic effects of arsenic, mercury, and lead were known to the ancients, but methodical studies of the toxicity of some heavy metals appear to date from only 1868. in humans, heavy metal poisoning is generally treated by the administration of chelating agents. some elements otherwise regarded as toxic heavy metals are essential, in small quantities, for human health. = = controversial terminology = = the international union of pure and applied chemistry ( iupac ), which standardizes nomenclature, says the term β heavy metals β is both meaningless and misleading ". the iupac report focuses on the legal and toxicological implications of describing " heavy metals " as toxins when there is no scientific evidence to support a connection. the density implied by the adjective " heavy " has almost no biological consequences and pure metals are rarely the biologically active substance. this characterization has been echoed by numerous reviews. the most widely used toxicology textbook, casarett and doull β s toxicology uses " toxic metal " not " heavy metals ". nevertheless many scientific and science related articles continue to use " heavy metal " as a term for toxic substances. = = major and minor metal toxins = = metals with multiple toxic effects include arsenic ( as ), beryllium ( be ), cadmium ( cd ), chromium ( cr ), lead ( pb ), mercury ( hg ), and nickel ( ni ). elements that are nutritionally essential for animal or plant life but which are considered toxic metals in high doses or other forms include cobalt ( co ), copper ( cu ), iron ( fe ), magnesium ( mg ), manganese ( mn ), molybdenum ( mo ), selenium ( se ), and zinc ( zn ). =
##ted in urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure. only about a third of lead is excreted by a child. continual exposure may result in the bioaccumulation of lead. = = = toxicity = = = lead is a highly poisonous metal ( whether inhaled or swallowed ), affecting almost every organ and system in the human body. at airborne levels of 100 mg / m3, it is immediately dangerous to life and health. most ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream. the primary cause of its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes. it does so by binding to the sulfhydryl groups found on many enzymes, or mimicking and displacing other metals which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions. the essential metals that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc. high levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning ; low levels cause increased susceptibility. = = = effects = = = lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. by mimicking calcium, lead can cross the blood β brain barrier. it degrades the myelin sheaths of neurons, reduces their numbers, interferes with neurotransmission routes, and decreases neuronal growth. in the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin ix, the final step in heme synthesis. this causes ineffective heme synthesis and microcytic anemia. symptoms of lead poisoning include nephropathy, colic - like abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or ankles. small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle - aged and older people, may be apparent and can cause anemia. several studies, mostly cross - sectional, found an association between increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability. in pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. chronic, high - level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males. in a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development ( including that of neurotransmitters ), and the organization of ion channels. early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later childhood. high blood levels are
poisoning is the harmful effect which occurs when toxic substances are introduced into the body. the term " poisoning " is a derivative of poison, a term describing any chemical substance that may harm or kill a living organism upon ingestion. poisoning can be brought on by swallowing, inhaling, injecting or absorbing toxins through the skin. toxicology is the practice and study of symptoms, mechanisms, diagnoses, and treatments correlated to poisoning. = = levels of exposure = = when a living organism is introduced to a poison, the symptoms that follow successful contact develop in close relation to the degree of exposure. = = = acute exposure = = = acute toxicity / poisoning consists of a living organism being harmfully exposed to poison once or more times during a brief period, with symptoms manifesting within 14 days since administration. = = = chronic exposure = = = chronic toxicity / poisoning involves a living organism being exposed to a toxin on multiple instances over an extended period of time, whereas the symptoms either develop gradually or after a protracted latent period. chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate, or are biomagnified, such as mercury, gadolinium, and lead. = = methods of poisoning = = = = = accidental poisoning = = = in 2020, america's poison centers'npds ( national poison data system ) report determined that 76. 9 % of recorded toxin exposures were accidental, with the rest of the statistics either being deliberate or unexpected. a large portion of these accidental incidents occurred due to mistakenly taking the incorrect medicine, or doubling one's dose by mistake. = = = industry and warfare = = = nerve gases are synthetic substances used in industry or warfare that are specifically engineered to bring harm to living organisms. they may paralyze a person in a matter of seconds or cease organ function, quickly resulting in death. they're considered to be biologically derived neurotoxins, which are a genre of toxic agents that act specifically against the nervous system. inhaled or ingested cyanide ( or zyklon b ) was used as a method of execution in gas chambers. this method of poisoning instantly starved the body of energy by inhibiting the enzymes in mitochondria that produce atp. intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration of potassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the united states, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell potential necessary for muscle contraction. = = = pesticide exposure = =
the instrument and method used to take these measurements, including any relevant detection limits ( i. e., the lowest level of a given substance that an instrument or method is capable of detecting ). = = chemical = = chemical hazards are defined in the globally harmonized system and in the european union chemical regulations. they are caused by chemical substances causing significant damage to the environment. the label is particularly applicable towards substances with aquatic toxicity. an example is zinc oxide, a common paint pigment, which is extremely toxic to aquatic life. toxicity or other hazards do not imply an environmental hazard, because elimination by sunlight ( photolysis ), water ( hydrolysis ) or organisms ( biological elimination ) neutralizes many reactive or poisonous substances. persistence towards these elimination mechanisms combined with toxicity gives the substance the ability to do damage in the long term. also, the lack of immediate human toxicity does not mean the substance is environmentally nonhazardous. for example, tanker truck - sized spills of substances such as milk can cause a lot of damage in the local aquatic ecosystems : the added biological oxygen demand causes rapid eutrophication, leading to anoxic conditions in the water body. all hazards in this category are mainly anthropogenic although there exist a number of natural carcinogens and chemical elements like radon and lead may turn up in health - critical concentrations in the natural environment : = = physical = = a physical hazard is a type of occupational hazard that involves environmental hazards that can cause harm with or without contact. below is a list of examples : = = biological = = biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. this can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin ( from a biological source ) that can affect human health. examples include : = = see also = = = = references = =
##acerbate this process by releasing toxic metals trapped in soils. transport through soil can be facilitated by the presence of preferential flow paths ( macropores ) and dissolved organic compounds. plants are exposed to toxic metals through the uptake of water ; animals eat these plants ; ingestion of plant - and animal - based foods are the largest sources of toxic metals in humans. absorption through skin contact, for example from contact with soil, or metal containing toys and jewelry, is another potential source of toxic metal contamination. toxic metals can bioaccumulate in organisms as they are hard to metabolize. = = detrimental effects = = toxic metals " can bind to vital cellular components, such as structural proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids, and interfere with their functioning ". symptoms and effects can vary according to the metal or metal compound, and the dose involved. broadly, long - term exposure to toxic heavy metals can have carcinogenic, central and peripheral nervous system, and circulatory effects. for humans, typical presentations associated with exposure to any of the " classical " toxic heavy metals, or chromium ( another toxic heavy metal ) or arsenic ( a metalloid ), are shown in the table. = = history = = the toxic effects of arsenic, mercury and lead were known to the ancients but methodical studies of the overall toxicity of heavy metals appear to date from only 1868. in that year, wanklyn and chapman speculated on the adverse effects of the heavy metals " arsenic, lead, copper, zinc, iron and manganese " in drinking water. they noted an " absence of investigation " and were reduced to " the necessity of pleading for the collection of data ". in 1884, blake described an apparent connection between toxicity and the atomic weight of an element. the following sections provide historical thumbnails for the " classical " toxic heavy metals ( arsenic, mercury and lead ) and some more recent examples ( chromium and cadmium ). = = = arsenic = = = arsenic, as realgar ( as4s4 ) and orpiment ( as2s3 ), was known in ancient times. strabo ( 64 β 50 bce β c. ad 24? ), a greek geographer and historian, wrote that only slaves were employed in realgar and orpiment mines since they would inevitably die from the toxic effects of the fumes given off from the ores. arsenic - contaminated beer poisoned over 6, 000 people in the manchester area of england in 1900, and
Answer:
|
dead
| 0.3 |
If a person dies from a snake bite, the person was probably bitten by a
0. bull snake
1. python
2. black mamba
3. boa.
appreciable burden of snakebite. in australia, there are many more annual cases of spiderbite and jellyfish envenomation than snakebite ; however, when considering the number of fatal cases, snakebite is the most serious type of envenoming. australia is unique in that it is the only continent where venomous snakes constitute the majority of species. nearly all venomous species in australia are elapids, as vipers are absent from the continent. the brown snakes, death adders, mulga snakes, taipans, and tiger snakes are the five groups that inflict virtually all reported snakebites, although copperheads, rough - scaled snakes, and members of the genus hoplocephalus are also occasionally involved in bites. of the five dangerous groups, the highly venomous eastern brown snake, which is widespread and common in both rural and urban environments, is the most important β it is estimated to be responsible for up to 60 % of all deaths caused by snakebite. in northern australia, sea snakes are common and occasionally inflict bites, although far less frequently than terrestrial snakes. several venomous colubrids exist in australia as well, such as the brown tree snake, although they have geographically limited distributions and only very rarely deliver a medically significant bite. in tasmania and kangaroo island, which have a cooler, moister habitat than mainland australia, the tiger snakes and copperhead snakes inflict the majority of bites. the brown snakes are not present on these islands. despite the fact that many australian snakes have unusually potent venom, wide access to antivenom, which is available for all dangerous species, has made deaths exceedingly rare. it is believed that up to 1, 500 definite or suspected snakebites occur in australia each year, of which about 200 are serious enough to warrant antivenom therapy. approximately 2 to 4 fatalities occur annually. = = europe = = in europe, nearly all of the snakes responsible for venomous bites belong to the viper family, and of these, the coastal viper, nose - horned viper, asp viper, and lataste's viper inflict the majority of bites. although europe has a population of some 731 million people, snake bites are only responsible for between 1 and 7 ( average of 4 ) fatalities each year, largely due to wide access to health care services and antivenom, as well as the relatively mild potency of many native species'venom. even in europe, measurement of the prevalence and
number of these lead to death. central america is home to 23 species of pit vipers, and they inflict the vast majority of reported bites. of these, bothrops asper is the most important species, partly because it is abundant in lowland areas and partly because it is frequently found in agricultural and pastoral areas where humans work. of the elapids, the yellow - bellied sea snake has, very rarely, caused venomous bites, while the coral snakes, although common, inflict only 1 to 2 % of all reported snake bites. of the coral snakes, micrurus nigrocinctus is responsible for the most bites. colubrid species found in central america only cause mild to moderate envenomation in healthy adults, and most of these bites have occurred in humans handling the snakes. panama may have the greatest incidence of snakebites in latin america, while el salvador has the lowest ( mostly because b. asper is not found in this country ). the total number of snakebites in central america is estimated to be 4, 000 to 5, 000, although as in other regions of the world, snakebites are probably underreported. = = south america = = in the neotropics, the lance - headed vipers inflict the majority of fatal bites, although of the many known species, only two, the common lancehead and terciopelo, are responsible for most fatalities. the tropical rattlesnake is another important species. venomous snakebite in central and south america was reviewed extensively by warrell. estimates of the number of deaths resulting from venomous snakebite based on hospital and ministry of health data are underestimates and " notoriously inaccurate ", ranging from 3, 000 - 4, 000 deaths estimated in 1954 to 5, 000 deaths out of 300, 000 bites in 1998. this is because most people in rural areas seek help of traditional shamans instead of modern hospitals. for example, 54 % of patients admitted to hospitals for venomous snakebite in northwestern colombia had already been treated by a shaman. although snakebite risk may be high, tourists and other visitors are rarely bitten. the risk to field biologists working in central america is estimated at one bite per 500, 000 hours of field work. treatment with antivenom has reduced the mortality from e. g. tropical rattlesnake bites in brazil from 72 % to 12 %. amazingly, data from anthropological studies suggest that although snakebite risk
500, 000 hours of field work. treatment with antivenom has reduced the mortality from e. g. tropical rattlesnake bites in brazil from 72 % to 12 %. amazingly, data from anthropological studies suggest that although snakebite risk and death from snakebite are relatively high among forest - dwelling amerindian groups ( 2 - 4 % of all deaths depending on the group ), the majority of members of some of these groups instead die in conflicts with other humans, either outsiders or other amerindians. = = oceans = = most of the pacific islands are free of terrestrial snakes ; however, sea snakes are common in the indian ocean and tropical pacific ocean, but are not found in the atlantic ocean or the caribbean, mediterranean or red seas. while the majority of species live close to shorelines or coral reefs, the fully pelagic yellow - bellied sea snake can be found in the open ocean. over 50 % of bites inflicted by sea snakes, which are generally not aggressive, occur when fishermen attempt to remove snakes which have become tangled in fishing nets. symptoms may appear in as little as 5 minutes or take 8 hours to develop, depending on the species and region of the body bitten. although sea snakes are known for extremely potent venom, about 80 % of reported bites end up being dry. it is estimated that each year 15, 000 to 75, 000 fisherman are bitten by sea snakes. the advent of antivenom and advances in emergency medicine have reduced fatalities to about 3 % of snakebite cases. the highly venomous beaked sea snake is responsible for more than 50 % of all sea snake bites, as well as the majority of envenomings and fatalities. = = gallery = = = = notes = = = = references = = footnotes bibliography
in india each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world. the malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites. in myanmar ( burma ), approximately 70 to 80 % of bites are inflicted by the russell's viper, which is frequently found in rice fields. in japan, the majority of venomous bites are inflicted by the asian pit vipers. in sri lanka, approximately 40 % of bites are caused by the russell's viper, while 35 % are caused by the indian cobra. in thailand, the monocled cobra is responsible for the majority of snakebite fatalities. tea plantations are sometimes associated with elapids such as the common cobras and the king cobra. reports of large man - eating pythons are common in southeast asia, although the threat is typically exaggerated. however, in the philippines, more than a quarter of aeta men ( a modern forest - dwelling hunter - gatherer group ) have reported surviving a reticulated python attack. pythons are nonvenomous ambush predators, and both the aeta and pythons hunt deer, wild pigs, and monkeys, making them competitors and prey. throughout western asia, the species responsible for the majority of bites tend to be more venomous than european snakes, but deaths are infrequent. studies estimate that perhaps 100 fatal bites occur each year. the palestine viper and lebetine viper are the most important species. while larger and more venomous elapids, such as the egyptian cobra, are also found throughout the middle east, these species inflict fewer bites. = = australasia = = the vast majority of venomous snakebites in australasia occur outside of australia, in the surrounding islands. at least 300 envenomations occur each year in papua new guinea, 30 in the solomon islands, and 10 vanuatu. the majority of bites in new guinea are caused by the death adders, and a smaller number by the endemic small - eyed snake and other local species. most of the pacific islands are free of terrestrial snakes, although sea snakes are common in coral reefs. in the oceanian realm, only micronesia and tonga, where at least 10 envenomations occur annually, face an appreciable burden of snakebite. in australia, there are many more annual cases of spiderbite and jellyfish envenomation than snakebite ; however, when considering the number of fatal cases, snakebite is the
1 and 7 ( average of 4 ) fatalities each year, largely due to wide access to health care services and antivenom, as well as the relatively mild potency of many native species'venom. even in europe, measurement of the prevalence and mortality due to venomous snakebite is challenging, and most figures are likely underestimates. the best estimate is that the annual incidence of snakebites in europe ( including european russia and turkey ) is 1. 06 [ 0. 97 β 1. 15 ] per 100, 000 inhabitants, only about 15 % of which are severe bites. the most detailed data on mortality are from france, where 36 people died from venomous snakebite between 1980 and 2008, an annual mortality of 0. 0021 per 100, 000 inhabitants. bites from captive venomous snakes to a very specific and limited population of amateur herpetoculturists, zookeepers, and researchers are an issue in europe, challenging hospital workers with unexpected situations. = = north america = = of the 120 known indigenous snake species in north america, only 20 are venomous to human beings, all belonging to the families viperidae and elapidae. however, in the united states, every state except maine, alaska, and hawaii is home to at least one of 20 venomous snake species. up to 95 % of all snakebite - related deaths in the united states are attributed to the western and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes. further, the majority of bites in the united states occur in the southwestern part of the country, in part because rattlesnake populations in the eastern states are much lower. the national average incidence of venomous snake bites in the united states is roughly 4 bites per 100, 000 persons, and about 5 deaths per year total ( 1 death per 65 million people ). the state of north carolina has the highest frequency of reported snakebites, averaging approximately 19 bites per 100, 000 persons. fewer than 1 % of venomous snakebites in the united states are caused by coral snakes, the rest being caused by the pit vipers ( rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths ). mexico is estimated to have at least 28, 000 snake envenomings annually, although only a small number of these lead to death. central america is home to 23 species of pit vipers, and they inflict the vast majority of reported bites. of these, bothrops asper is the most important species, partly because it is abundant in
Answer:
|
black mamba
| null |
If a person dies from a snake bite, the person was probably bitten by a
0. bull snake
1. python
2. black mamba
3. boa.
appreciable burden of snakebite. in australia, there are many more annual cases of spiderbite and jellyfish envenomation than snakebite ; however, when considering the number of fatal cases, snakebite is the most serious type of envenoming. australia is unique in that it is the only continent where venomous snakes constitute the majority of species. nearly all venomous species in australia are elapids, as vipers are absent from the continent. the brown snakes, death adders, mulga snakes, taipans, and tiger snakes are the five groups that inflict virtually all reported snakebites, although copperheads, rough - scaled snakes, and members of the genus hoplocephalus are also occasionally involved in bites. of the five dangerous groups, the highly venomous eastern brown snake, which is widespread and common in both rural and urban environments, is the most important β it is estimated to be responsible for up to 60 % of all deaths caused by snakebite. in northern australia, sea snakes are common and occasionally inflict bites, although far less frequently than terrestrial snakes. several venomous colubrids exist in australia as well, such as the brown tree snake, although they have geographically limited distributions and only very rarely deliver a medically significant bite. in tasmania and kangaroo island, which have a cooler, moister habitat than mainland australia, the tiger snakes and copperhead snakes inflict the majority of bites. the brown snakes are not present on these islands. despite the fact that many australian snakes have unusually potent venom, wide access to antivenom, which is available for all dangerous species, has made deaths exceedingly rare. it is believed that up to 1, 500 definite or suspected snakebites occur in australia each year, of which about 200 are serious enough to warrant antivenom therapy. approximately 2 to 4 fatalities occur annually. = = europe = = in europe, nearly all of the snakes responsible for venomous bites belong to the viper family, and of these, the coastal viper, nose - horned viper, asp viper, and lataste's viper inflict the majority of bites. although europe has a population of some 731 million people, snake bites are only responsible for between 1 and 7 ( average of 4 ) fatalities each year, largely due to wide access to health care services and antivenom, as well as the relatively mild potency of many native species'venom. even in europe, measurement of the prevalence and
number of these lead to death. central america is home to 23 species of pit vipers, and they inflict the vast majority of reported bites. of these, bothrops asper is the most important species, partly because it is abundant in lowland areas and partly because it is frequently found in agricultural and pastoral areas where humans work. of the elapids, the yellow - bellied sea snake has, very rarely, caused venomous bites, while the coral snakes, although common, inflict only 1 to 2 % of all reported snake bites. of the coral snakes, micrurus nigrocinctus is responsible for the most bites. colubrid species found in central america only cause mild to moderate envenomation in healthy adults, and most of these bites have occurred in humans handling the snakes. panama may have the greatest incidence of snakebites in latin america, while el salvador has the lowest ( mostly because b. asper is not found in this country ). the total number of snakebites in central america is estimated to be 4, 000 to 5, 000, although as in other regions of the world, snakebites are probably underreported. = = south america = = in the neotropics, the lance - headed vipers inflict the majority of fatal bites, although of the many known species, only two, the common lancehead and terciopelo, are responsible for most fatalities. the tropical rattlesnake is another important species. venomous snakebite in central and south america was reviewed extensively by warrell. estimates of the number of deaths resulting from venomous snakebite based on hospital and ministry of health data are underestimates and " notoriously inaccurate ", ranging from 3, 000 - 4, 000 deaths estimated in 1954 to 5, 000 deaths out of 300, 000 bites in 1998. this is because most people in rural areas seek help of traditional shamans instead of modern hospitals. for example, 54 % of patients admitted to hospitals for venomous snakebite in northwestern colombia had already been treated by a shaman. although snakebite risk may be high, tourists and other visitors are rarely bitten. the risk to field biologists working in central america is estimated at one bite per 500, 000 hours of field work. treatment with antivenom has reduced the mortality from e. g. tropical rattlesnake bites in brazil from 72 % to 12 %. amazingly, data from anthropological studies suggest that although snakebite risk
500, 000 hours of field work. treatment with antivenom has reduced the mortality from e. g. tropical rattlesnake bites in brazil from 72 % to 12 %. amazingly, data from anthropological studies suggest that although snakebite risk and death from snakebite are relatively high among forest - dwelling amerindian groups ( 2 - 4 % of all deaths depending on the group ), the majority of members of some of these groups instead die in conflicts with other humans, either outsiders or other amerindians. = = oceans = = most of the pacific islands are free of terrestrial snakes ; however, sea snakes are common in the indian ocean and tropical pacific ocean, but are not found in the atlantic ocean or the caribbean, mediterranean or red seas. while the majority of species live close to shorelines or coral reefs, the fully pelagic yellow - bellied sea snake can be found in the open ocean. over 50 % of bites inflicted by sea snakes, which are generally not aggressive, occur when fishermen attempt to remove snakes which have become tangled in fishing nets. symptoms may appear in as little as 5 minutes or take 8 hours to develop, depending on the species and region of the body bitten. although sea snakes are known for extremely potent venom, about 80 % of reported bites end up being dry. it is estimated that each year 15, 000 to 75, 000 fisherman are bitten by sea snakes. the advent of antivenom and advances in emergency medicine have reduced fatalities to about 3 % of snakebite cases. the highly venomous beaked sea snake is responsible for more than 50 % of all sea snake bites, as well as the majority of envenomings and fatalities. = = gallery = = = = notes = = = = references = = footnotes bibliography
in india each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world. the malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites. in myanmar ( burma ), approximately 70 to 80 % of bites are inflicted by the russell's viper, which is frequently found in rice fields. in japan, the majority of venomous bites are inflicted by the asian pit vipers. in sri lanka, approximately 40 % of bites are caused by the russell's viper, while 35 % are caused by the indian cobra. in thailand, the monocled cobra is responsible for the majority of snakebite fatalities. tea plantations are sometimes associated with elapids such as the common cobras and the king cobra. reports of large man - eating pythons are common in southeast asia, although the threat is typically exaggerated. however, in the philippines, more than a quarter of aeta men ( a modern forest - dwelling hunter - gatherer group ) have reported surviving a reticulated python attack. pythons are nonvenomous ambush predators, and both the aeta and pythons hunt deer, wild pigs, and monkeys, making them competitors and prey. throughout western asia, the species responsible for the majority of bites tend to be more venomous than european snakes, but deaths are infrequent. studies estimate that perhaps 100 fatal bites occur each year. the palestine viper and lebetine viper are the most important species. while larger and more venomous elapids, such as the egyptian cobra, are also found throughout the middle east, these species inflict fewer bites. = = australasia = = the vast majority of venomous snakebites in australasia occur outside of australia, in the surrounding islands. at least 300 envenomations occur each year in papua new guinea, 30 in the solomon islands, and 10 vanuatu. the majority of bites in new guinea are caused by the death adders, and a smaller number by the endemic small - eyed snake and other local species. most of the pacific islands are free of terrestrial snakes, although sea snakes are common in coral reefs. in the oceanian realm, only micronesia and tonga, where at least 10 envenomations occur annually, face an appreciable burden of snakebite. in australia, there are many more annual cases of spiderbite and jellyfish envenomation than snakebite ; however, when considering the number of fatal cases, snakebite is the
1 and 7 ( average of 4 ) fatalities each year, largely due to wide access to health care services and antivenom, as well as the relatively mild potency of many native species'venom. even in europe, measurement of the prevalence and mortality due to venomous snakebite is challenging, and most figures are likely underestimates. the best estimate is that the annual incidence of snakebites in europe ( including european russia and turkey ) is 1. 06 [ 0. 97 β 1. 15 ] per 100, 000 inhabitants, only about 15 % of which are severe bites. the most detailed data on mortality are from france, where 36 people died from venomous snakebite between 1980 and 2008, an annual mortality of 0. 0021 per 100, 000 inhabitants. bites from captive venomous snakes to a very specific and limited population of amateur herpetoculturists, zookeepers, and researchers are an issue in europe, challenging hospital workers with unexpected situations. = = north america = = of the 120 known indigenous snake species in north america, only 20 are venomous to human beings, all belonging to the families viperidae and elapidae. however, in the united states, every state except maine, alaska, and hawaii is home to at least one of 20 venomous snake species. up to 95 % of all snakebite - related deaths in the united states are attributed to the western and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes. further, the majority of bites in the united states occur in the southwestern part of the country, in part because rattlesnake populations in the eastern states are much lower. the national average incidence of venomous snake bites in the united states is roughly 4 bites per 100, 000 persons, and about 5 deaths per year total ( 1 death per 65 million people ). the state of north carolina has the highest frequency of reported snakebites, averaging approximately 19 bites per 100, 000 persons. fewer than 1 % of venomous snakebites in the united states are caused by coral snakes, the rest being caused by the pit vipers ( rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths ). mexico is estimated to have at least 28, 000 snake envenomings annually, although only a small number of these lead to death. central america is home to 23 species of pit vipers, and they inflict the vast majority of reported bites. of these, bothrops asper is the most important species, partly because it is abundant in
Answer:
|
bull snake
| 0.3 |
A lion with bones protruding from underneath its fur has been
0. in a wardrobe
1. overfed
2. animated
3. underfed
foundation dedicated to conservation of extant species with one of their first projects being the vaquita. in addition to using technology to monitor the final remaining individuals, they aim to collect tissue samples from vaquitas in order to revive it if it does become extinct in the near future. irish elk β the largest deer to have ever lived, formerly inhabiting eurasia from present day ireland to present day siberia during the pleistocene. it became extinct 5 β 10 thousand years ago due to suspected overhunting from humans. cave lion β a species of panthera related to the modern lion found throughout the holarctic during the pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 14 - 15 thousand years ago due to climate change and low genetic diversity. the discovery of well - preserved cubs in the sakha republic, russia ignited a project to clone the animal. cave hyena β a species or subspecies of hyena that was endemic to eurasia during the pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 31 thousand years ago due to competition with early humans and other carnivores and decreased availability of prey. castoroides β an entire genus of giant beavers endemic to north america during the pleistocene. it is unknown how the species died out, but some suggest that climate change and competition are factors. beth shapiro of colossal biosciences has expressed interest in reviving a species from this genus. steppe bison β the ancestor species of all modern american bison, formerly endemic to western europe to eastern beringia in north america during the late pleistocene. the discovery of the mummified steppe bison of 9, 000 years ago could help people clone the ancient bison species back, even though the steppe bison would not be the first to be " resurrected ". russian and south korean scientists are collaborating to clone steppe bison in the future using dna preserved from an 8, 000 - year - old tail and wood bison as a surrogate species, which themselves have been introduced to yakutia to fulfil a similar niche. longhorn bison β also known as the giant bison, a species of bison native to north america from southern canada to mexico during the late pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 13, 000 years ago, possibly due to pressure from early humans and overhunting. ground sloths β an extremely diverse group of sloths native to the americas during the pleistocene with some growing to the size of modern elephants. ground sloths died out on the mainland 11 thousand years ago, but relict populations in the caribbean survived until about
lion algorithm ( la ) is one among the bio - inspired ( or ) nature - inspired optimization algorithms ( or ) that are mainly based on meta - heuristic principles. it was first introduced by b. r. rajakumar in 2012 in the name, lion β s algorithm. it was further extended in 2014 to solve the system identification problem. this version was referred as la, which has been applied by many researchers for their optimization problems. = = inspiration from lion β s social behaviour = = lions form a social system called a " pride ", which consists of 1 β 3 pair of lions. a pride of lions shares a common area known as territory in which a dominant lion is called as territorial lion. the territorial lion safeguards its territory from outside attackers, especially nomadic lions. this process is called territorial defense. it protects the cubs till they become sexually matured. the maturity period is about 2 β 4 years. the pride undergoes survival fights to protect its territory and the cubs from nomadic lions. upon getting defeated by the nomadic lions, the dominating nomadic lion takes the role of territorial lion by killing or driving out the cubs of the pride. the lioness of the pride give birth to cubs though the new territorial lion. when the cubs of the pride mature and considered to be stronger than the territorial lion, they take over the pride. this process is called territorial take - over. if territorial take - over happens, either the old territorial lion, which is considered to be laggard, is driven out or it leaves the pride. the stronger lions and lioness form the new pride and give birth to their own cubs = = terminology = = in the la, the terms that are associated with lion β s social system are mapped to the terminology of optimization problems. few of such notable terms are related here. lion : a potential solution to be generated or determined as optimal ( or ) near - optimal solution of the problem. the lion can be a territorial lion and lioness, cubs and nomadic lions that represent the solution based on the processing steps of the la. territorial lion : the strongest solution of the pride that tends to meet the objective function. nomadic lion : a random solution, sometimes termed as nomad, to facilitate the exploration principle laggard lion : poor solutions that are failed in the survival fight. pride : a pool of potential solutions i. e. a lion, lioness and their cubs, that are potential solutions of the search problem. fertility evaluation : a process of evaluating whether the territorial lion and lioness are able
wolf have mixed reputations. the fox was a symbol of fertility in ancient greece, but a weather demon in northern europe, and a creature of the devil in early christianity ; the fox is presented as sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from aesop onwards. the big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as little red riding hood, but is a demonic figure in the icelandic edda sagas, where the wolf fenrir appears in the apocalyptic ending of the world. in the middle ages, belief spread in werewolves, men transformed into wolves. in ancient rome, and in ancient egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she - wolf appearing in the founding myth of rome, suckling romulus and remus. more recently, in rudyard kipling's 1894 the jungle book, mowgli is raised by the wolf pack. attitudes to large predators in north america, such as wolf, grizzly bear and cougar, have shifted from hostility or ambivalence, accompanied by active persecution, towards positive and protective in the second half of the 20th century. = = see also = = ecology of fear predation problem predator β prey reversal prey naivete wa - tor cannibalism = = notes = = = = references = = = = sources = = beauchamp, guy ( 2012 ). social predation : how group living benefits predators and prey. elsevier. isbn 9780124076549. bell, w. j. ( 2012 ). searching behaviour : the behavioural ecology of finding resources. springer netherlands. isbn 9789401130981. caro, tim ( 2005 ). antipredator defenses in birds and mammals. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 09436 - 6. cott, hugh b. ( 1940 ). adaptive coloration in animals. methuen. oclc 974070031. jacobs, david steve ; bastian, anna ( 2017 ). predator - prey interactions : co - evolution between bats and their prey. springer. isbn 9783319324920. rockwood, larry l. ( 2009 ). introduction to population ecology. john wiley & sons. p. 281. isbn 9781444309102. ruxton, graeme d. ; sherratt, tom n. ; speed, michael p. ( 2004 ). avoiding attack : the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals, and mimicry. oxford university press. isbn 978019852859
= = = = = list of dolichocephalic felines = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic leporids = = = = english spot english lop belgian hare all true hares = = = = other = = = = = = see also = = cephalic index in cats and dogs craniometry phrenology human skull = = references = = = = external links = = cephalic index brachycephalic experienced veterinarians database archived 30 august 2007 at the wayback machine
) is a major theme of the 1994 film, the lion king. in one scene, the character mufasa describes to his son simba how everything exists in a state of delicate balance. the character agent smith, in the 1999 film the matrix, describes humanity as a virus, claiming that humans fail to reach an equilibrium with their surrounding environment ; unlike other mammals. the disruption of the balance of nature is a common theme in hayao miyazaki's films : nausicaa of the valley of the wind, released in 1984, is set in a post - apocalyptic world where humans have upset the balance of nature through war ; the 1997 film princess mononoke, depicts irresponsible activities by humans as having damaged the balance of nature ; in the 2008 film ponyo, the titular character disturbs the balance of nature when she seeks to become human. the titular character of the 2014 film godzilla fights other sea monsters known as " mutos " in a bid to restore the balance of nature. in the 2018 film avengers : infinity war, the villain thanos seeks to restore the balance of nature by eliminating half of the beings in the universe. = = see also = = ecological footprint social metabolism = = references = =
Answer:
|
underfed
| null |
A lion with bones protruding from underneath its fur has been
0. in a wardrobe
1. overfed
2. animated
3. underfed
foundation dedicated to conservation of extant species with one of their first projects being the vaquita. in addition to using technology to monitor the final remaining individuals, they aim to collect tissue samples from vaquitas in order to revive it if it does become extinct in the near future. irish elk β the largest deer to have ever lived, formerly inhabiting eurasia from present day ireland to present day siberia during the pleistocene. it became extinct 5 β 10 thousand years ago due to suspected overhunting from humans. cave lion β a species of panthera related to the modern lion found throughout the holarctic during the pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 14 - 15 thousand years ago due to climate change and low genetic diversity. the discovery of well - preserved cubs in the sakha republic, russia ignited a project to clone the animal. cave hyena β a species or subspecies of hyena that was endemic to eurasia during the pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 31 thousand years ago due to competition with early humans and other carnivores and decreased availability of prey. castoroides β an entire genus of giant beavers endemic to north america during the pleistocene. it is unknown how the species died out, but some suggest that climate change and competition are factors. beth shapiro of colossal biosciences has expressed interest in reviving a species from this genus. steppe bison β the ancestor species of all modern american bison, formerly endemic to western europe to eastern beringia in north america during the late pleistocene. the discovery of the mummified steppe bison of 9, 000 years ago could help people clone the ancient bison species back, even though the steppe bison would not be the first to be " resurrected ". russian and south korean scientists are collaborating to clone steppe bison in the future using dna preserved from an 8, 000 - year - old tail and wood bison as a surrogate species, which themselves have been introduced to yakutia to fulfil a similar niche. longhorn bison β also known as the giant bison, a species of bison native to north america from southern canada to mexico during the late pleistocene. it is estimated that the species died out 13, 000 years ago, possibly due to pressure from early humans and overhunting. ground sloths β an extremely diverse group of sloths native to the americas during the pleistocene with some growing to the size of modern elephants. ground sloths died out on the mainland 11 thousand years ago, but relict populations in the caribbean survived until about
lion algorithm ( la ) is one among the bio - inspired ( or ) nature - inspired optimization algorithms ( or ) that are mainly based on meta - heuristic principles. it was first introduced by b. r. rajakumar in 2012 in the name, lion β s algorithm. it was further extended in 2014 to solve the system identification problem. this version was referred as la, which has been applied by many researchers for their optimization problems. = = inspiration from lion β s social behaviour = = lions form a social system called a " pride ", which consists of 1 β 3 pair of lions. a pride of lions shares a common area known as territory in which a dominant lion is called as territorial lion. the territorial lion safeguards its territory from outside attackers, especially nomadic lions. this process is called territorial defense. it protects the cubs till they become sexually matured. the maturity period is about 2 β 4 years. the pride undergoes survival fights to protect its territory and the cubs from nomadic lions. upon getting defeated by the nomadic lions, the dominating nomadic lion takes the role of territorial lion by killing or driving out the cubs of the pride. the lioness of the pride give birth to cubs though the new territorial lion. when the cubs of the pride mature and considered to be stronger than the territorial lion, they take over the pride. this process is called territorial take - over. if territorial take - over happens, either the old territorial lion, which is considered to be laggard, is driven out or it leaves the pride. the stronger lions and lioness form the new pride and give birth to their own cubs = = terminology = = in the la, the terms that are associated with lion β s social system are mapped to the terminology of optimization problems. few of such notable terms are related here. lion : a potential solution to be generated or determined as optimal ( or ) near - optimal solution of the problem. the lion can be a territorial lion and lioness, cubs and nomadic lions that represent the solution based on the processing steps of the la. territorial lion : the strongest solution of the pride that tends to meet the objective function. nomadic lion : a random solution, sometimes termed as nomad, to facilitate the exploration principle laggard lion : poor solutions that are failed in the survival fight. pride : a pool of potential solutions i. e. a lion, lioness and their cubs, that are potential solutions of the search problem. fertility evaluation : a process of evaluating whether the territorial lion and lioness are able
wolf have mixed reputations. the fox was a symbol of fertility in ancient greece, but a weather demon in northern europe, and a creature of the devil in early christianity ; the fox is presented as sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from aesop onwards. the big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as little red riding hood, but is a demonic figure in the icelandic edda sagas, where the wolf fenrir appears in the apocalyptic ending of the world. in the middle ages, belief spread in werewolves, men transformed into wolves. in ancient rome, and in ancient egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she - wolf appearing in the founding myth of rome, suckling romulus and remus. more recently, in rudyard kipling's 1894 the jungle book, mowgli is raised by the wolf pack. attitudes to large predators in north america, such as wolf, grizzly bear and cougar, have shifted from hostility or ambivalence, accompanied by active persecution, towards positive and protective in the second half of the 20th century. = = see also = = ecology of fear predation problem predator β prey reversal prey naivete wa - tor cannibalism = = notes = = = = references = = = = sources = = beauchamp, guy ( 2012 ). social predation : how group living benefits predators and prey. elsevier. isbn 9780124076549. bell, w. j. ( 2012 ). searching behaviour : the behavioural ecology of finding resources. springer netherlands. isbn 9789401130981. caro, tim ( 2005 ). antipredator defenses in birds and mammals. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 09436 - 6. cott, hugh b. ( 1940 ). adaptive coloration in animals. methuen. oclc 974070031. jacobs, david steve ; bastian, anna ( 2017 ). predator - prey interactions : co - evolution between bats and their prey. springer. isbn 9783319324920. rockwood, larry l. ( 2009 ). introduction to population ecology. john wiley & sons. p. 281. isbn 9781444309102. ruxton, graeme d. ; sherratt, tom n. ; speed, michael p. ( 2004 ). avoiding attack : the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals, and mimicry. oxford university press. isbn 978019852859
= = = = = list of dolichocephalic felines = = = = = = = = list of dolichocephalic leporids = = = = english spot english lop belgian hare all true hares = = = = other = = = = = = see also = = cephalic index in cats and dogs craniometry phrenology human skull = = references = = = = external links = = cephalic index brachycephalic experienced veterinarians database archived 30 august 2007 at the wayback machine
) is a major theme of the 1994 film, the lion king. in one scene, the character mufasa describes to his son simba how everything exists in a state of delicate balance. the character agent smith, in the 1999 film the matrix, describes humanity as a virus, claiming that humans fail to reach an equilibrium with their surrounding environment ; unlike other mammals. the disruption of the balance of nature is a common theme in hayao miyazaki's films : nausicaa of the valley of the wind, released in 1984, is set in a post - apocalyptic world where humans have upset the balance of nature through war ; the 1997 film princess mononoke, depicts irresponsible activities by humans as having damaged the balance of nature ; in the 2008 film ponyo, the titular character disturbs the balance of nature when she seeks to become human. the titular character of the 2014 film godzilla fights other sea monsters known as " mutos " in a bid to restore the balance of nature. in the 2018 film avengers : infinity war, the villain thanos seeks to restore the balance of nature by eliminating half of the beings in the universe. = = see also = = ecological footprint social metabolism = = references = =
Answer:
|
in a wardrobe
| 0.3 |
If your dog is getting noticeably skinnier, you need to
0. increase its food intake
1. play some video games
2. feed it less food
3. Make it fly away
" inflammatory bowel disease " in dogs because it differs from ibd in humans in how the dogs respond to treatment. for example, many dogs respond to only dietary changes compared to humans with ibd, who often need immunosuppressive treatment. some dogs may also need immunosuppressant or antibiotic treatment when dietary changes are not enough. after having excluded other diseases that can lead to vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain in dogs, intestinal biopsies are often performed to investigate what kind of inflammation is occurring ( lymphoplasmacytic, eosinophilic, or granulomatous ). in dogs, low levels of cobalamin in the blood have been shown to be a risk factor for negative outcome. = = see also = = inflammatory bowel disease - 22 world inflammatory bowel disease day = = references = = = = external links = = media related to inflammatory bowel diseases at wikimedia commons
##ine. for example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling house sparrows ( passer domesticus ) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates ; this diet change is accompanied by two - fold increase in the activity of the enzyme maltase, which digests carbohydrates. acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase - n, which digests proteins. poor quality diets ( those that contain a large amount of non - digestible material ) have lower concentrations of nutrients, so animals must process a greater total volume of poor - quality food to extract the same amount of energy as they would from a high - quality diet. many species respond to poor quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract ( e. g. prairie voles, mongolian gerbils, japanese quail, wood ducks, mallards ). poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, which can cause a decrease in the activity of several digestive enzymes. animals often consume more food during periods of high energy demand ( e. g. lactation or cold exposure in endotherms ), this is facilitated by an increase in digestive organ size and capacity, which is similar to the phenotype produced by poor quality diets. during lactation, common degus ( octodon degus ) increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15 β 35 %. increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of digestive enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal lumen are determined by food quality and remain unaffected. intermittent feeding also represents a temporal increase in food intake and can induce dramatic changes in the size of the gut ; the burmese python ( python molurus bivittatus ) can triple the size of its small intestine just a few days after feeding. amy2b ( alpha - amylase 2b ) is a gene that codes a protein that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen. an expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch - rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture. data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just two copies of the gene and
in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired. = = = specific advantages = = = the individual components of sickness behavior have specific individual advantages. anorexia limits food ingestion and therefore reduces the availability of iron in the gut ( and from gut absorption ). iron may aid bacterial reproduction, so its reduction is useful during sickness. plasma concentrations of iron are lowered for this anti - bacterial reason in fever. lowered threshold for pain ensures that an animal is attentive that it does not place pressure on injured and inflamed tissues that might disrupt their healing. reduced grooming is adaptive since it reduces water loss. = = = inclusive fitness advantages = = = according to the'eyam hypothesis ', sickness behavior, by promoting immobility and social disinterest, limits the direct contacts of individuals with their relatives. by reducing eating and drinking, it limits diarrhea and defecation, reducing environmental contamination. by reducing self - grooming and changing stance, gait and vocalization, it also signals poor health to kin. all in all, sickness behavior reduces the rate of further infection, a trait that is likely propagated by kin selection. = = = social advantage = = = humans helped each other in case of sickness or injury throughout their hunter - gatherer past and afterwards. convincing others of being badly in need of relief, assistance, and care heightened the chance of survival of the sick individual. high direct costs, such as energy spent on fever and potential harm caused by high body temperatures, and high opportunity costs, as caused by inactivity, social disinterest, and lack of appetite, make sickness behavior a highly costly and therefore credible signal of need. = = immune control = = lipopolysaccharides trigger the immune system to produce proinflammatory cytokines il - 1, il - 6, and tumor necrosis factor ( tnf ). these peripherally released cytokines act on the brain via a fast transmission pathway involving primary input through the vagus nerves, and a slow transmission pathway involving cytokines originating from the choroid plexus and circumventricular organs and diffusing into the brain parenchyma by volume transmission. peripheral cytokines are capable of entering the brain directly but
common. the muscles of the heart will also start to change if no treatment is inflicted on the patient. this causes the heart to have an abnormally slow heart rate along with low blood pressure. heart failure becomes a major consideration when this begins to occur. muscles throughout the body begin to lose their strength. this will cause the individual to begin feeling faint, drowsy, and weak. along with these symptoms, the body will begin to grow a layer of hair called lanugo. the human body does this in response to the lack of heat and insulation due to the low percentage of body fat. bulimia symptoms include heart problems like an irregular heartbeat that can lead to heart failure and death may occur. this occurs because of the electrolyte imbalance that is a result of the constant binge and purge process. the probability of a gastric rupture increases. a gastric rupture is when there is a sudden rupture of the stomach lining that can be fatal. the acids that are contained in the vomit can cause a rupture in the esophagus as well as tooth decay. as a result, to laxative abuse, irregular bowel movements may occur along with constipation. sores along the lining of the stomach called peptic ulcers begin to appear and the chance of developing pancreatitis increases. binge eating symptoms include high blood pressure, which can cause heart disease if it is not treated. many patients recognize an increase in the levels of cholesterol. the chance of being diagnosed with gallbladder disease increases, which affects an individual's digestive tract. = = = risk of death = = = eating disorders result in about 7, 000 deaths a year as of 2010, making them the mental illnesses with the highest mortality rate. anorexia has a risk of death that is increased about 5 fold with 20 % of these deaths as a result of suicide. rates of death in bulimia and other disorders are similar at about a 2 fold increase. the mortality rate for those with anorexia is 5. 4 per 1000 individuals per year. roughly 1. 3 deaths were due to suicide. a person who is or had been in an inpatient setting had a rate of 4. 6 deaths per 1000. of individuals with bulimia about 2 persons per 1000 persons die per year and among those with ednos about 3. 3 per 1000 people die per year. = = epidemiology = = it is a common misconception that
benadryl, claritin, and allegra, and nasal corticosteroids, such as flonase and afrin. however, it is important to consult a doctor before taking any new medications. otc medications may not work for every child, but a doctor may be able to prescribe a different, stronger medication or alternative treatment. immunotherapy in the form of allergy shots is one alternative treatment. if the child β s reactions cannot be maintained using these methods, it may be better to find a new home for the pet and get a different one. for other indoor allergies, thoroughly clean the house, bedding, and stuffed animals frequently. using special hypoallergenic furniture and covers for bedding, trading carpet for hardwood flooring, dehumidifying, and letting in sunlight may also help with some allergens. if present, cockroaches, mice, and rats should be controlled to reduce symptoms as well. outdoor allergy symptoms can be managed by strategically planning outdoor play time, removing shoes and clothes and bathing after playing outside, keeping car and house windows closed and using the air conditioning, planting an allergy - friendly yard for kids, and keeping allergy medicine handy. it may also help to keep leaves and grass clippings away from the house, keep trees and bushes trimmed, and avoid drying clothes on outdoor clotheslines. allergy shots are another possible means of management / treatment for these allergies as well, if necessary. reactions to food allergens can also be prevented in multiple ways. one of these ways is avoiding cross contamination of allergens into safe foods. keeping hands / gloves, utensils, surfaces, etc. clean is important. another effective way to avoid these allergens is to read food labels on everything that has one that may be ingested. if a product contains or may contain one of the major nine allergens, the food labels are required to have a special note to inform potential consumers. other preventative measures include informing the child, relatives, babysitters, teachers, and any other care givers of the child β s allergy and ways to avoid / treat it and avoiding any foods that you are unsure of that were made by others. this could be food at school, a restaurant, or any social gathering. for bug bite / sting and skin allergens, using fragrance - free skincare products, keeping the skin moisturized, using insect repellent, and wearing protective
Answer:
|
increase its food intake
| null |
If your dog is getting noticeably skinnier, you need to
0. increase its food intake
1. play some video games
2. feed it less food
3. Make it fly away
" inflammatory bowel disease " in dogs because it differs from ibd in humans in how the dogs respond to treatment. for example, many dogs respond to only dietary changes compared to humans with ibd, who often need immunosuppressive treatment. some dogs may also need immunosuppressant or antibiotic treatment when dietary changes are not enough. after having excluded other diseases that can lead to vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain in dogs, intestinal biopsies are often performed to investigate what kind of inflammation is occurring ( lymphoplasmacytic, eosinophilic, or granulomatous ). in dogs, low levels of cobalamin in the blood have been shown to be a risk factor for negative outcome. = = see also = = inflammatory bowel disease - 22 world inflammatory bowel disease day = = references = = = = external links = = media related to inflammatory bowel diseases at wikimedia commons
##ine. for example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling house sparrows ( passer domesticus ) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates ; this diet change is accompanied by two - fold increase in the activity of the enzyme maltase, which digests carbohydrates. acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase - n, which digests proteins. poor quality diets ( those that contain a large amount of non - digestible material ) have lower concentrations of nutrients, so animals must process a greater total volume of poor - quality food to extract the same amount of energy as they would from a high - quality diet. many species respond to poor quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract ( e. g. prairie voles, mongolian gerbils, japanese quail, wood ducks, mallards ). poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, which can cause a decrease in the activity of several digestive enzymes. animals often consume more food during periods of high energy demand ( e. g. lactation or cold exposure in endotherms ), this is facilitated by an increase in digestive organ size and capacity, which is similar to the phenotype produced by poor quality diets. during lactation, common degus ( octodon degus ) increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15 β 35 %. increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of digestive enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal lumen are determined by food quality and remain unaffected. intermittent feeding also represents a temporal increase in food intake and can induce dramatic changes in the size of the gut ; the burmese python ( python molurus bivittatus ) can triple the size of its small intestine just a few days after feeding. amy2b ( alpha - amylase 2b ) is a gene that codes a protein that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen. an expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch - rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture. data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just two copies of the gene and
in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired. = = = specific advantages = = = the individual components of sickness behavior have specific individual advantages. anorexia limits food ingestion and therefore reduces the availability of iron in the gut ( and from gut absorption ). iron may aid bacterial reproduction, so its reduction is useful during sickness. plasma concentrations of iron are lowered for this anti - bacterial reason in fever. lowered threshold for pain ensures that an animal is attentive that it does not place pressure on injured and inflamed tissues that might disrupt their healing. reduced grooming is adaptive since it reduces water loss. = = = inclusive fitness advantages = = = according to the'eyam hypothesis ', sickness behavior, by promoting immobility and social disinterest, limits the direct contacts of individuals with their relatives. by reducing eating and drinking, it limits diarrhea and defecation, reducing environmental contamination. by reducing self - grooming and changing stance, gait and vocalization, it also signals poor health to kin. all in all, sickness behavior reduces the rate of further infection, a trait that is likely propagated by kin selection. = = = social advantage = = = humans helped each other in case of sickness or injury throughout their hunter - gatherer past and afterwards. convincing others of being badly in need of relief, assistance, and care heightened the chance of survival of the sick individual. high direct costs, such as energy spent on fever and potential harm caused by high body temperatures, and high opportunity costs, as caused by inactivity, social disinterest, and lack of appetite, make sickness behavior a highly costly and therefore credible signal of need. = = immune control = = lipopolysaccharides trigger the immune system to produce proinflammatory cytokines il - 1, il - 6, and tumor necrosis factor ( tnf ). these peripherally released cytokines act on the brain via a fast transmission pathway involving primary input through the vagus nerves, and a slow transmission pathway involving cytokines originating from the choroid plexus and circumventricular organs and diffusing into the brain parenchyma by volume transmission. peripheral cytokines are capable of entering the brain directly but
common. the muscles of the heart will also start to change if no treatment is inflicted on the patient. this causes the heart to have an abnormally slow heart rate along with low blood pressure. heart failure becomes a major consideration when this begins to occur. muscles throughout the body begin to lose their strength. this will cause the individual to begin feeling faint, drowsy, and weak. along with these symptoms, the body will begin to grow a layer of hair called lanugo. the human body does this in response to the lack of heat and insulation due to the low percentage of body fat. bulimia symptoms include heart problems like an irregular heartbeat that can lead to heart failure and death may occur. this occurs because of the electrolyte imbalance that is a result of the constant binge and purge process. the probability of a gastric rupture increases. a gastric rupture is when there is a sudden rupture of the stomach lining that can be fatal. the acids that are contained in the vomit can cause a rupture in the esophagus as well as tooth decay. as a result, to laxative abuse, irregular bowel movements may occur along with constipation. sores along the lining of the stomach called peptic ulcers begin to appear and the chance of developing pancreatitis increases. binge eating symptoms include high blood pressure, which can cause heart disease if it is not treated. many patients recognize an increase in the levels of cholesterol. the chance of being diagnosed with gallbladder disease increases, which affects an individual's digestive tract. = = = risk of death = = = eating disorders result in about 7, 000 deaths a year as of 2010, making them the mental illnesses with the highest mortality rate. anorexia has a risk of death that is increased about 5 fold with 20 % of these deaths as a result of suicide. rates of death in bulimia and other disorders are similar at about a 2 fold increase. the mortality rate for those with anorexia is 5. 4 per 1000 individuals per year. roughly 1. 3 deaths were due to suicide. a person who is or had been in an inpatient setting had a rate of 4. 6 deaths per 1000. of individuals with bulimia about 2 persons per 1000 persons die per year and among those with ednos about 3. 3 per 1000 people die per year. = = epidemiology = = it is a common misconception that
benadryl, claritin, and allegra, and nasal corticosteroids, such as flonase and afrin. however, it is important to consult a doctor before taking any new medications. otc medications may not work for every child, but a doctor may be able to prescribe a different, stronger medication or alternative treatment. immunotherapy in the form of allergy shots is one alternative treatment. if the child β s reactions cannot be maintained using these methods, it may be better to find a new home for the pet and get a different one. for other indoor allergies, thoroughly clean the house, bedding, and stuffed animals frequently. using special hypoallergenic furniture and covers for bedding, trading carpet for hardwood flooring, dehumidifying, and letting in sunlight may also help with some allergens. if present, cockroaches, mice, and rats should be controlled to reduce symptoms as well. outdoor allergy symptoms can be managed by strategically planning outdoor play time, removing shoes and clothes and bathing after playing outside, keeping car and house windows closed and using the air conditioning, planting an allergy - friendly yard for kids, and keeping allergy medicine handy. it may also help to keep leaves and grass clippings away from the house, keep trees and bushes trimmed, and avoid drying clothes on outdoor clotheslines. allergy shots are another possible means of management / treatment for these allergies as well, if necessary. reactions to food allergens can also be prevented in multiple ways. one of these ways is avoiding cross contamination of allergens into safe foods. keeping hands / gloves, utensils, surfaces, etc. clean is important. another effective way to avoid these allergens is to read food labels on everything that has one that may be ingested. if a product contains or may contain one of the major nine allergens, the food labels are required to have a special note to inform potential consumers. other preventative measures include informing the child, relatives, babysitters, teachers, and any other care givers of the child β s allergy and ways to avoid / treat it and avoiding any foods that you are unsure of that were made by others. this could be food at school, a restaurant, or any social gathering. for bug bite / sting and skin allergens, using fragrance - free skincare products, keeping the skin moisturized, using insect repellent, and wearing protective
Answer:
|
feed it less food
| 0.3 |
Dead organisms are the source of what for decomposers?
