prompt
stringlengths 2.39k
20.2k
| answer
stringlengths 1
535
| weight
float64 0.3
0.3
β |
|---|---|---|
Which is an example of sound reaching the ear?
0. a cello
1. taste testing
2. a silent movie
3. a comic book
, sonic detection ). frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or audible frequencies, the range of which is typically considered to be between 20 hz and 20, 000 hz. frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. the auditory system includes the outer ears, which collect and filter sound waves ; the middle ear, which transforms the sound pressure ( impedance matching ) ; and the inner ear, which produces neural signals in response to the sound. by the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the cerebral cortex for further processing. sound does not usually come from a single source : in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction. = = = touch = = = the process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception. it involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface ( e. g., edges, curvature, and texture ) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. people can rapidly and accurately identify three - dimensional objects by touch. this involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. professor gibson defined the haptic system as " the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body. " gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is active exploration. the concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. = = = taste = = = taste ( formally known as gustation ) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances, including, but not limited to, food. humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the
of the calls varies greatly but most of them range in frequency from 14 to 24 hz, with durations of 10 β 15 seconds. when the nearest elephant is 5 m from the microphone, the recorded sound pressure levels can be 85 to 90 db spl. some of these calls are completely inaudible to humans, while others have audible components that are probably due to higher frequency harmonics of below 20 hz fundamentals. sometimes, vocalizations cause perceptible rumbles that are accompanied by a fluttering of the skin on the calling elephant's forehead where the nasal passage enters the skull. this fluttering can also occur without causing any perceptible sound, suggesting the production of a purely infrasonic call. the mechanism of infrasonic call production in elephants has not been determined. playback experiments using prerecorded elephant vocalizations show that elephants can perceive infrasound and how they respond to these stimuli. in playback experiments, certain behaviors that occur commonly after vocalizations are scored before and after a call is played. these behaviors include lifting and stiffening of ears, vocalization, walking or running towards the concealed speaker, clustering in a tight group, and remaining motionless ( " freezing " ), with occasional scanning movements of the head. the occurrence of such behaviors consistently increases after the playing of a call, whether it is a full - bandwidth playback or a playback in which most of the energy above 25 hz was filtered out. this filtering shows that the behaviorally significant information of the call is contained in the infrasonic range, and it also simulates the effect of frequency - dependent attenuation over distance as it might occur in the wild. behavioral responses do not increase for pure tone stimuli that are similar to recorded infrasonic calls in frequency and intensity. this shows that the responses are specifically to signals that were meaningful to the elephants. the use of prerecorded playbacks and behavioral scoring also shows that the infrasonic elephant calls are behaviorally significant over long distances. the degree of response behaviors performed by an elephant group, such as lifting of ears, walking towards the speakers, β freezing β, or scanning movements, was compared visually before and after the presentation of a stimulus, scoring a trial as a positive response if the amount of behaviors is greater after the stimulus. in one particular experiment performed on elephants living in the wild, the presentation of playbacks for 20 β 40 seconds from loudspeakers at distances of 1. 2 km and 2 km caused a significant increase in response behaviors. since the
listener fatigue ( also known as listening fatigue or ear fatigue ) is a phenomenon that occurs after prolonged exposure to an auditory stimulus. symptoms include tiredness, discomfort, pain, and loss of sensitivity. listener fatigue is not a clinically recognized state, but is a term used by many professionals. the cause for listener fatigue is still not yet fully understood it is thought to be an extension of the quantifiable psychological perception of sound. common groups at risk of becoming victim to this phenomenon include avid listeners of music and others who listen or work with loud noise on a constant basis, such as musicians, construction workers and military personnel. = = causes = = the exact causes of listener fatigue and the associated pathways and mechanisms are still being studied ; some of the popular theories are presented below. = = = introduction of artifacts in audio material = = = musicality, especially on the radio, contains musical aspects ( timbre, emotional impact, melody ), and artifacts that arise from non - musical aspects ( soundstaging, dynamic range compression, sonic balance ). the introduction of these sonic artifacts affects the balance between these musical and non - musical aspects. when the volume of music is higher, these artifacts become more apparent, and because they are uncomfortable for the ear, cause listeners to " tune out " and lose focus or become tired. these listeners may then unconsciously avoid that type of music, or the radio station they may have heard it on. = = = sensory overload = = = when exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. this overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. the associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music. = = physiology = = as with any type of hearing - related disorder, the related physiology is within the ear and central auditory system. with regards to listening fatigue, the relevant mechanical and biochemical mechanisms primarily deal with inner ear and cochlea. = = = associated anatomy = = = the stereocilia ( hair cells ) of the inner ear can become subjected to bending from loud noises. because they are not regeneratable in humans, any major damage or loss of these hair cells leads to permanent hearing impairment and other hearing - related diseases. outer hair cells serve as acoustic amplifiers for stimulation of the inner hair cells. outer hair cells respond primarily to low - intensity sounds. = = = relevant mechanisms = = = = = = =
duplex perception refers to the linguistic phenomenon whereby " part of the acoustic signal is used for both a speech and a nonspeech percept. " a listener is presented with two simultaneous, dichotic stimuli. one ear receives an isolated third - formant transition that sounds like a nonspeech chirp. at the same time the other ear receives a base syllable. this base syllable consists of the first two formants, complete with formant transitions, and the third formant without a transition. normally, there would be peripheral masking in such a binaural listening task but this does not occur. instead, the listener's percept is duplex, that is, the completed syllable is perceived and the nonspeech chirp is heard at the same time. this is interpreted as being due to the existence of a special speech module. the phenomenon was discovered in 1974 by timothy c. rand at the haskins laboratories associated with yale university. duplex perception was argued as evidence for the existence of distinct systems for general auditory perception and speech perception. it is also notable that this same phenomenon can be obtained with slamming doors. = = see also = = mcgurk effect = = references = =
they often allow their owners to understand information about sound waves traveling through the aid. vestibular β these types of receptors are usually found within organs used to hear, and they aid in the detection of movement that surrounds the creature using it. gustatory β these sensory receptors are present within the mouth and are responsive to the molecular stimuli that enter the mouth. the receptors in the mouth typically fall into two of the following categories : receptors that are responsive to specific chemicals and receptors that are responsive to particles such as hydrogen ions, which are charged. tactile β these types of receptors are normally present within the skin and are able to respond to stimulation such as heat, pressure, and movement = = classes = = there are several different types of stimuli to which adequate stimuli respond. the following are examples of stimuli to which receptors may : light β when the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is light, the sensory receptors contain pigment molecules whose shape is transformed by light, and the changes in these molecules activate ion channels which initiate sensory transduction. sound β when the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is sound, the sensory receptors are hair cells ( mechanoreceptors ). these hair cells contain stereocilia, which when bent, trigger the opening of ion channels. thus hair cells transform the pressure waves of the sound into receptor potentials to initiate sensory transduction. = = sensory receptors = = sensory receptors are the ends of nerves within the body that respond to stimuli. there are many different types of sensory receptors that each respond to stimuli that they are uniquely fitted to res types of sensory receptors include the following : nociceptor β these are stimulus that are responsive to the stimuli that signal potential damage to the body. photoreceptors β these are receptors that are responsive to light that enters the eye and produces the visual stimuli that many animals use to function. mechanoreceptors β these are receptors that are responsive to physical stimulation such as movement, vibration, and stress. thermoreceptors β these are types of receptors that are present within the skin and monitor any changes in the skins temperature = = classic examples of absolute threshold = = in 1962, eugene galanter, a psychologist, tested stimuli till people were able to feel them approximately 50 % of the time, then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual β on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory β a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms.
Answer:
|
a cello
| null |
Which is an example of sound reaching the ear?