0. nutriment
1. pride
2. oceans
3. people
plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus - based trophic system. ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms ( plants, animals, and decomposers ) in the ecosystem. net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production ( gpp ) and ecosystem respiration. in the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems ( e. g., from a forest to a stream to a lake ) by erosion. in aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems. in trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. the organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers β herbivores. organisms which feed on microbes ( bacteria and fungi ) are termed microbivores. animals that feed on primary consumers β carnivores β are secondary consumers. each of these constitutes a trophic level. the sequence of consumption β from plant to herbivore, to carnivore β forms a food chain. real systems are much more complex than this β organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant - based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus - based trophic system ( a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus ). real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network. = = = decomposition = = = the carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. this releases nutrients that can then be re - used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere ( or water ) where it can be used for photosynthesis. in the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble
plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus - based trophic system. ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms ( plants, animals, and decomposers ) in the ecosystem. net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production ( gpp ) and ecosystem respiration. in the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems ( e. g., from a forest to a stream to a lake ) by erosion. in aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems. in trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. the organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers β herbivores. organisms which feed on microbes ( bacteria and fungi ) are termed microbivores. animals that feed on primary consumers β carnivores β are secondary consumers. each of these constitutes a trophic level. the sequence of consumption β from plant to herbivore, to carnivore β forms a food chain. real systems are much more complex than this β organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant - based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus - based trophic system ( a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus ). real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network. = = = decomposition = = = the carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. this releases nutrients that can then be re - used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere ( or water ) where it can be used for photosynthesis. in the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble
food web through a process called microbial loop which is essential for nutrient cycling and supporting primary productivity. it also plays a vital role in the global regulation of oceanic carbon storage, as some forms resist microbial degradation and may exist within the ocean for centuries. marine life is similar mainly in biochemistry to terrestrial organisms, and is the most prolific source of halogenated organic compounds. = = = particulate organic matter ( pom ) = = = pom includes of large organic particles, such as organisms, fecal pellets, and detritus, which settle through the water column. it is a major component of the biological pump, a process by which carbon is transferred from the surface ocean to the deep sea. as pom sinks, it decomposes by bacterial activity, releasing nutrients and carbon dioxide. the refractory pom fraction can settle on the ocean floor and make relevant contributions to carbon sequestration over a very long period of time = = chemical ecology of extremophiles = = the ocean is home to a variety of marine organisms known as extremophiles β organisms that thrive in extreme conditions of temperature, pressure, and light availability. extremophiles inhabit many unique habitats in the ocean, such as hydrothermal vents, black smokers, cold seeps, hypersaline regions, and sea ice brine pockets. some scientists have speculated that life may have evolved from hydrothermal vents in the ocean. in hydrothermal vents and similar environments, many extremophiles acquire energy through chemoautotrophy, using chemical compounds as energy sources, rather than light as in photoautotrophy. hydrothermal vents enrich the nearby environment in chemicals such as elemental sulfur, h2, h2s, fe2 +, and methane. chemoautotrophic organisms, primarily prokaryotes, derive energy from these chemicals through redox reactions. these organisms then serve as food sources for higher trophic levels, forming the basis of unique ecosystems. several different metabolisms are present in hydrothermal vent ecosystems. many marine microorganisms, including thiomicrospira, halothiobacillus, and beggiatoa, are capable of oxidizing sulfur compounds, including elemental sulfur and the often toxic compound h2s. h2s is abundant in hydrothermal vents, formed through interactions between seawater and rock at the high temperatures found within vents. this compound is a major energy source, forming the basis of the sulfur cycle
##casses, and may not have needed to consistently hunt in order to survive. the same study suggested that theropods in relatively sauropod - free environments, such as tyrannosaurs, were not exposed to the same type of carrion oversupply, and were therefore forced to hunt in order to survive. animals which consume feces, such as dung beetles, are referred to as coprovores. animals that collect small particles of dead organic material of both animal and plant origin are referred to as detritivores. = = ecological function = = scavengers play a fundamental role in the environment through the removal of decaying organisms, serving as a natural sanitation service. while microscopic and invertebrate decomposers break down dead organisms into simple organic matter which are used by nearby autotrophs, scavengers help conserve energy and nutrients obtained from carrion within the upper trophic levels, and are able to disperse the energy and nutrients farther away from the site of the carrion than decomposers. scavenging unites animals which normally would not come into contact, and results in the formation of highly structured and complex communities which engage in nonrandom interactions. scavenging communities function in the redistribution of energy obtained from carcasses and reducing diseases associated with decomposition. oftentimes, scavenger communities differ in consistency due to carcass size and carcass types, as well as by seasonal effects as consequence of differing invertebrate and microbial activity. competition for carrion results in the inclusion or exclusion of certain scavengers from access to carrion, shaping the scavenger community. when carrion decomposes at a slower rate during cooler seasons, competitions between scavengers decrease, while the number of scavenger species present increases. alterations in scavenging communities may result in drastic changes to the scavenging community in general, reduce ecosystem services and have detrimental effects on animal and humans. the reintroduction of gray wolves ( canis lupus ) into yellowstone national park in the united states caused drastic changes to the prevalent scavenging community, resulting in the provision of carrion to many mammalian and avian species. likewise, the reduction of vulture species in india lead to the increase of opportunistic species such as feral dogs and rats. the presence of both species at carcasses resulted in the increase of diseases such as rabies and bubonic plague in wildlife and livestock, as feral dogs and rats
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
Answer:
|
nutriment
| null |
Dead organisms are the source of what for decomposers?
0. nutriment
1. pride
2. oceans
3. people
plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus - based trophic system. ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms ( plants, animals, and decomposers ) in the ecosystem. net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production ( gpp ) and ecosystem respiration. in the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems ( e. g., from a forest to a stream to a lake ) by erosion. in aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems. in trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. the organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers β herbivores. organisms which feed on microbes ( bacteria and fungi ) are termed microbivores. animals that feed on primary consumers β carnivores β are secondary consumers. each of these constitutes a trophic level. the sequence of consumption β from plant to herbivore, to carnivore β forms a food chain. real systems are much more complex than this β organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant - based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus - based trophic system ( a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus ). real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network. = = = decomposition = = = the carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. this releases nutrients that can then be re - used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere ( or water ) where it can be used for photosynthesis. in the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble
plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus - based trophic system. ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms ( plants, animals, and decomposers ) in the ecosystem. net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production ( gpp ) and ecosystem respiration. in the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems ( e. g., from a forest to a stream to a lake ) by erosion. in aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems. in trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. the organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers β herbivores. organisms which feed on microbes ( bacteria and fungi ) are termed microbivores. animals that feed on primary consumers β carnivores β are secondary consumers. each of these constitutes a trophic level. the sequence of consumption β from plant to herbivore, to carnivore β forms a food chain. real systems are much more complex than this β organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant - based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus - based trophic system ( a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus ). real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network. = = = decomposition = = = the carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. this releases nutrients that can then be re - used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere ( or water ) where it can be used for photosynthesis. in the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble
food web through a process called microbial loop which is essential for nutrient cycling and supporting primary productivity. it also plays a vital role in the global regulation of oceanic carbon storage, as some forms resist microbial degradation and may exist within the ocean for centuries. marine life is similar mainly in biochemistry to terrestrial organisms, and is the most prolific source of halogenated organic compounds. = = = particulate organic matter ( pom ) = = = pom includes of large organic particles, such as organisms, fecal pellets, and detritus, which settle through the water column. it is a major component of the biological pump, a process by which carbon is transferred from the surface ocean to the deep sea. as pom sinks, it decomposes by bacterial activity, releasing nutrients and carbon dioxide. the refractory pom fraction can settle on the ocean floor and make relevant contributions to carbon sequestration over a very long period of time = = chemical ecology of extremophiles = = the ocean is home to a variety of marine organisms known as extremophiles β organisms that thrive in extreme conditions of temperature, pressure, and light availability. extremophiles inhabit many unique habitats in the ocean, such as hydrothermal vents, black smokers, cold seeps, hypersaline regions, and sea ice brine pockets. some scientists have speculated that life may have evolved from hydrothermal vents in the ocean. in hydrothermal vents and similar environments, many extremophiles acquire energy through chemoautotrophy, using chemical compounds as energy sources, rather than light as in photoautotrophy. hydrothermal vents enrich the nearby environment in chemicals such as elemental sulfur, h2, h2s, fe2 +, and methane. chemoautotrophic organisms, primarily prokaryotes, derive energy from these chemicals through redox reactions. these organisms then serve as food sources for higher trophic levels, forming the basis of unique ecosystems. several different metabolisms are present in hydrothermal vent ecosystems. many marine microorganisms, including thiomicrospira, halothiobacillus, and beggiatoa, are capable of oxidizing sulfur compounds, including elemental sulfur and the often toxic compound h2s. h2s is abundant in hydrothermal vents, formed through interactions between seawater and rock at the high temperatures found within vents. this compound is a major energy source, forming the basis of the sulfur cycle
##casses, and may not have needed to consistently hunt in order to survive. the same study suggested that theropods in relatively sauropod - free environments, such as tyrannosaurs, were not exposed to the same type of carrion oversupply, and were therefore forced to hunt in order to survive. animals which consume feces, such as dung beetles, are referred to as coprovores. animals that collect small particles of dead organic material of both animal and plant origin are referred to as detritivores. = = ecological function = = scavengers play a fundamental role in the environment through the removal of decaying organisms, serving as a natural sanitation service. while microscopic and invertebrate decomposers break down dead organisms into simple organic matter which are used by nearby autotrophs, scavengers help conserve energy and nutrients obtained from carrion within the upper trophic levels, and are able to disperse the energy and nutrients farther away from the site of the carrion than decomposers. scavenging unites animals which normally would not come into contact, and results in the formation of highly structured and complex communities which engage in nonrandom interactions. scavenging communities function in the redistribution of energy obtained from carcasses and reducing diseases associated with decomposition. oftentimes, scavenger communities differ in consistency due to carcass size and carcass types, as well as by seasonal effects as consequence of differing invertebrate and microbial activity. competition for carrion results in the inclusion or exclusion of certain scavengers from access to carrion, shaping the scavenger community. when carrion decomposes at a slower rate during cooler seasons, competitions between scavengers decrease, while the number of scavenger species present increases. alterations in scavenging communities may result in drastic changes to the scavenging community in general, reduce ecosystem services and have detrimental effects on animal and humans. the reintroduction of gray wolves ( canis lupus ) into yellowstone national park in the united states caused drastic changes to the prevalent scavenging community, resulting in the provision of carrion to many mammalian and avian species. likewise, the reduction of vulture species in india lead to the increase of opportunistic species such as feral dogs and rats. the presence of both species at carcasses resulted in the increase of diseases such as rabies and bubonic plague in wildlife and livestock, as feral dogs and rats
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
Answer:
|
oceans
| 0.3 |
What is decomposed in decomposition?
0. living creatures
1. lifeless life forms
2. plastics
3. metals
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
process in which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter embalming β method of preserving human remains forensic entomological decomposition β aspect of forensic science maceration ( bone ) β technique to obtain a clean skeleton promession β method of corpse disposal putrefying bacteria β bacteria involved in decay of living matter rancidification β spoilage of fats & oils into foul - smelling substances cotard's syndrome β delusion that one is dead or non - existent = = references = = = = external links = = putrefaction : dr. dinesh rao's forensic pathology the rate of decay in a corpse
they provide direct evidence of evolution and detailed information on the ancestry of organisms. paleontology is the study of past life based on fossil records and their relations to different geologic time periods. for fossilization to take place, the traces and remains of organisms must be quickly buried so that weathering and decomposition do not occur. skeletal structures or other hard parts of the organisms are the most commonly occurring form of fossilized remains. there are also some trace " fossils " showing moulds, cast or imprints of some previous organisms. as an animal dies, the organic materials gradually decay, such that the bones become porous. if the animal is subsequently buried in mud, mineral salts infiltrate into the bones and gradually fill up the pores. the bones harden into stones and are preserved as fossils. this process is known as petrification. if dead animals are covered by wind - blown sand, and if the sand is subsequently turned into mud by heavy rain or floods, the same process of mineral infiltration may occur. apart from petrification, the dead bodies of organisms may be well preserved in ice, in hardened resin of coniferous trees ( figure 3a ), in tar, or in anaerobic, acidic peat. fossilization can sometimes be a trace, an impression of a form. examples include leaves and footprints, the fossils of which are made in layers that then harden. = = = fossil record = = = it is possible to decipher how a particular group of organisms evolved by arranging its fossil record in a chronological sequence. such a sequence can be determined because fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock. sedimentary rock is formed by layers of silt or mud on top of each other ; thus, the resulting rock contains a series of horizontal layers, or strata. each layer contains fossils typical for a specific time period when they formed. the lowest strata contain the oldest rock and the earliest fossils, while the highest strata contain the youngest rock and more recent fossils. a succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. by studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil - bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures. for many years, geologists could only roughly estimate the ages of various strata and the fossils found. they did so, for instance, by estimating the time for the formation of sedimentary rock layer by layer. today
the necrobiome has been defined as the community of species associated with decaying remains after the death of an organism. the process of decomposition is complex. microbes decompose cadavers, but other organisms including fungi, nematodes, insects, and larger scavenger animals also contribute. once the immune system is no longer active, microbes colonizing the intestines and lungs decompose their respective tissues and then travel throughout the body via the circulatory and lymphatic systems to break down other tissue and bone. during this process, gases are released as a by - product and accumulate, causing bloating. eventually, the gases seep through the body's wounds and natural openings, providing a way for some microbes to exit from the inside of the cadaver and inhabit the outside. the microbial communities colonizing the internal organs of a cadaver are referred to as the thanatomicrobiome. the region outside of the cadaver that is exposed to the external environment is referred to as the epinecrotic microbial communities of the necrobiome, and is especially important when determining the time and location of death for an individual. different microbes play specific roles during each stage of the decomposition process. the microbes that colonize the cadaver and the rate of their activity are determined by the cadaver itself and the cadaver's surrounding environmental conditions. = = history = = there is textual evidence that human cadavers were first studied around the third century bc to gain an understanding of human anatomy. many of the first human cadaver studies took place in italy, where the earliest record of determining the cause of death from a human corpse dates back to 1286. however, understanding of the human body progressed slowly, in part because the spread of christianity and other religious beliefs resulted in human dissection becoming illegal. non - human animals only were dissected for anatomical understanding until the 13th century when officials realized human cadavers were necessary for a better understanding of the human body. it was not until 1676 that antonie van leeuwenhoek designed a lens that made it possible to visualize microbes, and not until the late 18th century when microbes were considered useful in understanding the body after death. in modern times, human cadavers are used for research, but other animal models can provide larger sample sizes and produce more controlled studies. microbial colonization between humans and some non - human animals is so similar that those models can
organic pigments derived from breakdown of pigments like hemoglobin, and inorganic salts like carbonates, bicarbonates, and phosphate, whether in ionic or in molecular form, are excreted as solids. animals dispose of solid waste as feces. = = see also = = ammonia poisoning deamination = = references = =
Answer:
|
lifeless life forms
| null |
What is decomposed in decomposition?
0. living creatures
1. lifeless life forms
2. plastics
3. metals
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
process in which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter embalming β method of preserving human remains forensic entomological decomposition β aspect of forensic science maceration ( bone ) β technique to obtain a clean skeleton promession β method of corpse disposal putrefying bacteria β bacteria involved in decay of living matter rancidification β spoilage of fats & oils into foul - smelling substances cotard's syndrome β delusion that one is dead or non - existent = = references = = = = external links = = putrefaction : dr. dinesh rao's forensic pathology the rate of decay in a corpse
they provide direct evidence of evolution and detailed information on the ancestry of organisms. paleontology is the study of past life based on fossil records and their relations to different geologic time periods. for fossilization to take place, the traces and remains of organisms must be quickly buried so that weathering and decomposition do not occur. skeletal structures or other hard parts of the organisms are the most commonly occurring form of fossilized remains. there are also some trace " fossils " showing moulds, cast or imprints of some previous organisms. as an animal dies, the organic materials gradually decay, such that the bones become porous. if the animal is subsequently buried in mud, mineral salts infiltrate into the bones and gradually fill up the pores. the bones harden into stones and are preserved as fossils. this process is known as petrification. if dead animals are covered by wind - blown sand, and if the sand is subsequently turned into mud by heavy rain or floods, the same process of mineral infiltration may occur. apart from petrification, the dead bodies of organisms may be well preserved in ice, in hardened resin of coniferous trees ( figure 3a ), in tar, or in anaerobic, acidic peat. fossilization can sometimes be a trace, an impression of a form. examples include leaves and footprints, the fossils of which are made in layers that then harden. = = = fossil record = = = it is possible to decipher how a particular group of organisms evolved by arranging its fossil record in a chronological sequence. such a sequence can be determined because fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock. sedimentary rock is formed by layers of silt or mud on top of each other ; thus, the resulting rock contains a series of horizontal layers, or strata. each layer contains fossils typical for a specific time period when they formed. the lowest strata contain the oldest rock and the earliest fossils, while the highest strata contain the youngest rock and more recent fossils. a succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. by studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil - bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures. for many years, geologists could only roughly estimate the ages of various strata and the fossils found. they did so, for instance, by estimating the time for the formation of sedimentary rock layer by layer. today
the necrobiome has been defined as the community of species associated with decaying remains after the death of an organism. the process of decomposition is complex. microbes decompose cadavers, but other organisms including fungi, nematodes, insects, and larger scavenger animals also contribute. once the immune system is no longer active, microbes colonizing the intestines and lungs decompose their respective tissues and then travel throughout the body via the circulatory and lymphatic systems to break down other tissue and bone. during this process, gases are released as a by - product and accumulate, causing bloating. eventually, the gases seep through the body's wounds and natural openings, providing a way for some microbes to exit from the inside of the cadaver and inhabit the outside. the microbial communities colonizing the internal organs of a cadaver are referred to as the thanatomicrobiome. the region outside of the cadaver that is exposed to the external environment is referred to as the epinecrotic microbial communities of the necrobiome, and is especially important when determining the time and location of death for an individual. different microbes play specific roles during each stage of the decomposition process. the microbes that colonize the cadaver and the rate of their activity are determined by the cadaver itself and the cadaver's surrounding environmental conditions. = = history = = there is textual evidence that human cadavers were first studied around the third century bc to gain an understanding of human anatomy. many of the first human cadaver studies took place in italy, where the earliest record of determining the cause of death from a human corpse dates back to 1286. however, understanding of the human body progressed slowly, in part because the spread of christianity and other religious beliefs resulted in human dissection becoming illegal. non - human animals only were dissected for anatomical understanding until the 13th century when officials realized human cadavers were necessary for a better understanding of the human body. it was not until 1676 that antonie van leeuwenhoek designed a lens that made it possible to visualize microbes, and not until the late 18th century when microbes were considered useful in understanding the body after death. in modern times, human cadavers are used for research, but other animal models can provide larger sample sizes and produce more controlled studies. microbial colonization between humans and some non - human animals is so similar that those models can
organic pigments derived from breakdown of pigments like hemoglobin, and inorganic salts like carbonates, bicarbonates, and phosphate, whether in ionic or in molecular form, are excreted as solids. animals dispose of solid waste as feces. = = see also = = ammonia poisoning deamination = = references = =
Answer:
|
living creatures
| 0.3 |
When is fog most likely to occur
0. 3 p.m.
1. midnight
2. 6 p.m.
3. noon
weather has a 70 % chance of staying the same each day and a 30 % chance of changing. the transition probabilities are then : t = ( 0. 7 0. 3 0. 3 0. 7 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { t } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 7 & 0. 3 \ \ 0. 3 & 0. 7 \ end { pmatrix } } } we also assume each state generates one of two possible events : event 1 = umbrella, event 2 = no umbrella. the conditional probabilities for these occurring in each state are given by the probability matrix : b = ( 0. 9 0. 1 0. 2 0. 8 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { b } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 1 \ \ 0. 2 & 0. 8 \ end { pmatrix } } } we then observe the following sequence of events : { umbrella, umbrella, no umbrella, umbrella, umbrella } which we will represent in our calculations as : o 1 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 2 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 3 = ( 0. 1 0. 0 0. 0 0. 8 ) o 4 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 5 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { o _ { 1 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 2 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 3 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 1 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 8 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 4 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 5 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0
when this is not the case b ^ 0 : 5 { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { { \ hat { b } } _ { 0 : 5 } } } needs to be combined with the initial state vector to find the most likely initial state. we thus find that the forward probabilities by themselves are sufficient to calculate the most likely final state. similarly, the backward probabilities can be combined with the initial state vector to provide the most probable initial state given the observations. the forward and backward probabilities need only be combined to infer the most probable states between the initial and final points. the calculations above reveal that the most probable weather state on every day except for the third one was " rain ". they tell us more than this, however, as they now provide a way to quantify the probabilities of each state at different times. perhaps most importantly, our value at Ξ³ 5 { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { \ gamma _ { 5 } } } quantifies our knowledge of the state vector at the end of the observation sequence. we can then use this to predict the probability of the various weather states tomorrow as well as the probability of observing an umbrella. = = performance = = the forward β backward algorithm runs with time complexity o ( s 2 t ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t ) } in space o ( s t ) { \ displaystyle o ( st ) }, where t { \ displaystyle t } is the length of the time sequence and s { \ displaystyle s } is the number of symbols in the state alphabet. the algorithm can also run in constant space with time complexity o ( s 2 t 2 ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t ^ { 2 } ) } by recomputing values at each step. for comparison, a brute - force procedure would generate all possible s t { \ displaystyle s ^ { t } } state sequences and calculate the joint probability of each state sequence with the observed series of events, which would have time complexity o ( t β
s t ) { \ displaystyle o ( t \ cdot s ^ { t } ) }. brute force is intractable for realistic problems, as the number of possible hidden node sequences typically is extremely high. an enhancement to the general forward - backward algorithm, called the island algorithm, trades smaller memory usage for longer running time, taking o ( s 2 t log t ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t \ log
may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection ( lfc ), after which it enters the free convective layer ( fcl ) and usually rises to the equilibrium level ( el ). if the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable β a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. this often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. in these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased. meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include skew - t log - p diagrams and tephigrams. ( see also thermals ). the difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon ( also known as " chinook winds " in parts of north america ). the phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. the temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. as the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. in addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain. = = impact on the greenhouse effect = = if the environmental lapse rate was zero, so that the atmosphere was the same temperature at all elevations, then there would be no greenhouse effect. this doesn't mean the lapse rate and the greenhouse effect are the same thing, just that the lapse rate is a prere
to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). the second letter denotes precipitation patterns : s : a dry summer β the driest month in the high - sun half of the year ( april to september in the northern hemisphere, october to march in the southern hemisphere ) has less than 30 millimetres ( 1. 18 in ) / 40 millimetres ( 1. 57 in ) of rainfall and has exactly or less than 1β3 the precipitation of the wettest month in the low - sun half of the year ( october to march in the northern hemisphere, april to september in the southern hemisphere ), w : a dry winter β the driest month in the low - sun half of the year has exactly or less than one β tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year, f : no dry season β does not meet either of the alternative specifications above ; precipitation and humidity are often high year - round. the third letter denotes temperature : c : regular subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month between 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ) and β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). d : severely cold subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month at or below β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). = = = precipitation = = = most subarctic climates have little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm ( 15 in ) over an entire year due to the low temperatures and evapotranspiration. away from the coasts, precipitation occurs mostly in the summer months, while in coastal areas with subarctic climates the heaviest precipitation is usually during the autumn months when the relative warmth of sea vis - a - vis land is greatest. low precipitation, by the standards of more temperate regions with longer summers and warmer winters, is typically sufficient in view of the very low evapotranspiration to allow a water - logged terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation
other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own. species cumulus humilis β these are small detached fair - weather cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops, and do not produce rain showers. genus stratus ( st ) β this is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog. only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow grains. when a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it loses its latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). if the visibility is 1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist. = = = = multi - level or moderate vertical = = = = these clouds have low - to mid - level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about 2, 400 m ( 8, 000 ft ) and tops that can extend into the mid - altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus. genus nimbostratus ( ns ) β this is a diffuse, dark gray, multi - level stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside. nimbostratus normally forms from mid - level altostratus, and develops at least moderate vertical extent when the base subsides into the low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity. it achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously grows upward into the high level due to large - scale frontal or cyclonic lift. the nimbo - prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front. this thick cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform types. meteorologists affiliated with the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) officially classify nimbostratus as mid - level for synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi - level. independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those who largely follow the wmo model and those who classify nimbostratus as low - level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its usual initial formation in the middle altitude range. species cumulus mediocris β these cumuliform clouds of free convection have clear - cut, medium - gray, flat bases and white, domed tops in the form of small
Answer:
|
midnight
| null |
When is fog most likely to occur
0. 3 p.m.
1. midnight
2. 6 p.m.
3. noon
weather has a 70 % chance of staying the same each day and a 30 % chance of changing. the transition probabilities are then : t = ( 0. 7 0. 3 0. 3 0. 7 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { t } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 7 & 0. 3 \ \ 0. 3 & 0. 7 \ end { pmatrix } } } we also assume each state generates one of two possible events : event 1 = umbrella, event 2 = no umbrella. the conditional probabilities for these occurring in each state are given by the probability matrix : b = ( 0. 9 0. 1 0. 2 0. 8 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { b } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 1 \ \ 0. 2 & 0. 8 \ end { pmatrix } } } we then observe the following sequence of events : { umbrella, umbrella, no umbrella, umbrella, umbrella } which we will represent in our calculations as : o 1 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 2 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 3 = ( 0. 1 0. 0 0. 0 0. 8 ) o 4 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) o 5 = ( 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 2 ) { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { o _ { 1 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 2 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 3 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 1 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 8 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 4 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0. 0 \ \ 0. 0 & 0. 2 \ end { pmatrix } } ~ ~ \ mathbf { o _ { 5 } } = { \ begin { pmatrix } 0. 9 & 0
when this is not the case b ^ 0 : 5 { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { { \ hat { b } } _ { 0 : 5 } } } needs to be combined with the initial state vector to find the most likely initial state. we thus find that the forward probabilities by themselves are sufficient to calculate the most likely final state. similarly, the backward probabilities can be combined with the initial state vector to provide the most probable initial state given the observations. the forward and backward probabilities need only be combined to infer the most probable states between the initial and final points. the calculations above reveal that the most probable weather state on every day except for the third one was " rain ". they tell us more than this, however, as they now provide a way to quantify the probabilities of each state at different times. perhaps most importantly, our value at Ξ³ 5 { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { \ gamma _ { 5 } } } quantifies our knowledge of the state vector at the end of the observation sequence. we can then use this to predict the probability of the various weather states tomorrow as well as the probability of observing an umbrella. = = performance = = the forward β backward algorithm runs with time complexity o ( s 2 t ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t ) } in space o ( s t ) { \ displaystyle o ( st ) }, where t { \ displaystyle t } is the length of the time sequence and s { \ displaystyle s } is the number of symbols in the state alphabet. the algorithm can also run in constant space with time complexity o ( s 2 t 2 ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t ^ { 2 } ) } by recomputing values at each step. for comparison, a brute - force procedure would generate all possible s t { \ displaystyle s ^ { t } } state sequences and calculate the joint probability of each state sequence with the observed series of events, which would have time complexity o ( t β
s t ) { \ displaystyle o ( t \ cdot s ^ { t } ) }. brute force is intractable for realistic problems, as the number of possible hidden node sequences typically is extremely high. an enhancement to the general forward - backward algorithm, called the island algorithm, trades smaller memory usage for longer running time, taking o ( s 2 t log t ) { \ displaystyle o ( s ^ { 2 } t \ log
may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection ( lfc ), after which it enters the free convective layer ( fcl ) and usually rises to the equilibrium level ( el ). if the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable β a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. this often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. in these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased. meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include skew - t log - p diagrams and tephigrams. ( see also thermals ). the difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon ( also known as " chinook winds " in parts of north america ). the phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. the temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. as the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. in addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain. = = impact on the greenhouse effect = = if the environmental lapse rate was zero, so that the atmosphere was the same temperature at all elevations, then there would be no greenhouse effect. this doesn't mean the lapse rate and the greenhouse effect are the same thing, just that the lapse rate is a prere
to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). the second letter denotes precipitation patterns : s : a dry summer β the driest month in the high - sun half of the year ( april to september in the northern hemisphere, october to march in the southern hemisphere ) has less than 30 millimetres ( 1. 18 in ) / 40 millimetres ( 1. 57 in ) of rainfall and has exactly or less than 1β3 the precipitation of the wettest month in the low - sun half of the year ( october to march in the northern hemisphere, april to september in the southern hemisphere ), w : a dry winter β the driest month in the low - sun half of the year has exactly or less than one β tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year, f : no dry season β does not meet either of the alternative specifications above ; precipitation and humidity are often high year - round. the third letter denotes temperature : c : regular subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month between 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ) and β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). d : severely cold subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month at or below β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). = = = precipitation = = = most subarctic climates have little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm ( 15 in ) over an entire year due to the low temperatures and evapotranspiration. away from the coasts, precipitation occurs mostly in the summer months, while in coastal areas with subarctic climates the heaviest precipitation is usually during the autumn months when the relative warmth of sea vis - a - vis land is greatest. low precipitation, by the standards of more temperate regions with longer summers and warmer winters, is typically sufficient in view of the very low evapotranspiration to allow a water - logged terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation
other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own. species cumulus humilis β these are small detached fair - weather cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops, and do not produce rain showers. genus stratus ( st ) β this is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog. only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow grains. when a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it loses its latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). if the visibility is 1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist. = = = = multi - level or moderate vertical = = = = these clouds have low - to mid - level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about 2, 400 m ( 8, 000 ft ) and tops that can extend into the mid - altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus. genus nimbostratus ( ns ) β this is a diffuse, dark gray, multi - level stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside. nimbostratus normally forms from mid - level altostratus, and develops at least moderate vertical extent when the base subsides into the low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity. it achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously grows upward into the high level due to large - scale frontal or cyclonic lift. the nimbo - prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front. this thick cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform types. meteorologists affiliated with the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) officially classify nimbostratus as mid - level for synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi - level. independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those who largely follow the wmo model and those who classify nimbostratus as low - level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its usual initial formation in the middle altitude range. species cumulus mediocris β these cumuliform clouds of free convection have clear - cut, medium - gray, flat bases and white, domed tops in the form of small
Answer:
|
6 p.m.
| 0.3 |
It's too foggy to see more than two feet on a highway. This is because of
0. ash from a volcano
1. vapor of H2O condensed in the air
2. helium vapor in the air
3. a forest fire nearby
when there is no vehicle to be viewed, or when there is a haze or fog that would prevent visualizing a close vehicle in front. this maximum velocity is denoted by the case variable v a c d a s { \ displaystyle v _ { acda _ { s } } }, the friction coefficient is symbolized by ΞΌ { \ displaystyle \ mu } β and itself a function of the tire type and road conditions, the distance d a c d a s { \ displaystyle d _ { acda _ { s } } } is the static acda, the constant g { \ displaystyle g } is the acceleration of gravity, and interval t p r t { \ displaystyle t _ { prt } } is the perception - reaction time β usually between 1. 0 and 2. 5 seconds. see table of safe speed versus forward line - of - sight = = = acda : horizontal line - of - sight = = = the second case describes the relationship of horizontal sight distance on safe speed. it is the maximum speed at which a vehicle can come to a full stop before an object, with speed vi, can intercept after having emerged and traveled across the horizontal sight distance " dhsd ". urban and residential areas have horizontal sight distances that tend to be closely obstructed by parked cars, utility poles, street furnishing, fencing, signage, and landscaping, but have slower intercepting speeds of children, pedestrians, backing cars, and domestic animals. these interceptors combined with dense usage results in collisions that are more probable and much more likely to inflict harm to an outside human life. in rural areas, swift - moving spooked wildlife such as deer, elk, moose, and antelope are more likely to intercept a roadway at over 30 mph ( 48 km / h ). wildlife will frequently transit across a road before a full stop is necessary, however collisions with large game are foreseeably lethal, and a driver generally has a duty not to harm his or her passengers. the foreseeable intercept speed or defectively designed horizontal sight distance may vary " reasonably " with judicial discretion. see table of safe speed versus horizontal line - of - sight = = = acda : intersectional setback = = = this third case regards safe speed around un - signalized intersections where a driver on an uncontrolled through street has a duty to slow down in crossing an intersection and permit controlled drivers to be able pass through the intersection without danger of collision. the driver on the through street
long end. the short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. the bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain - sized droplets in the cloud. a cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is a sign that it is a severe thunderstorm, capable of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. the exact cause of green thunderstorms is still unknown, but it could be due to the combination of reddened sunlight passing through very optically thick clouds. yellowish clouds may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. the yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. yellowish clouds caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels. red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise and sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. when the angle between the sun and the horizon is less than 10 percent, as it is just after sunrise or just prior to sunset, sunlight becomes too red due to refraction for any colors other than those with a reddish hue to be seen. the clouds do not become that color ; they are reflecting long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. the effect is much like if a person were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. in combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood - red clouds. clouds look darker in the near - infrared because water absorbs solar radiation at those wavelengths. = = halos = = a halo ( Ξ±Ξ»ΟΟ ; also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole ) is an optical phenomenon produced by the interaction of light from the sun or moon with ice crystals in the atmosphere, resulting in colored or white arcs, rings or spots in the sky. many halos are positioned near the sun or moon, but others are elsewhere and even in the opposite part of the sky. they can also form around artificial lights in very cold weather when ice crystals called diamond dust are floating in the nearby air. there are many types of ice halos. they are produced by the ice crystals in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds high in the upper troposphere, at an altitude of 5 kilometres ( 3. 1 mi ) to 10 kilometres ( 6. 2 mi ), or, during very cold weather, by ice crystals called diamond dust drifting in the air at low levels
the hillingar effect or arctic mirage is a mirage that occurs when cold air near the surface causes light rays to bend. light passing from an object through air to an observer always refracts, or bends, in the direction of increasing air density. especially over cold ocean areas but also over snowfields or glaciers, air density can change with altitude so rapidly that the horizon appears to lift up like the edges of a saucer. coastlines normally well below the horizon are raised up into view. early norsemen called these mirages hillingars. = = references = =
these criticisms and instead applauded alexandrov's pioneering work, saying that the soviet model shared the weaknesses of all the others. in 1984, the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) commissioned golitsyn and n. a. phillips to review the state of the science. they found that studies generally assumed a scenario where half of the world's nuclear weapons would be used, ~ 5000 mt, destroying approximately 1, 000 cities, and creating large quantities of carbonaceous smoke β 1 β 2Γ1014 g being most likely, with a range of 0. 2 β 6. 4Γ1014 g ( nas ; ttaps assumed 2. 25Γ1014 ). the smoke resulting would be largely opaque to solar radiation but transparent to infrared, thus cooling the earth by blocking sunlight, but not creating warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect. the optical depth of the smoke can be much greater than unity. forest fires resulting from non - urban targets could increase aerosol production further. dust from near - surface explosions against hardened targets also contributes ; each megaton - equivalent explosion could release up to five million tons of dust, but most would quickly fall out ; high altitude dust is estimated at 0. 1 β 1 million tons per megaton - equivalent of explosion. burning of crude oil could also contribute substantially. the 1 - d radiative - convective models used in these studies produced a range of results, with cooling up to 15 β 42 Β°c between 14 and 35 days after the war, with a " baseline " of about 20 Β°c. somewhat more sophisticated calculations using 3 - d gcms produced similar results : temperature drops of about 20 Β°c, though with regional variations. all calculations show large heating ( up to 80 Β°c ) at the top of the smoke layer at about 10 km ( 6. 2 mi ) ; this implies a substantial modification of the circulation there and the possibility of advection of the cloud into low latitudes and the southern hemisphere. = = = 1990 = = = in a 1990 paper entitled " climate and smoke : an appraisal of nuclear winter ", ttaps gave a more detailed description of the short - and long - term atmospheric effects of a nuclear war using a three - dimensional model : first one to three months : 10 β 25 % of soot injected is immediately removed by precipitation, while the rest is transported over the globe in one to two weeks scope figures for july smoke injection : 22 Β°c drop in mid - latitudes 10 Β°c drop in humid climates 75 % decrease in
absorption and scattering properties of both the water itself and other constituents in the water. for wavelengths in the near infrared and longer, the penetration depth varies from a metre to a few micrometres. for band 1, the penetration depth will usually be between 1 and 10 metres. if the water has a large turbidity spike below 10 metres, the spike is unlikely to be seen by a satellite. for very shallow clear water there is a good chance the bottom may be seen. for example, in the bahamas, the water is quite clear and only a few metres deep, resulting in an apparent high turbidity because the bottom reflects much band 1 light. for areas with consistently high turbidity signals, particularly areas with relatively clear water, part of the signal may be due to bottom reflection. normally this will not be a problem with a post - hurricane turbidity image since the storm easily resuspends enough sediment such that bottom reflection is negligible. clouds are also problematic for the interpretation of satellite derived turbidity. cloud removal algorithms perform a satisfactory job for pixels that are fully cloudy. partially cloudy pixels are much harder to identify and typically result in false high turbidity estimates. high turbidity values near clouds are suspect. = = see also = = dissolved organic carbon ( doc ) = = references = = note : the information in this page has been incorporated from noaa, allowable under united states fair use laws. original source of the information is at https : / / web. archive. org / web / 20040902231404 / http : / / www. csc. noaa. gov / crs / cohab / hurricane / turbid. htm
Answer:
|
vapor of H2O condensed in the air
| null |
It's too foggy to see more than two feet on a highway. This is because of
0. ash from a volcano
1. vapor of H2O condensed in the air
2. helium vapor in the air
3. a forest fire nearby
when there is no vehicle to be viewed, or when there is a haze or fog that would prevent visualizing a close vehicle in front. this maximum velocity is denoted by the case variable v a c d a s { \ displaystyle v _ { acda _ { s } } }, the friction coefficient is symbolized by ΞΌ { \ displaystyle \ mu } β and itself a function of the tire type and road conditions, the distance d a c d a s { \ displaystyle d _ { acda _ { s } } } is the static acda, the constant g { \ displaystyle g } is the acceleration of gravity, and interval t p r t { \ displaystyle t _ { prt } } is the perception - reaction time β usually between 1. 0 and 2. 5 seconds. see table of safe speed versus forward line - of - sight = = = acda : horizontal line - of - sight = = = the second case describes the relationship of horizontal sight distance on safe speed. it is the maximum speed at which a vehicle can come to a full stop before an object, with speed vi, can intercept after having emerged and traveled across the horizontal sight distance " dhsd ". urban and residential areas have horizontal sight distances that tend to be closely obstructed by parked cars, utility poles, street furnishing, fencing, signage, and landscaping, but have slower intercepting speeds of children, pedestrians, backing cars, and domestic animals. these interceptors combined with dense usage results in collisions that are more probable and much more likely to inflict harm to an outside human life. in rural areas, swift - moving spooked wildlife such as deer, elk, moose, and antelope are more likely to intercept a roadway at over 30 mph ( 48 km / h ). wildlife will frequently transit across a road before a full stop is necessary, however collisions with large game are foreseeably lethal, and a driver generally has a duty not to harm his or her passengers. the foreseeable intercept speed or defectively designed horizontal sight distance may vary " reasonably " with judicial discretion. see table of safe speed versus horizontal line - of - sight = = = acda : intersectional setback = = = this third case regards safe speed around un - signalized intersections where a driver on an uncontrolled through street has a duty to slow down in crossing an intersection and permit controlled drivers to be able pass through the intersection without danger of collision. the driver on the through street
long end. the short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. the bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain - sized droplets in the cloud. a cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is a sign that it is a severe thunderstorm, capable of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. the exact cause of green thunderstorms is still unknown, but it could be due to the combination of reddened sunlight passing through very optically thick clouds. yellowish clouds may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. the yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. yellowish clouds caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels. red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise and sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. when the angle between the sun and the horizon is less than 10 percent, as it is just after sunrise or just prior to sunset, sunlight becomes too red due to refraction for any colors other than those with a reddish hue to be seen. the clouds do not become that color ; they are reflecting long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. the effect is much like if a person were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. in combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood - red clouds. clouds look darker in the near - infrared because water absorbs solar radiation at those wavelengths. = = halos = = a halo ( Ξ±Ξ»ΟΟ ; also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole ) is an optical phenomenon produced by the interaction of light from the sun or moon with ice crystals in the atmosphere, resulting in colored or white arcs, rings or spots in the sky. many halos are positioned near the sun or moon, but others are elsewhere and even in the opposite part of the sky. they can also form around artificial lights in very cold weather when ice crystals called diamond dust are floating in the nearby air. there are many types of ice halos. they are produced by the ice crystals in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds high in the upper troposphere, at an altitude of 5 kilometres ( 3. 1 mi ) to 10 kilometres ( 6. 2 mi ), or, during very cold weather, by ice crystals called diamond dust drifting in the air at low levels
the hillingar effect or arctic mirage is a mirage that occurs when cold air near the surface causes light rays to bend. light passing from an object through air to an observer always refracts, or bends, in the direction of increasing air density. especially over cold ocean areas but also over snowfields or glaciers, air density can change with altitude so rapidly that the horizon appears to lift up like the edges of a saucer. coastlines normally well below the horizon are raised up into view. early norsemen called these mirages hillingars. = = references = =
these criticisms and instead applauded alexandrov's pioneering work, saying that the soviet model shared the weaknesses of all the others. in 1984, the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) commissioned golitsyn and n. a. phillips to review the state of the science. they found that studies generally assumed a scenario where half of the world's nuclear weapons would be used, ~ 5000 mt, destroying approximately 1, 000 cities, and creating large quantities of carbonaceous smoke β 1 β 2Γ1014 g being most likely, with a range of 0. 2 β 6. 4Γ1014 g ( nas ; ttaps assumed 2. 25Γ1014 ). the smoke resulting would be largely opaque to solar radiation but transparent to infrared, thus cooling the earth by blocking sunlight, but not creating warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect. the optical depth of the smoke can be much greater than unity. forest fires resulting from non - urban targets could increase aerosol production further. dust from near - surface explosions against hardened targets also contributes ; each megaton - equivalent explosion could release up to five million tons of dust, but most would quickly fall out ; high altitude dust is estimated at 0. 1 β 1 million tons per megaton - equivalent of explosion. burning of crude oil could also contribute substantially. the 1 - d radiative - convective models used in these studies produced a range of results, with cooling up to 15 β 42 Β°c between 14 and 35 days after the war, with a " baseline " of about 20 Β°c. somewhat more sophisticated calculations using 3 - d gcms produced similar results : temperature drops of about 20 Β°c, though with regional variations. all calculations show large heating ( up to 80 Β°c ) at the top of the smoke layer at about 10 km ( 6. 2 mi ) ; this implies a substantial modification of the circulation there and the possibility of advection of the cloud into low latitudes and the southern hemisphere. = = = 1990 = = = in a 1990 paper entitled " climate and smoke : an appraisal of nuclear winter ", ttaps gave a more detailed description of the short - and long - term atmospheric effects of a nuclear war using a three - dimensional model : first one to three months : 10 β 25 % of soot injected is immediately removed by precipitation, while the rest is transported over the globe in one to two weeks scope figures for july smoke injection : 22 Β°c drop in mid - latitudes 10 Β°c drop in humid climates 75 % decrease in
absorption and scattering properties of both the water itself and other constituents in the water. for wavelengths in the near infrared and longer, the penetration depth varies from a metre to a few micrometres. for band 1, the penetration depth will usually be between 1 and 10 metres. if the water has a large turbidity spike below 10 metres, the spike is unlikely to be seen by a satellite. for very shallow clear water there is a good chance the bottom may be seen. for example, in the bahamas, the water is quite clear and only a few metres deep, resulting in an apparent high turbidity because the bottom reflects much band 1 light. for areas with consistently high turbidity signals, particularly areas with relatively clear water, part of the signal may be due to bottom reflection. normally this will not be a problem with a post - hurricane turbidity image since the storm easily resuspends enough sediment such that bottom reflection is negligible. clouds are also problematic for the interpretation of satellite derived turbidity. cloud removal algorithms perform a satisfactory job for pixels that are fully cloudy. partially cloudy pixels are much harder to identify and typically result in false high turbidity estimates. high turbidity values near clouds are suspect. = = see also = = dissolved organic carbon ( doc ) = = references = = note : the information in this page has been incorporated from noaa, allowable under united states fair use laws. original source of the information is at https : / / web. archive. org / web / 20040902231404 / http : / / www. csc. noaa. gov / crs / cohab / hurricane / turbid. htm
Answer:
|
ash from a volcano
| 0.3 |
As an airboat moves from grass to water it will
0. blow up
1. sink
2. speed up
3. slow down
in a certain direction. everybody knows which way it goes around ; it backs away from the outgoing water. now the question is this : if you had a lake, or swimming pool β a big supply of water β and you put the sprinkler completely under water, and sucked the water in, instead of squirting it out, which way would it turn? would it turn the same way as it does when you squirt water out into the air, or would it turn the other way? = = solution = = the behavior of the reverse sprinkler is qualitatively quite distinct from that of the ordinary sprinkler, and one does not behave like the other " played backwards ". most of the published theoretical treatments of this problem have concluded that the ideal reverse sprinkler will not experience any torque in its steady state. it may be understood in terms of conservation of angular momentum : in its steady state, the amount of angular momentum carried by the incoming fluid is constant, which implies that there is no torque on the sprinkler itself. alternatively, in terms of forces on an individual sprinkler nozzle, consider mach's illustration. there : the reaction force on the nozzle as it sucks in the fluid, pulling the nozzle anti - clockwise ; the inflowing water impacting on the inside of the nozzle, pushing the nozzle clockwise. the two forces are equal and opposite, so sucking in the fluid causes no net force on the sprinkler nozzle. this is similar to the pop pop boat when it sucks in water β the inflowing water transfers its momentum to the boat, so sucking in water causes no net force on the boat. many experiments, going back to mach, find no rotation of the reverse sprinkler. in setups with sufficiently low friction and high rate of inflow, the reverse sprinkler has been seen to turn weakly in the opposite sense to the conventional sprinkler, even in its steady state. such behavior could be explained by the diffusion of momentum in a non - ideal ( i. e., viscous ) flow. however, careful observation of experimental setups shows that this turning is associated with the formation of a vortex inside the body of the sprinkler. an analysis of the actual distribution of forces and pressure in a non - ideal reverse sprinkler provides the theoretical basis to explain this : differences in the regions over which internal and external forces act constitute a
a feynman sprinkler, also referred to as a feynman inverse sprinkler or reverse sprinkler, is a sprinkler - like device which is submerged in a tank and made to suck in the surrounding fluid. the question of how such a device would turn was the subject of an intense and remarkably long - lived debate. the device generally remains steady with no rotation, though with sufficiently low friction and high rate of inflow, it has been seen to turn weakly in the opposite direction of a conventional sprinkler. a regular sprinkler has nozzles arranged at angles on a freely rotating wheel such that when water is pumped out of them, the resulting jets cause the wheel to rotate ; a catherine wheel and the aeolipile ( " hero's engine " ) work on the same principle. a " reverse " or " inverse " sprinkler would operate by aspirating the surrounding fluid instead. the problem is commonly associated with theoretical physicist richard feynman, who mentions it in his bestselling memoirs surely you're joking, mr. feynman!. the problem did not originate with feynman, nor did he publish a solution to it. = = history = = the first documented treatment of the problem is in chapter iii, section iii, of ernst mach's textbook the science of mechanics, first published in 1883. there mach reported that the device showed " no distinct rotation. " in the early 1940s ( and apparently without awareness of mach's earlier discussion ), the problem began to circulate among members of the physics department at princeton university, generating a lively debate. richard feynman, at the time a young graduate student at princeton, built a makeshift experiment within the facilities of the university's cyclotron laboratory. the experiment ended with the explosion of the glass carboy that he was using as part of his setup. in 1966, feynman turned down an offer from the editor of physics teacher to discuss the problem in print and objected to it being called " feynman's problem, " pointing instead to the discussion of it in mach's textbook. the sprinkler problem attracted a great deal of attention after the incident was mentioned in surely you're joking, mr. feynman!, a book of autobiographical reminiscences published in 1985. feynman gave one argument for why the sprinkler should rotate in the forward direction, and another for why
a marine outfall ( or ocean outfall ) is a pipeline or tunnel that discharges municipal or industrial wastewater, stormwater, combined sewer overflows ( csos ), cooling water, or brine effluents from water desalination plants to the sea. usually they discharge under the sea's surface ( submarine outfall ). in the case of municipal wastewater, effluent is often being discharged after having undergone no or only primary treatment, with the intention of using the assimilative capacity of the sea for further treatment. submarine outfalls are common throughout the world and probably number in the thousands. the light intensity and salinity in natural sea water disinfects the wastewater to ocean outfall system significantly. more than 200 outfalls alone have been listed in a single international database maintained by the institute for hydromechanics at karlsruhe university for the international association of hydraulic engineering and research ( iahr ) / international water association ( iwa ) committee on marine outfall systems. the world's first marine outfall was built in santa monica, united states, in 1910. in latin america and the caribbean there were 134 outfalls with more than 500 m length in 2006 for wastewater disposal alone, according to a survey by the pan american center for sanitary engineering and environmental sciences ( cepis ) of paho. according to the survey, the largest number of municipal wastewater outfalls in the region exist in venezuela ( 39 ), chile ( 39 ) and brazil ( 22 ). the world's largest marine outfall stems from the deer island waste water treatment plant located in boston, united states. currently, boston has approximately 235 miles of combined sewers and 37 active cso outfalls. many outfalls are simply known by a public used name, e. g. boston outfall. = = advantages = = the main advantages of marine outfalls for the discharge of wastewater are : the natural dilution and dispersion of organic matter, pathogens and other pollutants the ability to keep the sewage field submerged because of the depth at which the sewage is being released the greater die - off rate of pathogens due to the greater distance they will have to travel to shore. they also tend to be less expensive than advanced wastewater treatment plants, using the natural assimilative capacity of the sea instead of energy - intensive treatment processes in a plant. for example, preliminary treatment of wastewater is sufficient with an effective outfall and diffuser. the costs of preliminary treatment are about one tenth that of secondary
low. = = = oscillating jump ( 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5 ) = = = an oscillating jump can occur when 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5. during this jump, the jet of water at the entrance of the jump ( supercritical ) fluctuates from the bottom of the channel to the top of the channel at an irregular period. turbulence created from this jet can be near the channel bottom at one instant and then suddenly transition to the water surface. this oscillation of the jet causes irregular waves to form, which can propagate for long distances downstream of the jump, potentially causing damage and degradation of the channel banks. = = = steady jump ( 4. 5 < fr1 < 9 ) = = = when the froude number falls into this range, the jump forms steadily and at the same location. in a steady jump, turbulence is confined within the jump and the location of the jump is the least susceptible to downstream flow conditions out of the four major types of jumps. steady jumps are generally well - balanced and the energy dissipation is usually considerable ( 45 - 70 % ). = = = strong jump ( fr1 > 9 ) = = = there is a large difference in conjugate depths in a strong jump. strong jumps are characterized by a jump action that is very rough resulting in a high energy dissipation rate. at irregular intervals, slugs of water can be seen rolling down the front of the jump face. these slugs enter the high - velocity, supercritical jet and cause the formation of additional waves in the jump. energy dissipation in strong jumps can reach up to 85 %. = = jump location = = in general, a hydraulic jump is formed at a location where the upstream and downstream flow depths satisfy the conjugate depth equation. however, there can be conditions in a channel, such as downstream controls, that can alter where the conjugate depths form. tailwater depth can play a very influential role on where the jump will occur in the channel, and changes in this depth can shift the jump either upstream or downstream. figure 6 contains three scenarios of tailwater elevations ( yd ) : yd is equal to the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), yd is less than the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), and yd is greater than the conjugate depth
low. = = = oscillating jump ( 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5 ) = = = an oscillating jump can occur when 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5. during this jump, the jet of water at the entrance of the jump ( supercritical ) fluctuates from the bottom of the channel to the top of the channel at an irregular period. turbulence created from this jet can be near the channel bottom at one instant and then suddenly transition to the water surface. this oscillation of the jet causes irregular waves to form, which can propagate for long distances downstream of the jump, potentially causing damage and degradation of the channel banks. = = = steady jump ( 4. 5 < fr1 < 9 ) = = = when the froude number falls into this range, the jump forms steadily and at the same location. in a steady jump, turbulence is confined within the jump and the location of the jump is the least susceptible to downstream flow conditions out of the four major types of jumps. steady jumps are generally well - balanced and the energy dissipation is usually considerable ( 45 - 70 % ). = = = strong jump ( fr1 > 9 ) = = = there is a large difference in conjugate depths in a strong jump. strong jumps are characterized by a jump action that is very rough resulting in a high energy dissipation rate. at irregular intervals, slugs of water can be seen rolling down the front of the jump face. these slugs enter the high - velocity, supercritical jet and cause the formation of additional waves in the jump. energy dissipation in strong jumps can reach up to 85 %. = = jump location = = in general, a hydraulic jump is formed at a location where the upstream and downstream flow depths satisfy the conjugate depth equation. however, there can be conditions in a channel, such as downstream controls, that can alter where the conjugate depths form. tailwater depth can play a very influential role on where the jump will occur in the channel, and changes in this depth can shift the jump either upstream or downstream. figure 6 contains three scenarios of tailwater elevations ( yd ) : yd is equal to the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), yd is less than the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), and yd is greater than the conjugate depth
Answer:
|
speed up
| null |
As an airboat moves from grass to water it will
0. blow up
1. sink
2. speed up
3. slow down
in a certain direction. everybody knows which way it goes around ; it backs away from the outgoing water. now the question is this : if you had a lake, or swimming pool β a big supply of water β and you put the sprinkler completely under water, and sucked the water in, instead of squirting it out, which way would it turn? would it turn the same way as it does when you squirt water out into the air, or would it turn the other way? = = solution = = the behavior of the reverse sprinkler is qualitatively quite distinct from that of the ordinary sprinkler, and one does not behave like the other " played backwards ". most of the published theoretical treatments of this problem have concluded that the ideal reverse sprinkler will not experience any torque in its steady state. it may be understood in terms of conservation of angular momentum : in its steady state, the amount of angular momentum carried by the incoming fluid is constant, which implies that there is no torque on the sprinkler itself. alternatively, in terms of forces on an individual sprinkler nozzle, consider mach's illustration. there : the reaction force on the nozzle as it sucks in the fluid, pulling the nozzle anti - clockwise ; the inflowing water impacting on the inside of the nozzle, pushing the nozzle clockwise. the two forces are equal and opposite, so sucking in the fluid causes no net force on the sprinkler nozzle. this is similar to the pop pop boat when it sucks in water β the inflowing water transfers its momentum to the boat, so sucking in water causes no net force on the boat. many experiments, going back to mach, find no rotation of the reverse sprinkler. in setups with sufficiently low friction and high rate of inflow, the reverse sprinkler has been seen to turn weakly in the opposite sense to the conventional sprinkler, even in its steady state. such behavior could be explained by the diffusion of momentum in a non - ideal ( i. e., viscous ) flow. however, careful observation of experimental setups shows that this turning is associated with the formation of a vortex inside the body of the sprinkler. an analysis of the actual distribution of forces and pressure in a non - ideal reverse sprinkler provides the theoretical basis to explain this : differences in the regions over which internal and external forces act constitute a
a feynman sprinkler, also referred to as a feynman inverse sprinkler or reverse sprinkler, is a sprinkler - like device which is submerged in a tank and made to suck in the surrounding fluid. the question of how such a device would turn was the subject of an intense and remarkably long - lived debate. the device generally remains steady with no rotation, though with sufficiently low friction and high rate of inflow, it has been seen to turn weakly in the opposite direction of a conventional sprinkler. a regular sprinkler has nozzles arranged at angles on a freely rotating wheel such that when water is pumped out of them, the resulting jets cause the wheel to rotate ; a catherine wheel and the aeolipile ( " hero's engine " ) work on the same principle. a " reverse " or " inverse " sprinkler would operate by aspirating the surrounding fluid instead. the problem is commonly associated with theoretical physicist richard feynman, who mentions it in his bestselling memoirs surely you're joking, mr. feynman!. the problem did not originate with feynman, nor did he publish a solution to it. = = history = = the first documented treatment of the problem is in chapter iii, section iii, of ernst mach's textbook the science of mechanics, first published in 1883. there mach reported that the device showed " no distinct rotation. " in the early 1940s ( and apparently without awareness of mach's earlier discussion ), the problem began to circulate among members of the physics department at princeton university, generating a lively debate. richard feynman, at the time a young graduate student at princeton, built a makeshift experiment within the facilities of the university's cyclotron laboratory. the experiment ended with the explosion of the glass carboy that he was using as part of his setup. in 1966, feynman turned down an offer from the editor of physics teacher to discuss the problem in print and objected to it being called " feynman's problem, " pointing instead to the discussion of it in mach's textbook. the sprinkler problem attracted a great deal of attention after the incident was mentioned in surely you're joking, mr. feynman!, a book of autobiographical reminiscences published in 1985. feynman gave one argument for why the sprinkler should rotate in the forward direction, and another for why
a marine outfall ( or ocean outfall ) is a pipeline or tunnel that discharges municipal or industrial wastewater, stormwater, combined sewer overflows ( csos ), cooling water, or brine effluents from water desalination plants to the sea. usually they discharge under the sea's surface ( submarine outfall ). in the case of municipal wastewater, effluent is often being discharged after having undergone no or only primary treatment, with the intention of using the assimilative capacity of the sea for further treatment. submarine outfalls are common throughout the world and probably number in the thousands. the light intensity and salinity in natural sea water disinfects the wastewater to ocean outfall system significantly. more than 200 outfalls alone have been listed in a single international database maintained by the institute for hydromechanics at karlsruhe university for the international association of hydraulic engineering and research ( iahr ) / international water association ( iwa ) committee on marine outfall systems. the world's first marine outfall was built in santa monica, united states, in 1910. in latin america and the caribbean there were 134 outfalls with more than 500 m length in 2006 for wastewater disposal alone, according to a survey by the pan american center for sanitary engineering and environmental sciences ( cepis ) of paho. according to the survey, the largest number of municipal wastewater outfalls in the region exist in venezuela ( 39 ), chile ( 39 ) and brazil ( 22 ). the world's largest marine outfall stems from the deer island waste water treatment plant located in boston, united states. currently, boston has approximately 235 miles of combined sewers and 37 active cso outfalls. many outfalls are simply known by a public used name, e. g. boston outfall. = = advantages = = the main advantages of marine outfalls for the discharge of wastewater are : the natural dilution and dispersion of organic matter, pathogens and other pollutants the ability to keep the sewage field submerged because of the depth at which the sewage is being released the greater die - off rate of pathogens due to the greater distance they will have to travel to shore. they also tend to be less expensive than advanced wastewater treatment plants, using the natural assimilative capacity of the sea instead of energy - intensive treatment processes in a plant. for example, preliminary treatment of wastewater is sufficient with an effective outfall and diffuser. the costs of preliminary treatment are about one tenth that of secondary
low. = = = oscillating jump ( 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5 ) = = = an oscillating jump can occur when 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5. during this jump, the jet of water at the entrance of the jump ( supercritical ) fluctuates from the bottom of the channel to the top of the channel at an irregular period. turbulence created from this jet can be near the channel bottom at one instant and then suddenly transition to the water surface. this oscillation of the jet causes irregular waves to form, which can propagate for long distances downstream of the jump, potentially causing damage and degradation of the channel banks. = = = steady jump ( 4. 5 < fr1 < 9 ) = = = when the froude number falls into this range, the jump forms steadily and at the same location. in a steady jump, turbulence is confined within the jump and the location of the jump is the least susceptible to downstream flow conditions out of the four major types of jumps. steady jumps are generally well - balanced and the energy dissipation is usually considerable ( 45 - 70 % ). = = = strong jump ( fr1 > 9 ) = = = there is a large difference in conjugate depths in a strong jump. strong jumps are characterized by a jump action that is very rough resulting in a high energy dissipation rate. at irregular intervals, slugs of water can be seen rolling down the front of the jump face. these slugs enter the high - velocity, supercritical jet and cause the formation of additional waves in the jump. energy dissipation in strong jumps can reach up to 85 %. = = jump location = = in general, a hydraulic jump is formed at a location where the upstream and downstream flow depths satisfy the conjugate depth equation. however, there can be conditions in a channel, such as downstream controls, that can alter where the conjugate depths form. tailwater depth can play a very influential role on where the jump will occur in the channel, and changes in this depth can shift the jump either upstream or downstream. figure 6 contains three scenarios of tailwater elevations ( yd ) : yd is equal to the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), yd is less than the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), and yd is greater than the conjugate depth
low. = = = oscillating jump ( 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5 ) = = = an oscillating jump can occur when 2. 5 < fr1 < 4. 5. during this jump, the jet of water at the entrance of the jump ( supercritical ) fluctuates from the bottom of the channel to the top of the channel at an irregular period. turbulence created from this jet can be near the channel bottom at one instant and then suddenly transition to the water surface. this oscillation of the jet causes irregular waves to form, which can propagate for long distances downstream of the jump, potentially causing damage and degradation of the channel banks. = = = steady jump ( 4. 5 < fr1 < 9 ) = = = when the froude number falls into this range, the jump forms steadily and at the same location. in a steady jump, turbulence is confined within the jump and the location of the jump is the least susceptible to downstream flow conditions out of the four major types of jumps. steady jumps are generally well - balanced and the energy dissipation is usually considerable ( 45 - 70 % ). = = = strong jump ( fr1 > 9 ) = = = there is a large difference in conjugate depths in a strong jump. strong jumps are characterized by a jump action that is very rough resulting in a high energy dissipation rate. at irregular intervals, slugs of water can be seen rolling down the front of the jump face. these slugs enter the high - velocity, supercritical jet and cause the formation of additional waves in the jump. energy dissipation in strong jumps can reach up to 85 %. = = jump location = = in general, a hydraulic jump is formed at a location where the upstream and downstream flow depths satisfy the conjugate depth equation. however, there can be conditions in a channel, such as downstream controls, that can alter where the conjugate depths form. tailwater depth can play a very influential role on where the jump will occur in the channel, and changes in this depth can shift the jump either upstream or downstream. figure 6 contains three scenarios of tailwater elevations ( yd ) : yd is equal to the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), yd is less than the conjugate depth ( y2 ) of the upstream flow depth ( y1 ), and yd is greater than the conjugate depth
Answer:
|
slow down
| 0.3 |
A cat and a snake are both predators for several of the same animals. If there are only seven mice in a habitat shared by a cat and a snake, there will be
0. a shared meal between them
1. a war between mice and cats
2. pressure on them to get the mice before the other does
3. enough for each of them to have ten mice
. aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier / more vigorous animal. aggression may also occur for self - protection or to protect offspring. aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage ; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility. = = = between species and groups = = = the most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. however, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. a cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. however, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse - killing by rats. in aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey ; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks. an animal defending against a predator may engage in either " fight or flight " or " tend and befriend " in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations, including alarm signals. an example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of trigona fulviventris individuals. release of nerol by t. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals ; in t. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nest mates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator. aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. one particular phenomenon β the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighboring territories to kill conspecifics β has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom :'common
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
hopping mice only heightened their caution in the presence of cat stimuli. although reintroducing native predators improved general antipredator responses among naive prey populations, evidence for enhanced discrimination towards introduced predators was limited, although the findings suggest that exposure to native predators may better prepare naive prey for environments where novel predators are present. a 2019 study explored whether exposing predator - naive prey, specifically the greater bilby ( macrotis lagotis ), to controlled numbers of introduced predators ( feral cats, felis catus ) can enhance their survival upon reintroduction. over two years, bilbies were exposed to feral cats in a fenced area, and their behaviors were assessed. results showed that predator - exposed bilbies exhibited increased wariness β spending less time moving and more time in cover β compared to naive bilbies. following translocation, the predator - exposed group had higher survival rates and was less likely to be predated upon than their naive counterparts. the study suggests that training naive prey in the presence of predators may improve their survival in reintroduction efforts. = = references = =
predatory strikes. this is consistent with the need to quickly neutralize an attacker. predatory strikes are different from defensive strikes : the snake strikes and envenomates the target, and then quickly releases it, preventing the target from damaging the snake. once released, the target animal may withdraw but soon dies. venom has a scent easily recognized by the snake that delivered it, allowing it to locate the prey's body. while not all snake species in every situation release their prey after envenomation, venom generally assists in finding bitten prey. venomous snakes have been shown to be aware of the relative size of prey : juvenile rattlesnakes were experimentally shown to have the ability to adapt the volume of venom they expelled based on prey size. once experienced, the juvenile rattlesnakes consistently expelled more venom when attacking larger mice. this ability allows the snake to inject enough venom to kill the prey while conserving its venom supply. = = diagnosis and treatment = = each year there are around 2 million cases of snake envenomation of humans that cause up to 100, 000 deaths worldwide. diagnosing snake envenomation is a crucial step in determining which antivenom to administer. there are various anti - venom treatments, typically consisting of antibodies or antibody fragments which neutralize the venom. the bites of some snakes, such as pit vipers and coral snakes, require specific treatment. anti - venom therapy is designed to treat the hemorrhaging and coagulation effects that venom has on humans. = = see also = = list of venomous animals toxicology = = references = = = = external links = =
##gulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. when prey have a clumped ( uneven ) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly ; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey. in size - selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. this has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. size may also act as a refuge for large prey. for example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. = = = camouflage and mimicry = = = members of the cat family such as the snow leopard ( treeless highlands ), tiger ( grassy plains, reed swamps ), ocelot ( forest ), fishing cat ( waterside thickets ), and lion ( open plains ) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats. in aggressive mimicry, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. female photuris fireflies, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. flower mantises are ambush predators ; camouflaged as flowers, such as orchids, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. frogfishes are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an esca, a bait on the end of a rod - like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. = = = venom = = = many smaller predators such as the box jellyfish use venom to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion ( as is the case for rattlesnakes and some spiders ). the marbled sea snake that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a mutation ( the deletion of two nucleotides ) that inactives it
Answer:
|
pressure on them to get the mice before the other does
| null |
A cat and a snake are both predators for several of the same animals. If there are only seven mice in a habitat shared by a cat and a snake, there will be
0. a shared meal between them
1. a war between mice and cats
2. pressure on them to get the mice before the other does
3. enough for each of them to have ten mice
. aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier / more vigorous animal. aggression may also occur for self - protection or to protect offspring. aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage ; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility. = = = between species and groups = = = the most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. however, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. a cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. however, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse - killing by rats. in aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey ; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks. an animal defending against a predator may engage in either " fight or flight " or " tend and befriend " in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations, including alarm signals. an example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of trigona fulviventris individuals. release of nerol by t. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals ; in t. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nest mates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator. aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. one particular phenomenon β the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighboring territories to kill conspecifics β has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom :'common
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
hopping mice only heightened their caution in the presence of cat stimuli. although reintroducing native predators improved general antipredator responses among naive prey populations, evidence for enhanced discrimination towards introduced predators was limited, although the findings suggest that exposure to native predators may better prepare naive prey for environments where novel predators are present. a 2019 study explored whether exposing predator - naive prey, specifically the greater bilby ( macrotis lagotis ), to controlled numbers of introduced predators ( feral cats, felis catus ) can enhance their survival upon reintroduction. over two years, bilbies were exposed to feral cats in a fenced area, and their behaviors were assessed. results showed that predator - exposed bilbies exhibited increased wariness β spending less time moving and more time in cover β compared to naive bilbies. following translocation, the predator - exposed group had higher survival rates and was less likely to be predated upon than their naive counterparts. the study suggests that training naive prey in the presence of predators may improve their survival in reintroduction efforts. = = references = =
predatory strikes. this is consistent with the need to quickly neutralize an attacker. predatory strikes are different from defensive strikes : the snake strikes and envenomates the target, and then quickly releases it, preventing the target from damaging the snake. once released, the target animal may withdraw but soon dies. venom has a scent easily recognized by the snake that delivered it, allowing it to locate the prey's body. while not all snake species in every situation release their prey after envenomation, venom generally assists in finding bitten prey. venomous snakes have been shown to be aware of the relative size of prey : juvenile rattlesnakes were experimentally shown to have the ability to adapt the volume of venom they expelled based on prey size. once experienced, the juvenile rattlesnakes consistently expelled more venom when attacking larger mice. this ability allows the snake to inject enough venom to kill the prey while conserving its venom supply. = = diagnosis and treatment = = each year there are around 2 million cases of snake envenomation of humans that cause up to 100, 000 deaths worldwide. diagnosing snake envenomation is a crucial step in determining which antivenom to administer. there are various anti - venom treatments, typically consisting of antibodies or antibody fragments which neutralize the venom. the bites of some snakes, such as pit vipers and coral snakes, require specific treatment. anti - venom therapy is designed to treat the hemorrhaging and coagulation effects that venom has on humans. = = see also = = list of venomous animals toxicology = = references = = = = external links = =
##gulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. when prey have a clumped ( uneven ) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly ; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey. in size - selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. this has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. size may also act as a refuge for large prey. for example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. = = = camouflage and mimicry = = = members of the cat family such as the snow leopard ( treeless highlands ), tiger ( grassy plains, reed swamps ), ocelot ( forest ), fishing cat ( waterside thickets ), and lion ( open plains ) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats. in aggressive mimicry, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. female photuris fireflies, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. flower mantises are ambush predators ; camouflaged as flowers, such as orchids, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. frogfishes are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an esca, a bait on the end of a rod - like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. = = = venom = = = many smaller predators such as the box jellyfish use venom to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion ( as is the case for rattlesnakes and some spiders ). the marbled sea snake that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a mutation ( the deletion of two nucleotides ) that inactives it
Answer:
|
enough for each of them to have ten mice
| 0.3 |
Which are in opposition for similar chow?
0. cats and mice
1. dogs and sycamores
2. bears and salmon
3. lions and hyenas
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
be linked to those for the domestication syndrome ; it is predicted that domestic animals are less resistant to parasites than their wild relatives. = = in animals = = a dog's cranium is 15 % smaller than an equally heavy wolf's, and the dog is less aggressive and more playful. other species pairs show similar differences. bonobos, like chimpanzees, are a close genetic cousin to humans, but unlike the chimpanzees, bonobos are not aggressive and do not participate in lethal inter - group aggression or kill within their own group. the most distinctive features of a bonobo are its cranium, which is 15 % smaller than a chimpanzee's, and its less aggressive and more playful behavior. these, and other, features led to the proposal that bonobos are a'self - domesticated'ape. in other examples, the guinea pig's cranium is 13 % smaller than its wild cousin the cavy, and domestic fowl show a similar reduction to their wild cousins. in a famous russian farm fox experiment, foxes selectively bred for reduced aggression appeared to show other traits associated with domestication syndrome. this prompted the claim that domestication syndrome was caused by selection for tameness. the foxes were not selectively bred for smaller craniums and teeth, floppy ears, or skills at using human gestures, but these traits were demonstrated in the friendly foxes. natural selection favors those that are the most successful at reproducing, not the most aggressive. selection against aggression made possible the ability to cooperate and communicate among foxes, dogs and bonobos. : 114 the more docile animals have been found to have less testosterone than their more aggressive counterparts, and testosterone controls aggression and brain size. the further away a dog breed is genetically from wolves, the larger the relative brain size is. = = = challenge = = = the domestication syndrome was reported to have appeared in the domesticated silver fox cultivated by dmitry belyayev's breeding experiment. however, in 2015 canine researcher raymond coppinger found historical evidence that belyayev's foxes originated in fox farms on prince edward island and had been bred there for fur farming since the 1800s, and that the traits demonstrated by belyayev had occurred in the foxes prior to the breeding experiment. a 2019 opinion paper by lord and colleagues argued that the results of the " russian farm fox experiment " were overstated, although the pre - domesticated origins of these russian foxes were already a matter of scientific
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
##gulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. when prey have a clumped ( uneven ) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly ; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey. in size - selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. this has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. size may also act as a refuge for large prey. for example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. = = = camouflage and mimicry = = = members of the cat family such as the snow leopard ( treeless highlands ), tiger ( grassy plains, reed swamps ), ocelot ( forest ), fishing cat ( waterside thickets ), and lion ( open plains ) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats. in aggressive mimicry, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. female photuris fireflies, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. flower mantises are ambush predators ; camouflaged as flowers, such as orchids, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. frogfishes are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an esca, a bait on the end of a rod - like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. = = = venom = = = many smaller predators such as the box jellyfish use venom to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion ( as is the case for rattlesnakes and some spiders ). the marbled sea snake that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a mutation ( the deletion of two nucleotides ) that inactives it
6. mech, l. david ; boitani, luigi, eds. ( 2003 ). wolves : behaviour, ecology and conservation. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 51696 - 7. mech, david l. ; smith, douglas w. ; macnulty, daniel r. ( 2015 ). wolves on the hunt : the behavior of wolves hunting wild prey. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 25514 - 9. lopez, barry h. ( 1978 ). of wolves and men. j. m. dent and sons limited. isbn 978 - 0 - 7432 - 4936 - 2. heptner, v. g. ; naumov, n. p. ( 1998 ). mammals of the soviet union vol. ii part 1a, sirenia and carnivora ( sea cows ; wolves and bears ). science publishers, inc. usa. isbn 978 - 1 - 886106 - 81 - 9.
Answer:
|
lions and hyenas
| null |
Which are in opposition for similar chow?
0. cats and mice
1. dogs and sycamores
2. bears and salmon
3. lions and hyenas
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
be linked to those for the domestication syndrome ; it is predicted that domestic animals are less resistant to parasites than their wild relatives. = = in animals = = a dog's cranium is 15 % smaller than an equally heavy wolf's, and the dog is less aggressive and more playful. other species pairs show similar differences. bonobos, like chimpanzees, are a close genetic cousin to humans, but unlike the chimpanzees, bonobos are not aggressive and do not participate in lethal inter - group aggression or kill within their own group. the most distinctive features of a bonobo are its cranium, which is 15 % smaller than a chimpanzee's, and its less aggressive and more playful behavior. these, and other, features led to the proposal that bonobos are a'self - domesticated'ape. in other examples, the guinea pig's cranium is 13 % smaller than its wild cousin the cavy, and domestic fowl show a similar reduction to their wild cousins. in a famous russian farm fox experiment, foxes selectively bred for reduced aggression appeared to show other traits associated with domestication syndrome. this prompted the claim that domestication syndrome was caused by selection for tameness. the foxes were not selectively bred for smaller craniums and teeth, floppy ears, or skills at using human gestures, but these traits were demonstrated in the friendly foxes. natural selection favors those that are the most successful at reproducing, not the most aggressive. selection against aggression made possible the ability to cooperate and communicate among foxes, dogs and bonobos. : 114 the more docile animals have been found to have less testosterone than their more aggressive counterparts, and testosterone controls aggression and brain size. the further away a dog breed is genetically from wolves, the larger the relative brain size is. = = = challenge = = = the domestication syndrome was reported to have appeared in the domesticated silver fox cultivated by dmitry belyayev's breeding experiment. however, in 2015 canine researcher raymond coppinger found historical evidence that belyayev's foxes originated in fox farms on prince edward island and had been bred there for fur farming since the 1800s, and that the traits demonstrated by belyayev had occurred in the foxes prior to the breeding experiment. a 2019 opinion paper by lord and colleagues argued that the results of the " russian farm fox experiment " were overstated, although the pre - domesticated origins of these russian foxes were already a matter of scientific
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
##gulates. others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. the specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. when prey have a clumped ( uneven ) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly ; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey. in size - selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. this has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. size may also act as a refuge for large prey. for example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. = = = camouflage and mimicry = = = members of the cat family such as the snow leopard ( treeless highlands ), tiger ( grassy plains, reed swamps ), ocelot ( forest ), fishing cat ( waterside thickets ), and lion ( open plains ) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats. in aggressive mimicry, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. female photuris fireflies, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. flower mantises are ambush predators ; camouflaged as flowers, such as orchids, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. frogfishes are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an esca, a bait on the end of a rod - like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. = = = venom = = = many smaller predators such as the box jellyfish use venom to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion ( as is the case for rattlesnakes and some spiders ). the marbled sea snake that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a mutation ( the deletion of two nucleotides ) that inactives it
6. mech, l. david ; boitani, luigi, eds. ( 2003 ). wolves : behaviour, ecology and conservation. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 51696 - 7. mech, david l. ; smith, douglas w. ; macnulty, daniel r. ( 2015 ). wolves on the hunt : the behavior of wolves hunting wild prey. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 25514 - 9. lopez, barry h. ( 1978 ). of wolves and men. j. m. dent and sons limited. isbn 978 - 0 - 7432 - 4936 - 2. heptner, v. g. ; naumov, n. p. ( 1998 ). mammals of the soviet union vol. ii part 1a, sirenia and carnivora ( sea cows ; wolves and bears ). science publishers, inc. usa. isbn 978 - 1 - 886106 - 81 - 9.
Answer:
|
dogs and sycamores
| 0.3 |
Snowy means a large amount of what?
0. roads
1. rivers
2. ice particles
3. winds
frost heaving ( or a frost heave ) is an upwards swelling of soil during freezing conditions caused by an increasing presence of ice as it grows towards the surface, upwards from the depth in the soil where freezing temperatures have penetrated into the soil ( the freezing front or freezing boundary ). ice growth requires a water supply that delivers water to the freezing front via capillary action in certain soils. the weight of overlying soil restrains vertical growth of the ice and can promote the formation of lens - shaped areas of ice within the soil. yet the force of one or more growing ice lenses is sufficient to lift a layer of soil, as much as 1 foot ( 0. 30 metres ) or more. the soil through which water passes to feed the formation of ice lenses must be sufficiently porous to allow capillary action, yet not so porous as to break capillary continuity. such soil is referred to as " frost susceptible ". the growth of ice lenses continually consumes the rising water at the freezing front. differential frost heaving can crack road surfaces β contributing to springtime pothole formation β and damage building foundations. frost heaves may occur in mechanically refrigerated cold - storage buildings and ice rinks. needle ice is essentially frost heaving that occurs at the beginning of the freezing season, before the freezing front has penetrated very far into the soil and there is no soil overburden to lift as a frost heave. = = mechanisms = = = = = historical understanding of frost heaving = = = urban hjarne described frost effects in soil in 1694. by 1930, stephen taber, head of the department of geology at the university of south carolina, had disproved the hypothesis that frost heaving results from molar volume expansion with freezing of water already present in the soil prior to the onset of subzero temperatures, i. e. with little contribution from the migration of water within the soil. since the molar volume of water expands by about 9 % as it changes phase from water to ice at its bulk freezing point, 9 % would be the maximum expansion possible owing to molar volume expansion, and even then only if the ice were rigidly constrained laterally in the soil so that the entire volume expansion had to occur vertically. ice is unusual among compounds because it increases in molar volume from its liquid state, water. most compounds decrease in volume when changing phase from liquid to solid. taber showed that the vertical displacement of soil in frost heaving could be significantly greater than that due to molar volume
water flow ( low hydraulic conductivity ) or too open in porosity to promote capillary flow. examples include dense clays with a small pore size and therefore a low hydraulic conductivity and clean sands and gravels, which contain small amounts of fine particles and whose pore sizes are too open to promote capillary flow. = = landforms created by frost heaving = = frost heaving creates raised - soil landforms in various geometries, including circles, polygons and stripes, which may be described as palsas in soils that are rich in organic matter, such as peat, or lithalsa in more mineral - rich soils. the stony lithalsa ( heaved mounds ) found on the archipelago of svalbard are an example. frost heaves occur in alpine regions, even near the equator, as illustrated by palsas on mount kenya. in arctic permafrost regions, a related type of ground heaving over hundreds of years can create structures, as high as 60 metres, known as pingos, which are fed by an upwelling of ground water, instead of the capillary action that feeds the growth of frost heaves. cryogenic earth hummocks are a small formation resulting from granular convection that appear in seasonally frozen ground and have many different names ; in north america they are earth hummocks ; thufur in greenland and iceland ; and pounus in fennoscandia. polygonal forms apparently caused by frost heave have been observed in near - polar regions of mars by the mars orbiter camera ( moc ) aboard the mars global surveyor and the hirise camera on the mars reconnaissance orbiter. in may 2008 the mars phoenix lander touched down on such a polygonal frost - heave landscape and quickly discovered ice a few centimetres below the surface. = = in refrigerated buildings = = cold - storage buildings and ice rinks that are maintained at sub - freezing temperatures may freeze the soil below their foundations to a depth of tens of meters. seasonally frozen buildings, e. g. some ice rinks, may allow the soil to thaw and recover when the building interior is warmed. if a refrigerated building's foundation is placed on frost - susceptible soils with a water table within reach of the freezing front, then the floors of such structures may heave, due to the same mechanisms found in nature. such structures may be designed to avoid such problems by employing several strategies, separately or in tandem. the strategies include placement of non
##s are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. on an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear. since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. = = = aviation meteorology = = = aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management. it is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the aeronautical information manual : the effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative β thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. the results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. in extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. it takes but 1 / 2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage. = = = agricultural meteorology = = = meteorologists, soil scientists, agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water - use efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather. = = = hydrometeorology = = = hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle, the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms. a hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating ( quantitative ) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences. the multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard - and software platforms and use different data formats. there are some initiatives β such as the drihm project β that are trying to address this issue. = = = nuclear meteorology = = = nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the atmosphere. = = = maritime meteorology = = = maritime
supercooled, at which point it will freeze upon impact with any object encountered sleet β term used in the united states and canada for precipitation consisting of small, translucent ice balls, usually smaller than hailstones tropical cyclone β a storm system with a low - pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain extratropical cyclone β a low - pressure weather system occurring in the middle latitudes of the earth having neither tropical nor polar characteristics weather front β a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities ; the principal cause of meteorological phenomena low pressure β a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area storm β any disturbed state of the atmosphere and strongly implying severe weather flooding β an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges the land ; a deluge nor'easter β a macro - scale storm along the east coast of the united states, named for the winds that come from the northeast wind β the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere ; caused by rising heated air and cooler air rushing in to occupy the vacated space. temperature β a physical property that describes our common notions of hot and cold invest ( meteorology ) β an area with the potential for tropical cyclone development = = = weather - related disasters = = = weather disasters extreme weather list of floods list of natural disasters by death toll list of severe weather phenomena = = leaders in meteorology = = william m. gray ( october 9, 1929 β april 16, 2016 ) β has been involved in forecasting hurricanes since 1984 francis galton ( february 16, 1822 - january 17, 1911 ) β was a polymath, and devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short - term climatic phenomena on a european scale herbert saffir ( march 29, 1917 β november 21, 2007 ) β was the developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale for measuring the intensity of hurricanes bob simpson ( november 19, 1912 β december 18, 2014 ) β was a meteorologist, hurricane specialist, first director of the national hurricane research project, former director of the national hurricane center, and co - developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale. = = see also = = meteorology glossary of meteorology index of meteorology articles standard day jet stream heat index equivalent potential temperature ( theta - e ) primitive equations climate : el nino monsoon flood drought global warming effect of sun angle on climate other phenomena : deposition dust devil fog tide air
reach of the freezing front, then the floors of such structures may heave, due to the same mechanisms found in nature. such structures may be designed to avoid such problems by employing several strategies, separately or in tandem. the strategies include placement of non - frost - susceptible soil beneath the foundation, adding insulation to diminish the penetration of the freezing front, and heating the soil beneath the building sufficiently to keep it from freezing. seasonally operated ice rinks can mitigate the rate of subsurface freezing by raising the temperature of the ice. = = see also = = cryoturbation frost law frost weathering ice jacking palsa = = explanatory footnotes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = manz, lorraine ( july 2011 ), " frost heave " ( pdf ), geo news, 32 ( 2 ) : 18 β 24
Answer:
|
ice particles
| null |
Snowy means a large amount of what?
0. roads
1. rivers
2. ice particles
3. winds
frost heaving ( or a frost heave ) is an upwards swelling of soil during freezing conditions caused by an increasing presence of ice as it grows towards the surface, upwards from the depth in the soil where freezing temperatures have penetrated into the soil ( the freezing front or freezing boundary ). ice growth requires a water supply that delivers water to the freezing front via capillary action in certain soils. the weight of overlying soil restrains vertical growth of the ice and can promote the formation of lens - shaped areas of ice within the soil. yet the force of one or more growing ice lenses is sufficient to lift a layer of soil, as much as 1 foot ( 0. 30 metres ) or more. the soil through which water passes to feed the formation of ice lenses must be sufficiently porous to allow capillary action, yet not so porous as to break capillary continuity. such soil is referred to as " frost susceptible ". the growth of ice lenses continually consumes the rising water at the freezing front. differential frost heaving can crack road surfaces β contributing to springtime pothole formation β and damage building foundations. frost heaves may occur in mechanically refrigerated cold - storage buildings and ice rinks. needle ice is essentially frost heaving that occurs at the beginning of the freezing season, before the freezing front has penetrated very far into the soil and there is no soil overburden to lift as a frost heave. = = mechanisms = = = = = historical understanding of frost heaving = = = urban hjarne described frost effects in soil in 1694. by 1930, stephen taber, head of the department of geology at the university of south carolina, had disproved the hypothesis that frost heaving results from molar volume expansion with freezing of water already present in the soil prior to the onset of subzero temperatures, i. e. with little contribution from the migration of water within the soil. since the molar volume of water expands by about 9 % as it changes phase from water to ice at its bulk freezing point, 9 % would be the maximum expansion possible owing to molar volume expansion, and even then only if the ice were rigidly constrained laterally in the soil so that the entire volume expansion had to occur vertically. ice is unusual among compounds because it increases in molar volume from its liquid state, water. most compounds decrease in volume when changing phase from liquid to solid. taber showed that the vertical displacement of soil in frost heaving could be significantly greater than that due to molar volume
water flow ( low hydraulic conductivity ) or too open in porosity to promote capillary flow. examples include dense clays with a small pore size and therefore a low hydraulic conductivity and clean sands and gravels, which contain small amounts of fine particles and whose pore sizes are too open to promote capillary flow. = = landforms created by frost heaving = = frost heaving creates raised - soil landforms in various geometries, including circles, polygons and stripes, which may be described as palsas in soils that are rich in organic matter, such as peat, or lithalsa in more mineral - rich soils. the stony lithalsa ( heaved mounds ) found on the archipelago of svalbard are an example. frost heaves occur in alpine regions, even near the equator, as illustrated by palsas on mount kenya. in arctic permafrost regions, a related type of ground heaving over hundreds of years can create structures, as high as 60 metres, known as pingos, which are fed by an upwelling of ground water, instead of the capillary action that feeds the growth of frost heaves. cryogenic earth hummocks are a small formation resulting from granular convection that appear in seasonally frozen ground and have many different names ; in north america they are earth hummocks ; thufur in greenland and iceland ; and pounus in fennoscandia. polygonal forms apparently caused by frost heave have been observed in near - polar regions of mars by the mars orbiter camera ( moc ) aboard the mars global surveyor and the hirise camera on the mars reconnaissance orbiter. in may 2008 the mars phoenix lander touched down on such a polygonal frost - heave landscape and quickly discovered ice a few centimetres below the surface. = = in refrigerated buildings = = cold - storage buildings and ice rinks that are maintained at sub - freezing temperatures may freeze the soil below their foundations to a depth of tens of meters. seasonally frozen buildings, e. g. some ice rinks, may allow the soil to thaw and recover when the building interior is warmed. if a refrigerated building's foundation is placed on frost - susceptible soils with a water table within reach of the freezing front, then the floors of such structures may heave, due to the same mechanisms found in nature. such structures may be designed to avoid such problems by employing several strategies, separately or in tandem. the strategies include placement of non
##s are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. on an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear. since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. = = = aviation meteorology = = = aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management. it is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the aeronautical information manual : the effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative β thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. the results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. in extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. it takes but 1 / 2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage. = = = agricultural meteorology = = = meteorologists, soil scientists, agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water - use efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather. = = = hydrometeorology = = = hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle, the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms. a hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating ( quantitative ) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences. the multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard - and software platforms and use different data formats. there are some initiatives β such as the drihm project β that are trying to address this issue. = = = nuclear meteorology = = = nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the atmosphere. = = = maritime meteorology = = = maritime
supercooled, at which point it will freeze upon impact with any object encountered sleet β term used in the united states and canada for precipitation consisting of small, translucent ice balls, usually smaller than hailstones tropical cyclone β a storm system with a low - pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain extratropical cyclone β a low - pressure weather system occurring in the middle latitudes of the earth having neither tropical nor polar characteristics weather front β a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities ; the principal cause of meteorological phenomena low pressure β a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area storm β any disturbed state of the atmosphere and strongly implying severe weather flooding β an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges the land ; a deluge nor'easter β a macro - scale storm along the east coast of the united states, named for the winds that come from the northeast wind β the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere ; caused by rising heated air and cooler air rushing in to occupy the vacated space. temperature β a physical property that describes our common notions of hot and cold invest ( meteorology ) β an area with the potential for tropical cyclone development = = = weather - related disasters = = = weather disasters extreme weather list of floods list of natural disasters by death toll list of severe weather phenomena = = leaders in meteorology = = william m. gray ( october 9, 1929 β april 16, 2016 ) β has been involved in forecasting hurricanes since 1984 francis galton ( february 16, 1822 - january 17, 1911 ) β was a polymath, and devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short - term climatic phenomena on a european scale herbert saffir ( march 29, 1917 β november 21, 2007 ) β was the developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale for measuring the intensity of hurricanes bob simpson ( november 19, 1912 β december 18, 2014 ) β was a meteorologist, hurricane specialist, first director of the national hurricane research project, former director of the national hurricane center, and co - developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale. = = see also = = meteorology glossary of meteorology index of meteorology articles standard day jet stream heat index equivalent potential temperature ( theta - e ) primitive equations climate : el nino monsoon flood drought global warming effect of sun angle on climate other phenomena : deposition dust devil fog tide air
reach of the freezing front, then the floors of such structures may heave, due to the same mechanisms found in nature. such structures may be designed to avoid such problems by employing several strategies, separately or in tandem. the strategies include placement of non - frost - susceptible soil beneath the foundation, adding insulation to diminish the penetration of the freezing front, and heating the soil beneath the building sufficiently to keep it from freezing. seasonally operated ice rinks can mitigate the rate of subsurface freezing by raising the temperature of the ice. = = see also = = cryoturbation frost law frost weathering ice jacking palsa = = explanatory footnotes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = manz, lorraine ( july 2011 ), " frost heave " ( pdf ), geo news, 32 ( 2 ) : 18 β 24
Answer:
|
winds
| 0.3 |
If you hear that its snowy outside, you can expect there to be
0. an abundance of fire
1. Absolutely zero snow outside
2. a plethora of snow
3. frogs falling from sky
to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). the second letter denotes precipitation patterns : s : a dry summer β the driest month in the high - sun half of the year ( april to september in the northern hemisphere, october to march in the southern hemisphere ) has less than 30 millimetres ( 1. 18 in ) / 40 millimetres ( 1. 57 in ) of rainfall and has exactly or less than 1β3 the precipitation of the wettest month in the low - sun half of the year ( october to march in the northern hemisphere, april to september in the southern hemisphere ), w : a dry winter β the driest month in the low - sun half of the year has exactly or less than one β tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year, f : no dry season β does not meet either of the alternative specifications above ; precipitation and humidity are often high year - round. the third letter denotes temperature : c : regular subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month between 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ) and β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). d : severely cold subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month at or below β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). = = = precipitation = = = most subarctic climates have little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm ( 15 in ) over an entire year due to the low temperatures and evapotranspiration. away from the coasts, precipitation occurs mostly in the summer months, while in coastal areas with subarctic climates the heaviest precipitation is usually during the autumn months when the relative warmth of sea vis - a - vis land is greatest. low precipitation, by the standards of more temperate regions with longer summers and warmer winters, is typically sufficient in view of the very low evapotranspiration to allow a water - logged terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation
is p ( β 2 β ) + p ( β 4 β ) + p ( β 6 β ) = 1 6 + 1 6 + 1 6 = 1 2. { \ displaystyle p ( { \ text { β } } 2 { \ text { β } } ) + p ( { \ text { β } } 4 { \ text { β } } ) + p ( { \ text { β } } 6 { \ text { β } } ) = { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } + { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } + { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } = { \ frac { 1 } { 2 } }. } in contrast, when a random variable takes values from a continuum then by convention, any individual outcome is assigned probability zero. for such continuous random variables, only events that include infinitely many outcomes such as intervals have probability greater than 0. for example, consider measuring the weight of a piece of ham in the supermarket, and assume the scale can provide arbitrarily many digits of precision. then, the probability that it weighs exactly 500 g must be zero because no matter how high the level of precision chosen, it cannot be assumed that there are no non - zero decimal digits in the remaining omitted digits ignored by the precision level. however, for the same use case, it is possible to meet quality control requirements such as that a package of " 500 g " of ham must weigh between 490 g and 510 g with at least 98 % probability. this is possible because this measurement does not require as much precision from the underlying equipment. continuous probability distributions can be described by means of the cumulative distribution function, which describes the probability that the random variable is no larger than a given value ( i. e., p ( x β€ x ) for some x. the cumulative distribution function is the area under the probability density function from - β to x, as shown in figure 1. most continuous probability distributions encountered in practice are not only continuous but also absolutely continuous. such distributions can be described by their probability density function. informally, the probability density f { \ displaystyle f } of a random variable x { \ displaystyle x } describes the infinitesimal probability that x { \ displaystyle x } takes any value x { \ displaystyle x } β that is p ( x β€ x < x + Ξ΄ x ) β f ( x ) Ξ΄ x { \ displaystyle p ( x \ leq x < x + \ delta x ) \
is called forked lightning. when it swoops down upon some object it is called'swooping lightning'after aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the book of signs, as well as on winds. he gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. his system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. he also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. the day was divided into sunrise, mid - morning, noon, mid - afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. shooting stars and the moon were also considered significant. however, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the aristotelian method. the work of theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2, 000 years. = = = meteorology after aristotle = = = meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. scientists such as galileo and descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology. speculation on the cause of the flooding of the nile ended when eratosthenes, according to proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued. during the era of roman greece and europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. in the 1st century bc, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. he closely followed aristotle's theories. by the end of the second century bc, the center of science shifted from athens to alexandria, home to
fire smoke clouds contained less soot than the nuclear winter modelling team had assumed. the atmospheric scientist tasked with studying the atmospheric effect of the kuwaiti fires by the national science foundation, peter v. hobbs, stated that the fires'modest impact suggested that " some numbers [ used to support the nuclear winter hypothesis ]... were probably a little overblown. " hobbs found that at the peak of the fires, the smoke absorbed 75 to 80 % of the sun's radiation. the particles rose to a maximum of 20, 000 feet ( 6, 100 m ), and when combined with scavenging by clouds the smoke had a short residency time of a maximum of a few days in the atmosphere. pre - war claims of wide scale, long - lasting, and significant global environmental effects were thus not borne out, and found to be significantly exaggerated by the media and speculators, with climate models by those not supporting the nuclear winter hypothesis at the time of the fires predicting only more localized effects such as a daytime temperature drop of ~ 10 Β°c within 200 km of the source. sagan later conceded in his book the demon - haunted world that his predictions obviously did not turn out to be correct : " it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4 β 6 Β°c over the persian gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and asia was spared. " the idea of oil well and oil reserve smoke pluming into the stratosphere serving as a main contributor to the soot of a nuclear winter was a central idea of the early climatology papers on the hypothesis ; they were considered more of a possible contributor than smoke from cities, as the smoke from oil has a higher ratio of black soot, thus absorbing more sunlight. hobbs compared the papers'assumed " emission factor " or soot generating efficiency from ignited oil pools and found, upon comparing to measured values from oil pools at kuwait, which were the greatest soot producers, the emissions of soot assumed in the nuclear winter calculations were still " too high ". following the results of the kuwaiti oil fires being in disagreement with the core nuclear winter promoting scientists, 1990s nuclear winter papers generally attempted to distance themselves from suggesting oil well and reserve smoke will reach the stratosphere. in 2007, a nuclear winter study noted that modern computer models have been applied to the kuwait oil fires, finding that individual smoke plumes are not able to loft smoke into the stratosphere, but that smoke from fires covering a large area, like some forest fires, can
terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation due to orographic lift. mount washington, with temperatures typical of a subarctic climate, receives an average rain - equivalent of 101. 91 inches ( 2, 588. 5 mm ) of precipitation per year. coastal areas of khabarovsk krai also have much higher precipitation in summer due to orographic influences ( up to 175 millimetres ( 6. 9 in ) in july in some areas ), whilst the mountainous kamchatka peninsula and sakhalin island are even wetter, since orographic moisture isn't confined to the warmer months and creates large glaciers in kamchatka. labrador, in eastern canada, is similarly wet throughout the year due to the semi - permanent icelandic low and can receive up to 1, 300 millimetres ( 51 in ) of rainfall equivalent per year, creating a snow cover of up to 1. 5 metres ( 59 in ) that does not melt until june. = = = vegetation and land use = = = vegetation in regions with subarctic climates is generally of low diversity, as only hardy tree species can survive the long winters and make use of the short summers. trees are mostly limited to conifers, as few broadleaved trees are able to survive the very low temperatures in winter. this type of forest is also known as taiga, a term which is sometimes applied to the climate found therein as well. even though the diversity may be low, the area and numbers are high, and the taiga ( boreal ) forest is the largest forest biome on the planet, with most of the forests located in russia and canada. the process by which plants become acclimated to cold temperatures is called hardening. agricultural potential is generally poor, due to the natural infertility of soils and the prevalence of swamps and lakes left by departing ice sheets, and short growing seasons prohibit all but the hardiest of crops. despite the short season, the long summer days at such latitudes do permit some agriculture. in some areas, ice has scoured rock surfaces bare, entirely stripping off the overburden. elsewhere, rock basins have been formed and stream courses dammed, creating countless lakes. = = = neighboring regions = = = should one go northward or even toward a polar sea, one finds that the warmest
Answer:
|
a plethora of snow
| null |
If you hear that its snowy outside, you can expect there to be
0. an abundance of fire
1. Absolutely zero snow outside
2. a plethora of snow
3. frogs falling from sky
to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). the second letter denotes precipitation patterns : s : a dry summer β the driest month in the high - sun half of the year ( april to september in the northern hemisphere, october to march in the southern hemisphere ) has less than 30 millimetres ( 1. 18 in ) / 40 millimetres ( 1. 57 in ) of rainfall and has exactly or less than 1β3 the precipitation of the wettest month in the low - sun half of the year ( october to march in the northern hemisphere, april to september in the southern hemisphere ), w : a dry winter β the driest month in the low - sun half of the year has exactly or less than one β tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year, f : no dry season β does not meet either of the alternative specifications above ; precipitation and humidity are often high year - round. the third letter denotes temperature : c : regular subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month between 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ) and β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). d : severely cold subarctic, only one β three months above 10 Β°c ( 50. 0 Β°f ), coldest month at or below β38 Β°c ( β36. 4 Β°f ). = = = precipitation = = = most subarctic climates have little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm ( 15 in ) over an entire year due to the low temperatures and evapotranspiration. away from the coasts, precipitation occurs mostly in the summer months, while in coastal areas with subarctic climates the heaviest precipitation is usually during the autumn months when the relative warmth of sea vis - a - vis land is greatest. low precipitation, by the standards of more temperate regions with longer summers and warmer winters, is typically sufficient in view of the very low evapotranspiration to allow a water - logged terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation
is p ( β 2 β ) + p ( β 4 β ) + p ( β 6 β ) = 1 6 + 1 6 + 1 6 = 1 2. { \ displaystyle p ( { \ text { β } } 2 { \ text { β } } ) + p ( { \ text { β } } 4 { \ text { β } } ) + p ( { \ text { β } } 6 { \ text { β } } ) = { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } + { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } + { \ frac { 1 } { 6 } } = { \ frac { 1 } { 2 } }. } in contrast, when a random variable takes values from a continuum then by convention, any individual outcome is assigned probability zero. for such continuous random variables, only events that include infinitely many outcomes such as intervals have probability greater than 0. for example, consider measuring the weight of a piece of ham in the supermarket, and assume the scale can provide arbitrarily many digits of precision. then, the probability that it weighs exactly 500 g must be zero because no matter how high the level of precision chosen, it cannot be assumed that there are no non - zero decimal digits in the remaining omitted digits ignored by the precision level. however, for the same use case, it is possible to meet quality control requirements such as that a package of " 500 g " of ham must weigh between 490 g and 510 g with at least 98 % probability. this is possible because this measurement does not require as much precision from the underlying equipment. continuous probability distributions can be described by means of the cumulative distribution function, which describes the probability that the random variable is no larger than a given value ( i. e., p ( x β€ x ) for some x. the cumulative distribution function is the area under the probability density function from - β to x, as shown in figure 1. most continuous probability distributions encountered in practice are not only continuous but also absolutely continuous. such distributions can be described by their probability density function. informally, the probability density f { \ displaystyle f } of a random variable x { \ displaystyle x } describes the infinitesimal probability that x { \ displaystyle x } takes any value x { \ displaystyle x } β that is p ( x β€ x < x + Ξ΄ x ) β f ( x ) Ξ΄ x { \ displaystyle p ( x \ leq x < x + \ delta x ) \
is called forked lightning. when it swoops down upon some object it is called'swooping lightning'after aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the book of signs, as well as on winds. he gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. his system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. he also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. the day was divided into sunrise, mid - morning, noon, mid - afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. shooting stars and the moon were also considered significant. however, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the aristotelian method. the work of theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2, 000 years. = = = meteorology after aristotle = = = meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. scientists such as galileo and descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology. speculation on the cause of the flooding of the nile ended when eratosthenes, according to proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued. during the era of roman greece and europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. in the 1st century bc, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. he closely followed aristotle's theories. by the end of the second century bc, the center of science shifted from athens to alexandria, home to
fire smoke clouds contained less soot than the nuclear winter modelling team had assumed. the atmospheric scientist tasked with studying the atmospheric effect of the kuwaiti fires by the national science foundation, peter v. hobbs, stated that the fires'modest impact suggested that " some numbers [ used to support the nuclear winter hypothesis ]... were probably a little overblown. " hobbs found that at the peak of the fires, the smoke absorbed 75 to 80 % of the sun's radiation. the particles rose to a maximum of 20, 000 feet ( 6, 100 m ), and when combined with scavenging by clouds the smoke had a short residency time of a maximum of a few days in the atmosphere. pre - war claims of wide scale, long - lasting, and significant global environmental effects were thus not borne out, and found to be significantly exaggerated by the media and speculators, with climate models by those not supporting the nuclear winter hypothesis at the time of the fires predicting only more localized effects such as a daytime temperature drop of ~ 10 Β°c within 200 km of the source. sagan later conceded in his book the demon - haunted world that his predictions obviously did not turn out to be correct : " it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4 β 6 Β°c over the persian gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and asia was spared. " the idea of oil well and oil reserve smoke pluming into the stratosphere serving as a main contributor to the soot of a nuclear winter was a central idea of the early climatology papers on the hypothesis ; they were considered more of a possible contributor than smoke from cities, as the smoke from oil has a higher ratio of black soot, thus absorbing more sunlight. hobbs compared the papers'assumed " emission factor " or soot generating efficiency from ignited oil pools and found, upon comparing to measured values from oil pools at kuwait, which were the greatest soot producers, the emissions of soot assumed in the nuclear winter calculations were still " too high ". following the results of the kuwaiti oil fires being in disagreement with the core nuclear winter promoting scientists, 1990s nuclear winter papers generally attempted to distance themselves from suggesting oil well and reserve smoke will reach the stratosphere. in 2007, a nuclear winter study noted that modern computer models have been applied to the kuwait oil fires, finding that individual smoke plumes are not able to loft smoke into the stratosphere, but that smoke from fires covering a large area, like some forest fires, can
terrain in many areas of subarctic climate and to permit snow cover during winter, which is generally persistent for an extended period. a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high elevations in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation due to orographic lift. mount washington, with temperatures typical of a subarctic climate, receives an average rain - equivalent of 101. 91 inches ( 2, 588. 5 mm ) of precipitation per year. coastal areas of khabarovsk krai also have much higher precipitation in summer due to orographic influences ( up to 175 millimetres ( 6. 9 in ) in july in some areas ), whilst the mountainous kamchatka peninsula and sakhalin island are even wetter, since orographic moisture isn't confined to the warmer months and creates large glaciers in kamchatka. labrador, in eastern canada, is similarly wet throughout the year due to the semi - permanent icelandic low and can receive up to 1, 300 millimetres ( 51 in ) of rainfall equivalent per year, creating a snow cover of up to 1. 5 metres ( 59 in ) that does not melt until june. = = = vegetation and land use = = = vegetation in regions with subarctic climates is generally of low diversity, as only hardy tree species can survive the long winters and make use of the short summers. trees are mostly limited to conifers, as few broadleaved trees are able to survive the very low temperatures in winter. this type of forest is also known as taiga, a term which is sometimes applied to the climate found therein as well. even though the diversity may be low, the area and numbers are high, and the taiga ( boreal ) forest is the largest forest biome on the planet, with most of the forests located in russia and canada. the process by which plants become acclimated to cold temperatures is called hardening. agricultural potential is generally poor, due to the natural infertility of soils and the prevalence of swamps and lakes left by departing ice sheets, and short growing seasons prohibit all but the hardiest of crops. despite the short season, the long summer days at such latitudes do permit some agriculture. in some areas, ice has scoured rock surfaces bare, entirely stripping off the overburden. elsewhere, rock basins have been formed and stream courses dammed, creating countless lakes. = = = neighboring regions = = = should one go northward or even toward a polar sea, one finds that the warmest
Answer:
|
an abundance of fire
| 0.3 |
If a rock is sedimentary then
0. sediment was fused with lava
1. sediment was packed into tummies
2. sediment was watered with salt
3. sediment was packed tightly
a rock fragment, in sedimentary geology, is a sand - sized particle or sand grain that is made up of multiple grains that are connected on the grain scale. these can include grains which are sand - sized themselves ( a granitic rock fragment ), or finer - grained materials ( shale fragments ). this definition is used for qfr ternary diagrams, provenance analysis, and in the folk classification scheme, mainly in sandstones. = = see also = = floaters = = references = = folk, r. l., 1974, petrology of sedimentary rocks : austin, tx, hemphill press, second edition, 182 p.
sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation ( erosion and weathering ), transport, deposition and diagenesis. sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures. sedimentary rocks cover up to 75 % of the earth's surface, record much of the earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata. the premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the rock record were formed. by comparing similar features today to features in the rock record β for example, by comparing modern sand dunes to dunes preserved in ancient aeolian sandstones β geologists reconstruct past environments. = = sedimentary rock types = = there are four primary types of sedimentary rocks : clastics, carbonates, evaporites, and chemical. clastic rocks are composed of particles derived from the weathering and erosion of precursor rocks and consist primarily of fragmental material. clastic rocks are classified according to their predominant grain size and their composition. in the past, the term " clastic sedimentary rocks " were used to describe silica - rich clastic sedimentary rocks, however there have been cases of clastic carbonate rocks. the more appropriate term is siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. organic sedimentary rocks are important deposits formed from the accumulation of biological detritus, and form coal and oil shale deposits, and are typically found within basins of clastic sedimentary rocks carbonates are composed of various carbonate minerals ( most often calcium carbonate ( caco3 ) ) precipitated by a variety of organic and inorganic processes. evaporites are formed through the evaporation of water at the earth's surface and most commonly include halite or gypsum. chemical sedimentary rocks, including some carbonates, are deposited by precipitation of minerals from aqueous solution. these include jaspilite and chert. = = importance of sedimentary rocks = = sedimentary rocks provide a multitude of products which modern and ancient society has come to utilise. art : marble, although a metamorphosed limestone, is an example of the use of sedimentary rocks in the pursuit of aesthetics and art architectural uses : stone derived from sedimentary rocks is used for dimension stone and in architecture, notably slate ( metamorphosed shale
##ly with depth. in general we can describe this with the relationship : where { \ displaystyle \ phi } is the porosity of the rock at depth z { \ displaystyle z }, 0 { \ displaystyle \ phi _ { 0 } } is the porosity at the surface and c { \ displaystyle c } is a rock specific compaction constant. = = = back - stripping equation = = = the fundamental equation in back - stripping corrects the observed stratigraphic record for the effects of sediment and water loading and changes in water depth, and is given by : where y { \ displaystyle y } is the tectonically driven subsidence, s { \ displaystyle s } is the decompacted sediment thickness, Ο s { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { s } } is the mean sediment density, w d { \ displaystyle w _ { d } } is the average depth at which the sedimentary units were deposited, Ο w { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { w } } and Ο m { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { m } } are the densities of the water and mantle respectively, and Ξ΄ s l { \ displaystyle \ delta _ { sl } } the difference in sea - level height between the present and the time at which the sediments were deposited. the three independent terms account for the contributions of sediment loading, water depth and sea - level oscillations to the subsidence of the basin. = = = derivation = = = to derive equation ( 2 ) one should first consider a'loaded'column that represents a sedimentary unit accumulated over a certain geological time period, and a corresponding'unloaded'column that represents the position of the underlying basement without the effects of the sediments. in the scenario, the pressure at the base of the loaded column, is given by : where w d { \ displaystyle w _ { d } } is the water depth of deposition, c { \ displaystyle c } is the mean thickness of the crust, s { \ displaystyle s } is the sediment thickness corrected for compaction, g { \ displaystyle g } is the average gravity and Ο w { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { w } }, Ο s { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { s } } and Ο c { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { c } } are the densities of water, the sediment and the crust respectively. the pressure at the base of the unloaded column
sedimentary rocks are types of rock formed by the cementation of sediments β i. e. particles made of minerals ( geological detritus ) or organic matter ( biological detritus ) β that have been accumulated or deposited at earth's surface. sedimentation is any process that causes these particles to settle in place. geological detritus originates from weathering and erosion of existing rocks, or from the solidification of molten lava blobs erupted by volcanoes. the geological detritus is transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice or mass movement, which are called agents of denudation. biological detritus is formed by bodies and parts ( mainly shells ) of dead aquatic organisms, as well as their fecal mass, suspended in water and slowly piling up on the floor of water bodies ( marine snow ). sedimentation may also occur when dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution. the sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the earth's crust is extensive ( 73 % of the earth's current land surface ), but sedimentary rock is estimated to be only 8 % of the volume of the crust. sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. sedimentary rocks are often deposited in large structures called sedimentary basins. sedimentary rocks have also been found on mars. the study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources including coal, fossil fuels, drinking water and ores. the study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the earth's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life. the scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the earth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry and structural geology. = = classification based on origin = = sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation : clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical ( biogenic ) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for " other " sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor
down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away. unconformities can be classified based on the orientation of the strata on either sides of the unconformity : angular unconformity when the earlier layers are tilted and eroded while the later layers are horizontally laid. nonconformity if the early layers have no bedding in contrast to the later layers, ie. they are igneous or metamorphic rocks. disconformity if both the early beds and the later beds are parallel to each other. sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the earth. they contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. the composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains. = = provenance = = provenance is the reconstruction of the origin of sediments. all rock exposed at earth's surface is subjected to physical or chemical weathering and broken down into finer grained sediment. all three types of rocks ( igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks ) can be the source of sedimentary detritus. the purpose of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from the initial parent rocks at a source area to final detritus at a burial place. = = see also = = back - stripping β geophysical analysis technique deposition ( geology ) β geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or landmass dunham classification β classification system for carbonate sedimentary rockspages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback growth fault list of minerals β list of minerals with wikipedia articles list of rock types β list of rock types recognized by geologists sediment transport β movement of solid particles, typically by gravity and fluid entrainment shelly limestone β limestone containing many fossils volcaniclastics β geologic materials composed of broken fragments of volcanic rock caprock = = references = = = = = citations = = = = = = general and cited references = = = = = external links = = basic sedimentary rock classification archived 2011 - 07 - 23 at the wayback machine, by lynn s. fichter, james madison university, harrisonburg. vi ; sedimentary rocks tour, introduction to sedimentary rocks, by bruce perry, department of geological sciences, california state university at long beach.
Answer:
|
sediment was packed tightly
| null |
If a rock is sedimentary then
0. sediment was fused with lava
1. sediment was packed into tummies
2. sediment was watered with salt
3. sediment was packed tightly
a rock fragment, in sedimentary geology, is a sand - sized particle or sand grain that is made up of multiple grains that are connected on the grain scale. these can include grains which are sand - sized themselves ( a granitic rock fragment ), or finer - grained materials ( shale fragments ). this definition is used for qfr ternary diagrams, provenance analysis, and in the folk classification scheme, mainly in sandstones. = = see also = = floaters = = references = = folk, r. l., 1974, petrology of sedimentary rocks : austin, tx, hemphill press, second edition, 182 p.
sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation ( erosion and weathering ), transport, deposition and diagenesis. sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures. sedimentary rocks cover up to 75 % of the earth's surface, record much of the earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata. the premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the rock record were formed. by comparing similar features today to features in the rock record β for example, by comparing modern sand dunes to dunes preserved in ancient aeolian sandstones β geologists reconstruct past environments. = = sedimentary rock types = = there are four primary types of sedimentary rocks : clastics, carbonates, evaporites, and chemical. clastic rocks are composed of particles derived from the weathering and erosion of precursor rocks and consist primarily of fragmental material. clastic rocks are classified according to their predominant grain size and their composition. in the past, the term " clastic sedimentary rocks " were used to describe silica - rich clastic sedimentary rocks, however there have been cases of clastic carbonate rocks. the more appropriate term is siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. organic sedimentary rocks are important deposits formed from the accumulation of biological detritus, and form coal and oil shale deposits, and are typically found within basins of clastic sedimentary rocks carbonates are composed of various carbonate minerals ( most often calcium carbonate ( caco3 ) ) precipitated by a variety of organic and inorganic processes. evaporites are formed through the evaporation of water at the earth's surface and most commonly include halite or gypsum. chemical sedimentary rocks, including some carbonates, are deposited by precipitation of minerals from aqueous solution. these include jaspilite and chert. = = importance of sedimentary rocks = = sedimentary rocks provide a multitude of products which modern and ancient society has come to utilise. art : marble, although a metamorphosed limestone, is an example of the use of sedimentary rocks in the pursuit of aesthetics and art architectural uses : stone derived from sedimentary rocks is used for dimension stone and in architecture, notably slate ( metamorphosed shale
##ly with depth. in general we can describe this with the relationship : where { \ displaystyle \ phi } is the porosity of the rock at depth z { \ displaystyle z }, 0 { \ displaystyle \ phi _ { 0 } } is the porosity at the surface and c { \ displaystyle c } is a rock specific compaction constant. = = = back - stripping equation = = = the fundamental equation in back - stripping corrects the observed stratigraphic record for the effects of sediment and water loading and changes in water depth, and is given by : where y { \ displaystyle y } is the tectonically driven subsidence, s { \ displaystyle s } is the decompacted sediment thickness, Ο s { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { s } } is the mean sediment density, w d { \ displaystyle w _ { d } } is the average depth at which the sedimentary units were deposited, Ο w { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { w } } and Ο m { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { m } } are the densities of the water and mantle respectively, and Ξ΄ s l { \ displaystyle \ delta _ { sl } } the difference in sea - level height between the present and the time at which the sediments were deposited. the three independent terms account for the contributions of sediment loading, water depth and sea - level oscillations to the subsidence of the basin. = = = derivation = = = to derive equation ( 2 ) one should first consider a'loaded'column that represents a sedimentary unit accumulated over a certain geological time period, and a corresponding'unloaded'column that represents the position of the underlying basement without the effects of the sediments. in the scenario, the pressure at the base of the loaded column, is given by : where w d { \ displaystyle w _ { d } } is the water depth of deposition, c { \ displaystyle c } is the mean thickness of the crust, s { \ displaystyle s } is the sediment thickness corrected for compaction, g { \ displaystyle g } is the average gravity and Ο w { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { w } }, Ο s { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { s } } and Ο c { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { c } } are the densities of water, the sediment and the crust respectively. the pressure at the base of the unloaded column
sedimentary rocks are types of rock formed by the cementation of sediments β i. e. particles made of minerals ( geological detritus ) or organic matter ( biological detritus ) β that have been accumulated or deposited at earth's surface. sedimentation is any process that causes these particles to settle in place. geological detritus originates from weathering and erosion of existing rocks, or from the solidification of molten lava blobs erupted by volcanoes. the geological detritus is transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice or mass movement, which are called agents of denudation. biological detritus is formed by bodies and parts ( mainly shells ) of dead aquatic organisms, as well as their fecal mass, suspended in water and slowly piling up on the floor of water bodies ( marine snow ). sedimentation may also occur when dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution. the sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the earth's crust is extensive ( 73 % of the earth's current land surface ), but sedimentary rock is estimated to be only 8 % of the volume of the crust. sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. sedimentary rocks are often deposited in large structures called sedimentary basins. sedimentary rocks have also been found on mars. the study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources including coal, fossil fuels, drinking water and ores. the study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the earth's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life. the scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the earth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry and structural geology. = = classification based on origin = = sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation : clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical ( biogenic ) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for " other " sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor
down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away. unconformities can be classified based on the orientation of the strata on either sides of the unconformity : angular unconformity when the earlier layers are tilted and eroded while the later layers are horizontally laid. nonconformity if the early layers have no bedding in contrast to the later layers, ie. they are igneous or metamorphic rocks. disconformity if both the early beds and the later beds are parallel to each other. sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the earth. they contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. the composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains. = = provenance = = provenance is the reconstruction of the origin of sediments. all rock exposed at earth's surface is subjected to physical or chemical weathering and broken down into finer grained sediment. all three types of rocks ( igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks ) can be the source of sedimentary detritus. the purpose of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from the initial parent rocks at a source area to final detritus at a burial place. = = see also = = back - stripping β geophysical analysis technique deposition ( geology ) β geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or landmass dunham classification β classification system for carbonate sedimentary rockspages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback growth fault list of minerals β list of minerals with wikipedia articles list of rock types β list of rock types recognized by geologists sediment transport β movement of solid particles, typically by gravity and fluid entrainment shelly limestone β limestone containing many fossils volcaniclastics β geologic materials composed of broken fragments of volcanic rock caprock = = references = = = = = citations = = = = = = general and cited references = = = = = external links = = basic sedimentary rock classification archived 2011 - 07 - 23 at the wayback machine, by lynn s. fichter, james madison university, harrisonburg. vi ; sedimentary rocks tour, introduction to sedimentary rocks, by bruce perry, department of geological sciences, california state university at long beach.
Answer:
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sediment was packed into tummies
| 0.3 |
At the beach you are likely to find this type of stone:
0. rock that is compacted from other rock
1. rock that is formed of plastic
2. rock that is formed of water
3. rock that is compacted trash
beach sand, the sediment is well - sorted. if the particles are of very different sizes, the sediment is poorly sorted, such as in glacial deposits. a third way to describe marine sediment texture is its maturity, or how long its particles have been transported by water. one way which can indicate maturity is how round the particles are. the more mature a sediment the rounder the particles will be, as a result of being abraded over time. a high degree of sorting can also indicate maturity, because over time the smaller particles will be washed away, and a given amount of energy will move particles of a similar size over the same distance. lastly, the older and more mature a sediment the higher the quartz content, at least in sediments derived from rock particles. quartz is a common mineral in terrestrial rocks, and it is very hard and resistant to abrasion. over time, particles made from other materials are worn away, leaving only quartz behind. beach sand is a very mature sediment ; it is composed primarily of quartz, and the particles are rounded and of similar size ( well - sorted ). = = origins = = marine sediments can also classified by their source of origin. there are four types : lithogenous sediments, also called terrigenous sediments, are derived from preexisting rock and come from land via rivers, ice, wind and other processes. they are referred to as terrigenous sediments since most comes from the land. biogenous sediments are composed of the remains of marine organisms, and come from organisms like plankton when their exoskeletons break down hydrogenous sediments come from chemical reactions in the water, and are formed when materials that are dissolved in water precipitate out and form solid particles. cosmogenous sediments are derived from extraterrestrial sources, coming from space, filtering in through the atmosphere or carried to earth on meteorites. = = = lithogenous = = = lithogenous or terrigenous sediment is primarily composed of small fragments of preexisting rocks that have made their way into the ocean. these sediments can contain the entire range of particle sizes, from microscopic clays to large boulders, and they are found almost everywhere on the ocean floor. lithogenous sediments are created on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are
a beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. the particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, etc., or biological sources, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae. sediments settle in different densities and structures, depending on the local wave action and weather, creating different textures, colors and gradients or layers of material. though some beaches form on inland freshwater locations such as lakes and rivers, most beaches are in coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments. erosion and changing of beach geologies happens through natural processes, like wave action and extreme weather events. where wind conditions are correct, beaches can be backed by coastal dunes which offer protection and regeneration for the beach. however, these natural forces have become more extreme due to climate change, permanently altering beaches at very rapid rates. some estimates describe as much as 50 percent of the earth's sandy beaches disappearing by 2100 due to climate - change driven sea level rise. sandy beaches occupy about one third of global coastlines. these beaches are popular for recreation, playing important economic and cultural roles β often driving local tourism industries. to support these uses, some beaches have human - made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, showers, shacks and bars. they may also have hospitality venues ( such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants ) nearby or housing, both for permanent and seasonal residents. human forces have significantly changed beaches globally : direct impacts include bad construction practices on dunes and coastlines, while indirect human impacts include water pollution, plastic pollution and coastal erosion from sea level rise and climate change. some coastal management practices are designed to preserve or restore natural beach processes, while some beaches are actively restored through practices like beach nourishment. wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed for tourism or recreation. preserved beaches are important biomes with important roles in aquatic or marine biodiversity, such as for breeding grounds for sea turtles or nesting areas for seabirds or penguins. preserved beaches and their associated dune are important for protection from extreme weather for inland ecosystems and human infrastructure. = = location and profile = = although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers. beach may refer to : small systems where rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents ; or geological units of considerable size. the
in geology, rock ( or stone ) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. it is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. rocks form the earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. the study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. it may be limited to rocks found on earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. rocks are usually grouped into three main groups : igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. humanity has made use of rocks since the time the earliest humans lived. this early period, called the stone age, saw the development of many stone tools. stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. mining developed to extract rocks from the earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. modern technology has allowed the development of new human - made rocks and rock - like substances, such as concrete. = = study = = geology is the study of earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. the study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development of engineering and technology in human society. while the history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century. plutonism was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiometric dating of rocks. understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of the 20th century. = = classification = = rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly
marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. only fine particles can be transported to such places. typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro - organisms. at 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically ( the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline ). calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves ; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. skeletons of micro - organisms formed of silica ( such as radiolarians ) are not as soluble and are still deposited. an example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. when the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example, at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quiet deep marine environment and can cause the near - instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. the rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite. the coast is an environment dominated by wave action. at a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. they are often cross - cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. these are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. deltas are dominantly composed of clastic ( rather than chemical ) sediment. a continental sedimentary environment is an environment in the interior of a continent. examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. in the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. in rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. besides transport by water, sediment can be transported by wind or glaciers. sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is almost always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting. aeolian deposits
four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation : clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical ( biogenic ) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for " other " sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes. = = = clastic sedimentary rocks = = = clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of rock fragments ( clasts ) that have been cemented together. the clasts are commonly individual grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, or mica. however, any type of mineral may be present. clasts may also be lithic fragments composed of more than one mineral. clastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. most geologists use the udden - wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions : gravel ( > 2 mm diameter ), sand ( 1 / 16 to 2 mm diameter ), and mud ( < 1 / 16 mm diameter ). mud is further divided into silt ( 1 / 16 to 1 / 256 mm diameter ) and clay ( < 1 / 256 mm diameter ). the classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme ; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of mud. this tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature. the subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape ( conglomerates and breccias ), composition ( sandstones ), or grain size or texture ( mudrocks ). = = = = conglomerates and breccias = = = = breccias are dominantly composed of angular gravel in a groundmass ( matrix ), while conglomerates are dominantly composed rounded gravel. = = = = sandstones = = = = sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains. composition of framework grains the relative abundance of sand - sized framework grains determines the first word in a sandstone name. naming depends on the dominance of the three most abundant components quartz, feldspar, or the lithic fragments that originated from other rocks. all other minerals are considered accessories and not used in the naming of the rock, regardless of abundance
Answer:
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rock that is compacted from other rock
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At the beach you are likely to find this type of stone:
0. rock that is compacted from other rock
1. rock that is formed of plastic
2. rock that is formed of water
3. rock that is compacted trash
beach sand, the sediment is well - sorted. if the particles are of very different sizes, the sediment is poorly sorted, such as in glacial deposits. a third way to describe marine sediment texture is its maturity, or how long its particles have been transported by water. one way which can indicate maturity is how round the particles are. the more mature a sediment the rounder the particles will be, as a result of being abraded over time. a high degree of sorting can also indicate maturity, because over time the smaller particles will be washed away, and a given amount of energy will move particles of a similar size over the same distance. lastly, the older and more mature a sediment the higher the quartz content, at least in sediments derived from rock particles. quartz is a common mineral in terrestrial rocks, and it is very hard and resistant to abrasion. over time, particles made from other materials are worn away, leaving only quartz behind. beach sand is a very mature sediment ; it is composed primarily of quartz, and the particles are rounded and of similar size ( well - sorted ). = = origins = = marine sediments can also classified by their source of origin. there are four types : lithogenous sediments, also called terrigenous sediments, are derived from preexisting rock and come from land via rivers, ice, wind and other processes. they are referred to as terrigenous sediments since most comes from the land. biogenous sediments are composed of the remains of marine organisms, and come from organisms like plankton when their exoskeletons break down hydrogenous sediments come from chemical reactions in the water, and are formed when materials that are dissolved in water precipitate out and form solid particles. cosmogenous sediments are derived from extraterrestrial sources, coming from space, filtering in through the atmosphere or carried to earth on meteorites. = = = lithogenous = = = lithogenous or terrigenous sediment is primarily composed of small fragments of preexisting rocks that have made their way into the ocean. these sediments can contain the entire range of particle sizes, from microscopic clays to large boulders, and they are found almost everywhere on the ocean floor. lithogenous sediments are created on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are
a beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. the particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, etc., or biological sources, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae. sediments settle in different densities and structures, depending on the local wave action and weather, creating different textures, colors and gradients or layers of material. though some beaches form on inland freshwater locations such as lakes and rivers, most beaches are in coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments. erosion and changing of beach geologies happens through natural processes, like wave action and extreme weather events. where wind conditions are correct, beaches can be backed by coastal dunes which offer protection and regeneration for the beach. however, these natural forces have become more extreme due to climate change, permanently altering beaches at very rapid rates. some estimates describe as much as 50 percent of the earth's sandy beaches disappearing by 2100 due to climate - change driven sea level rise. sandy beaches occupy about one third of global coastlines. these beaches are popular for recreation, playing important economic and cultural roles β often driving local tourism industries. to support these uses, some beaches have human - made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, showers, shacks and bars. they may also have hospitality venues ( such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants ) nearby or housing, both for permanent and seasonal residents. human forces have significantly changed beaches globally : direct impacts include bad construction practices on dunes and coastlines, while indirect human impacts include water pollution, plastic pollution and coastal erosion from sea level rise and climate change. some coastal management practices are designed to preserve or restore natural beach processes, while some beaches are actively restored through practices like beach nourishment. wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed for tourism or recreation. preserved beaches are important biomes with important roles in aquatic or marine biodiversity, such as for breeding grounds for sea turtles or nesting areas for seabirds or penguins. preserved beaches and their associated dune are important for protection from extreme weather for inland ecosystems and human infrastructure. = = location and profile = = although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers. beach may refer to : small systems where rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents ; or geological units of considerable size. the
in geology, rock ( or stone ) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. it is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. rocks form the earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. the study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. it may be limited to rocks found on earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. rocks are usually grouped into three main groups : igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. humanity has made use of rocks since the time the earliest humans lived. this early period, called the stone age, saw the development of many stone tools. stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. mining developed to extract rocks from the earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. modern technology has allowed the development of new human - made rocks and rock - like substances, such as concrete. = = study = = geology is the study of earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. the study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development of engineering and technology in human society. while the history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century. plutonism was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiometric dating of rocks. understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of the 20th century. = = classification = = rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly
marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. only fine particles can be transported to such places. typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro - organisms. at 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically ( the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline ). calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves ; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. skeletons of micro - organisms formed of silica ( such as radiolarians ) are not as soluble and are still deposited. an example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. when the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example, at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quiet deep marine environment and can cause the near - instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. the rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite. the coast is an environment dominated by wave action. at a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. they are often cross - cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. these are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. deltas are dominantly composed of clastic ( rather than chemical ) sediment. a continental sedimentary environment is an environment in the interior of a continent. examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. in the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. in rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. besides transport by water, sediment can be transported by wind or glaciers. sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is almost always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting. aeolian deposits
four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation : clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical ( biogenic ) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for " other " sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes. = = = clastic sedimentary rocks = = = clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of rock fragments ( clasts ) that have been cemented together. the clasts are commonly individual grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, or mica. however, any type of mineral may be present. clasts may also be lithic fragments composed of more than one mineral. clastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. most geologists use the udden - wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions : gravel ( > 2 mm diameter ), sand ( 1 / 16 to 2 mm diameter ), and mud ( < 1 / 16 mm diameter ). mud is further divided into silt ( 1 / 16 to 1 / 256 mm diameter ) and clay ( < 1 / 256 mm diameter ). the classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme ; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of mud. this tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature. the subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape ( conglomerates and breccias ), composition ( sandstones ), or grain size or texture ( mudrocks ). = = = = conglomerates and breccias = = = = breccias are dominantly composed of angular gravel in a groundmass ( matrix ), while conglomerates are dominantly composed rounded gravel. = = = = sandstones = = = = sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains. composition of framework grains the relative abundance of sand - sized framework grains determines the first word in a sandstone name. naming depends on the dominance of the three most abundant components quartz, feldspar, or the lithic fragments that originated from other rocks. all other minerals are considered accessories and not used in the naming of the rock, regardless of abundance
Answer:
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rock that is formed of plastic
| 0.3 |
If a plant is being nourished throughout all of itself, the reason is most likely
0. plastic tubes
1. internal tubes
2. interior walls
3. metal tubes
hyperhydricity ( previously known as vitrification ) is a physiological malformation that results in excessive hydration, low lignification, impaired stomatal function and reduced mechanical strength of tissue culture - generated plants. the consequence is poor regeneration of such plants without intensive greenhouse acclimation for outdoor growth. additionally, it may also lead to leaf - tip and bud necrosis in some cases, which often leads to loss of apical dominance in the shoots. in general, the main symptom of hyperhydricity is translucent characteristics signified by a shortage of chlorophyll and high water content. specifically, the presence of a thin or absent cuticular layer, reduced number of palisade cells, irregular stomata, less developed cell wall and large intracellular spaces in the mesophyll cell layer have been described as some of the anatomic changes associated with hyperhydricity. = = causes = = the main causes of hyperhydricity in plant tissue culture are those factors triggering oxidative stresses such as high salt concentration, high relative humidity, low light intensity, gas accumulation in the atmosphere of the jar, length of time intervals between subcultures ; number of subcultures, concentration and type of gelling agent, the type of explants used, the concentrations of microelement and hormonal imbalances. hyperhydricity is commonly apparent in liquid culture - grown plants or when there is low concentration of gelling agent. high ammonium concentration also contributes to hyperhydricity. = = control = = hyperhydricity can be monitored by modifying the atmosphere of the culture vessels. adjusting the relative humidity in the vessel is one of the most important parameters to be controlled. use of gas - permeable membranes may help in this regard as this allows increased exchange of water vapor and other gases such as ethylene with the surrounding environment. using higher concentration of a gelling agent, on top of the use of a higher - strength gelling agent may reduce the risk from hyperhydricity. hyperhydricity can also be controlled by bottom cooling, which allows water to condense on the medium, the use of cytokinin - meta - topolin ( 6 - ( 3 - hydroxybenzylamino ) purine ) < / 9 >, the combination of lower cytokinin and ammonium nitrate in the medium, use of nitrate or glutamine as the
if the water potential of the root cells is more negative than that of the soil, usually due to high concentrations of solute, water can move by osmosis into the root from the soil. this causes a positive pressure that forces sap up the xylem towards the leaves. in some circumstances, the sap will be forced from the leaf through a hydathode in a phenomenon known as guttation. root pressure is highest in the morning before the opening of stomata and allow transpiration to begin. different plant species can have different root pressures even in a similar environment ; examples include up to 145 kpa in vitis riparia but around zero in celastrus orbiculatus. the primary force that creates the capillary action movement of water upwards in plants is the adhesion between the water and the surface of the xylem conduits. capillary action provides the force that establishes an equilibrium configuration, balancing gravity. when transpiration removes water at the top, the flow is needed to return to the equilibrium. transpirational pull results from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of cells in the leaves. this evaporation causes the surface of the water to recess into the pores of the cell wall. by capillary action, the water forms concave menisci inside the pores. the high surface tension of water pulls the concavity outwards, generating enough force to lift water as high as a hundred meters from ground level to a tree's highest branches. transpirational pull requires that the vessels transporting the water be very small in diameter ; otherwise, cavitation would break the water column. and as water evaporates from leaves, more is drawn up through the plant to replace it. when the water pressure within the xylem reaches extreme levels due to low water input from the roots ( if, for example, the soil is dry ), then the gases come out of solution and form a bubble β an embolism forms, which will spread quickly to other adjacent cells, unless bordered pits are present ( these have a plug - like structure called a torus, that seals off the opening between adjacent cells and stops the embolism from spreading ). even after an embolism has occurred, plants are able to refill the xylem and restore the functionality. = = = cohesion - tension theory = = = the cohesion - tension theory is a theory of intermolecular attraction that explains the process of water flow upwards
##laophyton and horneophyton have structures very similar to the hydroids of modern mosses. plants continued to innovate new ways of reducing the resistance to flow within their cells, thereby increasing the efficiency of their water transport. bands on the walls of tubes, in fact apparent from the early silurian onwards, are an early improvisation to aid the easy flow of water. banded tubes, as well as tubes with pits in their walls, were lignified and, when they form single celled conduits, are considered to be tracheids. these, the " next generation " of transport cell design, have a more rigid structure than hydroids, allowing them to cope with higher levels of water pressure. tracheids may have a single evolutionary origin, possibly within the hornworts, uniting all tracheophytes ( but they may have evolved more than once ). water transport requires regulation, and dynamic control is provided by stomata. by adjusting the amount of gas exchange, they can restrict the amount of water lost through transpiration. this is an important role where water supply is not constant, and indeed stomata appear to have evolved before tracheids, being present in the non - vascular hornworts. an endodermis probably evolved during the silu - devonian, but the first fossil evidence for such a structure is carboniferous. this structure in the roots covers the water transport tissue and regulates ion exchange ( and prevents unwanted pathogens etc. from entering the water transport system ). the endodermis can also provide an upwards pressure, forcing water out of the roots when transpiration is not enough of a driver. once plants had evolved this level of controlled water transport, they were truly homoiohydric, able to extract water from their environment through root - like organs rather than relying on a film of surface moisture, enabling them to grow to much greater size. as a result of their independence from their surroundings, they lost their ability to survive desiccation β a costly trait to retain. during the devonian, maximum xylem diameter increased with time, with the minimum diameter remaining pretty constant. by the middle devonian, the tracheid diameter of some plant lineages ( zosterophyllophytes ) had plateaued. wider tracheids allow water to be transported faster, but the overall transport rate depends also on the overall cross - sectional area of the xylem bundle itself. the increase in vascular bundle thickness further seems to correlate
into bacterial biomass so that protists and other higher trophic levels can consume it. additionally, bacteria take part in the nitrogen and carbon cycles, among other biogeochemical cycles. algae in aquatic ecosystems, single - celled photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria and diatoms are the main producers. through the process of photosynthesis, they transform sunlight into chemical energy and create organic matter, which is the foundation of the food chain. particularly significant in nutrient - poor environments are cyanobacteria because of their capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. when vital nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are scarce during periods of uneven development, algal cells have the potential to produce doc. doc may also be released into the environment by algal cells. one of the reasons phytoplankton release doc termed " unbalanced growth " is when essential nutrients ( e. g. nitrogen and phosphorus ) are limiting. therefore, carbon produced during photosynthesis is not used for the synthesis of proteins ( and subsequent cell growth ), but is limited due to a lack of the nutrients necessary for macromolecules. excess photosynthate, or doc is then released, or exuded. heterotrophic protists in the microbial food web, protists including ciliates and flagellates are significant consumers. by consuming bacteria, algae, and other tiny particles, they move nutrients and energy up the food chain. larger creatures like zooplankton feed on these protists in turn. = = microbial interactions = = the food web's microbial interactions are varied and diverse. predation, rivalry, and symbiotic connections are some of these interactions. for instance, certain bacteria and algae create mutualistic relationships in which the bacteria give the algae vital nutrients, and the algae give the bacteria organic carbon. microbial communities can be shaped by competition for resources like light and nutrition, which can affect their makeup and functionality. = = environmental factors = = environmental factors that have a significant impact on microbial food webs include temperature, availability of light, and nutrient concentrations. microbe development and metabolic rates are influenced by temperature, and photosynthetic organisms are impacted by light availability. the availability of nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, might restrict the growth and productivity of microorganisms. for instance, during times of nitrogen constraint, phytoplankton may emit doc, a phenomenon referred to as imbalanced growth. =
or autotrophic means alone, and mixotrophy is used only when necessary. = = plants = = amongst plants, mixotrophy classically applies to carnivorous, hemi - parasitic and myco - heterotrophic species. however, this characterisation as mixotrophic could be extended to a higher number of clades as research demonstrates that organic forms of nitrogen and phosphorus β such as dna, proteins, amino - acids or carbohydrates β are also part of the nutrient supplies of a number of plant species. mycoheterotrophic plants form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide them with organic carbon and nutrients from nearby photosynthetic plants or soil. they often lack chlorophyll or have reduced photosynthetic capacity. an example is indian pipe, a white, non - photosynthetic plant that relies heavily on fungal networks for nutrients. pinesap also taps into fungal networks for sustenance, similar to indian pipe. certain orchids, such as corallorhiza, depend on fungi for carbon and nutrients while developing photosynthetic capabilities ( especially in their early stages ). carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods, and occasionally small mammals and birds. they have adapted to grow in waterlogged sunny places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs. hemiparasitic plants are partially parasitic, attaching to the roots or stems of host plants to extract water, nutrients, or organic compounds while still performing photosynthesis. examples are mistletoe ( absorbs water and nutrients from host trees but also photosynthesizes ), indian paintbrush ( connects to the roots of other plants for nutrients while maintaining photosynthetic leaves ), and yellow rattle ( a root parasite that supplements its nutrition by tapping into host plants ). some epiphytic plants, which are plants that grow on other plants, absorb organic matter, such as decaying debris or animal waste, through specialized structures while still photosynthesizing. for example, some bromeliads have tank - like leaf structures that collect water and organic debris, absorbing nutrients through their leaves. also, some epiphytic orchids absorb nutrients from organic matter caught in their aerial roots. some plants incorporate algae or cyanobacteria, which provide photosynthe
Answer:
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internal tubes
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If a plant is being nourished throughout all of itself, the reason is most likely
0. plastic tubes
1. internal tubes
2. interior walls
3. metal tubes
hyperhydricity ( previously known as vitrification ) is a physiological malformation that results in excessive hydration, low lignification, impaired stomatal function and reduced mechanical strength of tissue culture - generated plants. the consequence is poor regeneration of such plants without intensive greenhouse acclimation for outdoor growth. additionally, it may also lead to leaf - tip and bud necrosis in some cases, which often leads to loss of apical dominance in the shoots. in general, the main symptom of hyperhydricity is translucent characteristics signified by a shortage of chlorophyll and high water content. specifically, the presence of a thin or absent cuticular layer, reduced number of palisade cells, irregular stomata, less developed cell wall and large intracellular spaces in the mesophyll cell layer have been described as some of the anatomic changes associated with hyperhydricity. = = causes = = the main causes of hyperhydricity in plant tissue culture are those factors triggering oxidative stresses such as high salt concentration, high relative humidity, low light intensity, gas accumulation in the atmosphere of the jar, length of time intervals between subcultures ; number of subcultures, concentration and type of gelling agent, the type of explants used, the concentrations of microelement and hormonal imbalances. hyperhydricity is commonly apparent in liquid culture - grown plants or when there is low concentration of gelling agent. high ammonium concentration also contributes to hyperhydricity. = = control = = hyperhydricity can be monitored by modifying the atmosphere of the culture vessels. adjusting the relative humidity in the vessel is one of the most important parameters to be controlled. use of gas - permeable membranes may help in this regard as this allows increased exchange of water vapor and other gases such as ethylene with the surrounding environment. using higher concentration of a gelling agent, on top of the use of a higher - strength gelling agent may reduce the risk from hyperhydricity. hyperhydricity can also be controlled by bottom cooling, which allows water to condense on the medium, the use of cytokinin - meta - topolin ( 6 - ( 3 - hydroxybenzylamino ) purine ) < / 9 >, the combination of lower cytokinin and ammonium nitrate in the medium, use of nitrate or glutamine as the
if the water potential of the root cells is more negative than that of the soil, usually due to high concentrations of solute, water can move by osmosis into the root from the soil. this causes a positive pressure that forces sap up the xylem towards the leaves. in some circumstances, the sap will be forced from the leaf through a hydathode in a phenomenon known as guttation. root pressure is highest in the morning before the opening of stomata and allow transpiration to begin. different plant species can have different root pressures even in a similar environment ; examples include up to 145 kpa in vitis riparia but around zero in celastrus orbiculatus. the primary force that creates the capillary action movement of water upwards in plants is the adhesion between the water and the surface of the xylem conduits. capillary action provides the force that establishes an equilibrium configuration, balancing gravity. when transpiration removes water at the top, the flow is needed to return to the equilibrium. transpirational pull results from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of cells in the leaves. this evaporation causes the surface of the water to recess into the pores of the cell wall. by capillary action, the water forms concave menisci inside the pores. the high surface tension of water pulls the concavity outwards, generating enough force to lift water as high as a hundred meters from ground level to a tree's highest branches. transpirational pull requires that the vessels transporting the water be very small in diameter ; otherwise, cavitation would break the water column. and as water evaporates from leaves, more is drawn up through the plant to replace it. when the water pressure within the xylem reaches extreme levels due to low water input from the roots ( if, for example, the soil is dry ), then the gases come out of solution and form a bubble β an embolism forms, which will spread quickly to other adjacent cells, unless bordered pits are present ( these have a plug - like structure called a torus, that seals off the opening between adjacent cells and stops the embolism from spreading ). even after an embolism has occurred, plants are able to refill the xylem and restore the functionality. = = = cohesion - tension theory = = = the cohesion - tension theory is a theory of intermolecular attraction that explains the process of water flow upwards
##laophyton and horneophyton have structures very similar to the hydroids of modern mosses. plants continued to innovate new ways of reducing the resistance to flow within their cells, thereby increasing the efficiency of their water transport. bands on the walls of tubes, in fact apparent from the early silurian onwards, are an early improvisation to aid the easy flow of water. banded tubes, as well as tubes with pits in their walls, were lignified and, when they form single celled conduits, are considered to be tracheids. these, the " next generation " of transport cell design, have a more rigid structure than hydroids, allowing them to cope with higher levels of water pressure. tracheids may have a single evolutionary origin, possibly within the hornworts, uniting all tracheophytes ( but they may have evolved more than once ). water transport requires regulation, and dynamic control is provided by stomata. by adjusting the amount of gas exchange, they can restrict the amount of water lost through transpiration. this is an important role where water supply is not constant, and indeed stomata appear to have evolved before tracheids, being present in the non - vascular hornworts. an endodermis probably evolved during the silu - devonian, but the first fossil evidence for such a structure is carboniferous. this structure in the roots covers the water transport tissue and regulates ion exchange ( and prevents unwanted pathogens etc. from entering the water transport system ). the endodermis can also provide an upwards pressure, forcing water out of the roots when transpiration is not enough of a driver. once plants had evolved this level of controlled water transport, they were truly homoiohydric, able to extract water from their environment through root - like organs rather than relying on a film of surface moisture, enabling them to grow to much greater size. as a result of their independence from their surroundings, they lost their ability to survive desiccation β a costly trait to retain. during the devonian, maximum xylem diameter increased with time, with the minimum diameter remaining pretty constant. by the middle devonian, the tracheid diameter of some plant lineages ( zosterophyllophytes ) had plateaued. wider tracheids allow water to be transported faster, but the overall transport rate depends also on the overall cross - sectional area of the xylem bundle itself. the increase in vascular bundle thickness further seems to correlate
into bacterial biomass so that protists and other higher trophic levels can consume it. additionally, bacteria take part in the nitrogen and carbon cycles, among other biogeochemical cycles. algae in aquatic ecosystems, single - celled photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria and diatoms are the main producers. through the process of photosynthesis, they transform sunlight into chemical energy and create organic matter, which is the foundation of the food chain. particularly significant in nutrient - poor environments are cyanobacteria because of their capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. when vital nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are scarce during periods of uneven development, algal cells have the potential to produce doc. doc may also be released into the environment by algal cells. one of the reasons phytoplankton release doc termed " unbalanced growth " is when essential nutrients ( e. g. nitrogen and phosphorus ) are limiting. therefore, carbon produced during photosynthesis is not used for the synthesis of proteins ( and subsequent cell growth ), but is limited due to a lack of the nutrients necessary for macromolecules. excess photosynthate, or doc is then released, or exuded. heterotrophic protists in the microbial food web, protists including ciliates and flagellates are significant consumers. by consuming bacteria, algae, and other tiny particles, they move nutrients and energy up the food chain. larger creatures like zooplankton feed on these protists in turn. = = microbial interactions = = the food web's microbial interactions are varied and diverse. predation, rivalry, and symbiotic connections are some of these interactions. for instance, certain bacteria and algae create mutualistic relationships in which the bacteria give the algae vital nutrients, and the algae give the bacteria organic carbon. microbial communities can be shaped by competition for resources like light and nutrition, which can affect their makeup and functionality. = = environmental factors = = environmental factors that have a significant impact on microbial food webs include temperature, availability of light, and nutrient concentrations. microbe development and metabolic rates are influenced by temperature, and photosynthetic organisms are impacted by light availability. the availability of nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, might restrict the growth and productivity of microorganisms. for instance, during times of nitrogen constraint, phytoplankton may emit doc, a phenomenon referred to as imbalanced growth. =
or autotrophic means alone, and mixotrophy is used only when necessary. = = plants = = amongst plants, mixotrophy classically applies to carnivorous, hemi - parasitic and myco - heterotrophic species. however, this characterisation as mixotrophic could be extended to a higher number of clades as research demonstrates that organic forms of nitrogen and phosphorus β such as dna, proteins, amino - acids or carbohydrates β are also part of the nutrient supplies of a number of plant species. mycoheterotrophic plants form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide them with organic carbon and nutrients from nearby photosynthetic plants or soil. they often lack chlorophyll or have reduced photosynthetic capacity. an example is indian pipe, a white, non - photosynthetic plant that relies heavily on fungal networks for nutrients. pinesap also taps into fungal networks for sustenance, similar to indian pipe. certain orchids, such as corallorhiza, depend on fungi for carbon and nutrients while developing photosynthetic capabilities ( especially in their early stages ). carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods, and occasionally small mammals and birds. they have adapted to grow in waterlogged sunny places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs. hemiparasitic plants are partially parasitic, attaching to the roots or stems of host plants to extract water, nutrients, or organic compounds while still performing photosynthesis. examples are mistletoe ( absorbs water and nutrients from host trees but also photosynthesizes ), indian paintbrush ( connects to the roots of other plants for nutrients while maintaining photosynthetic leaves ), and yellow rattle ( a root parasite that supplements its nutrition by tapping into host plants ). some epiphytic plants, which are plants that grow on other plants, absorb organic matter, such as decaying debris or animal waste, through specialized structures while still photosynthesizing. for example, some bromeliads have tank - like leaf structures that collect water and organic debris, absorbing nutrients through their leaves. also, some epiphytic orchids absorb nutrients from organic matter caught in their aerial roots. some plants incorporate algae or cyanobacteria, which provide photosynthe
Answer:
|
plastic tubes
| 0.3 |
Some humans live in what?
0. lakes
1. trees
2. oceans
3. homes
currents and form the plankton. = = = = list of marine habitat types = = = = = = = urban = = = many animals and plants have taken up residence in urban environments. they tend to be adaptable generalists and use the town's features to make their homes. rats and mice have followed man around the globe, pigeons, peregrines, sparrows, swallows and house martins use the buildings for nesting, bats use roof space for roosting, foxes visit the garbage bins and squirrels, coyotes, raccoons and skunks roam the streets. about 2, 000 coyotes are thought to live in and around chicago. a survey of dwelling houses in northern european cities in the twentieth century found about 175 species of invertebrate inside them, including 53 species of beetle, 21 flies, 13 butterflies and moths, 13 mites, 9 lice, 7 bees, 5 wasps, 5 cockroaches, 5 spiders, 4 ants and a number of other groups. in warmer climates, termites are serious pests in the urban habitat ; 183 species are known to affect buildings and 83 species cause serious structural damage. = = microhabitat types = = a microhabitat is the small - scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population. every habitat includes large numbers of microhabitat types with subtly different exposure to light, humidity, temperature, air movement, and other factors. the lichens that grow on the north face of a boulder are different from those that grow on the south face, from those on the level top, and those that grow on the ground nearby ; the lichens growing in the grooves and on the raised surfaces are different from those growing on the veins of quartz. lurking among these miniature " forests " are the microfauna, species of invertebrate, each with its own specific habitat requirements. there are numerous different microhabitat types in a wood ; coniferous forest, broad - leafed forest, open woodland, scattered trees, woodland verges, clearings, and glades ; tree trunk, branch, twig, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit ; rough bark, smooth bark, damaged bark, rotten wood, hollow, groove, and hole ; canopy, shrub layer, plant layer, leaf litter, and soil ; buttress root, stump, fallen log, stem base, grass tussock, fungus, fern, and moss. the greater the structural diversity in the wood, the greater the number of micro
found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks. these communities have not been studied much, but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle. rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock. these metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light, an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life. the intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitat types. however the vast bulk of the ocean is inhospitable to air - breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so. the lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen ( in some places ), scarce food resources and extreme cold. this habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little - studied, it is vast, with 79 % of the earth's biosphere being at depths greater than 1, 000 m ( 3, 300 ft ). with no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid - ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. a number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. in general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure - resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells known as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. there are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures. hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977. they result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed. the under - water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 Β°c ( 640 Β°f ) and support unique communities of organisms in their
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
snakehead goby = = = crustacean = = = crayfish freshwater prawn = = = snails = = = river snail small aquatic snails are usually found in ponds that contain plants. some people purchase apple snails to keep in their water garden. " melantho snails " of the genus lymnaea are also used. = = = herpetofauna = = = ponds located in suburban and rural areas often attract amphibians such as common frogs and fire salamanders and reptiles such as turtles, lizards, and snakes. = = = bird = = = wild duck domestic duck = = = predators = = = garden ponds can attract attention from predators such as ( in north america ) raccoons, herons, snakes, and domestic cats. these predators can be a danger to fish. owners of koi are often particularly careful to create protected areas as some varieties are very expensive. = = see also = = list of garden types landscape architecture aquascaping, arranging plants in an aquarium rain garden biochemical oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand wastewater quality indicators biotope aquaponics = = = index categories = = = category : natural pools = = references = = = = external links = = dugout pond aeration flash animation north american water garden society pond conservation : advice on garden ponds for wildlife
rivers have always been a reliable source for human communities. they have been a preferable place for settlements in early history and still provide a rich environment for big cities. many trade routes lead along rivers and build global connections. = = see also = = river engineering river management water pollution environmental engineering human impact on marine life = = references = =
Answer:
|
homes
| null |
Some humans live in what?
0. lakes
1. trees
2. oceans
3. homes
currents and form the plankton. = = = = list of marine habitat types = = = = = = = urban = = = many animals and plants have taken up residence in urban environments. they tend to be adaptable generalists and use the town's features to make their homes. rats and mice have followed man around the globe, pigeons, peregrines, sparrows, swallows and house martins use the buildings for nesting, bats use roof space for roosting, foxes visit the garbage bins and squirrels, coyotes, raccoons and skunks roam the streets. about 2, 000 coyotes are thought to live in and around chicago. a survey of dwelling houses in northern european cities in the twentieth century found about 175 species of invertebrate inside them, including 53 species of beetle, 21 flies, 13 butterflies and moths, 13 mites, 9 lice, 7 bees, 5 wasps, 5 cockroaches, 5 spiders, 4 ants and a number of other groups. in warmer climates, termites are serious pests in the urban habitat ; 183 species are known to affect buildings and 83 species cause serious structural damage. = = microhabitat types = = a microhabitat is the small - scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population. every habitat includes large numbers of microhabitat types with subtly different exposure to light, humidity, temperature, air movement, and other factors. the lichens that grow on the north face of a boulder are different from those that grow on the south face, from those on the level top, and those that grow on the ground nearby ; the lichens growing in the grooves and on the raised surfaces are different from those growing on the veins of quartz. lurking among these miniature " forests " are the microfauna, species of invertebrate, each with its own specific habitat requirements. there are numerous different microhabitat types in a wood ; coniferous forest, broad - leafed forest, open woodland, scattered trees, woodland verges, clearings, and glades ; tree trunk, branch, twig, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit ; rough bark, smooth bark, damaged bark, rotten wood, hollow, groove, and hole ; canopy, shrub layer, plant layer, leaf litter, and soil ; buttress root, stump, fallen log, stem base, grass tussock, fungus, fern, and moss. the greater the structural diversity in the wood, the greater the number of micro
found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks. these communities have not been studied much, but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle. rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock. these metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light, an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life. the intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitat types. however the vast bulk of the ocean is inhospitable to air - breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so. the lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen ( in some places ), scarce food resources and extreme cold. this habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little - studied, it is vast, with 79 % of the earth's biosphere being at depths greater than 1, 000 m ( 3, 300 ft ). with no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid - ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. a number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. in general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure - resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells known as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. there are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures. hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977. they result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed. the under - water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 Β°c ( 640 Β°f ) and support unique communities of organisms in their
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
snakehead goby = = = crustacean = = = crayfish freshwater prawn = = = snails = = = river snail small aquatic snails are usually found in ponds that contain plants. some people purchase apple snails to keep in their water garden. " melantho snails " of the genus lymnaea are also used. = = = herpetofauna = = = ponds located in suburban and rural areas often attract amphibians such as common frogs and fire salamanders and reptiles such as turtles, lizards, and snakes. = = = bird = = = wild duck domestic duck = = = predators = = = garden ponds can attract attention from predators such as ( in north america ) raccoons, herons, snakes, and domestic cats. these predators can be a danger to fish. owners of koi are often particularly careful to create protected areas as some varieties are very expensive. = = see also = = list of garden types landscape architecture aquascaping, arranging plants in an aquarium rain garden biochemical oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand wastewater quality indicators biotope aquaponics = = = index categories = = = category : natural pools = = references = = = = external links = = dugout pond aeration flash animation north american water garden society pond conservation : advice on garden ponds for wildlife
rivers have always been a reliable source for human communities. they have been a preferable place for settlements in early history and still provide a rich environment for big cities. many trade routes lead along rivers and build global connections. = = see also = = river engineering river management water pollution environmental engineering human impact on marine life = = references = =
Answer:
|
trees
| 0.3 |
If a biped which uses tools is in an ideal habitat, there will be within it
0. sharks
1. glaciers
2. potholes
3. rooms
poko ( chimpanzee ), were found to move bipedally. natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. oliver reverted to knuckle - walking after developing arthritis. non - human primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food, or while moving through shallow water. = = limited bipedalism = = = = = limited bipedalism in mammals = = = other mammals engage in limited, non - locomotory, bipedalism. a number of other animals, such as rats, raccoons, and beavers will squat on their hindlegs to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving ( the beaver will move bipedally if transporting wood for their dams, as will the raccoon when holding food ). bears will fight in a bipedal stance to use their forelegs as weapons. a number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting. ground squirrels and meerkats will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally. dogs ( e. g. faith ) can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes quadrupedalism. the gerenuk antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct giant ground sloth and chalicotheres. the spotted skunk will walk on its front legs when threatened, rearing up on its front legs while facing the attacker so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, face its attacker. = = = limited bipedalism in non - mammals ( and non - birds ) = = = bipedalism is unknown among the amphibians. among the non - archosaur reptiles bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the " reared - up " running of lizards such as agamids and monitor lizards. many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting. one genus of basilisk lizard can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance. among arthropods, cockroaches are known to move bipedally at high speeds. bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two species of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to
few non - primate mammals commonly move bipedally with an alternating leg gait. exceptions are the ground pangolin and in some circumstances the tree kangaroo. one black bear, pedals, became famous locally and on the internet for having a frequent bipedal gait, although this is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. a two - legged fox was filmed in a derbyshire garden in 2023, most likely having been born that way. = = = = primates = = = = most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. the primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright ( completely upright in humans ), and the tail may be absent entirely. many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. on the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for balance. geladas, although usually quadrupedal, will sometimes move between adjacent feeding patches with a squatting, shuffling bipedal form of locomotion. however, they can only do so for brief amounts, as their bodies are not adapted for constant bipedal locomotion. humans are the only primates who are normally biped, due to an extra curve in the spine which stabilizes the upright position, as well as shorter arms relative to the legs than is the case for the nonhuman great apes. the evolution of human bipedalism began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with sahelanthropus or about 12 million years ago with danuvius guggenmosi. one hypothesis for human bipedalism is that it evolved as a result of differentially successful survival from carrying food to share with group members, although there are alternative hypotheses. injured individuals injured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism. three captive primates, one macaque natasha and two chimps, oliver and poko ( chimpanzee ), were found to move bipedally. natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. oliver reverted to knuckle -
##aches are known to move bipedally at high speeds. bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two species of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut. = = evolution of human bipedalism = = there are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when. bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools. bipedal specializations are found in australopithecus fossils from 4. 2 to 3. 9 million years ago and recent studies have suggested that obligate bipedal hominid species were present as early as 7 million years ago. nonetheless, the evolution of bipedalism was accompanied by significant evolutions in the spine including the forward movement in position of the foramen magnum, where the spinal cord leaves the cranium. recent evidence regarding modern human sexual dimorphism ( physical differences between male and female ) in the lumbar spine has been seen in pre - modern primates such as australopithecus africanus. this dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to bear lumbar load better during pregnancy, an adaptation that non - bipedal primates would not need to make. adapting bipedalism would have required less shoulder stability, which allowed the shoulder and other limbs to become more independent of each other and adapt for specific suspensory behaviors. in addition to the change in shoulder stability, changing locomotion would have increased the demand for shoulder mobility, which would have propelled the evolution of bipedalism forward. the different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism. it is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still. the form and function of modern - day humans'upper bodies appear to have evolved from living in a more forested setting. living in this kind of environment would have made it so that being able to travel arboreally would have been advantageous at the time. although different to human walking, bipedal locomotion in trees was thought to be advantageous. it has also been proposed that, like some modern - day apes,
are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism. standing. staying still on both legs. in most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance. walking. one foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time. running. one foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground. jumping / hopping. moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together. skipping. a form of bipedal locomotion that combines the step and hop. = = bipedal animals = = the great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds, with bipedalism exhibited by only a handful of living groups. humans, gibbons and large birds walk by raising one foot at a time. on the other hand, most macropods, smaller birds, lemurs and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously. tree kangaroos are able to walk or hop, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground. = = = extant reptiles = = = many species of lizards become bipedal during high - speed, sprint locomotion, including the world's fastest lizard, the spiny - tailed iguana ( genus ctenosaura ). = = = = early reptiles and lizards = = = = the first known biped is the bolosaurid eudibamus whose fossils date from 290 million years ago. its long hind - legs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism. the species became extinct in the early permian. = = = archosaurs ( includes crocodilians and dinosaurs ) = = = = = = = birds = = = = all birds are bipeds, as is the case for all theropod dinosaurs. however, hoatzin chicks have claws on their wings which they use for climbing. = = = = other archosaurs = = = = bipedalism evolved more than once in archosaurs, the group that includes both dinosaurs and crocodilians. all dinosaurs are thought to be descended from a fully bipedal ancestor, perhaps similar to eoraptor. dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the middle to late triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the permian - triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on earth. radio
bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an animal moves by means of its two rear ( or lower ) limbs or legs. an animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped, meaning'two feet'( from latin bis'double'and pes'foot'). types of bipedal movement include walking or running ( a bipedal gait ) and hopping. several groups of modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two - legged. in the triassic period some groups of archosaurs ( a group that includes crocodiles and dinosaurs ) developed bipedalism ; among the dinosaurs, all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds ; the birds are members of a clade of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs, the theropods. within mammals, habitual bipedalism has evolved multiple times, with the macropods, kangaroo rats and mice, springhare, hopping mice, pangolins and hominin apes ( australopithecines, including humans ) as well as various other extinct groups evolving the trait independently. a larger number of modern species intermittently or briefly use a bipedal gait. several lizard species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats. many primate and bear species will adopt a bipedal gait in order to reach food or explore their environment, though there are a few cases where they walk on their hind limbs only. several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting or copulating. some animals commonly stand on their hind legs to reach food, keep watch, threaten a competitor or predator, or pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. = = etymology = = the word is derived from the latin words bi ( s )'two'and ped -'foot ', as contrasted with quadruped'four feet '. = = advantages = = limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages. bipedalism raises the head ; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their mouths. while upright, non - locomotory limbs become free for other uses, including manipulation
Answer:
|
rooms
| null |
If a biped which uses tools is in an ideal habitat, there will be within it
0. sharks
1. glaciers
2. potholes
3. rooms
poko ( chimpanzee ), were found to move bipedally. natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. oliver reverted to knuckle - walking after developing arthritis. non - human primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food, or while moving through shallow water. = = limited bipedalism = = = = = limited bipedalism in mammals = = = other mammals engage in limited, non - locomotory, bipedalism. a number of other animals, such as rats, raccoons, and beavers will squat on their hindlegs to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving ( the beaver will move bipedally if transporting wood for their dams, as will the raccoon when holding food ). bears will fight in a bipedal stance to use their forelegs as weapons. a number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting. ground squirrels and meerkats will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally. dogs ( e. g. faith ) can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes quadrupedalism. the gerenuk antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct giant ground sloth and chalicotheres. the spotted skunk will walk on its front legs when threatened, rearing up on its front legs while facing the attacker so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, face its attacker. = = = limited bipedalism in non - mammals ( and non - birds ) = = = bipedalism is unknown among the amphibians. among the non - archosaur reptiles bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the " reared - up " running of lizards such as agamids and monitor lizards. many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting. one genus of basilisk lizard can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance. among arthropods, cockroaches are known to move bipedally at high speeds. bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two species of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to
few non - primate mammals commonly move bipedally with an alternating leg gait. exceptions are the ground pangolin and in some circumstances the tree kangaroo. one black bear, pedals, became famous locally and on the internet for having a frequent bipedal gait, although this is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. a two - legged fox was filmed in a derbyshire garden in 2023, most likely having been born that way. = = = = primates = = = = most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. the primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright ( completely upright in humans ), and the tail may be absent entirely. many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. on the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for balance. geladas, although usually quadrupedal, will sometimes move between adjacent feeding patches with a squatting, shuffling bipedal form of locomotion. however, they can only do so for brief amounts, as their bodies are not adapted for constant bipedal locomotion. humans are the only primates who are normally biped, due to an extra curve in the spine which stabilizes the upright position, as well as shorter arms relative to the legs than is the case for the nonhuman great apes. the evolution of human bipedalism began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with sahelanthropus or about 12 million years ago with danuvius guggenmosi. one hypothesis for human bipedalism is that it evolved as a result of differentially successful survival from carrying food to share with group members, although there are alternative hypotheses. injured individuals injured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism. three captive primates, one macaque natasha and two chimps, oliver and poko ( chimpanzee ), were found to move bipedally. natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. oliver reverted to knuckle -
##aches are known to move bipedally at high speeds. bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two species of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut. = = evolution of human bipedalism = = there are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when. bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools. bipedal specializations are found in australopithecus fossils from 4. 2 to 3. 9 million years ago and recent studies have suggested that obligate bipedal hominid species were present as early as 7 million years ago. nonetheless, the evolution of bipedalism was accompanied by significant evolutions in the spine including the forward movement in position of the foramen magnum, where the spinal cord leaves the cranium. recent evidence regarding modern human sexual dimorphism ( physical differences between male and female ) in the lumbar spine has been seen in pre - modern primates such as australopithecus africanus. this dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to bear lumbar load better during pregnancy, an adaptation that non - bipedal primates would not need to make. adapting bipedalism would have required less shoulder stability, which allowed the shoulder and other limbs to become more independent of each other and adapt for specific suspensory behaviors. in addition to the change in shoulder stability, changing locomotion would have increased the demand for shoulder mobility, which would have propelled the evolution of bipedalism forward. the different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism. it is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still. the form and function of modern - day humans'upper bodies appear to have evolved from living in a more forested setting. living in this kind of environment would have made it so that being able to travel arboreally would have been advantageous at the time. although different to human walking, bipedal locomotion in trees was thought to be advantageous. it has also been proposed that, like some modern - day apes,
are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism. standing. staying still on both legs. in most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance. walking. one foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time. running. one foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground. jumping / hopping. moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together. skipping. a form of bipedal locomotion that combines the step and hop. = = bipedal animals = = the great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds, with bipedalism exhibited by only a handful of living groups. humans, gibbons and large birds walk by raising one foot at a time. on the other hand, most macropods, smaller birds, lemurs and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously. tree kangaroos are able to walk or hop, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground. = = = extant reptiles = = = many species of lizards become bipedal during high - speed, sprint locomotion, including the world's fastest lizard, the spiny - tailed iguana ( genus ctenosaura ). = = = = early reptiles and lizards = = = = the first known biped is the bolosaurid eudibamus whose fossils date from 290 million years ago. its long hind - legs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism. the species became extinct in the early permian. = = = archosaurs ( includes crocodilians and dinosaurs ) = = = = = = = birds = = = = all birds are bipeds, as is the case for all theropod dinosaurs. however, hoatzin chicks have claws on their wings which they use for climbing. = = = = other archosaurs = = = = bipedalism evolved more than once in archosaurs, the group that includes both dinosaurs and crocodilians. all dinosaurs are thought to be descended from a fully bipedal ancestor, perhaps similar to eoraptor. dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the middle to late triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the permian - triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on earth. radio
bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an animal moves by means of its two rear ( or lower ) limbs or legs. an animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped, meaning'two feet'( from latin bis'double'and pes'foot'). types of bipedal movement include walking or running ( a bipedal gait ) and hopping. several groups of modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two - legged. in the triassic period some groups of archosaurs ( a group that includes crocodiles and dinosaurs ) developed bipedalism ; among the dinosaurs, all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds ; the birds are members of a clade of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs, the theropods. within mammals, habitual bipedalism has evolved multiple times, with the macropods, kangaroo rats and mice, springhare, hopping mice, pangolins and hominin apes ( australopithecines, including humans ) as well as various other extinct groups evolving the trait independently. a larger number of modern species intermittently or briefly use a bipedal gait. several lizard species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats. many primate and bear species will adopt a bipedal gait in order to reach food or explore their environment, though there are a few cases where they walk on their hind limbs only. several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting or copulating. some animals commonly stand on their hind legs to reach food, keep watch, threaten a competitor or predator, or pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. = = etymology = = the word is derived from the latin words bi ( s )'two'and ped -'foot ', as contrasted with quadruped'four feet '. = = advantages = = limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages. bipedalism raises the head ; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their mouths. while upright, non - locomotory limbs become free for other uses, including manipulation
Answer:
|
glaciers
| 0.3 |
Consuming from an aluminium container, a human is likely enjoying
0. a melted down liver enzyme
1. a strange liquid metal
2. a makeshift type of pasta
3. a crisp beverage with cold bubbles streaming throughout it
acid, alcohol, acetic acid, and alkaline fermentations ; to enrich food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, and vitamins ; to eliminate antinutrients ; and to reduce cooking time and the associated use of fuel. beverages produced through fermentation have likely universally been associated with ceremonies and festivals. there is some understanding of how they have been consumed in such contexts, derived from the construction of drinkware, and residue contained therein. = = fermented foods by region = = worldwide : alcohol ( beer, wine ), vinegar, olives, yogurt, bread, cheese asia east and southeast asia : amazake, atchara, belacan, burong mangga, com ruou, doenjang, douchi, fish sauce, lah pet, lambanog, kimchi, kombucha, leppet - so, narezushi, miso, nata de coco, natto, ngapi, oncom, padaek, pla ra, prahok, ruou nep, sake, shrimp paste, soju, soy sauce, stinky tofu, tape, tempeh, tempoyak, zha cai central asia : kumis, kefir, shubat, qatiq ( yogurt ) south asia : achar, appam, dosa, dhokla, dahi ( yogurt ), idli, mixed pickle, ngari, sinki, tongba, paneer africa : garri, injera, laxoox, mageu, ogi, ogiri, iru americas : chicha, chocolate, vanilla, hot sauce, tepache, tibicos, pulque, muktuk, kiviak, parakari middle east : torshi, boza europe : sourdough bread, elderberry wine, kombucha, pickling, rakfisk, sauerkraut, pickled cucumber, surstromming, mead, kvass, salami, sucuk, prosciutto, cultured milk products such as quark, kefir, filmjolk, creme fraiche, smetana, skyr, rakΔ±, tupi, zur. oceania : poi, kanga pirau = = fermented foods by type = = = = = beans = = = cheonggukjang, doe
aluminium toxicity in people on dialysis is a problem for people on haemodialysis. aluminium is often found in unfiltered water used to prepare dialysate. the dialysis process does not efficiently remove excess aluminium from the body, so it may build up over time. aluminium is a potentially toxic metal, and aluminium poisoning may lead to mainly three disorders : aluminium - induced bone disease, microcytic anemia and neurological dysfunction ( encephalopathy ). such conditions are more prominently observed in people with chronic kidney failure and especially in people on haemodialysis. about 5 β 10 mg of aluminium enters human body daily through different sources like water, food, occupational exposure to aluminium in industries, and so on. in people with normal kidney function, serum aluminium is normally lower than 6 microgram / l. baseline levels of serum aluminium should be < 20 microgram / l. according to aami, standard aluminium levels in the dialysis fluid should be less than 0. 01 milligram / l. = = signs and symptoms = = the symptoms of aluminium poisoning tend to be nonspecific. acute or subacute changes in mental status, proximal muscle weakness, bone pain, numerous nonhealing fractures, and early osteoporosis are common presentations in chronic poisoning. patients may also exhibit dementia, mutism, and convulsions. excessive aluminium has been found to cause anemia and has a direct impact on hematopoiesis. patients with aluminium toxicity have been found to have microcytic anemia, anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, chromophilic cells, and basophilic stippling on their peripheral smears. = = diagnosis = = in general, aluminium concentrations in the blood will be less than 10 mcg / l, or fewer than 60 mcg / l in dialysis patients. toxicity usually occurs at concentrations greater than 100 mcg / l. aluminium levels in the blood, bone, urine, and feces can be measured to confirm aluminium load and toxicosis. = = prevention = = aluminium toxicity is known to result from high levels of aluminium in water used to prepare dialysate ; therefore, aluminium levels in water supplies used to prepare dialysate must be measured on a regular basis, especially in regions where aluminium is added to the water supply as well as areas with high aluminium concentrations in ground or surface water. the method used to purify water is determined by specific local concerns and needs
giraffes, and ostriches, eating over - ripe marula tree fruit causing them to sway and lose their footing in a manner similar to human drunkenness. birds may become intoxicated with fermented berries and some die colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence. in elephant warfare, practiced by the greeks during the maccabean revolt and by hannibal during the punic wars, it has been recorded that the elephants would be given wine before the attack, and only then would they charge forward after being agitated by their driver. it is a regular practice to give small amounts of beer to race horses in ireland. ruminant farm animals have natural fermentation occurring in their stomach, and adding alcoholic beverages in small amounts to their drink will generally do them no harm, and will not cause them to become drunk. alcoholic beverages are extremely harmful to dogs, and often for reasons of additives such as xylitol, an artificial sweetener in some mixers. dogs can absorb ethyl alcohol in dangerous amounts through their skin as well as through drinking the liquid or consuming it in foods. even fermenting bread dough can be dangerous to dogs. in 1999, one of the royal footmen for britain's queen elizabeth ii was demoted from buckingham palace due to his " party trick " of spiking the meals and drinks of the queen's pet corgi dogs with alcohol which in turn would lead the dogs to run around drunk. = = see also = = a night of serious drinking alcohol and sex alcohol enema alcohol flush reaction disulfiram - alcohol reaction driving under the influence in vino veritas long - term effects of alcohol consumption low alcoholic drinks short - term effects of alcohol consumption = = references = = = = bibliography = = = = external links = = alcohol overdose : niaaa alcohol poisoning : nhs choices
an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the latter of whom regarded it as a life - preserving substance able to prevent all diseases ( the aqua vitae or " water of life ", also called by john the quintessence of wine ). = = nomenclature = = = = = etymology = = = the word " alcohol " derives from the arabic kohl ( arabic : Ψ§ΩΩΨΩ, romanized : al - kuhl ), a powder used as an eyeliner. the first part of the word ( al - ) is the arabic definite article, equivalent to the in english. the second part of the word ( kuhl ) has several antecedents in semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the akkadian ( guhlum ), meaning stibnite or antimony. like its antecedents in arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide sb2s3. it was considered to be the essence or " spirit " of this mineral. it was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when " spirits " was a synonym for hard liquor. paracelsus and libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. at the same time paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid ; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings. bartholomew traheron, in his 1543 translation of john of vigo, introduces the word as a term used by " barbarous " authors for " fine powder. " vigo wrote : " the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or ( as i fynde it sometymes wryten ) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. " the 1657 lexicon chymicum, by william johnson glosses the word as " antimonium sive stibium. " by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including " alcohol of wine, " the distilled essence of wine.
contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. examples include tea, red wine, or rhubarb. other terms for the astringent sensation are " dry ", " rough ", " harsh " ( especially for wine ), " tart " ( normally referring to sourness ), " rubbery ", " hard " or " styptic ". = = = metallicness = = = a metallic taste may be caused by food and drink, certain medicines or amalgam dental fillings. it is generally considered an off flavor when present in food and drink. a metallic taste may be caused by galvanic reactions in the mouth. in the case where it is caused by dental work, the dissimilar metals used may produce a measurable current. some artificial sweeteners are perceived to have a metallic taste, which is detected by the trpv1 receptors. many people consider blood to have a metallic taste. a metallic taste in the mouth is also a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms dysgeusia or parageusia, referring to distortions of the sense of taste, and can be caused by medication, including saquinavir, zonisamide, and various kinds of chemotherapy, as well as occupational hazards, such as working with pesticides. = = = fat taste = = = recent research reveals a potential taste receptor called the cd36 receptor. cd36 was targeted as a possible lipid taste receptor because it binds to fat molecules ( more specifically, long - chain fatty acids ), and it has been localized to taste bud cells ( specifically, the circumvallate and foliate papillae ). there is a debate over whether we can truly taste fats, and supporters of human ability to taste free fatty acids ( ffas ) have based the argument on a few main points : there is an evolutionary advantage to oral fat detection ; a potential fat receptor has been located on taste bud cells ; fatty acids evoke specific responses that activate gustatory neurons, similar to other currently accepted tastes ; and, there is a physiological response to the presence of oral fat. although cd36 has been studied primarily in mice, research examining human subjects'ability to taste fats found that those with high levels of cd36 expression were more sensitive to tasting fat than were those with low levels of cd36 expression ;
Answer:
|
a crisp beverage with cold bubbles streaming throughout it
| null |
Consuming from an aluminium container, a human is likely enjoying
0. a melted down liver enzyme
1. a strange liquid metal
2. a makeshift type of pasta
3. a crisp beverage with cold bubbles streaming throughout it
acid, alcohol, acetic acid, and alkaline fermentations ; to enrich food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, and vitamins ; to eliminate antinutrients ; and to reduce cooking time and the associated use of fuel. beverages produced through fermentation have likely universally been associated with ceremonies and festivals. there is some understanding of how they have been consumed in such contexts, derived from the construction of drinkware, and residue contained therein. = = fermented foods by region = = worldwide : alcohol ( beer, wine ), vinegar, olives, yogurt, bread, cheese asia east and southeast asia : amazake, atchara, belacan, burong mangga, com ruou, doenjang, douchi, fish sauce, lah pet, lambanog, kimchi, kombucha, leppet - so, narezushi, miso, nata de coco, natto, ngapi, oncom, padaek, pla ra, prahok, ruou nep, sake, shrimp paste, soju, soy sauce, stinky tofu, tape, tempeh, tempoyak, zha cai central asia : kumis, kefir, shubat, qatiq ( yogurt ) south asia : achar, appam, dosa, dhokla, dahi ( yogurt ), idli, mixed pickle, ngari, sinki, tongba, paneer africa : garri, injera, laxoox, mageu, ogi, ogiri, iru americas : chicha, chocolate, vanilla, hot sauce, tepache, tibicos, pulque, muktuk, kiviak, parakari middle east : torshi, boza europe : sourdough bread, elderberry wine, kombucha, pickling, rakfisk, sauerkraut, pickled cucumber, surstromming, mead, kvass, salami, sucuk, prosciutto, cultured milk products such as quark, kefir, filmjolk, creme fraiche, smetana, skyr, rakΔ±, tupi, zur. oceania : poi, kanga pirau = = fermented foods by type = = = = = beans = = = cheonggukjang, doe
aluminium toxicity in people on dialysis is a problem for people on haemodialysis. aluminium is often found in unfiltered water used to prepare dialysate. the dialysis process does not efficiently remove excess aluminium from the body, so it may build up over time. aluminium is a potentially toxic metal, and aluminium poisoning may lead to mainly three disorders : aluminium - induced bone disease, microcytic anemia and neurological dysfunction ( encephalopathy ). such conditions are more prominently observed in people with chronic kidney failure and especially in people on haemodialysis. about 5 β 10 mg of aluminium enters human body daily through different sources like water, food, occupational exposure to aluminium in industries, and so on. in people with normal kidney function, serum aluminium is normally lower than 6 microgram / l. baseline levels of serum aluminium should be < 20 microgram / l. according to aami, standard aluminium levels in the dialysis fluid should be less than 0. 01 milligram / l. = = signs and symptoms = = the symptoms of aluminium poisoning tend to be nonspecific. acute or subacute changes in mental status, proximal muscle weakness, bone pain, numerous nonhealing fractures, and early osteoporosis are common presentations in chronic poisoning. patients may also exhibit dementia, mutism, and convulsions. excessive aluminium has been found to cause anemia and has a direct impact on hematopoiesis. patients with aluminium toxicity have been found to have microcytic anemia, anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, chromophilic cells, and basophilic stippling on their peripheral smears. = = diagnosis = = in general, aluminium concentrations in the blood will be less than 10 mcg / l, or fewer than 60 mcg / l in dialysis patients. toxicity usually occurs at concentrations greater than 100 mcg / l. aluminium levels in the blood, bone, urine, and feces can be measured to confirm aluminium load and toxicosis. = = prevention = = aluminium toxicity is known to result from high levels of aluminium in water used to prepare dialysate ; therefore, aluminium levels in water supplies used to prepare dialysate must be measured on a regular basis, especially in regions where aluminium is added to the water supply as well as areas with high aluminium concentrations in ground or surface water. the method used to purify water is determined by specific local concerns and needs
giraffes, and ostriches, eating over - ripe marula tree fruit causing them to sway and lose their footing in a manner similar to human drunkenness. birds may become intoxicated with fermented berries and some die colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence. in elephant warfare, practiced by the greeks during the maccabean revolt and by hannibal during the punic wars, it has been recorded that the elephants would be given wine before the attack, and only then would they charge forward after being agitated by their driver. it is a regular practice to give small amounts of beer to race horses in ireland. ruminant farm animals have natural fermentation occurring in their stomach, and adding alcoholic beverages in small amounts to their drink will generally do them no harm, and will not cause them to become drunk. alcoholic beverages are extremely harmful to dogs, and often for reasons of additives such as xylitol, an artificial sweetener in some mixers. dogs can absorb ethyl alcohol in dangerous amounts through their skin as well as through drinking the liquid or consuming it in foods. even fermenting bread dough can be dangerous to dogs. in 1999, one of the royal footmen for britain's queen elizabeth ii was demoted from buckingham palace due to his " party trick " of spiking the meals and drinks of the queen's pet corgi dogs with alcohol which in turn would lead the dogs to run around drunk. = = see also = = a night of serious drinking alcohol and sex alcohol enema alcohol flush reaction disulfiram - alcohol reaction driving under the influence in vino veritas long - term effects of alcohol consumption low alcoholic drinks short - term effects of alcohol consumption = = references = = = = bibliography = = = = external links = = alcohol overdose : niaaa alcohol poisoning : nhs choices
an alcohol purity of 90 % could be obtained. the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova ( 1240 β 1311 ce ) and john of rupescissa ( c. 1310 β 1366 ), the latter of whom regarded it as a life - preserving substance able to prevent all diseases ( the aqua vitae or " water of life ", also called by john the quintessence of wine ). = = nomenclature = = = = = etymology = = = the word " alcohol " derives from the arabic kohl ( arabic : Ψ§ΩΩΨΩ, romanized : al - kuhl ), a powder used as an eyeliner. the first part of the word ( al - ) is the arabic definite article, equivalent to the in english. the second part of the word ( kuhl ) has several antecedents in semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the akkadian ( guhlum ), meaning stibnite or antimony. like its antecedents in arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide sb2s3. it was considered to be the essence or " spirit " of this mineral. it was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when " spirits " was a synonym for hard liquor. paracelsus and libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. at the same time paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid ; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings. bartholomew traheron, in his 1543 translation of john of vigo, introduces the word as a term used by " barbarous " authors for " fine powder. " vigo wrote : " the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or ( as i fynde it sometymes wryten ) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. " the 1657 lexicon chymicum, by william johnson glosses the word as " antimonium sive stibium. " by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including " alcohol of wine, " the distilled essence of wine.
contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. examples include tea, red wine, or rhubarb. other terms for the astringent sensation are " dry ", " rough ", " harsh " ( especially for wine ), " tart " ( normally referring to sourness ), " rubbery ", " hard " or " styptic ". = = = metallicness = = = a metallic taste may be caused by food and drink, certain medicines or amalgam dental fillings. it is generally considered an off flavor when present in food and drink. a metallic taste may be caused by galvanic reactions in the mouth. in the case where it is caused by dental work, the dissimilar metals used may produce a measurable current. some artificial sweeteners are perceived to have a metallic taste, which is detected by the trpv1 receptors. many people consider blood to have a metallic taste. a metallic taste in the mouth is also a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms dysgeusia or parageusia, referring to distortions of the sense of taste, and can be caused by medication, including saquinavir, zonisamide, and various kinds of chemotherapy, as well as occupational hazards, such as working with pesticides. = = = fat taste = = = recent research reveals a potential taste receptor called the cd36 receptor. cd36 was targeted as a possible lipid taste receptor because it binds to fat molecules ( more specifically, long - chain fatty acids ), and it has been localized to taste bud cells ( specifically, the circumvallate and foliate papillae ). there is a debate over whether we can truly taste fats, and supporters of human ability to taste free fatty acids ( ffas ) have based the argument on a few main points : there is an evolutionary advantage to oral fat detection ; a potential fat receptor has been located on taste bud cells ; fatty acids evoke specific responses that activate gustatory neurons, similar to other currently accepted tastes ; and, there is a physiological response to the presence of oral fat. although cd36 has been studied primarily in mice, research examining human subjects'ability to taste fats found that those with high levels of cd36 expression were more sensitive to tasting fat than were those with low levels of cd36 expression ;
Answer:
|
a melted down liver enzyme
| 0.3 |
This is most likely to be conserved:
0. CO2
1. toilet paper
2. a soda can
3. styrofoam
gaseous co2 stream. sodium hydroxide can be recycled from sodium carbonate in a process of causticizing. alternatively, the co2 binds to solid sorbent in the process of chemisorption. through heat and vacuum, the co2 is then desorbed from the solid. among the specific chemical processes that are being explored, three stand out : causticization with alkali and alkali - earth hydroxides, carbonation, and organicβinorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in porous adsorbents. = = = other explored methods = = = the idea of using many small dispersed dac scrubbers β analogous to live plants β to create environmentally significant reduction in co2 levels, has earned the technology a name of artificial trees in popular media. = = = = moisture swing sorbent = = = = in a cyclical process designed in 2012 by professor klaus lackner, the director of the center for negative carbon emissions ( cnce ), dilute co2 can be efficiently separated using an anionic exchange polymer resin called marathon msa, which absorbs air co2 when dry, and releases it when exposed to moisture. a large part of the energy for the process is supplied by the latent heat of phase change of water. the technology requires further research to determine its cost - effectiveness. = = = = metal - organic frameworks = = = = other substances which can be used are metal β organic frameworks ( mofs ). = = = = membranes = = = = membrane - based separation ( m - dac ) employs semi - permeable membranes. this method requires little water and has a smaller footprint. typically polymeric membranes, either glassy or rubbery, are used for direct air capture. glassy membranes typically exhibit high selectivity with respect to carbon dioxide ; however, they also have low permeabilities. membrane capture of carbon dioxide is still in development and needs further research before it can be implemented on a larger scale. = = = = electro - swing adsorption = = = = electro - swing adsorption ( esa ) has also been proposed. = = = = rock flour = = = = rock flour, soil ground into nanoparticles by glacier ice, has potential both as a soil conditioner and for carbon capture. glacier melting deposits one billion tons of rock flour annually, and one ton of greenlandic rock flour can capture 250 kilograms ( 550 lb ) of carbon. = =
at right ) : 2 h2o2 β 2 h2o + o2 this reaction is one of the exceptions to the endothermic nature of decomposition reactions. other reactions involving decomposition do require the input of external energy. this energy can be in the form of heat, radiation, electricity, or light. the latter being the reason some chemical compounds, such as many prescription medicines, are kept and stored in dark bottles which reduce or eliminate the possibility of light reaching them and initiating decomposition. when heated, carbonates will decompose. a notable exception is carbonic acid, ( h2co3 ). commonly seen as the " fizz " in carbonated beverages, carbonic acid will spontaneously decompose over time into carbon dioxide and water. the reaction is written as : h2co3 β h2o + co2 other carbonates will decompose when heated to produce their corresponding metal oxide and carbon dioxide. the following equation is an example, where m represents the given metal : mco3 β mo + co2 a specific example is that involving calcium carbonate : caco3 β cao + co2 metal chlorates also decompose when heated. in this type of decomposition reaction, a metal chloride and oxygen gas are the products. here, again, m represents the metal : 2 mclo3 β 2 mcl + 3 o2 a common decomposition of a chlorate is in the reaction of potassium chlorate where oxygen is the product. this can be written as : 2 kclo3 β 2 kcl + 3 o2 = = see also = = analytical chemistry thermal decomposition = = references = = = = external links = = https : / / quizlet. com / 42968634 / types - of - decomposition - reactions - flash - cards / pdf biodegradation database
, kitchen wastes, weeds, plant debris, and animal manure were composted into soil. olkowski states that a β fast β or β hot β batch method of composting was used, which involved collecting composting materials, such as kitchen waste, animal manure, and other miscellaneous yard debris from the garden. these materials were then placed into a 1 cu yd ( 0. 76 m3 ) yard wooden bin, located near the chickens and rabbits, to create a mixture for decomposing organisms. sawdust was used to prevent odors. after the composting material was collected, regular turning and moistening of the compost was completed to maintain hot temperatures to kill weed seeds, plant diseases, and insect larvae. the compost material was ready for garden use in about two to four weeks after the composting material had cooled. this was then used to grow vegetables around the house or as a mulch. in addition to this method of composting, the integral urban house used a " clivus multrum " waterless toilet in the main floor bathroom with a separate composting tank located on the ground floor below. this tank was fed from both the toilet and from another chute in the nearby kitchen. materials were gathered in the first of three sections of the tank, beginning to decompose through microbial action with the addition of sawdust, dried weeds, or leaves. in order to prevent odors, a ventilating chimney with a small fan would draw air through the roof and out of the house. fresh air entered the composting chamber through ducts in its trap door, causing the material to lose 95 % of its bulk as carbon dioxide and water vapor, which were vented to the outside. because of this, the tank was capable of accommodating the wastes of six people for up to two years. at the time the guide to the house was written by olkowski and published in 1976, composted material from the waterless toilet had not been used yet due to the toilet β s recent installation. the clivus multrum was the most expensive single element of the house ; it cost $ 1, 600 to purchase and install. = = = gray water recycling system = = = in order to save the amount of water used for irrigation, the house had pipes installed from the bathroom sink and shower drain on the main floor into a different tank located next to the one for the composting toilet on the ground floor. through a
with the improper disposal either by burning or disposing as normal household waste. burning of blister packs directly causes air pollution by the combustion products of polypropylene ( [ c3h6 ] n ), polyester ( [ c10h8o4 ] n ), and polyvinyl chloride ( [ ch2chcl ] n ). the combustion reactions and products of these chemicals are mentioned below. [ c3h6 ] n + 9n / 2 o2 β 3n co2 + 3n h2o [ c10h8o4 ] n + 10n o2 β 10n co2 + 4n h2o [ ch2chcl ] n + 2n o2 β n co2 + n h2o + n hcl + n co even though polypropylene and polyester is harmful to the environment, the most toxic effect is due to the combustion of polyvinyl chloride since it produces hydrochloric acid ( hcl ) which is an irritant in the lower and upper respiratory tract that can cause adverse effects to human beings. the disposal of blister packs as normal waste, will forbid recycling process and eventually accumulate in soil or water, which will result soil and water pollution since bio - degradation processes of compounds like pvc, pp and pet are very slow. as a result, ecologically damaging effects like disturbances of the habitats and movements can be seen. ingestion by the animals, affect the secretion of gastric enzymes and steroid hormones that can decrease the feeding stimuli and may also cause problems in reproduction. at low ph, aluminum can increase its solubility according to the following equation. as a result, the negative effects of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems can be generated. 2al ( s ) + 6h + β 2al3 + ( aq ) + 3h2 ( g ) by employing proper disposal methods, all manufacturing materials of blister packs like pp, pe, pvc and al can be recycled and the adverse effects to the environment can be minimized. even though, the synthesis of these polymers relatively simple, the recycling process can be very complex since the blister packs contain metals and polymers together. as the first step of recycling, separation of al and polymers using the hydrometallurgical method which uses hydrochloric acid ( hcl ) can be incorporated. then pvc can be recycled by using mechanical or chemical methods. the most recent trend is to use biodegrad
and dry media reactions. bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. a number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a tamiflu precursor which is fermented by roche in bacteria. click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. the concept of'green pharmacy'has recently been articulated based on similar principles. = = = carbon dioxide as blowing agent = = = in 1996, dow chemical won the 1996 greener reaction conditions award for their 100 % carbon dioxide blowing agent for polystyrene foam production. polystyrene foam is a common material used in packing and food transportation. seven hundred million pounds are produced each year in the united states alone. traditionally, cfc and other ozone - depleting chemicals were used in the production process of the foam sheets, presenting a serious environmental hazard. flammable, explosive, and, in some cases toxic hydrocarbons have also been used as cfc replacements, but they present their own problems. dow chemical discovered that supercritical carbon dioxide works equally as well as a blowing agent, without the need for hazardous substances, allowing the polystyrene to be more easily recycled. the co2 used in the process is reused from other industries, so the net carbon released from the process is zero. = = = hydrazine = = = addressing principle # 2 is the peroxide process for producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt. hydrazine is traditionally produced by the olin raschig process from sodium hypochlorite ( the active ingredient in many bleaches ) and ammonia. the net reaction produces one equivalent of sodium chloride for every equivalent of the targeted product hydrazine : naocl + 2 nh3 β h2n - nh2 + nacl + h2o in the greener peroxide process hydrogen peroxide is employed as the oxidant and the side product is water. the net conversion follows : 2 nh3 + h2o2 β h2n - nh2 + 2 h2o addressing principle # 4, this process does not require auxiliary extracting solvents. methyl ethyl ketone is used as a carrier for the hydrazine, the intermediate ketazine phase separates from the reaction mixture, facilitating workup without the need of an extracting solvent. = = = 1, 3 - propanediol = = = addressing principle # 7 is a green route to
Answer:
|
a soda can
| null |
This is most likely to be conserved:
0. CO2
1. toilet paper
2. a soda can
3. styrofoam
gaseous co2 stream. sodium hydroxide can be recycled from sodium carbonate in a process of causticizing. alternatively, the co2 binds to solid sorbent in the process of chemisorption. through heat and vacuum, the co2 is then desorbed from the solid. among the specific chemical processes that are being explored, three stand out : causticization with alkali and alkali - earth hydroxides, carbonation, and organicβinorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in porous adsorbents. = = = other explored methods = = = the idea of using many small dispersed dac scrubbers β analogous to live plants β to create environmentally significant reduction in co2 levels, has earned the technology a name of artificial trees in popular media. = = = = moisture swing sorbent = = = = in a cyclical process designed in 2012 by professor klaus lackner, the director of the center for negative carbon emissions ( cnce ), dilute co2 can be efficiently separated using an anionic exchange polymer resin called marathon msa, which absorbs air co2 when dry, and releases it when exposed to moisture. a large part of the energy for the process is supplied by the latent heat of phase change of water. the technology requires further research to determine its cost - effectiveness. = = = = metal - organic frameworks = = = = other substances which can be used are metal β organic frameworks ( mofs ). = = = = membranes = = = = membrane - based separation ( m - dac ) employs semi - permeable membranes. this method requires little water and has a smaller footprint. typically polymeric membranes, either glassy or rubbery, are used for direct air capture. glassy membranes typically exhibit high selectivity with respect to carbon dioxide ; however, they also have low permeabilities. membrane capture of carbon dioxide is still in development and needs further research before it can be implemented on a larger scale. = = = = electro - swing adsorption = = = = electro - swing adsorption ( esa ) has also been proposed. = = = = rock flour = = = = rock flour, soil ground into nanoparticles by glacier ice, has potential both as a soil conditioner and for carbon capture. glacier melting deposits one billion tons of rock flour annually, and one ton of greenlandic rock flour can capture 250 kilograms ( 550 lb ) of carbon. = =
at right ) : 2 h2o2 β 2 h2o + o2 this reaction is one of the exceptions to the endothermic nature of decomposition reactions. other reactions involving decomposition do require the input of external energy. this energy can be in the form of heat, radiation, electricity, or light. the latter being the reason some chemical compounds, such as many prescription medicines, are kept and stored in dark bottles which reduce or eliminate the possibility of light reaching them and initiating decomposition. when heated, carbonates will decompose. a notable exception is carbonic acid, ( h2co3 ). commonly seen as the " fizz " in carbonated beverages, carbonic acid will spontaneously decompose over time into carbon dioxide and water. the reaction is written as : h2co3 β h2o + co2 other carbonates will decompose when heated to produce their corresponding metal oxide and carbon dioxide. the following equation is an example, where m represents the given metal : mco3 β mo + co2 a specific example is that involving calcium carbonate : caco3 β cao + co2 metal chlorates also decompose when heated. in this type of decomposition reaction, a metal chloride and oxygen gas are the products. here, again, m represents the metal : 2 mclo3 β 2 mcl + 3 o2 a common decomposition of a chlorate is in the reaction of potassium chlorate where oxygen is the product. this can be written as : 2 kclo3 β 2 kcl + 3 o2 = = see also = = analytical chemistry thermal decomposition = = references = = = = external links = = https : / / quizlet. com / 42968634 / types - of - decomposition - reactions - flash - cards / pdf biodegradation database
, kitchen wastes, weeds, plant debris, and animal manure were composted into soil. olkowski states that a β fast β or β hot β batch method of composting was used, which involved collecting composting materials, such as kitchen waste, animal manure, and other miscellaneous yard debris from the garden. these materials were then placed into a 1 cu yd ( 0. 76 m3 ) yard wooden bin, located near the chickens and rabbits, to create a mixture for decomposing organisms. sawdust was used to prevent odors. after the composting material was collected, regular turning and moistening of the compost was completed to maintain hot temperatures to kill weed seeds, plant diseases, and insect larvae. the compost material was ready for garden use in about two to four weeks after the composting material had cooled. this was then used to grow vegetables around the house or as a mulch. in addition to this method of composting, the integral urban house used a " clivus multrum " waterless toilet in the main floor bathroom with a separate composting tank located on the ground floor below. this tank was fed from both the toilet and from another chute in the nearby kitchen. materials were gathered in the first of three sections of the tank, beginning to decompose through microbial action with the addition of sawdust, dried weeds, or leaves. in order to prevent odors, a ventilating chimney with a small fan would draw air through the roof and out of the house. fresh air entered the composting chamber through ducts in its trap door, causing the material to lose 95 % of its bulk as carbon dioxide and water vapor, which were vented to the outside. because of this, the tank was capable of accommodating the wastes of six people for up to two years. at the time the guide to the house was written by olkowski and published in 1976, composted material from the waterless toilet had not been used yet due to the toilet β s recent installation. the clivus multrum was the most expensive single element of the house ; it cost $ 1, 600 to purchase and install. = = = gray water recycling system = = = in order to save the amount of water used for irrigation, the house had pipes installed from the bathroom sink and shower drain on the main floor into a different tank located next to the one for the composting toilet on the ground floor. through a
with the improper disposal either by burning or disposing as normal household waste. burning of blister packs directly causes air pollution by the combustion products of polypropylene ( [ c3h6 ] n ), polyester ( [ c10h8o4 ] n ), and polyvinyl chloride ( [ ch2chcl ] n ). the combustion reactions and products of these chemicals are mentioned below. [ c3h6 ] n + 9n / 2 o2 β 3n co2 + 3n h2o [ c10h8o4 ] n + 10n o2 β 10n co2 + 4n h2o [ ch2chcl ] n + 2n o2 β n co2 + n h2o + n hcl + n co even though polypropylene and polyester is harmful to the environment, the most toxic effect is due to the combustion of polyvinyl chloride since it produces hydrochloric acid ( hcl ) which is an irritant in the lower and upper respiratory tract that can cause adverse effects to human beings. the disposal of blister packs as normal waste, will forbid recycling process and eventually accumulate in soil or water, which will result soil and water pollution since bio - degradation processes of compounds like pvc, pp and pet are very slow. as a result, ecologically damaging effects like disturbances of the habitats and movements can be seen. ingestion by the animals, affect the secretion of gastric enzymes and steroid hormones that can decrease the feeding stimuli and may also cause problems in reproduction. at low ph, aluminum can increase its solubility according to the following equation. as a result, the negative effects of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems can be generated. 2al ( s ) + 6h + β 2al3 + ( aq ) + 3h2 ( g ) by employing proper disposal methods, all manufacturing materials of blister packs like pp, pe, pvc and al can be recycled and the adverse effects to the environment can be minimized. even though, the synthesis of these polymers relatively simple, the recycling process can be very complex since the blister packs contain metals and polymers together. as the first step of recycling, separation of al and polymers using the hydrometallurgical method which uses hydrochloric acid ( hcl ) can be incorporated. then pvc can be recycled by using mechanical or chemical methods. the most recent trend is to use biodegrad
and dry media reactions. bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. a number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a tamiflu precursor which is fermented by roche in bacteria. click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. the concept of'green pharmacy'has recently been articulated based on similar principles. = = = carbon dioxide as blowing agent = = = in 1996, dow chemical won the 1996 greener reaction conditions award for their 100 % carbon dioxide blowing agent for polystyrene foam production. polystyrene foam is a common material used in packing and food transportation. seven hundred million pounds are produced each year in the united states alone. traditionally, cfc and other ozone - depleting chemicals were used in the production process of the foam sheets, presenting a serious environmental hazard. flammable, explosive, and, in some cases toxic hydrocarbons have also been used as cfc replacements, but they present their own problems. dow chemical discovered that supercritical carbon dioxide works equally as well as a blowing agent, without the need for hazardous substances, allowing the polystyrene to be more easily recycled. the co2 used in the process is reused from other industries, so the net carbon released from the process is zero. = = = hydrazine = = = addressing principle # 2 is the peroxide process for producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt. hydrazine is traditionally produced by the olin raschig process from sodium hypochlorite ( the active ingredient in many bleaches ) and ammonia. the net reaction produces one equivalent of sodium chloride for every equivalent of the targeted product hydrazine : naocl + 2 nh3 β h2n - nh2 + nacl + h2o in the greener peroxide process hydrogen peroxide is employed as the oxidant and the side product is water. the net conversion follows : 2 nh3 + h2o2 β h2n - nh2 + 2 h2o addressing principle # 4, this process does not require auxiliary extracting solvents. methyl ethyl ketone is used as a carrier for the hydrazine, the intermediate ketazine phase separates from the reaction mixture, facilitating workup without the need of an extracting solvent. = = = 1, 3 - propanediol = = = addressing principle # 7 is a green route to
Answer:
|
CO2
| 0.3 |
Electric cars can have _______ and still run
0. feelings
1. digestive tracts
2. empty juice
3. hairy bodies
the mind β body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind and body. it addresses the nature of consciousness, mental states, and their relation to the physical brain and nervous system. the problem centers on understanding how immaterial thoughts and feelings can interact with the material world, or whether they are ultimately physical phenomena. this problem has been a central issue in philosophy of mind since the 17th century, particularly following rene descartes'formulation of dualism, which proposes that mind and body are fundamentally distinct substances. other major philosophical positions include monism, which encompasses physicalism ( everything is ultimately physical ) and idealism ( everything is ultimately mental ). more recent approaches include functionalism, property dualism, and various non - reductive theories. the mind - body problem raises fundamental questions about causation between mental and physical events, the nature of consciousness, personal identity, and free will. it remains significant in both philosophy and science, influencing fields such as cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology, and artificial intelligence. in general, the existence of these mind β body connections seems unproblematic. issues arise, however, when attempting to interpret these relations from a metaphysical or scientific perspective. such reflections raise a number of questions, including : are the mind and body two distinct entities, or a single entity? if the mind and body are two distinct entities, do the two of them causally interact? is it possible for these two distinct entities to causally interact? what is the nature of this interaction? can this interaction ever be an object of empirical study? if the mind and body are a single entity, then are mental events explicable in terms of physical events, or vice versa? is the relation between mental and physical events something that arises de novo at a certain point in development? these and other questions that discuss the relation between mind and body are questions that all fall under the banner of the'mind β body problem '. = = mind β body interaction and mental causation = = philosophers david l. robb and john f. heil introduce mental causation in terms of the mind β body problem of interaction : mind β body interaction has a central place in our pretheoretic conception of agency. indeed, mental causation often figures explicitly in formulations of the mind β body problem. some philosophers insist that the very notion of psychological explanation turns on the intelligibility of mental causation. if your mind and its states, such as your beliefs and
to perform the action, for instance, when cutting something with a knife then the knife is the instrument. for some sentences, no action is described but an experience takes place, like when a girl sees a bird. in this case, the girl has the role of the experiencer. other common semantic roles are location, source, goal, beneficiary, and stimulus. lexical relations describe how words stand to one another. two words are synonyms if they share the same or a very similar meaning, like car and automobile or buy and purchase. antonyms have opposite meanings, such as the contrast between alive and dead or fast and slow. one term is a hyponym of another term if the meaning of the first term is included in the meaning of the second term. for example, ant is a hyponym of insect. a prototype is a hyponym that has characteristic features of the type it belongs to. a robin is a prototype of a bird but a penguin is not. two words with the same pronunciation are homophones like flour and flower, while two words with the same spelling are homonyms, like a bank of a river in contrast to a bank as a financial institution. hyponymy is closely related to meronymy, which describes the relation between part and whole. for instance, wheel is a meronym of car. an expression is ambiguous if it has more than one possible meaning. in some cases, it is possible to disambiguate them to discern the intended meaning. the term polysemy is used if the different meanings are closely related to one another, like the meanings of the word head, which can refer to the topmost part of the human body or the top - ranking person in an organization. the meaning of words can often be subdivided into meaning components called semantic features. the word horse has the semantic feature animate but lacks the semantic feature human. it may not always be possible to fully reconstruct the meaning of a word by identifying all its semantic features. a semantic or lexical field is a group of words that are all related to the same activity or subject. for instance, the semantic field of cooking includes words like bake, boil, spice, and pan. the context of an expression refers to the situation or circumstances in which it is used and includes time, location, speaker, and audience. it also encompasses other passages in a text that come before and after it. context affects the meaning of various expressions, like the dei
to perform the action, for instance, when cutting something with a knife then the knife is the instrument. for some sentences, no action is described but an experience takes place, like when a girl sees a bird. in this case, the girl has the role of the experiencer. other common semantic roles are location, source, goal, beneficiary, and stimulus. lexical relations describe how words stand to one another. two words are synonyms if they share the same or a very similar meaning, like car and automobile or buy and purchase. antonyms have opposite meanings, such as the contrast between alive and dead or fast and slow. one term is a hyponym of another term if the meaning of the first term is included in the meaning of the second term. for example, ant is a hyponym of insect. a prototype is a hyponym that has characteristic features of the type it belongs to. a robin is a prototype of a bird but a penguin is not. two words with the same pronunciation are homophones like flour and flower, while two words with the same spelling are homonyms, like a bank of a river in contrast to a bank as a financial institution. hyponymy is closely related to meronymy, which describes the relation between part and whole. for instance, wheel is a meronym of car. an expression is ambiguous if it has more than one possible meaning. in some cases, it is possible to disambiguate them to discern the intended meaning. the term polysemy is used if the different meanings are closely related to one another, like the meanings of the word head, which can refer to the topmost part of the human body or the top - ranking person in an organization. the meaning of words can often be subdivided into meaning components called semantic features. the word horse has the semantic feature animate but lacks the semantic feature human. it may not always be possible to fully reconstruct the meaning of a word by identifying all its semantic features. a semantic or lexical field is a group of words that are all related to the same activity or subject. for instance, the semantic field of cooking includes words like bake, boil, spice, and pan. the context of an expression refers to the situation or circumstances in which it is used and includes time, location, speaker, and audience. it also encompasses other passages in a text that come before and after it. context affects the meaning of various expressions, like the dei
electrodynamics to string theory and the geometry of the microscopic world. johns hopkins university press. isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0247 - 5. = = external links = = leybold β fundamentals of vacuum technology ( pdf ) video on the nature of vacuum by canadian astrophysicist doctor p the foundations of vacuum coating technology american vacuum society journal of vacuum science and technology a journal of vacuum science and technology b faq on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure. discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum. roberts, mark d. ( 2000 ). " vacuum energy ". high energy physics β theory : hep β th / 0012062. arxiv : hep - th / 0012062. bibcode : 2000hep. th... 12062r. vacuum, production of space " much ado about nothing " by professor john d. barrow, gresham college free pdf copy of the structured vacuum β thinking about nothing by johann rafelski and berndt muller ( 1985 ) isbn 3 - 87144 - 889 - 3.
this unrestricted version of representationalism is able to provide a general theory about the nature of phenomenal character, as well as offer a potential solution to the hard problem of consciousness. the successful reduction of the phenomenal character of a state to its intentional content would provide a solution to the hard problem of consciousness once a physicalist account of intentionality is worked out. = = = problems for the unrestricted version = = = when arguing against the unrestricted version of representationalism people will often bring up phenomenal mental states that appear to lack intentional content. the unrestricted version seeks to account for all phenomenal states. thus, for it to be true, all states with phenomenal character must have intentional content to which that character is reduced. phenomenal states without intentional content therefore serve as a counterexample to the unrestricted version. if the state has no intentional content its phenomenal character will not be reducible to that state's intentional content, for it has none to begin with. a common example of this kind of state are moods. moods are states with phenomenal character that are generally thought to not be directed at anything in particular. moods are thought to lack directedness, unlike emotions, which are typically thought to be directed at particular things. people conclude that because moods are undirected they are also nonintentional i. e. they lack intentionality or aboutness. because they are not directed at anything they are not about anything. because they lack intentionality they will lack any intentional content. lacking intentional content their phenomenal character will not be reducible to intentional content, refuting the representational doctrine. though emotions are typically considered as having directedness and intentionality this idea has also been called into question. one might point to emotions a person all of a sudden experiences that do not appear to be directed at or about anything in particular. emotions elicited by listening to music are another potential example of undirected, nonintentional emotions. emotions aroused in this way do not seem to necessarily be about anything, including the music that arouses them. = = = responses = = = in response to this objection, a proponent of representationalism might reject the undirected non - intentionality of moods, and attempt to identify some intentional content they might plausibly be thought to possess. the proponent of representationalism might also reject the narrow conception of intentionality as being directed at a particular thing, arguing instead for a broader kind of intentionality. there are three alternative kinds
Answer:
|
empty juice
| null |
Electric cars can have _______ and still run
0. feelings
1. digestive tracts
2. empty juice
3. hairy bodies
the mind β body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind and body. it addresses the nature of consciousness, mental states, and their relation to the physical brain and nervous system. the problem centers on understanding how immaterial thoughts and feelings can interact with the material world, or whether they are ultimately physical phenomena. this problem has been a central issue in philosophy of mind since the 17th century, particularly following rene descartes'formulation of dualism, which proposes that mind and body are fundamentally distinct substances. other major philosophical positions include monism, which encompasses physicalism ( everything is ultimately physical ) and idealism ( everything is ultimately mental ). more recent approaches include functionalism, property dualism, and various non - reductive theories. the mind - body problem raises fundamental questions about causation between mental and physical events, the nature of consciousness, personal identity, and free will. it remains significant in both philosophy and science, influencing fields such as cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology, and artificial intelligence. in general, the existence of these mind β body connections seems unproblematic. issues arise, however, when attempting to interpret these relations from a metaphysical or scientific perspective. such reflections raise a number of questions, including : are the mind and body two distinct entities, or a single entity? if the mind and body are two distinct entities, do the two of them causally interact? is it possible for these two distinct entities to causally interact? what is the nature of this interaction? can this interaction ever be an object of empirical study? if the mind and body are a single entity, then are mental events explicable in terms of physical events, or vice versa? is the relation between mental and physical events something that arises de novo at a certain point in development? these and other questions that discuss the relation between mind and body are questions that all fall under the banner of the'mind β body problem '. = = mind β body interaction and mental causation = = philosophers david l. robb and john f. heil introduce mental causation in terms of the mind β body problem of interaction : mind β body interaction has a central place in our pretheoretic conception of agency. indeed, mental causation often figures explicitly in formulations of the mind β body problem. some philosophers insist that the very notion of psychological explanation turns on the intelligibility of mental causation. if your mind and its states, such as your beliefs and
to perform the action, for instance, when cutting something with a knife then the knife is the instrument. for some sentences, no action is described but an experience takes place, like when a girl sees a bird. in this case, the girl has the role of the experiencer. other common semantic roles are location, source, goal, beneficiary, and stimulus. lexical relations describe how words stand to one another. two words are synonyms if they share the same or a very similar meaning, like car and automobile or buy and purchase. antonyms have opposite meanings, such as the contrast between alive and dead or fast and slow. one term is a hyponym of another term if the meaning of the first term is included in the meaning of the second term. for example, ant is a hyponym of insect. a prototype is a hyponym that has characteristic features of the type it belongs to. a robin is a prototype of a bird but a penguin is not. two words with the same pronunciation are homophones like flour and flower, while two words with the same spelling are homonyms, like a bank of a river in contrast to a bank as a financial institution. hyponymy is closely related to meronymy, which describes the relation between part and whole. for instance, wheel is a meronym of car. an expression is ambiguous if it has more than one possible meaning. in some cases, it is possible to disambiguate them to discern the intended meaning. the term polysemy is used if the different meanings are closely related to one another, like the meanings of the word head, which can refer to the topmost part of the human body or the top - ranking person in an organization. the meaning of words can often be subdivided into meaning components called semantic features. the word horse has the semantic feature animate but lacks the semantic feature human. it may not always be possible to fully reconstruct the meaning of a word by identifying all its semantic features. a semantic or lexical field is a group of words that are all related to the same activity or subject. for instance, the semantic field of cooking includes words like bake, boil, spice, and pan. the context of an expression refers to the situation or circumstances in which it is used and includes time, location, speaker, and audience. it also encompasses other passages in a text that come before and after it. context affects the meaning of various expressions, like the dei
to perform the action, for instance, when cutting something with a knife then the knife is the instrument. for some sentences, no action is described but an experience takes place, like when a girl sees a bird. in this case, the girl has the role of the experiencer. other common semantic roles are location, source, goal, beneficiary, and stimulus. lexical relations describe how words stand to one another. two words are synonyms if they share the same or a very similar meaning, like car and automobile or buy and purchase. antonyms have opposite meanings, such as the contrast between alive and dead or fast and slow. one term is a hyponym of another term if the meaning of the first term is included in the meaning of the second term. for example, ant is a hyponym of insect. a prototype is a hyponym that has characteristic features of the type it belongs to. a robin is a prototype of a bird but a penguin is not. two words with the same pronunciation are homophones like flour and flower, while two words with the same spelling are homonyms, like a bank of a river in contrast to a bank as a financial institution. hyponymy is closely related to meronymy, which describes the relation between part and whole. for instance, wheel is a meronym of car. an expression is ambiguous if it has more than one possible meaning. in some cases, it is possible to disambiguate them to discern the intended meaning. the term polysemy is used if the different meanings are closely related to one another, like the meanings of the word head, which can refer to the topmost part of the human body or the top - ranking person in an organization. the meaning of words can often be subdivided into meaning components called semantic features. the word horse has the semantic feature animate but lacks the semantic feature human. it may not always be possible to fully reconstruct the meaning of a word by identifying all its semantic features. a semantic or lexical field is a group of words that are all related to the same activity or subject. for instance, the semantic field of cooking includes words like bake, boil, spice, and pan. the context of an expression refers to the situation or circumstances in which it is used and includes time, location, speaker, and audience. it also encompasses other passages in a text that come before and after it. context affects the meaning of various expressions, like the dei
electrodynamics to string theory and the geometry of the microscopic world. johns hopkins university press. isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0247 - 5. = = external links = = leybold β fundamentals of vacuum technology ( pdf ) video on the nature of vacuum by canadian astrophysicist doctor p the foundations of vacuum coating technology american vacuum society journal of vacuum science and technology a journal of vacuum science and technology b faq on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure. discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum. roberts, mark d. ( 2000 ). " vacuum energy ". high energy physics β theory : hep β th / 0012062. arxiv : hep - th / 0012062. bibcode : 2000hep. th... 12062r. vacuum, production of space " much ado about nothing " by professor john d. barrow, gresham college free pdf copy of the structured vacuum β thinking about nothing by johann rafelski and berndt muller ( 1985 ) isbn 3 - 87144 - 889 - 3.
this unrestricted version of representationalism is able to provide a general theory about the nature of phenomenal character, as well as offer a potential solution to the hard problem of consciousness. the successful reduction of the phenomenal character of a state to its intentional content would provide a solution to the hard problem of consciousness once a physicalist account of intentionality is worked out. = = = problems for the unrestricted version = = = when arguing against the unrestricted version of representationalism people will often bring up phenomenal mental states that appear to lack intentional content. the unrestricted version seeks to account for all phenomenal states. thus, for it to be true, all states with phenomenal character must have intentional content to which that character is reduced. phenomenal states without intentional content therefore serve as a counterexample to the unrestricted version. if the state has no intentional content its phenomenal character will not be reducible to that state's intentional content, for it has none to begin with. a common example of this kind of state are moods. moods are states with phenomenal character that are generally thought to not be directed at anything in particular. moods are thought to lack directedness, unlike emotions, which are typically thought to be directed at particular things. people conclude that because moods are undirected they are also nonintentional i. e. they lack intentionality or aboutness. because they are not directed at anything they are not about anything. because they lack intentionality they will lack any intentional content. lacking intentional content their phenomenal character will not be reducible to intentional content, refuting the representational doctrine. though emotions are typically considered as having directedness and intentionality this idea has also been called into question. one might point to emotions a person all of a sudden experiences that do not appear to be directed at or about anything in particular. emotions elicited by listening to music are another potential example of undirected, nonintentional emotions. emotions aroused in this way do not seem to necessarily be about anything, including the music that arouses them. = = = responses = = = in response to this objection, a proponent of representationalism might reject the undirected non - intentionality of moods, and attempt to identify some intentional content they might plausibly be thought to possess. the proponent of representationalism might also reject the narrow conception of intentionality as being directed at a particular thing, arguing instead for a broader kind of intentionality. there are three alternative kinds
Answer:
|
digestive tracts
| 0.3 |
Which would be most useful in determining an areas climate?
0. Average daily temperatures for five years
1. A flood report from three years ago
2. Last year's rainfall totals
3. A report of a tornado
climate is the long - term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. more rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. in a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. the climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. the most widely used classification scheme is the koppen climate classification. the thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. the major classifications in thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. finally, the bergeron and spatial synoptic classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the earth's formation. since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. they include non - biotic evidence β such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores β and biotic evidence β such as tree rings and coral. climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. for example, as climate scientist lesley ann hughes has written : " a 3 Β°c [ 5 Β°f ] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 β 400 km [ 190 β 250 mi ] in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m [ 1, 600 ft ] in elevation. therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. " = = definition = = climate ( from ancient greek κλιμα'inclination') is commonly defined
human history and is thus concerned mainly with the last few thousand years. boundary - layer climatology concerns exchanges in water, energy and momentum near surfaces. further identified subtopics are physical climatology, dynamic climatology, tornado climatology, regional climatology, bioclimatology, and synoptic climatology. the study of the hydrological cycle over long time scales is sometimes termed hydroclimatology, in particular when studying the effects of climate change on the water cycle. = = methods = = the study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years, such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. knowledge of the atmosphere and its dynamics is also embodied in models, either statistical or mathematical, which help by integrating different observations and testing how well they match. modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates. climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes which govern climate. climate is governed by physical principles which can be expressed as differential equations. these equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained by using numerical methods to create global climate models. climate is sometimes modeled as a stochastic process but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are otherwise too complicated to analyze. = = = climate data = = = the collection of a long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorologists have recorded. scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from earth observing satellites and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of thermometers, to prehistoric ice extracted from glaciers. as measuring technology changes over time, records of data often cannot be compared directly. as cities are generally warmer than the areas surrounding, urbanization has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this urban heat island effect. = = = models = = = climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. they are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. all climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave ( including visible ) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave ( infrared ) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. any unbalance results in a change of the average temperature of the earth. most climate models include the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. these models predict a trend of increase of
of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island effect has been a major focus of urban climatological studies, and in general the effect the urban environment has on local meteorological conditions. these are sometimes measured by micronets or mesonets, as well as by earth observation satellites. = = = pollution = = = the field also includes the topics of air quality, radiation fluxes, microclimates and even issues traditionally associated with architectural design and engineering, such as wind engineering. causes and effects of pollution as understood through urban climatology are becoming more important for urban planning. = = = precipitation = = = changes in winds and convection patterns over and around cities impacts precipitation. contributing factors are believed to be urban heat island, heightened surface roughness, and increased aerosol concentration. = = climate change = = urban climatology is strongly linked to research surrounding global warming. as centers for socioeconomic activities, cities produce large amounts of greenhouse gases ( ghgs ), most notably co2 as a consequence of human activities such as transport, development, waste related to heating and cooling requirements etc. globally, cities are expected to grow into the 21st century ( and beyond ) - as they grow and develop the landscapes in which they inhabit will change so too will the atmosphere resting above them, increasing emissions of ghgs thus contributing to the global greenhouse effect. finally, many cities are vulnerable to the projected consequences of climate change ( sea level rise, changes in temperature, precipitation, storm frequency ) as most develop on or near coastlines, nearly all produce distinct urban heat islands and atmospheric pollution : as areas in which there is concentrated human habitation these effects potentially will have the largest and most dramatic impact ( e. g. the 2003 european heat wave that especially deadly in france ) and thus are a major focus for urban climatology. = = spatial planning and public health = = urban climatology impacts decision - making for municipal planning and policy in regards to pollution, extreme heat events, and stormwater modeling. = = see also = = effects of climate change = = references = = = = external links = = urban climatology : history, status and prospects at sciencedirect
the state of the climate is an annual report that is primarily led by the national oceanic and atmospheric administration national climatic data center ( noaa / ncdc ), located in asheville, north carolina, but whose leadership and authorship spans roughly 100 institutions in about 50 countries. = = release = = the report appears as a supplement to a summer issue of the bulletin of the american meteorological society ( bams ), a publication of the american meteorological society. the state of the climate report, known until 2001 as the climate assessment, is an international effort. = = state of the climate in 2010 = = the 2010 edition ( released june 28, 2011 ) contained submissions from 368 authors from 45 nations and covered 41 climate indicators. the 2010 edition contained a highlights document that summarized the major findings of the report. the state of the climate summarizes the global and regional climate of the preceding calendar year and places it into a historical context. in addition, notable climatic anomalies and events are discussed. major findings in the 2010 report were : 2010 was one of the two warmest years of the instrumental temperature record the el nino - southern oscillation transitioned from el nino to la nina changes in the arctic and greenland continued to outpace those across the rest of the planet, on average the 2010 issue included a sidebar detailing the multiple lines of evidence ( major variables besides global temperature ) consistent with the conclusion of a warming planet. an image associated with this sidebar has been recreated many times since, as the 11 ( or ten ) indicators of a warming planet. = = state of the climate in 2011 = = the 2011 edition contained submissions from 376 authors from 46 nations / territories. the la nina event of that year was a major focus of the report. the cover featured east african women walking to retrieve water in a dust storm. east african drought is not atypical of la nina episodes. = = state of the climate in 2012 = = the 2012 edition contained submissions from 394 authors from 54 nations / territories. its cover featured an arctic scene, reflecting major events in that region during the year. major findings in the 2012 report were : average global sea level reached a record high ( at the time ) in 2012. arctic sea ice reached a record - small minimum annual value during september 2012. = = state of the climate in 2013 = = the 2013 edition has been released on july 17, 2014. the american meteorological society published a supplemental paper online. the report was compiled by 425 scientists from 57 countries. major findings in the 2013 report
urban climatology is the study of urban climate. it is a branch of climatology that concerns interactions between urban areas and the atmosphere, the effects they have on one another, and the varying spatial and temporal scales at which these processes ( and responses ) occur. = = history = = luke howard is considered to have established urban climatology with his book the climate of london, which contained continuous daily observations from 1801 to 1841 of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall. urban climatology came about as a methodology for studying the results of industrialization and urbanization. constructing cities changes the physical environment and alters energy, moisture, and motion regimes near the surface. most of these alterations can be traced to causal factors such as air pollution ; anthropogenic sources of heat ; surface waterproofing ; thermal properties of the surface materials ; and morphology of the surface and its specific three - dimensional geometry β building spacing, height, orientation, vegetative layering, and the overall dimensions and geography of these elements. other factors are relief, proximity to water bodies, size of the city, population density, and land - use distributions. = = influential factors = = several factors influence the urban climate, including city size, the morphology of the city, land - use configuration, and the geographic setting ( such as relief, elevation, and regional climate ). some of the differences between urban and rural climates include air quality, wind patterns, and changes in rainfall patterns, but one of the most studied is the urban heat island ( uhi ) effect. = = = temperature and urban heat island effect = = = urban environments, and slightly downwind, are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by howard. urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. the spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources. the urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer ( pbl ) outside and extending well above the city : ( 1 ) the urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air. ( 2 ) the surface of the city corresponds to the level of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island
Answer:
|
Average daily temperatures for five years
| null |
Which would be most useful in determining an areas climate?
0. Average daily temperatures for five years
1. A flood report from three years ago
2. Last year's rainfall totals
3. A report of a tornado
climate is the long - term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. more rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. in a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. the climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. the most widely used classification scheme is the koppen climate classification. the thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. the major classifications in thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. finally, the bergeron and spatial synoptic classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the earth's formation. since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. they include non - biotic evidence β such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores β and biotic evidence β such as tree rings and coral. climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. for example, as climate scientist lesley ann hughes has written : " a 3 Β°c [ 5 Β°f ] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 β 400 km [ 190 β 250 mi ] in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m [ 1, 600 ft ] in elevation. therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. " = = definition = = climate ( from ancient greek κλιμα'inclination') is commonly defined
human history and is thus concerned mainly with the last few thousand years. boundary - layer climatology concerns exchanges in water, energy and momentum near surfaces. further identified subtopics are physical climatology, dynamic climatology, tornado climatology, regional climatology, bioclimatology, and synoptic climatology. the study of the hydrological cycle over long time scales is sometimes termed hydroclimatology, in particular when studying the effects of climate change on the water cycle. = = methods = = the study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years, such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. knowledge of the atmosphere and its dynamics is also embodied in models, either statistical or mathematical, which help by integrating different observations and testing how well they match. modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates. climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes which govern climate. climate is governed by physical principles which can be expressed as differential equations. these equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained by using numerical methods to create global climate models. climate is sometimes modeled as a stochastic process but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are otherwise too complicated to analyze. = = = climate data = = = the collection of a long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorologists have recorded. scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from earth observing satellites and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of thermometers, to prehistoric ice extracted from glaciers. as measuring technology changes over time, records of data often cannot be compared directly. as cities are generally warmer than the areas surrounding, urbanization has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this urban heat island effect. = = = models = = = climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. they are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. all climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave ( including visible ) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave ( infrared ) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. any unbalance results in a change of the average temperature of the earth. most climate models include the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. these models predict a trend of increase of
of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island effect has been a major focus of urban climatological studies, and in general the effect the urban environment has on local meteorological conditions. these are sometimes measured by micronets or mesonets, as well as by earth observation satellites. = = = pollution = = = the field also includes the topics of air quality, radiation fluxes, microclimates and even issues traditionally associated with architectural design and engineering, such as wind engineering. causes and effects of pollution as understood through urban climatology are becoming more important for urban planning. = = = precipitation = = = changes in winds and convection patterns over and around cities impacts precipitation. contributing factors are believed to be urban heat island, heightened surface roughness, and increased aerosol concentration. = = climate change = = urban climatology is strongly linked to research surrounding global warming. as centers for socioeconomic activities, cities produce large amounts of greenhouse gases ( ghgs ), most notably co2 as a consequence of human activities such as transport, development, waste related to heating and cooling requirements etc. globally, cities are expected to grow into the 21st century ( and beyond ) - as they grow and develop the landscapes in which they inhabit will change so too will the atmosphere resting above them, increasing emissions of ghgs thus contributing to the global greenhouse effect. finally, many cities are vulnerable to the projected consequences of climate change ( sea level rise, changes in temperature, precipitation, storm frequency ) as most develop on or near coastlines, nearly all produce distinct urban heat islands and atmospheric pollution : as areas in which there is concentrated human habitation these effects potentially will have the largest and most dramatic impact ( e. g. the 2003 european heat wave that especially deadly in france ) and thus are a major focus for urban climatology. = = spatial planning and public health = = urban climatology impacts decision - making for municipal planning and policy in regards to pollution, extreme heat events, and stormwater modeling. = = see also = = effects of climate change = = references = = = = external links = = urban climatology : history, status and prospects at sciencedirect
the state of the climate is an annual report that is primarily led by the national oceanic and atmospheric administration national climatic data center ( noaa / ncdc ), located in asheville, north carolina, but whose leadership and authorship spans roughly 100 institutions in about 50 countries. = = release = = the report appears as a supplement to a summer issue of the bulletin of the american meteorological society ( bams ), a publication of the american meteorological society. the state of the climate report, known until 2001 as the climate assessment, is an international effort. = = state of the climate in 2010 = = the 2010 edition ( released june 28, 2011 ) contained submissions from 368 authors from 45 nations and covered 41 climate indicators. the 2010 edition contained a highlights document that summarized the major findings of the report. the state of the climate summarizes the global and regional climate of the preceding calendar year and places it into a historical context. in addition, notable climatic anomalies and events are discussed. major findings in the 2010 report were : 2010 was one of the two warmest years of the instrumental temperature record the el nino - southern oscillation transitioned from el nino to la nina changes in the arctic and greenland continued to outpace those across the rest of the planet, on average the 2010 issue included a sidebar detailing the multiple lines of evidence ( major variables besides global temperature ) consistent with the conclusion of a warming planet. an image associated with this sidebar has been recreated many times since, as the 11 ( or ten ) indicators of a warming planet. = = state of the climate in 2011 = = the 2011 edition contained submissions from 376 authors from 46 nations / territories. the la nina event of that year was a major focus of the report. the cover featured east african women walking to retrieve water in a dust storm. east african drought is not atypical of la nina episodes. = = state of the climate in 2012 = = the 2012 edition contained submissions from 394 authors from 54 nations / territories. its cover featured an arctic scene, reflecting major events in that region during the year. major findings in the 2012 report were : average global sea level reached a record high ( at the time ) in 2012. arctic sea ice reached a record - small minimum annual value during september 2012. = = state of the climate in 2013 = = the 2013 edition has been released on july 17, 2014. the american meteorological society published a supplemental paper online. the report was compiled by 425 scientists from 57 countries. major findings in the 2013 report
urban climatology is the study of urban climate. it is a branch of climatology that concerns interactions between urban areas and the atmosphere, the effects they have on one another, and the varying spatial and temporal scales at which these processes ( and responses ) occur. = = history = = luke howard is considered to have established urban climatology with his book the climate of london, which contained continuous daily observations from 1801 to 1841 of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall. urban climatology came about as a methodology for studying the results of industrialization and urbanization. constructing cities changes the physical environment and alters energy, moisture, and motion regimes near the surface. most of these alterations can be traced to causal factors such as air pollution ; anthropogenic sources of heat ; surface waterproofing ; thermal properties of the surface materials ; and morphology of the surface and its specific three - dimensional geometry β building spacing, height, orientation, vegetative layering, and the overall dimensions and geography of these elements. other factors are relief, proximity to water bodies, size of the city, population density, and land - use distributions. = = influential factors = = several factors influence the urban climate, including city size, the morphology of the city, land - use configuration, and the geographic setting ( such as relief, elevation, and regional climate ). some of the differences between urban and rural climates include air quality, wind patterns, and changes in rainfall patterns, but one of the most studied is the urban heat island ( uhi ) effect. = = = temperature and urban heat island effect = = = urban environments, and slightly downwind, are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by howard. urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. the spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources. the urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer ( pbl ) outside and extending well above the city : ( 1 ) the urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air. ( 2 ) the surface of the city corresponds to the level of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island
Answer:
|
Last year's rainfall totals
| 0.3 |
The usual kind of weather in a location is called what?
0. warmth
1. fog
2. zone conditions
3. visibility
climate is the long - term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. more rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. in a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. the climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. the most widely used classification scheme is the koppen climate classification. the thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. the major classifications in thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. finally, the bergeron and spatial synoptic classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the earth's formation. since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. they include non - biotic evidence β such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores β and biotic evidence β such as tree rings and coral. climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. for example, as climate scientist lesley ann hughes has written : " a 3 Β°c [ 5 Β°f ] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 β 400 km [ 190 β 250 mi ] in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m [ 1, 600 ft ] in elevation. therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. " = = definition = = climate ( from ancient greek κλιμα'inclination') is commonly defined
other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own. species cumulus humilis β these are small detached fair - weather cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops, and do not produce rain showers. genus stratus ( st ) β this is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog. only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow grains. when a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it loses its latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). if the visibility is 1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist. = = = = multi - level or moderate vertical = = = = these clouds have low - to mid - level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about 2, 400 m ( 8, 000 ft ) and tops that can extend into the mid - altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus. genus nimbostratus ( ns ) β this is a diffuse, dark gray, multi - level stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside. nimbostratus normally forms from mid - level altostratus, and develops at least moderate vertical extent when the base subsides into the low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity. it achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously grows upward into the high level due to large - scale frontal or cyclonic lift. the nimbo - prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front. this thick cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform types. meteorologists affiliated with the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) officially classify nimbostratus as mid - level for synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi - level. independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those who largely follow the wmo model and those who classify nimbostratus as low - level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its usual initial formation in the middle altitude range. species cumulus mediocris β these cumuliform clouds of free convection have clear - cut, medium - gray, flat bases and white, domed tops in the form of small
supercooled, at which point it will freeze upon impact with any object encountered sleet β term used in the united states and canada for precipitation consisting of small, translucent ice balls, usually smaller than hailstones tropical cyclone β a storm system with a low - pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain extratropical cyclone β a low - pressure weather system occurring in the middle latitudes of the earth having neither tropical nor polar characteristics weather front β a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities ; the principal cause of meteorological phenomena low pressure β a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area storm β any disturbed state of the atmosphere and strongly implying severe weather flooding β an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges the land ; a deluge nor'easter β a macro - scale storm along the east coast of the united states, named for the winds that come from the northeast wind β the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere ; caused by rising heated air and cooler air rushing in to occupy the vacated space. temperature β a physical property that describes our common notions of hot and cold invest ( meteorology ) β an area with the potential for tropical cyclone development = = = weather - related disasters = = = weather disasters extreme weather list of floods list of natural disasters by death toll list of severe weather phenomena = = leaders in meteorology = = william m. gray ( october 9, 1929 β april 16, 2016 ) β has been involved in forecasting hurricanes since 1984 francis galton ( february 16, 1822 - january 17, 1911 ) β was a polymath, and devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short - term climatic phenomena on a european scale herbert saffir ( march 29, 1917 β november 21, 2007 ) β was the developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale for measuring the intensity of hurricanes bob simpson ( november 19, 1912 β december 18, 2014 ) β was a meteorologist, hurricane specialist, first director of the national hurricane research project, former director of the national hurricane center, and co - developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale. = = see also = = meteorology glossary of meteorology index of meteorology articles standard day jet stream heat index equivalent potential temperature ( theta - e ) primitive equations climate : el nino monsoon flood drought global warming effect of sun angle on climate other phenomena : deposition dust devil fog tide air
the subarctic climate ( also called subpolar climate, or boreal climate ) is a continental climate with long, cold ( often very cold ) winters, and short, warm to cool summers. it is found on large landmasses, often away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at latitudes from 50Β°n to 70Β°n, poleward of the humid continental climates. like other class d climates, they are rare in the southern hemisphere, only found at some isolated highland elevations. subarctic or boreal climates are the source regions for the cold air that affects temperate latitudes to the south in winter. these climates represent koppen climate classification dfc, dwc, dsc, dfd, dwd and dsd. = = description = = this type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet : in winter, temperatures can drop to below β50 Β°c ( β58 Β°f ) and in summer, the temperature may exceed 26 Β°c ( 79 Β°f ). however, the summers are short ; no more than three months of the year ( but at least one month ) must have a 24 - hour average temperature of at least 10 Β°c ( 50 Β°f ) to fall into this category of climate, and the coldest month should average below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). record low temperatures can approach β70 Β°c ( β94 Β°f ). with 5 β 7 consecutive months when the average temperature is below freezing, all moisture in the soil and subsoil freezes solidly to depths of many feet. summer warmth is insufficient to thaw more than a few surface feet, so permafrost prevails under most areas not near the southern boundary of this climate zone. seasonal thaw penetrates from 2 to 14 ft ( 0. 6 to 4. 3 m ), depending on latitude, aspect, and type of ground. some northern areas with subarctic climates located near oceans ( southern alaska, northern norway, sakhalin oblast and kamchatka oblast ), have milder winters and no permafrost, and are more suited for farming unless precipitation is excessive. the frost - free season is very short, varying from about 45 to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3
urban climatology is the study of urban climate. it is a branch of climatology that concerns interactions between urban areas and the atmosphere, the effects they have on one another, and the varying spatial and temporal scales at which these processes ( and responses ) occur. = = history = = luke howard is considered to have established urban climatology with his book the climate of london, which contained continuous daily observations from 1801 to 1841 of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall. urban climatology came about as a methodology for studying the results of industrialization and urbanization. constructing cities changes the physical environment and alters energy, moisture, and motion regimes near the surface. most of these alterations can be traced to causal factors such as air pollution ; anthropogenic sources of heat ; surface waterproofing ; thermal properties of the surface materials ; and morphology of the surface and its specific three - dimensional geometry β building spacing, height, orientation, vegetative layering, and the overall dimensions and geography of these elements. other factors are relief, proximity to water bodies, size of the city, population density, and land - use distributions. = = influential factors = = several factors influence the urban climate, including city size, the morphology of the city, land - use configuration, and the geographic setting ( such as relief, elevation, and regional climate ). some of the differences between urban and rural climates include air quality, wind patterns, and changes in rainfall patterns, but one of the most studied is the urban heat island ( uhi ) effect. = = = temperature and urban heat island effect = = = urban environments, and slightly downwind, are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by howard. urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. the spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources. the urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer ( pbl ) outside and extending well above the city : ( 1 ) the urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air. ( 2 ) the surface of the city corresponds to the level of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island
Answer:
|
zone conditions
| null |
The usual kind of weather in a location is called what?
0. warmth
1. fog
2. zone conditions
3. visibility
climate is the long - term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. more rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. in a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. the climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. the most widely used classification scheme is the koppen climate classification. the thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. the major classifications in thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. finally, the bergeron and spatial synoptic classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the earth's formation. since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. they include non - biotic evidence β such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores β and biotic evidence β such as tree rings and coral. climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. for example, as climate scientist lesley ann hughes has written : " a 3 Β°c [ 5 Β°f ] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 β 400 km [ 190 β 250 mi ] in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m [ 1, 600 ft ] in elevation. therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. " = = definition = = climate ( from ancient greek κλιμα'inclination') is commonly defined
other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own. species cumulus humilis β these are small detached fair - weather cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops, and do not produce rain showers. genus stratus ( st ) β this is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog. only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow grains. when a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it loses its latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). if the visibility is 1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist. = = = = multi - level or moderate vertical = = = = these clouds have low - to mid - level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about 2, 400 m ( 8, 000 ft ) and tops that can extend into the mid - altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus. genus nimbostratus ( ns ) β this is a diffuse, dark gray, multi - level stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside. nimbostratus normally forms from mid - level altostratus, and develops at least moderate vertical extent when the base subsides into the low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity. it achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously grows upward into the high level due to large - scale frontal or cyclonic lift. the nimbo - prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front. this thick cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform types. meteorologists affiliated with the world meteorological organization ( wmo ) officially classify nimbostratus as mid - level for synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi - level. independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those who largely follow the wmo model and those who classify nimbostratus as low - level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its usual initial formation in the middle altitude range. species cumulus mediocris β these cumuliform clouds of free convection have clear - cut, medium - gray, flat bases and white, domed tops in the form of small
supercooled, at which point it will freeze upon impact with any object encountered sleet β term used in the united states and canada for precipitation consisting of small, translucent ice balls, usually smaller than hailstones tropical cyclone β a storm system with a low - pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain extratropical cyclone β a low - pressure weather system occurring in the middle latitudes of the earth having neither tropical nor polar characteristics weather front β a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities ; the principal cause of meteorological phenomena low pressure β a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area storm β any disturbed state of the atmosphere and strongly implying severe weather flooding β an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges the land ; a deluge nor'easter β a macro - scale storm along the east coast of the united states, named for the winds that come from the northeast wind β the flow of air or other gases that compose an atmosphere ; caused by rising heated air and cooler air rushing in to occupy the vacated space. temperature β a physical property that describes our common notions of hot and cold invest ( meteorology ) β an area with the potential for tropical cyclone development = = = weather - related disasters = = = weather disasters extreme weather list of floods list of natural disasters by death toll list of severe weather phenomena = = leaders in meteorology = = william m. gray ( october 9, 1929 β april 16, 2016 ) β has been involved in forecasting hurricanes since 1984 francis galton ( february 16, 1822 - january 17, 1911 ) β was a polymath, and devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short - term climatic phenomena on a european scale herbert saffir ( march 29, 1917 β november 21, 2007 ) β was the developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale for measuring the intensity of hurricanes bob simpson ( november 19, 1912 β december 18, 2014 ) β was a meteorologist, hurricane specialist, first director of the national hurricane research project, former director of the national hurricane center, and co - developer of the saffir - simpson hurricane scale. = = see also = = meteorology glossary of meteorology index of meteorology articles standard day jet stream heat index equivalent potential temperature ( theta - e ) primitive equations climate : el nino monsoon flood drought global warming effect of sun angle on climate other phenomena : deposition dust devil fog tide air
the subarctic climate ( also called subpolar climate, or boreal climate ) is a continental climate with long, cold ( often very cold ) winters, and short, warm to cool summers. it is found on large landmasses, often away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at latitudes from 50Β°n to 70Β°n, poleward of the humid continental climates. like other class d climates, they are rare in the southern hemisphere, only found at some isolated highland elevations. subarctic or boreal climates are the source regions for the cold air that affects temperate latitudes to the south in winter. these climates represent koppen climate classification dfc, dwc, dsc, dfd, dwd and dsd. = = description = = this type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet : in winter, temperatures can drop to below β50 Β°c ( β58 Β°f ) and in summer, the temperature may exceed 26 Β°c ( 79 Β°f ). however, the summers are short ; no more than three months of the year ( but at least one month ) must have a 24 - hour average temperature of at least 10 Β°c ( 50 Β°f ) to fall into this category of climate, and the coldest month should average below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3 Β°c ( 27 Β°f ) ). record low temperatures can approach β70 Β°c ( β94 Β°f ). with 5 β 7 consecutive months when the average temperature is below freezing, all moisture in the soil and subsoil freezes solidly to depths of many feet. summer warmth is insufficient to thaw more than a few surface feet, so permafrost prevails under most areas not near the southern boundary of this climate zone. seasonal thaw penetrates from 2 to 14 ft ( 0. 6 to 4. 3 m ), depending on latitude, aspect, and type of ground. some northern areas with subarctic climates located near oceans ( southern alaska, northern norway, sakhalin oblast and kamchatka oblast ), have milder winters and no permafrost, and are more suited for farming unless precipitation is excessive. the frost - free season is very short, varying from about 45 to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur anytime outside the summer months in many areas. = = = description = = = the first d indicates continentality, with the coldest month below 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) ( or β3
urban climatology is the study of urban climate. it is a branch of climatology that concerns interactions between urban areas and the atmosphere, the effects they have on one another, and the varying spatial and temporal scales at which these processes ( and responses ) occur. = = history = = luke howard is considered to have established urban climatology with his book the climate of london, which contained continuous daily observations from 1801 to 1841 of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall. urban climatology came about as a methodology for studying the results of industrialization and urbanization. constructing cities changes the physical environment and alters energy, moisture, and motion regimes near the surface. most of these alterations can be traced to causal factors such as air pollution ; anthropogenic sources of heat ; surface waterproofing ; thermal properties of the surface materials ; and morphology of the surface and its specific three - dimensional geometry β building spacing, height, orientation, vegetative layering, and the overall dimensions and geography of these elements. other factors are relief, proximity to water bodies, size of the city, population density, and land - use distributions. = = influential factors = = several factors influence the urban climate, including city size, the morphology of the city, land - use configuration, and the geographic setting ( such as relief, elevation, and regional climate ). some of the differences between urban and rural climates include air quality, wind patterns, and changes in rainfall patterns, but one of the most studied is the urban heat island ( uhi ) effect. = = = temperature and urban heat island effect = = = urban environments, and slightly downwind, are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by howard. urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. the spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources. the urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer ( pbl ) outside and extending well above the city : ( 1 ) the urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air. ( 2 ) the surface of the city corresponds to the level of the urban canopy layer. fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land - use divisions ( for example, suburbs ). the urban heat island
Answer:
|
visibility
| 0.3 |
An example of an electrical conductor could be
0. wood
1. ice
2. coin
3. rubber
composite applications polymers ( compounds, concentrates ) resins rubbers varnishes, paints, glues, such as bare conductive's electric paint, which can be used as a painted resistor element, a capacitive electrode, or as a conductor in designs that tolerate high resistivity when making circuits, as well as being painted onto gloves to allow people to use touchscreens in cold weather. = = electroconductive carbon black producers = = some of the world's main producers of electroconductive carbon black include unipetrol ( chezacarb ), cabot corporation ( vulcan ), degussa ( printex ), akzo - nobel ( ketjenblack ), timcal ( ensaco ), birla carbon ( conductex ), and orion engineered carbons ( xpb ). = = see also = = carbon black unipetrol cabot corporation akzonobel = = references = =
voltage of any of the sending or receiving ends. = = = series resistance = = = = = = = definition = = = = the electrical resistance of an object is property of a substance due to which it restricts the flow of electric current resulted from a potential difference in its two ends. the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. the si unit of electrical resistance is the ohm ( Ο ), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens ( s ). = = = = characteristics = = = = the resistance of an object depends in large part on the material it is made of β objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low conductivity, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance and high conductivity. this material dependence is quantified by resistivity or conductivity. however, resistance and conductance are extensive rather than bulk properties, meaning that they also depend on the size and shape of an object. for example, a wire's resistance is higher if it is long and thin, and lower if it is short and thick. all objects show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero. the resistance ( r ) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it ( v ) to current through it ( i ), while the conductance ( g ) is the inverse : r = v i, g = i v = 1 r { \ displaystyle r = { v \ over i }, \ qquad g = { i \ over v } = { \ frac { 1 } { r } } } for a wide variety of materials and conditions, v and i are directly proportional to each other, and therefore r and g are constants ( although they will depend on the size and shape of the object, the material it is made of, and other factors like temperature or strain ). this proportionality is called ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials. in other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, v and i are not directly proportional. the ratio v / i is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a " chordal resistance " or " static resistance ", since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an i β v curve. in other situations, the
effective conductors are usually metals because they can be described fairly accurately by the free electron model in which electrons delocalize from the atomic nuclei, leaving positive ions surrounded by a cloud of free electrons. examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum, and silver. wires in electronics are often made of copper. the main properties of conductors are : the electric field is zero inside a perfect conductor. because charges are free to move in a conductor, when they are disturbed by an external electric field they rearrange themselves such that the field that their configuration produces exactly cancels the external electric field inside the conductor. the electric potential is the same everywhere inside the conductor and is constant across the surface of the conductor. this follows from the first statement because the field is zero everywhere inside the conductor and therefore the potential is constant within the conductor too. the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of a conductor. if this were not the case, the field would have a nonzero component on the surface of the conductor, which would cause the charges in the conductor to move around until that component of the field is zero. the net electric flux through a surface is proportional to the charge enclosed by the surface. this is a restatement of gauss'law. in some materials, the electrons are bound to the atomic nuclei and so are not free to move around but the energy required to set them free is low. in these materials, called semiconductors, the conductivity is low at low temperatures but as the temperature is increased the electrons gain more thermal energy and the conductivity increases. silicon is an example of a semiconductors that can be used to create solar cells which become more conductive the more energy they receive from photons from the sun. superconductors are materials that exhibit little to no resistance to the flow of electrons when cooled below a certain critical temperature. superconductivity can only be explained by the quantum mechanical pauli exclusion principle which states that no two fermions ( an electron is a type of fermion ) can occupy exactly the same quantum state. in superconductors, below a certain temperature the electrons form boson bound pairs which do not follow this principle and this means that all the electrons can fall to the same energy level and move together uniformly in a current. = = = insulators = = = insulators are material which are highly resistive to the flow of electrons and so are often used to cover conducting wires for safety. in insulators, electrons are tightly bound to atomic nuclei and
an electrical inverse - square law 1774 β georges - louis lesage builds an electrostatic telegraph system with 26 insulated wires conducting leyden - jar charges to pith - ball electroscopes, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet. its range was only between rooms of his home. 1784 β henry cavendish defines the inductive capacity of dielectrics ( insulators ) and measures the specific inductive capacity of various substances by comparison with an air condenser. 1785 β charles coulomb introduces the inverse - square law of electrostatics 1786 β luigi galvani discovers " animal electricity " and postulates that animal bodies are storehouses of electricity. his invention of the voltaic cell leads to the invention the electric battery. 1791 β luigi galvani discovers galvanic electricity and bioelectricity through experiments following an observation that touching exposed muscles in frogs'legs with a scalpel which had been close to a static electrical machine caused them to jump. he called this " animal electricity ". years of experimentation in the 1780s eventually led him to the construction of an arc of two different metals ( copper and zinc for example ) by connecting the two metal pieces and then connecting their open ends across the nerve of a frog leg, producing the same muscular contractions ( by completing a circuit ) as originally accidentally observed. the use of different metals to produce an electrical spark is the basis that led alessandro volta in 1799 to his invention of his voltaic pile, which eventually became the galvanic battery. 1799 β alessandro volta, following galvani's discovery of galvanic electricity, creates a voltaic cell producing an electric current by the chemical action of several pairs of alternating copper ( or silver ) and zinc discs " piled " and separated by cloth or cardboard which had been soaked brine ( salt water ) or acid to increase conductivity. in 1800 he demonstrates the production of light from a glowing wire conducting electricity. this was followed in 1801 by his construction of the first electric battery, by utilizing multiple voltaic cells. prior to his major discoveries, in a letter of praise to the royal society 1793, volta reported luigi galvani's experiments of the 1780s as the " most beautiful and important discoveries ", regarding them as the foundation of future discoveries. volta's inventions led to revolutionary changes with this method of the production of inexpensive, controlled electric current vs. existing frictional machines and leyden jars. the electric battery became standard equipment in every experimental laboratory and heralded an age of practical applications of electricity. the
however, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost ( certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines ) remains very common. besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity. switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding. the concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5. 91Γ1022 cmβ3. gold is highly conductive to electricity and has been used for electrical wiring in some high - energy applications ( only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance ). for example, gold electrical wires were used during some of the manhattan project's atomic experiments, but large high - current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project. it is estimated that 16 % of the world's presently - accounted - for gold and 22 % of the world's silver is contained in electronic technology in japan. = = = medicine = = = there are only two gold compounds currently employed as pharmaceuticals in modern medicine ( sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin ), used in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions in the us due to their anti - inflammatory properties. these drugs have been explored as a means to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also ( historically ) against tuberculosis and some parasites. some esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power, against the scientific consensus. historically, metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal purposes. gold, usually as the metal, is perhaps the most anciently administered medicine ( apparently by shamanic practitioners ) and known to dioscorides. in medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. in the 19th century gold had a reputation as an anxiolytic, a therapy for nervous disorders. depression, epilepsy, migraine, and glandular problems such as amenorrhea and impotence were treated, and most notably alcoholism ( keeley, 1897 ). the apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance suggests the possibility of serious
Answer:
|
coin
| null |
An example of an electrical conductor could be
0. wood
1. ice
2. coin
3. rubber
composite applications polymers ( compounds, concentrates ) resins rubbers varnishes, paints, glues, such as bare conductive's electric paint, which can be used as a painted resistor element, a capacitive electrode, or as a conductor in designs that tolerate high resistivity when making circuits, as well as being painted onto gloves to allow people to use touchscreens in cold weather. = = electroconductive carbon black producers = = some of the world's main producers of electroconductive carbon black include unipetrol ( chezacarb ), cabot corporation ( vulcan ), degussa ( printex ), akzo - nobel ( ketjenblack ), timcal ( ensaco ), birla carbon ( conductex ), and orion engineered carbons ( xpb ). = = see also = = carbon black unipetrol cabot corporation akzonobel = = references = =
voltage of any of the sending or receiving ends. = = = series resistance = = = = = = = definition = = = = the electrical resistance of an object is property of a substance due to which it restricts the flow of electric current resulted from a potential difference in its two ends. the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. the si unit of electrical resistance is the ohm ( Ο ), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens ( s ). = = = = characteristics = = = = the resistance of an object depends in large part on the material it is made of β objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low conductivity, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance and high conductivity. this material dependence is quantified by resistivity or conductivity. however, resistance and conductance are extensive rather than bulk properties, meaning that they also depend on the size and shape of an object. for example, a wire's resistance is higher if it is long and thin, and lower if it is short and thick. all objects show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero. the resistance ( r ) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it ( v ) to current through it ( i ), while the conductance ( g ) is the inverse : r = v i, g = i v = 1 r { \ displaystyle r = { v \ over i }, \ qquad g = { i \ over v } = { \ frac { 1 } { r } } } for a wide variety of materials and conditions, v and i are directly proportional to each other, and therefore r and g are constants ( although they will depend on the size and shape of the object, the material it is made of, and other factors like temperature or strain ). this proportionality is called ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials. in other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, v and i are not directly proportional. the ratio v / i is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a " chordal resistance " or " static resistance ", since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an i β v curve. in other situations, the
effective conductors are usually metals because they can be described fairly accurately by the free electron model in which electrons delocalize from the atomic nuclei, leaving positive ions surrounded by a cloud of free electrons. examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum, and silver. wires in electronics are often made of copper. the main properties of conductors are : the electric field is zero inside a perfect conductor. because charges are free to move in a conductor, when they are disturbed by an external electric field they rearrange themselves such that the field that their configuration produces exactly cancels the external electric field inside the conductor. the electric potential is the same everywhere inside the conductor and is constant across the surface of the conductor. this follows from the first statement because the field is zero everywhere inside the conductor and therefore the potential is constant within the conductor too. the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of a conductor. if this were not the case, the field would have a nonzero component on the surface of the conductor, which would cause the charges in the conductor to move around until that component of the field is zero. the net electric flux through a surface is proportional to the charge enclosed by the surface. this is a restatement of gauss'law. in some materials, the electrons are bound to the atomic nuclei and so are not free to move around but the energy required to set them free is low. in these materials, called semiconductors, the conductivity is low at low temperatures but as the temperature is increased the electrons gain more thermal energy and the conductivity increases. silicon is an example of a semiconductors that can be used to create solar cells which become more conductive the more energy they receive from photons from the sun. superconductors are materials that exhibit little to no resistance to the flow of electrons when cooled below a certain critical temperature. superconductivity can only be explained by the quantum mechanical pauli exclusion principle which states that no two fermions ( an electron is a type of fermion ) can occupy exactly the same quantum state. in superconductors, below a certain temperature the electrons form boson bound pairs which do not follow this principle and this means that all the electrons can fall to the same energy level and move together uniformly in a current. = = = insulators = = = insulators are material which are highly resistive to the flow of electrons and so are often used to cover conducting wires for safety. in insulators, electrons are tightly bound to atomic nuclei and
an electrical inverse - square law 1774 β georges - louis lesage builds an electrostatic telegraph system with 26 insulated wires conducting leyden - jar charges to pith - ball electroscopes, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet. its range was only between rooms of his home. 1784 β henry cavendish defines the inductive capacity of dielectrics ( insulators ) and measures the specific inductive capacity of various substances by comparison with an air condenser. 1785 β charles coulomb introduces the inverse - square law of electrostatics 1786 β luigi galvani discovers " animal electricity " and postulates that animal bodies are storehouses of electricity. his invention of the voltaic cell leads to the invention the electric battery. 1791 β luigi galvani discovers galvanic electricity and bioelectricity through experiments following an observation that touching exposed muscles in frogs'legs with a scalpel which had been close to a static electrical machine caused them to jump. he called this " animal electricity ". years of experimentation in the 1780s eventually led him to the construction of an arc of two different metals ( copper and zinc for example ) by connecting the two metal pieces and then connecting their open ends across the nerve of a frog leg, producing the same muscular contractions ( by completing a circuit ) as originally accidentally observed. the use of different metals to produce an electrical spark is the basis that led alessandro volta in 1799 to his invention of his voltaic pile, which eventually became the galvanic battery. 1799 β alessandro volta, following galvani's discovery of galvanic electricity, creates a voltaic cell producing an electric current by the chemical action of several pairs of alternating copper ( or silver ) and zinc discs " piled " and separated by cloth or cardboard which had been soaked brine ( salt water ) or acid to increase conductivity. in 1800 he demonstrates the production of light from a glowing wire conducting electricity. this was followed in 1801 by his construction of the first electric battery, by utilizing multiple voltaic cells. prior to his major discoveries, in a letter of praise to the royal society 1793, volta reported luigi galvani's experiments of the 1780s as the " most beautiful and important discoveries ", regarding them as the foundation of future discoveries. volta's inventions led to revolutionary changes with this method of the production of inexpensive, controlled electric current vs. existing frictional machines and leyden jars. the electric battery became standard equipment in every experimental laboratory and heralded an age of practical applications of electricity. the
however, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost ( certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines ) remains very common. besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity. switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding. the concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5. 91Γ1022 cmβ3. gold is highly conductive to electricity and has been used for electrical wiring in some high - energy applications ( only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance ). for example, gold electrical wires were used during some of the manhattan project's atomic experiments, but large high - current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project. it is estimated that 16 % of the world's presently - accounted - for gold and 22 % of the world's silver is contained in electronic technology in japan. = = = medicine = = = there are only two gold compounds currently employed as pharmaceuticals in modern medicine ( sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin ), used in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions in the us due to their anti - inflammatory properties. these drugs have been explored as a means to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also ( historically ) against tuberculosis and some parasites. some esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power, against the scientific consensus. historically, metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal purposes. gold, usually as the metal, is perhaps the most anciently administered medicine ( apparently by shamanic practitioners ) and known to dioscorides. in medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. in the 19th century gold had a reputation as an anxiolytic, a therapy for nervous disorders. depression, epilepsy, migraine, and glandular problems such as amenorrhea and impotence were treated, and most notably alcoholism ( keeley, 1897 ). the apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance suggests the possibility of serious
Answer:
|
ice
| 0.3 |
What is a vehicle for the flow of electricity?
0. a metal sword
1. a wooden chair
2. a plastic ring
3. a dry towel
electrical devices or electric devices are devices that functionally rely on electric energy ( ac or dc ) to operate their core parts ( electric motors, transformers, lighting, rechargeable batteries, control electronics ). they can be contrasted with traditional mechanical devices which depend on different power sources like fuels or human physical strength. electronic devices are a specialized kind of electrical devices in which electric power is predominantly used for data processing rather than the generation of mechanical forces. to better differentiate between both classes, electric devices that emphasize physical work are also called electromechanical. mechatronics accentuates the intersection of both fields. together, electronic and electric devices, their development, maintenance, and power supply comprise the subject of electrical engineering. the majority of electric devices in households is stationary and β due to their considerable power consumption β relies on electrical installation, especially electric outlets instead of small electric generators, batteries, rechargeable or not. due to their dependence on electric power sources, in general well - evolved power grids, electric devices and their power consumption pattern have moved into the focus of smart metering. = = electrical equipment = = electrical equipment includes any machine powered by electricity. it usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of electrical components, and often a power switch. examples of these include : lighting major appliance small appliances it equipment ( computers, printers etc. ) motors, pumps and hvac systems more specifically, electrical equipment refers to the individual components of an electrical distribution system. these components may involve : electric switchboards distribution boards circuit breakers and disconnects transformers electricity meter = = see also = = electrical equipment in hazardous areas electrical equipment home appliance power transmission electrical room grounding kit list of largest manufacturing companies by revenue grondzik, walter t. ( 2010 ). mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings ( 11 ed. ). wiley. isbn 9780470195659. = = references = = = = literature = = lindsay, j. f. ( 1986 ). electromechanics and electrical machinery. englewood cliffs, n. j. : prentice - hall. isbn 978 - 0132500937. advanced electrical and electronic systems. ny research pr. 2019. isbn 978 - 1632386250. miu, denny k. ( 1993 ). mechatronics : electromechanics and contromechanics. new york : springer - verlag. isbn 978 - 0387978932.
in electrical engineering, an electric machine is a general term for a machine that makes use of electromagnetic forces and their interactions with voltages, currents, and movement, such as motors and generators. they are electromechanical energy converters, converting between electricity and motion. the moving parts in a machine can be rotating ( rotating machines ) or linear ( linear machines ). while transformers are occasionally called " static electric machines ", they do not have moving parts and are more accurately described as electrical devices " closely related " to electrical machines. electric machines, in the form of synchronous and induction generators, produce about 95 % of all electric power on earth ( as of early 2020s ). in the form of electric motors, they consume approximately 60 % of all electric power produced. electric machines were developed in the mid 19th century and since have become a significant component of electric infrastructure. developing more efficient electric machine technology is crucial to global conservation, green energy, and alternative energy strategy. = = history = = the basis for electric machines date back to the early 19th century, and the research and experiments of michael faraday in the relationship of electricity and magnetism. one of the first demonstrations of an electric machine was in 1821, with a free - hanging wire dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet ( pm ) was placed. when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. while primitive compared to modern electric machines, this experiment showed the ability to convert electric energy to motion. improvements to electric machines continued throughout the 19th century, however as this predated the existence of an electric power system, they struggled to gain viability and acceptance. near the end of the 19th century, when the first electric grids came into existence, electric machines grew into more applications. of note, the invention of the dynamo by werner von siemens in 1867 and invention of the first practical dc motor by frank sprague in 1886. as electric power systems moved from dc to ac during the war of currents, so did electric machines. while alternators began to replace dynamos, ac motors proved more difficult. it wasn't until nikola tesla's invention of the induction motor that ac motors began to replace dc motors in significant quantities. = = operating principle = = the main operating principles of electric machines take advantage of the relationship between electricity and magnetism, specifically that changes in one can create changes in the other. for example
that the force should be proportional to the extension. the physical reasons for elastic behavior can be quite different for different materials. in metals, the atomic lattice changes size and shape when forces are applied ( energy is added to the system ). when forces are removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower energy state. for rubbers and other polymers, elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are applied. electric current β a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. it is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. electric motor β an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft. electric motors can be powered by direct current ( dc ) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current ( ac ) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. an electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in the reverse direction, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. electrical engineering β electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design and application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. electrical circuit β an electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. electrical network β an interconnection of electrical components ( e. g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors ) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements ( e. g., voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances ). electromagnetism β electronic circuit β a type of electrical circuit which is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. electronics β energy β engine β engineering β the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items. engineering cybernetics β engineering drawing β a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about an object. detail drawings commonly specify the dimensions and tolerances for the construction of a single component, while a master drawing or assembly drawing links the detail drawings
can be difficult to manage. potential power sources could be : pneumatic ( compressed gases ) solar power ( using the sun's energy and converting it into electrical power ) hydraulics ( liquids ) flywheel energy storage organic garbage ( through anaerobic digestion ) nuclear = = = actuation = = = actuators are the " muscles " of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. by far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. there are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air. = = = = electric motors = = = = the vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless dc motors in portable robots or ac motors in industrial robots and cnc machines. these motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the predominant form of motion is rotational. = = = = linear actuators = = = = various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forces are needed such as with industrial robotics. they are typically powered by compressed and oxidized air ( pneumatic actuator ) or an oil ( hydraulic actuator ) linear actuators can also be powered by electricity which usually consists of a motor and a leadscrew. another common type is a mechanical linear actuator such as a rack and pinion on a car. = = = = series elastic actuators = = = = series elastic actuation ( sea ) relies on the idea of introducing intentional elasticity between the motor actuator and the load for robust force control. due to the resultant lower reflected inertia, series elastic actuation improves safety when a robot interacts with the environment ( e. g., humans or workpieces ) or during collisions. furthermore, it also provides energy efficiency and shock absorption ( mechanical filtering ) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. this approach has successfully been employed in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots and walking humanoid robots. the controller design of a series elastic actuator is most often performed within the passivity framework as it ensures the safety of interaction with unstructured environments. despite its remarkable stability and robustness, this framework suffers from the stringent limitations imposed on the controller which may trade - off performance. the reader is referred to the following survey
systems. again, water flows through the turbines which then allows the river's energy to be collected and drives a generator. the river's energy can generate 50 kilowatts with a water speed of 4 knots. with this system in place it does not disrupt the natural livelihood of fish and river traffic. vortex power β vivace β vortex induced vibration for aquatic clean energy. this system is based on fish movement and their use of pushing their bodies off vortices to move forward. this invention can capture energy on slow moving rivers. pipe power β a newer invention to capture energy through water, this system uses municipal pipes. created by leviathan. benkatina turbine works off water that flows through enclosed pipes, sewer pipes, canals, and pipes used to remove wastewater from factories. making a splash β fzulton innovation has created lilliputian hydroelectric technologies. this system allows one to power their home appliances with the use of the water from their own faucets. it is noted it can also create emergency lighting and can charge batteries. this seems to be a great invention for families who live in areas with a high impact from weather and having their power cut off consistently. many inventions involve water. the problem is finding inventions that can be useful to all people and help curve poverty as well as curve the negative impacts inventions have on our natural world and wild life. = = hoaxes = = there have been a number of hoaxes, claiming the invention of water - powered engines. no water powered engine has successfully been invented to the point of getting a patent. conspiracy theorists believe that there is a global suppression surrounding the idea of creating a successful water fuel cell or fully water powered engine. this stems from the idea that large oil companies that control most of the revenue related to gas and fossil fuels do not want water fueled technology to overpower current gas and electric reliant vehicles. this would not only create a cheaper, cleaner, and more efficient engine but also would eventually make oil companies obsolete. the uncertainty behind events such as these are what fuels conspiracy theorists to continue to support the claim of suppression of clean energy technology by unknown entities. = = = stanley meyer's water fuel cell = = = the idea of a water powered car has been around since stanley meyer's " water fuel cell " made it popular in the late 20th century. however, he was met with pushback from an ohio court claiming that such an automobile could not possibly work. meyer abruptly died in 1998 while eating at a restaurant. according to his brother,
Answer:
|
a metal sword
| null |
What is a vehicle for the flow of electricity?
0. a metal sword
1. a wooden chair
2. a plastic ring
3. a dry towel
electrical devices or electric devices are devices that functionally rely on electric energy ( ac or dc ) to operate their core parts ( electric motors, transformers, lighting, rechargeable batteries, control electronics ). they can be contrasted with traditional mechanical devices which depend on different power sources like fuels or human physical strength. electronic devices are a specialized kind of electrical devices in which electric power is predominantly used for data processing rather than the generation of mechanical forces. to better differentiate between both classes, electric devices that emphasize physical work are also called electromechanical. mechatronics accentuates the intersection of both fields. together, electronic and electric devices, their development, maintenance, and power supply comprise the subject of electrical engineering. the majority of electric devices in households is stationary and β due to their considerable power consumption β relies on electrical installation, especially electric outlets instead of small electric generators, batteries, rechargeable or not. due to their dependence on electric power sources, in general well - evolved power grids, electric devices and their power consumption pattern have moved into the focus of smart metering. = = electrical equipment = = electrical equipment includes any machine powered by electricity. it usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of electrical components, and often a power switch. examples of these include : lighting major appliance small appliances it equipment ( computers, printers etc. ) motors, pumps and hvac systems more specifically, electrical equipment refers to the individual components of an electrical distribution system. these components may involve : electric switchboards distribution boards circuit breakers and disconnects transformers electricity meter = = see also = = electrical equipment in hazardous areas electrical equipment home appliance power transmission electrical room grounding kit list of largest manufacturing companies by revenue grondzik, walter t. ( 2010 ). mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings ( 11 ed. ). wiley. isbn 9780470195659. = = references = = = = literature = = lindsay, j. f. ( 1986 ). electromechanics and electrical machinery. englewood cliffs, n. j. : prentice - hall. isbn 978 - 0132500937. advanced electrical and electronic systems. ny research pr. 2019. isbn 978 - 1632386250. miu, denny k. ( 1993 ). mechatronics : electromechanics and contromechanics. new york : springer - verlag. isbn 978 - 0387978932.
in electrical engineering, an electric machine is a general term for a machine that makes use of electromagnetic forces and their interactions with voltages, currents, and movement, such as motors and generators. they are electromechanical energy converters, converting between electricity and motion. the moving parts in a machine can be rotating ( rotating machines ) or linear ( linear machines ). while transformers are occasionally called " static electric machines ", they do not have moving parts and are more accurately described as electrical devices " closely related " to electrical machines. electric machines, in the form of synchronous and induction generators, produce about 95 % of all electric power on earth ( as of early 2020s ). in the form of electric motors, they consume approximately 60 % of all electric power produced. electric machines were developed in the mid 19th century and since have become a significant component of electric infrastructure. developing more efficient electric machine technology is crucial to global conservation, green energy, and alternative energy strategy. = = history = = the basis for electric machines date back to the early 19th century, and the research and experiments of michael faraday in the relationship of electricity and magnetism. one of the first demonstrations of an electric machine was in 1821, with a free - hanging wire dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet ( pm ) was placed. when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. while primitive compared to modern electric machines, this experiment showed the ability to convert electric energy to motion. improvements to electric machines continued throughout the 19th century, however as this predated the existence of an electric power system, they struggled to gain viability and acceptance. near the end of the 19th century, when the first electric grids came into existence, electric machines grew into more applications. of note, the invention of the dynamo by werner von siemens in 1867 and invention of the first practical dc motor by frank sprague in 1886. as electric power systems moved from dc to ac during the war of currents, so did electric machines. while alternators began to replace dynamos, ac motors proved more difficult. it wasn't until nikola tesla's invention of the induction motor that ac motors began to replace dc motors in significant quantities. = = operating principle = = the main operating principles of electric machines take advantage of the relationship between electricity and magnetism, specifically that changes in one can create changes in the other. for example
that the force should be proportional to the extension. the physical reasons for elastic behavior can be quite different for different materials. in metals, the atomic lattice changes size and shape when forces are applied ( energy is added to the system ). when forces are removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower energy state. for rubbers and other polymers, elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are applied. electric current β a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. it is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. electric motor β an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft. electric motors can be powered by direct current ( dc ) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current ( ac ) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. an electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in the reverse direction, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. electrical engineering β electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design and application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. electrical circuit β an electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. electrical network β an interconnection of electrical components ( e. g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors ) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements ( e. g., voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances ). electromagnetism β electronic circuit β a type of electrical circuit which is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. electronics β energy β engine β engineering β the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items. engineering cybernetics β engineering drawing β a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about an object. detail drawings commonly specify the dimensions and tolerances for the construction of a single component, while a master drawing or assembly drawing links the detail drawings
can be difficult to manage. potential power sources could be : pneumatic ( compressed gases ) solar power ( using the sun's energy and converting it into electrical power ) hydraulics ( liquids ) flywheel energy storage organic garbage ( through anaerobic digestion ) nuclear = = = actuation = = = actuators are the " muscles " of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. by far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. there are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air. = = = = electric motors = = = = the vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless dc motors in portable robots or ac motors in industrial robots and cnc machines. these motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the predominant form of motion is rotational. = = = = linear actuators = = = = various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forces are needed such as with industrial robotics. they are typically powered by compressed and oxidized air ( pneumatic actuator ) or an oil ( hydraulic actuator ) linear actuators can also be powered by electricity which usually consists of a motor and a leadscrew. another common type is a mechanical linear actuator such as a rack and pinion on a car. = = = = series elastic actuators = = = = series elastic actuation ( sea ) relies on the idea of introducing intentional elasticity between the motor actuator and the load for robust force control. due to the resultant lower reflected inertia, series elastic actuation improves safety when a robot interacts with the environment ( e. g., humans or workpieces ) or during collisions. furthermore, it also provides energy efficiency and shock absorption ( mechanical filtering ) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. this approach has successfully been employed in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots and walking humanoid robots. the controller design of a series elastic actuator is most often performed within the passivity framework as it ensures the safety of interaction with unstructured environments. despite its remarkable stability and robustness, this framework suffers from the stringent limitations imposed on the controller which may trade - off performance. the reader is referred to the following survey
systems. again, water flows through the turbines which then allows the river's energy to be collected and drives a generator. the river's energy can generate 50 kilowatts with a water speed of 4 knots. with this system in place it does not disrupt the natural livelihood of fish and river traffic. vortex power β vivace β vortex induced vibration for aquatic clean energy. this system is based on fish movement and their use of pushing their bodies off vortices to move forward. this invention can capture energy on slow moving rivers. pipe power β a newer invention to capture energy through water, this system uses municipal pipes. created by leviathan. benkatina turbine works off water that flows through enclosed pipes, sewer pipes, canals, and pipes used to remove wastewater from factories. making a splash β fzulton innovation has created lilliputian hydroelectric technologies. this system allows one to power their home appliances with the use of the water from their own faucets. it is noted it can also create emergency lighting and can charge batteries. this seems to be a great invention for families who live in areas with a high impact from weather and having their power cut off consistently. many inventions involve water. the problem is finding inventions that can be useful to all people and help curve poverty as well as curve the negative impacts inventions have on our natural world and wild life. = = hoaxes = = there have been a number of hoaxes, claiming the invention of water - powered engines. no water powered engine has successfully been invented to the point of getting a patent. conspiracy theorists believe that there is a global suppression surrounding the idea of creating a successful water fuel cell or fully water powered engine. this stems from the idea that large oil companies that control most of the revenue related to gas and fossil fuels do not want water fueled technology to overpower current gas and electric reliant vehicles. this would not only create a cheaper, cleaner, and more efficient engine but also would eventually make oil companies obsolete. the uncertainty behind events such as these are what fuels conspiracy theorists to continue to support the claim of suppression of clean energy technology by unknown entities. = = = stanley meyer's water fuel cell = = = the idea of a water powered car has been around since stanley meyer's " water fuel cell " made it popular in the late 20th century. however, he was met with pushback from an ohio court claiming that such an automobile could not possibly work. meyer abruptly died in 1998 while eating at a restaurant. according to his brother,
Answer:
|
a wooden chair
| 0.3 |
Which three events are likely to occur once per day?
0. 3 cycles of day, 3 cycles of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
1. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and a motorcycle
2. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
3. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and birds flying
in meteorology, a singularity is a weather phenomenon likely to occur with reasonable regularity around a specific approximate calendar date, outside of more general seasonal weather patterns ( e. g., that may day is usually warmer than new year's day in northern locales ). the existence of singularities is disputed, some considering them due to seeing patterns in noise and statistical artifacts from small samples. in north america, the most significant purported singularities are january thaw ( warmer weather around january 25 ) and indian summer ( warmer weather in mid - autumn ). more fanciful ones include the british tradition that rain on st. swithun's day ( 15 july ) will be followed by forty days and nights of rain, and similar folk beliefs around groundhog day. = = studies = = although folk tales such as st swithun's day generally have little credibility, some of these events have a more solid basis. early scientific investigation involved the creation of calendars of singularities based on temperature and rainfall anomalies. later and more successful work by hubert lamb of the climatic research unit was based on air circulation patterns. lamb's work analysed the daily frequency of airflow categories between 1898 and 1947. similar work was carried out by flohn and hess in central europe based on analysis of air flows from 1881 to 1947. a 1955 study by liverpool observatory and tidal institute analysed maximum daily temperatures at a single location from 1900 to 1953. this found problems when attempting to demonstrate the statistical significance of apparent temperature anomalies. in the 1950s, e. g. bowen suggested that some rainfall calendar cities might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory received support from a number of sources. however, such work has now fallen out of favour due to modern dynamic modelling techniques, although articles are still being written reflecting an interest in the topic. = = references = = = = external links = = singularities developed for the british isles " calendar of uk weather singularities ". metcheck. com.
is called forked lightning. when it swoops down upon some object it is called'swooping lightning'after aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the book of signs, as well as on winds. he gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. his system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. he also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. the day was divided into sunrise, mid - morning, noon, mid - afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. shooting stars and the moon were also considered significant. however, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the aristotelian method. the work of theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2, 000 years. = = = meteorology after aristotle = = = meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. scientists such as galileo and descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology. speculation on the cause of the flooding of the nile ended when eratosthenes, according to proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued. during the era of roman greece and europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. in the 1st century bc, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. he closely followed aristotle's theories. by the end of the second century bc, the center of science shifted from athens to alexandria, home to
in astronomy, diurnal motion ( from latin diurnus'daily ', from latin dies'day') is the apparent motion of celestial objects ( e. g. the sun and stars ) around earth, or more precisely around the two celestial poles, over the course of one day. it is caused by earth's rotation around its axis, so almost every star appears to follow a circular arc path, called the diurnal circle, often depicted in star trail photography. the time for one complete rotation is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4. 09 seconds β one sidereal day. the first experimental demonstration of this motion was conducted by leon foucault. because earth orbits the sun once a year, the sidereal time at any given place and time will gain about four minutes against local civil time, every 24 hours, until, after a year has passed, one additional sidereal " day " has elapsed compared to the number of solar days that have gone by. = = relative direction = = the relative direction of diurnal motion in the northern celestial hemisphere are as follows : facing north, below polaris : rightward, or eastward facing north, above polaris : leftward, or westward facing south : rightward, or westward thus, northern circumpolar stars move counterclockwise around polaris, the north pole star. at the north pole, the cardinal directions do not apply to diurnal motion. within the circumpolar circle, all the stars move simply rightward, or looking directly overhead, counterclockwise around the zenith, where polaris is. southern celestial hemisphere observers are to replace north with south, left with right, and polaris with sigma octantis, sometimes called the south pole star. the circumpolar stars move clockwise around sigma octantis. east and west are not interchanged. as seen from the equator, the two celestial poles are on the horizon due north and south, and the motion is counterclockwise ( i. e. leftward ) around polaris and clockwise ( i. e. rightward ) around sigma octantis. all motion is westward, except for the two fixed points. = = apparent speed = = the daily arc path of an object on the celestial sphere, including the possible part below the horizon, has a length proportional to the cosine of the declination. thus, the speed of the diurnal motion of a celestial object equals this cosine times 15
processes, they can be regulated by both endogenous and exogenous signals. other biological cycles may be regulated by exogenous signals. many other important cycles are also studied, including : infradian rhythms, which are cycles longer than a day. examples include circannual or annual cycles that govern migration or reproduction cycles in many plants and animals, or the human menstrual cycle. ultradian rhythms, which are cycles shorter than 24 hours, such as the 90 - minute rem cycle, the 4 - hour nasal cycle, or the 3 - hour cycle of growth hormone production. tidal rhythms, commonly observed in marine life, which follow the roughly 12. 4 - hour transition from high to low tide and back. lunar rhythms, which follow the lunar month ( 29. 5 days ). they are relevant e. g. for marine life, as the level of the tides is modulated across the lunar cycle. within each cycle, the time period during which the process is more active is called the acrophase. when the process is less active, the cycle is in its bathyphase or trough phase. the particular moment of highest activity is the peak or maximum ; the lowest point is the nadir. = = history = = a circadian cycle was first observed in the 18th century in the movement of plant leaves by the french scientist jean - jacques d'ortous de mairan. in 1751, swedish botanist and naturalist carl linnaeus ( carl von linne ) designed a flower clock using certain species of flowering plants. by arranging the selected species in a circular pattern, he designed a clock that indicated the time of day by the flowers that were open at each given hour. for example, among members of the daisy family, he used the hawk's beard plant which opened its flowers at 6 : 30 am and the hawkbit which did not open its flowers until 7 am. the 1960 symposium at cold spring harbor laboratory laid the groundwork for the field of chronobiology. it was also in 1960 that patricia decoursey invented the phase response curve, one of the major tools used in the field since. franz halberg of the university of minnesota, who coined the word circadian, is widely considered the " father of american chronobiology. " however, it was colin pittendrigh and not halberg who was elected to lead the society for research in biological rhythms in the 1970s. halberg wanted more emphasis on the human and medical issues while pittendrigh had his background
day may change slightly in duration over the course of the orbital period due to eccentricity and axial tilt ; earth's synodic day is often called a solar day. synodic period the time it takes for a body visible from another body ( often the earth ) to complete a cycle with respect to the background stars visible in the second body's celestial sphere. synodic period is most commonly used to indicate the elapsed time between a given body's consecutive appearances in the same location in the night sky as observed from earth, but can in principle be calculated with respect to the sky as observed from any body. it is related to but distinct from the orbital period, a result of the fact that both the body being studied ( e. g. jupiter ) and the body from which it is being observed ( e. g. earth ) are independently orbiting a third body ( the sun ). synodic time the calculation of the passage of time based on successive conjunctions of an astronomical object, such as a planet ( i. e. successive returns of the object to the same aspect in the earth's sky ). syzygy the straight - line configuration of three celestial bodies in a gravitational system. = = t = = tangential velocity the component of the velocity of a star or other astronomical body that is perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer ( i. e. in the tangent plane ). this component can be computed from the body's observed proper motion and its measured distance from the observer. telescope a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. telluric star a star with nearly featureless continuum spectra that can be used to correct for the effect of telluric contamination of the earth's atmosphere on the spectra of other stars. for example, water vapor in the atmosphere creates significant telluric absorption bands at wavelengths above 6800 a. these features need to be corrected for in order to more accurately measure the spectrum. termination shock the boundary within the heliosphere, approximately 75 to 90 au from the sun, beyond which the solar wind slows to subsonic speeds ( relative to the sun ) as a result of interactions with the local interstellar medium. terminator the line that divides the illuminated side of a moon or planet from its dark side. the line moves as the object rotates with respect to its parent star. theoretical astronomy a branch of astronomy that uses analytical and computational models based on principles from physics and chemistry to describe, explain, and model
Answer:
|
a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
| null |
Which three events are likely to occur once per day?
0. 3 cycles of day, 3 cycles of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
1. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and a motorcycle
2. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
3. a cycle of day, a cycle of night, and birds flying
in meteorology, a singularity is a weather phenomenon likely to occur with reasonable regularity around a specific approximate calendar date, outside of more general seasonal weather patterns ( e. g., that may day is usually warmer than new year's day in northern locales ). the existence of singularities is disputed, some considering them due to seeing patterns in noise and statistical artifacts from small samples. in north america, the most significant purported singularities are january thaw ( warmer weather around january 25 ) and indian summer ( warmer weather in mid - autumn ). more fanciful ones include the british tradition that rain on st. swithun's day ( 15 july ) will be followed by forty days and nights of rain, and similar folk beliefs around groundhog day. = = studies = = although folk tales such as st swithun's day generally have little credibility, some of these events have a more solid basis. early scientific investigation involved the creation of calendars of singularities based on temperature and rainfall anomalies. later and more successful work by hubert lamb of the climatic research unit was based on air circulation patterns. lamb's work analysed the daily frequency of airflow categories between 1898 and 1947. similar work was carried out by flohn and hess in central europe based on analysis of air flows from 1881 to 1947. a 1955 study by liverpool observatory and tidal institute analysed maximum daily temperatures at a single location from 1900 to 1953. this found problems when attempting to demonstrate the statistical significance of apparent temperature anomalies. in the 1950s, e. g. bowen suggested that some rainfall calendar cities might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory received support from a number of sources. however, such work has now fallen out of favour due to modern dynamic modelling techniques, although articles are still being written reflecting an interest in the topic. = = references = = = = external links = = singularities developed for the british isles " calendar of uk weather singularities ". metcheck. com.
is called forked lightning. when it swoops down upon some object it is called'swooping lightning'after aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the book of signs, as well as on winds. he gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. his system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. he also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. the day was divided into sunrise, mid - morning, noon, mid - afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. shooting stars and the moon were also considered significant. however, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the aristotelian method. the work of theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2, 000 years. = = = meteorology after aristotle = = = meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. scientists such as galileo and descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology. speculation on the cause of the flooding of the nile ended when eratosthenes, according to proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued. during the era of roman greece and europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. in the 1st century bc, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. he closely followed aristotle's theories. by the end of the second century bc, the center of science shifted from athens to alexandria, home to
in astronomy, diurnal motion ( from latin diurnus'daily ', from latin dies'day') is the apparent motion of celestial objects ( e. g. the sun and stars ) around earth, or more precisely around the two celestial poles, over the course of one day. it is caused by earth's rotation around its axis, so almost every star appears to follow a circular arc path, called the diurnal circle, often depicted in star trail photography. the time for one complete rotation is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4. 09 seconds β one sidereal day. the first experimental demonstration of this motion was conducted by leon foucault. because earth orbits the sun once a year, the sidereal time at any given place and time will gain about four minutes against local civil time, every 24 hours, until, after a year has passed, one additional sidereal " day " has elapsed compared to the number of solar days that have gone by. = = relative direction = = the relative direction of diurnal motion in the northern celestial hemisphere are as follows : facing north, below polaris : rightward, or eastward facing north, above polaris : leftward, or westward facing south : rightward, or westward thus, northern circumpolar stars move counterclockwise around polaris, the north pole star. at the north pole, the cardinal directions do not apply to diurnal motion. within the circumpolar circle, all the stars move simply rightward, or looking directly overhead, counterclockwise around the zenith, where polaris is. southern celestial hemisphere observers are to replace north with south, left with right, and polaris with sigma octantis, sometimes called the south pole star. the circumpolar stars move clockwise around sigma octantis. east and west are not interchanged. as seen from the equator, the two celestial poles are on the horizon due north and south, and the motion is counterclockwise ( i. e. leftward ) around polaris and clockwise ( i. e. rightward ) around sigma octantis. all motion is westward, except for the two fixed points. = = apparent speed = = the daily arc path of an object on the celestial sphere, including the possible part below the horizon, has a length proportional to the cosine of the declination. thus, the speed of the diurnal motion of a celestial object equals this cosine times 15
processes, they can be regulated by both endogenous and exogenous signals. other biological cycles may be regulated by exogenous signals. many other important cycles are also studied, including : infradian rhythms, which are cycles longer than a day. examples include circannual or annual cycles that govern migration or reproduction cycles in many plants and animals, or the human menstrual cycle. ultradian rhythms, which are cycles shorter than 24 hours, such as the 90 - minute rem cycle, the 4 - hour nasal cycle, or the 3 - hour cycle of growth hormone production. tidal rhythms, commonly observed in marine life, which follow the roughly 12. 4 - hour transition from high to low tide and back. lunar rhythms, which follow the lunar month ( 29. 5 days ). they are relevant e. g. for marine life, as the level of the tides is modulated across the lunar cycle. within each cycle, the time period during which the process is more active is called the acrophase. when the process is less active, the cycle is in its bathyphase or trough phase. the particular moment of highest activity is the peak or maximum ; the lowest point is the nadir. = = history = = a circadian cycle was first observed in the 18th century in the movement of plant leaves by the french scientist jean - jacques d'ortous de mairan. in 1751, swedish botanist and naturalist carl linnaeus ( carl von linne ) designed a flower clock using certain species of flowering plants. by arranging the selected species in a circular pattern, he designed a clock that indicated the time of day by the flowers that were open at each given hour. for example, among members of the daisy family, he used the hawk's beard plant which opened its flowers at 6 : 30 am and the hawkbit which did not open its flowers until 7 am. the 1960 symposium at cold spring harbor laboratory laid the groundwork for the field of chronobiology. it was also in 1960 that patricia decoursey invented the phase response curve, one of the major tools used in the field since. franz halberg of the university of minnesota, who coined the word circadian, is widely considered the " father of american chronobiology. " however, it was colin pittendrigh and not halberg who was elected to lead the society for research in biological rhythms in the 1970s. halberg wanted more emphasis on the human and medical issues while pittendrigh had his background
day may change slightly in duration over the course of the orbital period due to eccentricity and axial tilt ; earth's synodic day is often called a solar day. synodic period the time it takes for a body visible from another body ( often the earth ) to complete a cycle with respect to the background stars visible in the second body's celestial sphere. synodic period is most commonly used to indicate the elapsed time between a given body's consecutive appearances in the same location in the night sky as observed from earth, but can in principle be calculated with respect to the sky as observed from any body. it is related to but distinct from the orbital period, a result of the fact that both the body being studied ( e. g. jupiter ) and the body from which it is being observed ( e. g. earth ) are independently orbiting a third body ( the sun ). synodic time the calculation of the passage of time based on successive conjunctions of an astronomical object, such as a planet ( i. e. successive returns of the object to the same aspect in the earth's sky ). syzygy the straight - line configuration of three celestial bodies in a gravitational system. = = t = = tangential velocity the component of the velocity of a star or other astronomical body that is perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer ( i. e. in the tangent plane ). this component can be computed from the body's observed proper motion and its measured distance from the observer. telescope a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. telluric star a star with nearly featureless continuum spectra that can be used to correct for the effect of telluric contamination of the earth's atmosphere on the spectra of other stars. for example, water vapor in the atmosphere creates significant telluric absorption bands at wavelengths above 6800 a. these features need to be corrected for in order to more accurately measure the spectrum. termination shock the boundary within the heliosphere, approximately 75 to 90 au from the sun, beyond which the solar wind slows to subsonic speeds ( relative to the sun ) as a result of interactions with the local interstellar medium. terminator the line that divides the illuminated side of a moon or planet from its dark side. the line moves as the object rotates with respect to its parent star. theoretical astronomy a branch of astronomy that uses analytical and computational models based on principles from physics and chemistry to describe, explain, and model
Answer:
|
3 cycles of day, 3 cycles of night, and birds chirping as the sun rises
| 0.3 |
If something has a membrane within another thing, it is likely
0. a marker
1. a dark hole
2. a house
3. able to cry
globular proteins. according to their view, this protein coat had no particular structure and was simply formed by adsorption from solution. their theory was also incorrect in that it ascribed the barrier properties of the membrane to electrostatic repulsion from the protein layer rather than the energetic cost of crossing the hydrophobic core. a more direct investigation of the membrane was made possible through the use of electron microscopy in the late 1950s. after staining with heavy metal labels, sjostrand et al. noted two thin dark bands separated by a light region, which they incorrectly interpreted as a single molecular layer of protein. a more accurate interpretation was made by j. david robertson, who determined that the dark electron - dense bands were the headgroups and associated proteins of two apposed lipid monolayers. in this body of work, robertson put forward the concept of the β unit membrane. β this was the first time the bilayer structure had been universally assigned to all cell membranes as well as organelle membranes. = = = evolution of the membrane theory = = = the idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. the term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was not until 1877 when the botanist wilhelm pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. in this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. in 1889, hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. by measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. he also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells. ernest overton ( a distant cousin of charles darwin ) first proposed the concept of a lipid ( oil ) plasma membrane in 1899. the major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so nathansohn ( 1904 ) proposed the mosaic theory. in this view, the membrane is not a pure lip
then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual β on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory β a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms. auditory β in a silent area, a person can hear a watch tick from approximately 20 feet. vestibular β a person is able to tell of a tilt that when on a clock face is seen to be less than half a minute. gustatory β a person can taste a single teaspoon of sugar which is diluted in 2 gallons of water. tactile β a person can feel a fly's wing dropped from 3 feet above them falling onto their cheek. through these conditions, galanter was able to show that human's sensory organs are often more sensitive than originally thought. = = notes = = = = references = =
cryosuction is the concept of negative pressure in freezing liquids so that more liquid is sucked into the freezing zone. in soil, the transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores causes water to migrate through soil pores to the freezing zone through capillary action. = = history of discovery = = in 1930, stephen taber demonstrated that liquid water migrates towards the freeze line within soil. he showed that other liquids, such as benzene, which contracts when it freezes, also produce frost heave. fine - grained soils such as clays and silts enable greater negative pressures than more coarse - grained soils due to the smaller pore size. in periglacial environments, this mechanism is highly significant and it is the predominant process in ice lens formation in permafrost areas. as of 2001, several models for ice - lens formation by cryosuction existed, among others the hydrodynamic model and the premelting model, many of them based on the clausius β clapeyron relation with various assumptions, yielding cryosuction potentials of 11 to 12 atm per degree celsius below zero depending on pore size. in 2023, experiments from the eth zurich were published, in which the process could be observed between glass slides in a confocal microscope. in single - crystal experiments the rate of ice growth was slow, but with polycrystalline ice there were many more channels to suck in water to grow ice. how solutes in the water influence cryosuction is still unexplored. = = see also = = pore water pressure suction = = references = = = = external links = = cryosuction cryosphere glossary, national snow and ice data center, canada, accessed 22 november 2023
membrane in 1899. the major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so nathansohn ( 1904 ) proposed the mosaic theory. in this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, leonor michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential ( 1926 ) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane. harvey and james danielli ( 1939 ) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. in 1941 boyle & conway showed that the membrane of resting frog muscle was permeable to both k + and cl -, but apparently not to na +, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size explained the permeability to k +, h +, and cl - as well as the impermeability to na +, ca +, and mg + +. = = = the emergence of the steady - state membrane pump concept = = = with the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to na +. this was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove na + as it permeates cells. this drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. in 1935, karl lohmann discovered atp and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically - driven sodium pump was proposed. the tremendous success of hodgkin, huxley, and katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis. the modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. the structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3d models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. these major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane
organisms such as bacteria, whereas eukaryotes can be single - celled or multicellular. in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. = = = cell structure = = = every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space. a cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions. cell membranes also contain membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton. within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. in addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. these organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains most of the cell's dna, or mitochondria, which generate adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) to power cellular processes. other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle. plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. in terms
Answer:
|
able to cry
| null |
If something has a membrane within another thing, it is likely
0. a marker
1. a dark hole
2. a house
3. able to cry
globular proteins. according to their view, this protein coat had no particular structure and was simply formed by adsorption from solution. their theory was also incorrect in that it ascribed the barrier properties of the membrane to electrostatic repulsion from the protein layer rather than the energetic cost of crossing the hydrophobic core. a more direct investigation of the membrane was made possible through the use of electron microscopy in the late 1950s. after staining with heavy metal labels, sjostrand et al. noted two thin dark bands separated by a light region, which they incorrectly interpreted as a single molecular layer of protein. a more accurate interpretation was made by j. david robertson, who determined that the dark electron - dense bands were the headgroups and associated proteins of two apposed lipid monolayers. in this body of work, robertson put forward the concept of the β unit membrane. β this was the first time the bilayer structure had been universally assigned to all cell membranes as well as organelle membranes. = = = evolution of the membrane theory = = = the idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. the term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was not until 1877 when the botanist wilhelm pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. in this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. in 1889, hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. by measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. he also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells. ernest overton ( a distant cousin of charles darwin ) first proposed the concept of a lipid ( oil ) plasma membrane in 1899. the major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so nathansohn ( 1904 ) proposed the mosaic theory. in this view, the membrane is not a pure lip
then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual β on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory β a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms. auditory β in a silent area, a person can hear a watch tick from approximately 20 feet. vestibular β a person is able to tell of a tilt that when on a clock face is seen to be less than half a minute. gustatory β a person can taste a single teaspoon of sugar which is diluted in 2 gallons of water. tactile β a person can feel a fly's wing dropped from 3 feet above them falling onto their cheek. through these conditions, galanter was able to show that human's sensory organs are often more sensitive than originally thought. = = notes = = = = references = =
cryosuction is the concept of negative pressure in freezing liquids so that more liquid is sucked into the freezing zone. in soil, the transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores causes water to migrate through soil pores to the freezing zone through capillary action. = = history of discovery = = in 1930, stephen taber demonstrated that liquid water migrates towards the freeze line within soil. he showed that other liquids, such as benzene, which contracts when it freezes, also produce frost heave. fine - grained soils such as clays and silts enable greater negative pressures than more coarse - grained soils due to the smaller pore size. in periglacial environments, this mechanism is highly significant and it is the predominant process in ice lens formation in permafrost areas. as of 2001, several models for ice - lens formation by cryosuction existed, among others the hydrodynamic model and the premelting model, many of them based on the clausius β clapeyron relation with various assumptions, yielding cryosuction potentials of 11 to 12 atm per degree celsius below zero depending on pore size. in 2023, experiments from the eth zurich were published, in which the process could be observed between glass slides in a confocal microscope. in single - crystal experiments the rate of ice growth was slow, but with polycrystalline ice there were many more channels to suck in water to grow ice. how solutes in the water influence cryosuction is still unexplored. = = see also = = pore water pressure suction = = references = = = = external links = = cryosuction cryosphere glossary, national snow and ice data center, canada, accessed 22 november 2023
membrane in 1899. the major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so nathansohn ( 1904 ) proposed the mosaic theory. in this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, leonor michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential ( 1926 ) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane. harvey and james danielli ( 1939 ) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. in 1941 boyle & conway showed that the membrane of resting frog muscle was permeable to both k + and cl -, but apparently not to na +, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size explained the permeability to k +, h +, and cl - as well as the impermeability to na +, ca +, and mg + +. = = = the emergence of the steady - state membrane pump concept = = = with the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to na +. this was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove na + as it permeates cells. this drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. in 1935, karl lohmann discovered atp and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically - driven sodium pump was proposed. the tremendous success of hodgkin, huxley, and katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis. the modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. the structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3d models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. these major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane
organisms such as bacteria, whereas eukaryotes can be single - celled or multicellular. in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. = = = cell structure = = = every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space. a cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions. cell membranes also contain membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton. within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. in addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. these organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains most of the cell's dna, or mitochondria, which generate adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) to power cellular processes. other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle. plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. in terms
Answer:
|
a marker
| 0.3 |
Skidding causes friction, as seen in
0. rolling a car
1. riding a rhino
2. running a track
3. Nascar races
sliding is a type of motion between two surfaces in contact. this can be contrasted to rolling motion. both types of motion may occur in bearings. the relative motion or tendency toward such motion between two surfaces is resisted by friction. this means that the force of friction always acts on an object in the direction opposite to its velocity ( relative to the surface it's sliding on ). friction may damage or " wear " the surfaces in contact. however, wear can be reduced by lubrication. the science and technology of friction, lubrication, and wear is known as tribology. sliding may occur between two objects of arbitrary shape, whereas rolling friction is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of a somewhat disclike or other circular object along a surface. generally, the frictional force of rolling friction is less than that associated with sliding kinetic friction. typical values for the coefficient of rolling friction are less than that of sliding friction. correspondingly sliding friction typically produces greater sound and thermal bi - products. one of the most common examples of sliding friction is the movement of braking motor vehicle tires on a roadway, a process which generates considerable heat and sound, and is typically taken into account in assessing the magnitude of roadway noise pollution. = = sliding friction = = sliding friction ( also called kinetic friction ) is a contact force that resists the sliding motion of two objects or an object and a surface. sliding friction is almost always less than that of static friction ; this is why it is easier to move an object once it starts moving rather than to get the object to begin moving from a rest position. f k = ΞΌ k β
n { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = \ mu _ { k } \ cdot n } where fk, is the force of kinetic friction. ΞΌk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and n is the normal force. = = examples of sliding friction = = sledding pushing an object across a surface rubbing one's hands together ( the friction force generates heat. ) a car sliding on ice a car skidding as it turns a corner opening a window almost any motion where there is contact between an object and a surface falling down a bowling lane = = motion of sliding friction = = the motion of sliding friction can be modelled ( in simple systems of motion ) by newton's second law f = m a { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma } f e β f k = m a { \ displaystyle f _ { e } - f _ { k } =
the stick β slip phenomenon, also known as the slip β stick phenomenon or simply stick β slip, is a type of motion exhibited by objects in contact sliding over one another. the motion of these objects is usually not perfectly smooth, but rather irregular, with brief accelerations ( slips ) interrupted by stops ( sticks ). stick β slip motion is normally connected to friction, and may generate vibration ( noise ) or be associated with mechanical wear of the moving objects, and is thus often undesirable in mechanical devices. on the other hand, stick β slip motion can be useful in some situations, such as the movement of a bow across a string to create musical tones in a bowed string instrument. = = details = = with stick β slip there is typically a jagged type of behavior for the friction force as a function of time as illustrated in the static kinetic friction figure. initially there is relatively little movement and the force climbs until it reaches some critical value which is set by the multiplication of the static friction coefficient and the applied load β the retarding force here follows the standard ideas of friction from amontons'laws. once this force is exceeded movement starts at a much lower load which is determined by the kinetic friction coefficient which is almost always smaller than the static coefficient. at times the object moving can get'stuck ', with local rises in the force before it starts to move again. there are many causes of this depending upon the size scale, from atomic to processes involving millions of atoms. stick β slip can be modeled as a mass coupled by an elastic spring to a constant drive force ( see the model sketch ). the drive system v applies a constant force, loading spring r and increasing the pushing force against load m. this force increases until retarding force from the static friction coefficient between load and floor is exceeded. the load then starts sliding, and the friction coefficient decreases to the value corresponding to load times the dynamic friction. since this frictional force will be lower than the static value, the load accelerates until the decompressing spring can no longer generate enough force to overcome dynamic friction, and the load stops moving. the pushing force due to the spring builds up again, and the cycle repeats. stick β slip may be caused by many different phenomena, depending on the types of surfaces in contact and also the scale ; it occurs with everything from the sliding of atomic force microscope tips to large tribometers. for rough surfaces, it is known that asperities play a major role in friction. the bumping
rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body ( such as a ball, tire, or wheel ) rolls on a surface. it is mainly caused by non - elastic effects ; that is, not all the energy needed for deformation ( or movement ) of the wheel, roadbed, etc., is recovered when the pressure is removed. two forms of this are hysteresis losses ( see below ), and permanent ( plastic ) deformation of the object or the surface ( e. g. soil ). note that the slippage between the wheel and the surface also results in energy dissipation. although some researchers have included this term in rolling resistance, some suggest that this dissipation term should be treated separately from rolling resistance because it is due to the applied torque to the wheel and the resultant slip between the wheel and ground, which is called slip loss or slip resistance. in addition, only the so - called slip resistance involves friction, therefore the name " rolling friction " is to an extent a misnomer. analogous with sliding friction, rolling resistance is often expressed as a coefficient times the normal force. this coefficient of rolling resistance is generally much smaller than the coefficient of sliding friction. any coasting wheeled vehicle will gradually slow down due to rolling resistance including that of the bearings, but a train car with steel wheels running on steel rails will roll farther than a bus of the same mass with rubber tires running on tarmac / asphalt. factors that contribute to rolling resistance are the ( amount of ) deformation of the wheels, the deformation of the roadbed surface, and movement below the surface. additional contributing factors include wheel diameter, load on wheel, surface adhesion, sliding, and relative micro - sliding between the surfaces of contact. the losses due to hysteresis also depend strongly on the material properties of the wheel or tire and the surface. for example, a rubber tire will have higher rolling resistance on a paved road than a steel railroad wheel on a steel rail. also, sand on the ground will give more rolling resistance than concrete. soil rolling resistance factor is not dependent on speed. = = primary cause = = the primary cause of pneumatic tire rolling resistance is hysteresis : a characteristic of a deformable material such that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of recovery. the rubber compound in a tire exhibits hysteresis. as the tire rotates under the weight of the vehicle, it experiences repeated cycles of deformation and recovery
tire has the opposite effect, but to a lesser degree. tires generate the lateral forces necessary for steering and balance through a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. tire inflation pressures have also been found to be important variables in the behavior of a motorcycle at high speeds. because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. of the two, understeer, in which the front wheel slides more than the rear wheel, is more dangerous since front wheel steering is critical for maintaining balance. because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque, and when in a turn, can experience some side slipping as they roll, they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch. one torque generated by a tire, called the self aligning torque, is caused by asymmetries in the side - slip along the length of the contact patch. the resultant force of this side - slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch, a distance described as the pneumatic trail, and so creates a torque on the tire. since the direction of the side - slip is towards the outside of the turn, the force on the tire is towards the center of the turn. therefore, this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the side - slip, away from the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to increase the radius of the turn. another torque is produced by the finite width of the contact patch and the lean of the tire in a turn. the portion of the contact patch towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward, with respect to the wheel's hub, faster than the rest of the contact patch, because of its greater radius from the hub. by the same reasoning, the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly. so the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions, generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius. the combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel, and its direction is a function of the side - slip angle of the tire, the angle between the actual path of the tire and the direction it is pointing, and the camber angle of the tire ( the angle that the tire leans from the vertical ). the result of this torque
are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. at normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. : 188 at faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. these may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider ; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. they are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. = = = internal forces = = = internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. in addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism ( front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc. ) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. friction exists between any parts that move against each other : in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. in addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non - rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. on bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. = = motions = = motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry : lateral ; and those in the central plane of symmetry : longitudinal or vertical. lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. an uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self - stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. conversely, a bike is
Answer:
|
Nascar races
| null |
Skidding causes friction, as seen in
0. rolling a car
1. riding a rhino
2. running a track
3. Nascar races
sliding is a type of motion between two surfaces in contact. this can be contrasted to rolling motion. both types of motion may occur in bearings. the relative motion or tendency toward such motion between two surfaces is resisted by friction. this means that the force of friction always acts on an object in the direction opposite to its velocity ( relative to the surface it's sliding on ). friction may damage or " wear " the surfaces in contact. however, wear can be reduced by lubrication. the science and technology of friction, lubrication, and wear is known as tribology. sliding may occur between two objects of arbitrary shape, whereas rolling friction is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of a somewhat disclike or other circular object along a surface. generally, the frictional force of rolling friction is less than that associated with sliding kinetic friction. typical values for the coefficient of rolling friction are less than that of sliding friction. correspondingly sliding friction typically produces greater sound and thermal bi - products. one of the most common examples of sliding friction is the movement of braking motor vehicle tires on a roadway, a process which generates considerable heat and sound, and is typically taken into account in assessing the magnitude of roadway noise pollution. = = sliding friction = = sliding friction ( also called kinetic friction ) is a contact force that resists the sliding motion of two objects or an object and a surface. sliding friction is almost always less than that of static friction ; this is why it is easier to move an object once it starts moving rather than to get the object to begin moving from a rest position. f k = ΞΌ k β
n { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = \ mu _ { k } \ cdot n } where fk, is the force of kinetic friction. ΞΌk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and n is the normal force. = = examples of sliding friction = = sledding pushing an object across a surface rubbing one's hands together ( the friction force generates heat. ) a car sliding on ice a car skidding as it turns a corner opening a window almost any motion where there is contact between an object and a surface falling down a bowling lane = = motion of sliding friction = = the motion of sliding friction can be modelled ( in simple systems of motion ) by newton's second law f = m a { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma } f e β f k = m a { \ displaystyle f _ { e } - f _ { k } =
the stick β slip phenomenon, also known as the slip β stick phenomenon or simply stick β slip, is a type of motion exhibited by objects in contact sliding over one another. the motion of these objects is usually not perfectly smooth, but rather irregular, with brief accelerations ( slips ) interrupted by stops ( sticks ). stick β slip motion is normally connected to friction, and may generate vibration ( noise ) or be associated with mechanical wear of the moving objects, and is thus often undesirable in mechanical devices. on the other hand, stick β slip motion can be useful in some situations, such as the movement of a bow across a string to create musical tones in a bowed string instrument. = = details = = with stick β slip there is typically a jagged type of behavior for the friction force as a function of time as illustrated in the static kinetic friction figure. initially there is relatively little movement and the force climbs until it reaches some critical value which is set by the multiplication of the static friction coefficient and the applied load β the retarding force here follows the standard ideas of friction from amontons'laws. once this force is exceeded movement starts at a much lower load which is determined by the kinetic friction coefficient which is almost always smaller than the static coefficient. at times the object moving can get'stuck ', with local rises in the force before it starts to move again. there are many causes of this depending upon the size scale, from atomic to processes involving millions of atoms. stick β slip can be modeled as a mass coupled by an elastic spring to a constant drive force ( see the model sketch ). the drive system v applies a constant force, loading spring r and increasing the pushing force against load m. this force increases until retarding force from the static friction coefficient between load and floor is exceeded. the load then starts sliding, and the friction coefficient decreases to the value corresponding to load times the dynamic friction. since this frictional force will be lower than the static value, the load accelerates until the decompressing spring can no longer generate enough force to overcome dynamic friction, and the load stops moving. the pushing force due to the spring builds up again, and the cycle repeats. stick β slip may be caused by many different phenomena, depending on the types of surfaces in contact and also the scale ; it occurs with everything from the sliding of atomic force microscope tips to large tribometers. for rough surfaces, it is known that asperities play a major role in friction. the bumping
rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body ( such as a ball, tire, or wheel ) rolls on a surface. it is mainly caused by non - elastic effects ; that is, not all the energy needed for deformation ( or movement ) of the wheel, roadbed, etc., is recovered when the pressure is removed. two forms of this are hysteresis losses ( see below ), and permanent ( plastic ) deformation of the object or the surface ( e. g. soil ). note that the slippage between the wheel and the surface also results in energy dissipation. although some researchers have included this term in rolling resistance, some suggest that this dissipation term should be treated separately from rolling resistance because it is due to the applied torque to the wheel and the resultant slip between the wheel and ground, which is called slip loss or slip resistance. in addition, only the so - called slip resistance involves friction, therefore the name " rolling friction " is to an extent a misnomer. analogous with sliding friction, rolling resistance is often expressed as a coefficient times the normal force. this coefficient of rolling resistance is generally much smaller than the coefficient of sliding friction. any coasting wheeled vehicle will gradually slow down due to rolling resistance including that of the bearings, but a train car with steel wheels running on steel rails will roll farther than a bus of the same mass with rubber tires running on tarmac / asphalt. factors that contribute to rolling resistance are the ( amount of ) deformation of the wheels, the deformation of the roadbed surface, and movement below the surface. additional contributing factors include wheel diameter, load on wheel, surface adhesion, sliding, and relative micro - sliding between the surfaces of contact. the losses due to hysteresis also depend strongly on the material properties of the wheel or tire and the surface. for example, a rubber tire will have higher rolling resistance on a paved road than a steel railroad wheel on a steel rail. also, sand on the ground will give more rolling resistance than concrete. soil rolling resistance factor is not dependent on speed. = = primary cause = = the primary cause of pneumatic tire rolling resistance is hysteresis : a characteristic of a deformable material such that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of recovery. the rubber compound in a tire exhibits hysteresis. as the tire rotates under the weight of the vehicle, it experiences repeated cycles of deformation and recovery
tire has the opposite effect, but to a lesser degree. tires generate the lateral forces necessary for steering and balance through a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. tire inflation pressures have also been found to be important variables in the behavior of a motorcycle at high speeds. because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. of the two, understeer, in which the front wheel slides more than the rear wheel, is more dangerous since front wheel steering is critical for maintaining balance. because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque, and when in a turn, can experience some side slipping as they roll, they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch. one torque generated by a tire, called the self aligning torque, is caused by asymmetries in the side - slip along the length of the contact patch. the resultant force of this side - slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch, a distance described as the pneumatic trail, and so creates a torque on the tire. since the direction of the side - slip is towards the outside of the turn, the force on the tire is towards the center of the turn. therefore, this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the side - slip, away from the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to increase the radius of the turn. another torque is produced by the finite width of the contact patch and the lean of the tire in a turn. the portion of the contact patch towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward, with respect to the wheel's hub, faster than the rest of the contact patch, because of its greater radius from the hub. by the same reasoning, the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly. so the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions, generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius. the combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel, and its direction is a function of the side - slip angle of the tire, the angle between the actual path of the tire and the direction it is pointing, and the camber angle of the tire ( the angle that the tire leans from the vertical ). the result of this torque
are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. at normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. : 188 at faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. these may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider ; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. they are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. = = = internal forces = = = internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. in addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism ( front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc. ) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. friction exists between any parts that move against each other : in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. in addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non - rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. on bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. = = motions = = motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry : lateral ; and those in the central plane of symmetry : longitudinal or vertical. lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. an uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self - stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. conversely, a bike is
Answer:
|
running a track
| 0.3 |
Weathering is the eventual reason that
0. ferns can have sustenance
1. lighthouse make visible light
2. dogs always eat homework
3. cats can hunt prey
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 β 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 β 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
, and photoperiodism. photosynthesis provides the energy required to produce the energy source of plants. phototropism is the effect of light on plant growth that causes the plant to grow toward or away from the light. photoperiodism is a plant's response or capacity to respond to photoperiod, a recurring cycle of light and dark periods of constant length. = = = sunlight = = = while sunlight is not always easily controlled by the gardener, it is an important element of garden design. the amount of available light is a critical factor in determining what plants may be grown. sunlight will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the character of the garden. for example, a rose garden is generally not successful in full shade, while a garden of hostas may not thrive in hot sun. as another example, a vegetable garden may need to be placed in a sunny location, and if that location is not ideal for the overall garden design goals, the designer may need to change other aspects of the garden. in some cases, the amount of available sunlight can be influenced by the gardener. the location of trees, other shade plants, garden structures, or, when designing an entire property, even buildings, might be selected or changed based on their influence in increasing or reducing the amount of sunlight provided to various areas of the property. in other cases, the amount of sunlight is not under the gardener's control. nearby buildings, plants on other properties, or simply the climate of the local area, may limit the available sunlight. or, substantial changes in the light conditions of the garden may not be within the gardener's means. in this case, it is important to plan a garden that is compatible with the existing light conditions. = = notable garden designers = = = = types of gardens = = = = = islamic gardens = = = garden design and the islamic garden tradition began with creating the paradise garden in ancient persia, in western asia. it evolved over the centuries, and in the different cultures islamic dynasties came to rule in asia, the near east, north africa, and the iberian peninsula. = = = = examples = = = = some styles and examples include : persian gardens eram garden fin garden mughal gardens nishat bagh shalimar gardens ( lahore ) yadavindra gardens ( pinjore ) charbagh taj mahal tomb of humayun gardens bagh ( garden ) bagh - e babur shalimar bagh ( srinagar ) al - andal
southern economic journal indicates that light pollution may increase by 13 % in preterm births before 23 weeks of gestation. = = = ecological impact = = = while light at night can be beneficial, neutral, or damaging for individual species, its presence invariably disturbs ecosystems. for example, some species of spiders avoid lit areas, while other species are happy to build their webs directly on lamp posts. since lamp posts attract many flying insects, the spiders that tolerate the light gain an advantage over the spiders that avoid it. this is a simple example of the way in which species frequencies and food webs can be disturbed by the introduction of light at night. light pollution poses a serious threat in particular to nocturnal wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal physiology. it can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator - prey relations, and cause physiological harm. the rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics. many species of marine plankton, such as calanus copepods, can detect light levels as low as 0. 1 ΞΌwmβ2 ; using this as a threshold a global atlas of marine artificial light at night has been generated, showing its global widespread nature. studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as daphnia, from eating surface algae, causing algal blooms that can kill off the lakes'plants and lower water quality. light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways. for example, entomologists have documented that nighttime light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate. it can also negative impact on insect development and reproduction. night - blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by the artificial light. this can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and change an area's longterm ecology. among nocturnal insects, fireflies ( coleoptera : lampyridae, phengodidae and elateridae ) are especially interesting study objects for light pollution, once they depend on their own light to reproduce and, consequently, are very sensitive to environmental levels of light. fireflies are well known and interesting to the general public ( unlike many other insects ) and are easily spotted by non - experts, and, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting. significant declines in
cause changes in productivity from changes to nutrient stoichiometry. for example, piscivore addition can reduce predation pressure on fast - growing, low n : p cladocerans which increase in population rapidly, retain phosphorus in their cells, and can cause a lake to become phosphorus limited, consequently reducing whole - lake primary productivity. = = = light = = = solar energy is required for converting carbon dioxide and water into organic matter, otherwise known as photosynthesis. as with temperature and nutrients, different algae have different rates of metabolic response to increasing light and also different optimal light conditions for growth, as some algae are more adapted for darker environments while others can outcompete in lighter conditions. light can also interact with nutrients to affect species - specific algal productivity response to increasing light. these different responses at the organismal level propagate up to influence metabolism at the ecosystem level. even in low - nutrient lakes where nutrients would be expected to be the limiting resource for primary productivity, light can still be the limiting resource, which has cascading negative effects on higher trophic levels such as fish productivity. variability in light in different lake zones and within a lake through time creates patchiness in productivity both spatially and temporally. in addition to controlling primary productivity, sunlight can also influence rates of respiration by partially oxidizing organic matter which can make it easier for bacteria to break down and convert into carbon dioxide. this partial photooxidation essentially increases the amount of organic matter that is available for mineralization. in some lakes, complete photooxidation or partial photooxidation can account for a majority of the conversion from organic to inorganic matter, however, the proportion to bacterial respiration varies greatly among lakes. = = = organic carbon = = = primary and secondary consumers in lakes require organic matter ( either from plants or animals ) to maintain organismal function. organic matter including tree leaves, dissolved organic matter, and algae provide essential resources to these consumers and in the process increase lake ecosystem respiration rates in the conversion of organic matter to cellular growth and organismal maintenance. some sources of organic matter may impact the availability of other constituents. for example, dissolved organic matter often darkens lake water which reduces the amount of light available in the lake, thus reducing primary production. however, increases in organic matter loading to a lake can also increase nutrients that are associated with the organic matter, which can stimulate primary production and respiration. increased dissolved organic matter loading can create tradeoffs between increasing light limitation and release
fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark. = = = water conservation = = = another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. this is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. this is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. one of the reasons that ( cathemeral ) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water. hamilton's frog, found on stephens and maud islands, stays hidden for most of the day when temperatures are warmer and is mainly active at night. they will only come out during the day if there are humid and cool conditions. many plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. these flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the night. climate change has led to an increasing number of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. this adaptive measure allows species to avoid the day's heat, without having to leave that particular habitat. = = human disturbances = = the exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. the causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas : light pollution and spatial disturbance. = = = light pollution = = = light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day - night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. many diurnal species see the benefit of a " longer day ", allowing for a longer hunting period which is detrimental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. = = = = orientation = = = = light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to the artificial lighting. insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the
Answer:
|
ferns can have sustenance
| null |
Weathering is the eventual reason that
0. ferns can have sustenance
1. lighthouse make visible light
2. dogs always eat homework
3. cats can hunt prey
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 β 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 β 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
, and photoperiodism. photosynthesis provides the energy required to produce the energy source of plants. phototropism is the effect of light on plant growth that causes the plant to grow toward or away from the light. photoperiodism is a plant's response or capacity to respond to photoperiod, a recurring cycle of light and dark periods of constant length. = = = sunlight = = = while sunlight is not always easily controlled by the gardener, it is an important element of garden design. the amount of available light is a critical factor in determining what plants may be grown. sunlight will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the character of the garden. for example, a rose garden is generally not successful in full shade, while a garden of hostas may not thrive in hot sun. as another example, a vegetable garden may need to be placed in a sunny location, and if that location is not ideal for the overall garden design goals, the designer may need to change other aspects of the garden. in some cases, the amount of available sunlight can be influenced by the gardener. the location of trees, other shade plants, garden structures, or, when designing an entire property, even buildings, might be selected or changed based on their influence in increasing or reducing the amount of sunlight provided to various areas of the property. in other cases, the amount of sunlight is not under the gardener's control. nearby buildings, plants on other properties, or simply the climate of the local area, may limit the available sunlight. or, substantial changes in the light conditions of the garden may not be within the gardener's means. in this case, it is important to plan a garden that is compatible with the existing light conditions. = = notable garden designers = = = = types of gardens = = = = = islamic gardens = = = garden design and the islamic garden tradition began with creating the paradise garden in ancient persia, in western asia. it evolved over the centuries, and in the different cultures islamic dynasties came to rule in asia, the near east, north africa, and the iberian peninsula. = = = = examples = = = = some styles and examples include : persian gardens eram garden fin garden mughal gardens nishat bagh shalimar gardens ( lahore ) yadavindra gardens ( pinjore ) charbagh taj mahal tomb of humayun gardens bagh ( garden ) bagh - e babur shalimar bagh ( srinagar ) al - andal
southern economic journal indicates that light pollution may increase by 13 % in preterm births before 23 weeks of gestation. = = = ecological impact = = = while light at night can be beneficial, neutral, or damaging for individual species, its presence invariably disturbs ecosystems. for example, some species of spiders avoid lit areas, while other species are happy to build their webs directly on lamp posts. since lamp posts attract many flying insects, the spiders that tolerate the light gain an advantage over the spiders that avoid it. this is a simple example of the way in which species frequencies and food webs can be disturbed by the introduction of light at night. light pollution poses a serious threat in particular to nocturnal wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal physiology. it can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator - prey relations, and cause physiological harm. the rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics. many species of marine plankton, such as calanus copepods, can detect light levels as low as 0. 1 ΞΌwmβ2 ; using this as a threshold a global atlas of marine artificial light at night has been generated, showing its global widespread nature. studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as daphnia, from eating surface algae, causing algal blooms that can kill off the lakes'plants and lower water quality. light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways. for example, entomologists have documented that nighttime light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate. it can also negative impact on insect development and reproduction. night - blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by the artificial light. this can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and change an area's longterm ecology. among nocturnal insects, fireflies ( coleoptera : lampyridae, phengodidae and elateridae ) are especially interesting study objects for light pollution, once they depend on their own light to reproduce and, consequently, are very sensitive to environmental levels of light. fireflies are well known and interesting to the general public ( unlike many other insects ) and are easily spotted by non - experts, and, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting. significant declines in
cause changes in productivity from changes to nutrient stoichiometry. for example, piscivore addition can reduce predation pressure on fast - growing, low n : p cladocerans which increase in population rapidly, retain phosphorus in their cells, and can cause a lake to become phosphorus limited, consequently reducing whole - lake primary productivity. = = = light = = = solar energy is required for converting carbon dioxide and water into organic matter, otherwise known as photosynthesis. as with temperature and nutrients, different algae have different rates of metabolic response to increasing light and also different optimal light conditions for growth, as some algae are more adapted for darker environments while others can outcompete in lighter conditions. light can also interact with nutrients to affect species - specific algal productivity response to increasing light. these different responses at the organismal level propagate up to influence metabolism at the ecosystem level. even in low - nutrient lakes where nutrients would be expected to be the limiting resource for primary productivity, light can still be the limiting resource, which has cascading negative effects on higher trophic levels such as fish productivity. variability in light in different lake zones and within a lake through time creates patchiness in productivity both spatially and temporally. in addition to controlling primary productivity, sunlight can also influence rates of respiration by partially oxidizing organic matter which can make it easier for bacteria to break down and convert into carbon dioxide. this partial photooxidation essentially increases the amount of organic matter that is available for mineralization. in some lakes, complete photooxidation or partial photooxidation can account for a majority of the conversion from organic to inorganic matter, however, the proportion to bacterial respiration varies greatly among lakes. = = = organic carbon = = = primary and secondary consumers in lakes require organic matter ( either from plants or animals ) to maintain organismal function. organic matter including tree leaves, dissolved organic matter, and algae provide essential resources to these consumers and in the process increase lake ecosystem respiration rates in the conversion of organic matter to cellular growth and organismal maintenance. some sources of organic matter may impact the availability of other constituents. for example, dissolved organic matter often darkens lake water which reduces the amount of light available in the lake, thus reducing primary production. however, increases in organic matter loading to a lake can also increase nutrients that are associated with the organic matter, which can stimulate primary production and respiration. increased dissolved organic matter loading can create tradeoffs between increasing light limitation and release
fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark. = = = water conservation = = = another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. this is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. this is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. one of the reasons that ( cathemeral ) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water. hamilton's frog, found on stephens and maud islands, stays hidden for most of the day when temperatures are warmer and is mainly active at night. they will only come out during the day if there are humid and cool conditions. many plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. these flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the night. climate change has led to an increasing number of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. this adaptive measure allows species to avoid the day's heat, without having to leave that particular habitat. = = human disturbances = = the exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. the causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas : light pollution and spatial disturbance. = = = light pollution = = = light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day - night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. many diurnal species see the benefit of a " longer day ", allowing for a longer hunting period which is detrimental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. = = = = orientation = = = = light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to the artificial lighting. insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the
Answer:
|
lighthouse make visible light
| 0.3 |
A landslide may bring immense problems to
0. living regions
1. time travel
2. space
3. Jupiter
there have been known various classifications of landslides. broad definitions include forms of mass movement that narrower definitions exclude. for example, the mcgraw - hill encyclopedia of science and technology distinguishes the following types of landslides : fall ( by undercutting ) fall ( by toppling ) slump rockslide earthflow sinkholes, mountain side rockslide that develops into rock avalanche influential narrower definitions restrict landslides to slumps and translational slides in rock and regolith, not involving fluidisation. this excludes falls, topples, lateral spreads, and mass flows from the definition. the causes of landslides are usually related to instabilities in slopes. it is usually possible to identify one or more landslide causes and one landslide trigger. the difference between these two concepts is subtle but important. the landslide causes are the reasons that a landslide occurred in that location and at that time and may be considered to be factors that made the slope vulnerable to failure, that predispose the slope to becoming unstable. the trigger is the single event that finally initiated the landslide. thus, causes combine to make a slope vulnerable to failure, and the trigger finally initiates the movement. landslides can have many causes but can only have one trigger. usually, it is relatively easy to determine the trigger after the landslide has occurred ( although it is generally very difficult to determine the exact nature of landslide triggers ahead of a movement event ). = = classification factors = = various scientific disciplines have developed taxonomic classification systems to describe natural phenomena or individuals, like for example, plants or animals. these systems are based on specific characteristics like shape of organs or nature of reproduction. differently, in landslide classification, there are great difficulties because phenomena are not perfectly repeatable ; usually being characterised by different causes, movements and morphology, and involving genetically different material. for this reason, landslide classifications are based on different discriminating factors, sometimes very subjective. in the following write - up, factors are discussed by dividing them into two groups : the first one is made up of the criteria utilised in the most widespread classification systems that can generally be easily determined. the second one is formed by those factors that have been utilised in some classifications and can be useful in descriptions. = = = a1 ) type of movement = = = this is the most important criterion, even if uncertainties and difficulties can arise in the identification of movements, being the mechanisms of some landslides often particularly complex. the main movements are falls, slides and flows, but usually topples, lateral spreading and complex movements are added to
earth slides ; and lateral spreads and flows that involve partly to completely liquefied material ( keefer, 1999 ). rock falls, disrupted rock slides, and disrupted slides of earth and debris are the most abundant types of earthquake - induced landslides, whereas earth flows, debris flows, and avalanches of rock, earth, or debris typically transport material the farthest. there is one type of landslide that is essential uniquely limited to earthquakes β liquefaction failure, which can cause fissuring or subsidence of the ground. liquefaction involves the temporary loss of strength of sands and silts which behave as viscous fluids rather than as soils. this can have devastating effects during large earthquakes. = = = volcanic activity = = = some of the largest and most destructive landslides known have been associated with volcanoes. these can occur either in association with the eruption of the volcano itself, or as a result of mobilisation of the very weak deposits that are formed as a consequence of volcanic activity. essentially, there are two main types of volcanic landslide : lahars and debris avalanches, the largest of which are sometimes termed sector collapses. an example of a lahar was seen at mount st helens during its catastrophic eruption on may 18, 1980. failures on volcanic flanks themselves are also common. for example, a part of the side of casita volcano in nicaragua collapsed on october 30, 1998, during the heavy precipitation associated with the passage of hurricane mitch. debris from the initial small failure eroded older deposits from the volcano and incorporated additional water and wet sediment from along its path, increasing in volume about ninefold. the lahar killed more than 2, 000 people as it swept over the towns of el porvenir and rolando rodriguez at the base of the mountain. debris avalanches commonly occur at the same time as an eruption, but occasionally they may be triggered by other factors such as a seismic shock or heavy rainfall. they are particularly common on strato volcanoes, which can be massively destructive due to their large size. the most famous debris avalanche occurred at mount st helens during the massive eruption in 1980. on may 18, 1980, at 8 : 32 a. m. local time, a magnitude 5. 1 earthquake shook mount st. helens. the bulge and surrounding area slid away in a gigantic rockslide and debris avalanche, releasing pressure, and triggering a major pumice and ash eruption of the volcano. the debris avalanche had a volume of about 1 km3 ( 0. 24 cu mi ),
forms of mass movement of rocks and regolith at the earth's surface. in 1978, in a very highly cited publication, david varnes noted this imprecise usage and proposed a new, much tighter scheme for the classification of mass movements and subsidence processes. this scheme was later modified by cruden and varnes in 1996, and influentially refined by hutchinson ( 1988 ) and hungr et al. ( 2001 ). this full scheme results in the following classification for mass movements in general, where bold font indicates the landslide categories : under this definition, landslides are restricted to " the movement... of shear strain and displacement along one or several surfaces that are visible or may reasonably be inferred, or within a relatively narrow zone ", i. e., the movement is localised to a single failure plane within the subsurface. he noted landslides can occur catastrophically, or that movement on the surface can be gradual and progressive. falls ( isolated blocks in free - fall ), topples ( material coming away by rotation from a vertical face ), spreads ( a form of subsidence ), flows ( fluidised material in motion ), and creep ( slow, distributed movement in the subsurface ) are all explicitly excluded from the term landslide. under the scheme, landslides are sub - classified by the material that moves, and by the form of the plane or planes on which movement happens. the planes may be broadly parallel to the surface ( " translational slides " ) or spoon - shaped ( " rotational slides " ). material may be rock or regolith ( loose material at the surface ), with regolith subdivided into debris ( coarse grains ) and earth ( fine grains ). nevertheless, in broader usage, many of the categories that varnes excluded are recognised as landslide types, as seen below. this leads to ambiguity in usage of the term. the following clarifies the usages of the various terms in the table. varnes and those who later modified his scheme only regard the slides category as forms of landslide. = = = falls = = = description : " the detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope along a surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place. the material then descends mainly through the air by falling, bouncing, or rolling " ( varnes, 1996 ). secondary falls : " secondary falls involves rock bodies already physically detached from cliff and merely lodged upon it " ( hutchinson, 1988 ) speed : from very to extremely rapid type of
john o. norrman ). this developed into " the uppsala school of physical geography ". = = = contemporary geomorphology = = = today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests. modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative " laws " that govern earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include : 1 ) that not all landscapes can be considered as either " stable " or " perturbed ", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature. 2 ) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the stochasticity of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times. this in turn has indicated the importance of chaotic determinism to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered statistically. the same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results. according to karna lidmar - bergstrom, regional geography is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies. albeit having its importance diminished, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. more recently concerns over global warming have led to a renewed interest in the field. despite considerable criticism, the cycle of erosion model has remained part of the science of geomorphology. the model or theory has never been proved wrong, but neither has it been proven. the inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines. in contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies, and is thus an important concept in the science of historical geology. while acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists andrew goudie and karna lidmar - bergstrom have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively. = = processes = = geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into ( 1 ) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, ( 2 ) the transport of that material, and ( 3 ) its eventual deposition. primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical
a way things could have been. there are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. for example, hillary clinton did not win the 2016 us election, but she could have won them. so there is a possible world in which she did. there is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non - obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. on such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by david lewis, is as concrete entities. on this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds : both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. the only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime : they are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. this is what makes them separate worlds. it has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which hillary clinton both won and lost the 2016 us election. both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. = = = phenomenology = = = within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. when we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. the term " horizon " refers to these co - given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. the perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the earth, etc. in this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the " horizon of all horizons ". it is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. these relations include,
Answer:
|
living regions
| null |
A landslide may bring immense problems to
0. living regions
1. time travel
2. space
3. Jupiter
there have been known various classifications of landslides. broad definitions include forms of mass movement that narrower definitions exclude. for example, the mcgraw - hill encyclopedia of science and technology distinguishes the following types of landslides : fall ( by undercutting ) fall ( by toppling ) slump rockslide earthflow sinkholes, mountain side rockslide that develops into rock avalanche influential narrower definitions restrict landslides to slumps and translational slides in rock and regolith, not involving fluidisation. this excludes falls, topples, lateral spreads, and mass flows from the definition. the causes of landslides are usually related to instabilities in slopes. it is usually possible to identify one or more landslide causes and one landslide trigger. the difference between these two concepts is subtle but important. the landslide causes are the reasons that a landslide occurred in that location and at that time and may be considered to be factors that made the slope vulnerable to failure, that predispose the slope to becoming unstable. the trigger is the single event that finally initiated the landslide. thus, causes combine to make a slope vulnerable to failure, and the trigger finally initiates the movement. landslides can have many causes but can only have one trigger. usually, it is relatively easy to determine the trigger after the landslide has occurred ( although it is generally very difficult to determine the exact nature of landslide triggers ahead of a movement event ). = = classification factors = = various scientific disciplines have developed taxonomic classification systems to describe natural phenomena or individuals, like for example, plants or animals. these systems are based on specific characteristics like shape of organs or nature of reproduction. differently, in landslide classification, there are great difficulties because phenomena are not perfectly repeatable ; usually being characterised by different causes, movements and morphology, and involving genetically different material. for this reason, landslide classifications are based on different discriminating factors, sometimes very subjective. in the following write - up, factors are discussed by dividing them into two groups : the first one is made up of the criteria utilised in the most widespread classification systems that can generally be easily determined. the second one is formed by those factors that have been utilised in some classifications and can be useful in descriptions. = = = a1 ) type of movement = = = this is the most important criterion, even if uncertainties and difficulties can arise in the identification of movements, being the mechanisms of some landslides often particularly complex. the main movements are falls, slides and flows, but usually topples, lateral spreading and complex movements are added to
earth slides ; and lateral spreads and flows that involve partly to completely liquefied material ( keefer, 1999 ). rock falls, disrupted rock slides, and disrupted slides of earth and debris are the most abundant types of earthquake - induced landslides, whereas earth flows, debris flows, and avalanches of rock, earth, or debris typically transport material the farthest. there is one type of landslide that is essential uniquely limited to earthquakes β liquefaction failure, which can cause fissuring or subsidence of the ground. liquefaction involves the temporary loss of strength of sands and silts which behave as viscous fluids rather than as soils. this can have devastating effects during large earthquakes. = = = volcanic activity = = = some of the largest and most destructive landslides known have been associated with volcanoes. these can occur either in association with the eruption of the volcano itself, or as a result of mobilisation of the very weak deposits that are formed as a consequence of volcanic activity. essentially, there are two main types of volcanic landslide : lahars and debris avalanches, the largest of which are sometimes termed sector collapses. an example of a lahar was seen at mount st helens during its catastrophic eruption on may 18, 1980. failures on volcanic flanks themselves are also common. for example, a part of the side of casita volcano in nicaragua collapsed on october 30, 1998, during the heavy precipitation associated with the passage of hurricane mitch. debris from the initial small failure eroded older deposits from the volcano and incorporated additional water and wet sediment from along its path, increasing in volume about ninefold. the lahar killed more than 2, 000 people as it swept over the towns of el porvenir and rolando rodriguez at the base of the mountain. debris avalanches commonly occur at the same time as an eruption, but occasionally they may be triggered by other factors such as a seismic shock or heavy rainfall. they are particularly common on strato volcanoes, which can be massively destructive due to their large size. the most famous debris avalanche occurred at mount st helens during the massive eruption in 1980. on may 18, 1980, at 8 : 32 a. m. local time, a magnitude 5. 1 earthquake shook mount st. helens. the bulge and surrounding area slid away in a gigantic rockslide and debris avalanche, releasing pressure, and triggering a major pumice and ash eruption of the volcano. the debris avalanche had a volume of about 1 km3 ( 0. 24 cu mi ),
forms of mass movement of rocks and regolith at the earth's surface. in 1978, in a very highly cited publication, david varnes noted this imprecise usage and proposed a new, much tighter scheme for the classification of mass movements and subsidence processes. this scheme was later modified by cruden and varnes in 1996, and influentially refined by hutchinson ( 1988 ) and hungr et al. ( 2001 ). this full scheme results in the following classification for mass movements in general, where bold font indicates the landslide categories : under this definition, landslides are restricted to " the movement... of shear strain and displacement along one or several surfaces that are visible or may reasonably be inferred, or within a relatively narrow zone ", i. e., the movement is localised to a single failure plane within the subsurface. he noted landslides can occur catastrophically, or that movement on the surface can be gradual and progressive. falls ( isolated blocks in free - fall ), topples ( material coming away by rotation from a vertical face ), spreads ( a form of subsidence ), flows ( fluidised material in motion ), and creep ( slow, distributed movement in the subsurface ) are all explicitly excluded from the term landslide. under the scheme, landslides are sub - classified by the material that moves, and by the form of the plane or planes on which movement happens. the planes may be broadly parallel to the surface ( " translational slides " ) or spoon - shaped ( " rotational slides " ). material may be rock or regolith ( loose material at the surface ), with regolith subdivided into debris ( coarse grains ) and earth ( fine grains ). nevertheless, in broader usage, many of the categories that varnes excluded are recognised as landslide types, as seen below. this leads to ambiguity in usage of the term. the following clarifies the usages of the various terms in the table. varnes and those who later modified his scheme only regard the slides category as forms of landslide. = = = falls = = = description : " the detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope along a surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place. the material then descends mainly through the air by falling, bouncing, or rolling " ( varnes, 1996 ). secondary falls : " secondary falls involves rock bodies already physically detached from cliff and merely lodged upon it " ( hutchinson, 1988 ) speed : from very to extremely rapid type of
john o. norrman ). this developed into " the uppsala school of physical geography ". = = = contemporary geomorphology = = = today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests. modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative " laws " that govern earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include : 1 ) that not all landscapes can be considered as either " stable " or " perturbed ", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature. 2 ) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the stochasticity of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times. this in turn has indicated the importance of chaotic determinism to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered statistically. the same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results. according to karna lidmar - bergstrom, regional geography is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies. albeit having its importance diminished, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. more recently concerns over global warming have led to a renewed interest in the field. despite considerable criticism, the cycle of erosion model has remained part of the science of geomorphology. the model or theory has never been proved wrong, but neither has it been proven. the inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines. in contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies, and is thus an important concept in the science of historical geology. while acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists andrew goudie and karna lidmar - bergstrom have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively. = = processes = = geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into ( 1 ) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, ( 2 ) the transport of that material, and ( 3 ) its eventual deposition. primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical
a way things could have been. there are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. for example, hillary clinton did not win the 2016 us election, but she could have won them. so there is a possible world in which she did. there is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non - obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. on such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by david lewis, is as concrete entities. on this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds : both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. the only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime : they are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. this is what makes them separate worlds. it has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which hillary clinton both won and lost the 2016 us election. both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. = = = phenomenology = = = within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. when we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. the term " horizon " refers to these co - given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. the perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the earth, etc. in this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the " horizon of all horizons ". it is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. these relations include,
Answer:
|
time travel
| 0.3 |
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