0. a cello
1. taste testing
2. a silent movie
3. a comic book
, sonic detection ). frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or audible frequencies, the range of which is typically considered to be between 20 hz and 20, 000 hz. frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. the auditory system includes the outer ears, which collect and filter sound waves ; the middle ear, which transforms the sound pressure ( impedance matching ) ; and the inner ear, which produces neural signals in response to the sound. by the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the cerebral cortex for further processing. sound does not usually come from a single source : in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction. = = = touch = = = the process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception. it involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface ( e. g., edges, curvature, and texture ) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. people can rapidly and accurately identify three - dimensional objects by touch. this involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. professor gibson defined the haptic system as " the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body. " gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is active exploration. the concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. = = = taste = = = taste ( formally known as gustation ) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances, including, but not limited to, food. humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the
of the calls varies greatly but most of them range in frequency from 14 to 24 hz, with durations of 10 β 15 seconds. when the nearest elephant is 5 m from the microphone, the recorded sound pressure levels can be 85 to 90 db spl. some of these calls are completely inaudible to humans, while others have audible components that are probably due to higher frequency harmonics of below 20 hz fundamentals. sometimes, vocalizations cause perceptible rumbles that are accompanied by a fluttering of the skin on the calling elephant's forehead where the nasal passage enters the skull. this fluttering can also occur without causing any perceptible sound, suggesting the production of a purely infrasonic call. the mechanism of infrasonic call production in elephants has not been determined. playback experiments using prerecorded elephant vocalizations show that elephants can perceive infrasound and how they respond to these stimuli. in playback experiments, certain behaviors that occur commonly after vocalizations are scored before and after a call is played. these behaviors include lifting and stiffening of ears, vocalization, walking or running towards the concealed speaker, clustering in a tight group, and remaining motionless ( " freezing " ), with occasional scanning movements of the head. the occurrence of such behaviors consistently increases after the playing of a call, whether it is a full - bandwidth playback or a playback in which most of the energy above 25 hz was filtered out. this filtering shows that the behaviorally significant information of the call is contained in the infrasonic range, and it also simulates the effect of frequency - dependent attenuation over distance as it might occur in the wild. behavioral responses do not increase for pure tone stimuli that are similar to recorded infrasonic calls in frequency and intensity. this shows that the responses are specifically to signals that were meaningful to the elephants. the use of prerecorded playbacks and behavioral scoring also shows that the infrasonic elephant calls are behaviorally significant over long distances. the degree of response behaviors performed by an elephant group, such as lifting of ears, walking towards the speakers, β freezing β, or scanning movements, was compared visually before and after the presentation of a stimulus, scoring a trial as a positive response if the amount of behaviors is greater after the stimulus. in one particular experiment performed on elephants living in the wild, the presentation of playbacks for 20 β 40 seconds from loudspeakers at distances of 1. 2 km and 2 km caused a significant increase in response behaviors. since the
listener fatigue ( also known as listening fatigue or ear fatigue ) is a phenomenon that occurs after prolonged exposure to an auditory stimulus. symptoms include tiredness, discomfort, pain, and loss of sensitivity. listener fatigue is not a clinically recognized state, but is a term used by many professionals. the cause for listener fatigue is still not yet fully understood it is thought to be an extension of the quantifiable psychological perception of sound. common groups at risk of becoming victim to this phenomenon include avid listeners of music and others who listen or work with loud noise on a constant basis, such as musicians, construction workers and military personnel. = = causes = = the exact causes of listener fatigue and the associated pathways and mechanisms are still being studied ; some of the popular theories are presented below. = = = introduction of artifacts in audio material = = = musicality, especially on the radio, contains musical aspects ( timbre, emotional impact, melody ), and artifacts that arise from non - musical aspects ( soundstaging, dynamic range compression, sonic balance ). the introduction of these sonic artifacts affects the balance between these musical and non - musical aspects. when the volume of music is higher, these artifacts become more apparent, and because they are uncomfortable for the ear, cause listeners to " tune out " and lose focus or become tired. these listeners may then unconsciously avoid that type of music, or the radio station they may have heard it on. = = = sensory overload = = = when exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. this overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. the associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music. = = physiology = = as with any type of hearing - related disorder, the related physiology is within the ear and central auditory system. with regards to listening fatigue, the relevant mechanical and biochemical mechanisms primarily deal with inner ear and cochlea. = = = associated anatomy = = = the stereocilia ( hair cells ) of the inner ear can become subjected to bending from loud noises. because they are not regeneratable in humans, any major damage or loss of these hair cells leads to permanent hearing impairment and other hearing - related diseases. outer hair cells serve as acoustic amplifiers for stimulation of the inner hair cells. outer hair cells respond primarily to low - intensity sounds. = = = relevant mechanisms = = = = = = =
duplex perception refers to the linguistic phenomenon whereby " part of the acoustic signal is used for both a speech and a nonspeech percept. " a listener is presented with two simultaneous, dichotic stimuli. one ear receives an isolated third - formant transition that sounds like a nonspeech chirp. at the same time the other ear receives a base syllable. this base syllable consists of the first two formants, complete with formant transitions, and the third formant without a transition. normally, there would be peripheral masking in such a binaural listening task but this does not occur. instead, the listener's percept is duplex, that is, the completed syllable is perceived and the nonspeech chirp is heard at the same time. this is interpreted as being due to the existence of a special speech module. the phenomenon was discovered in 1974 by timothy c. rand at the haskins laboratories associated with yale university. duplex perception was argued as evidence for the existence of distinct systems for general auditory perception and speech perception. it is also notable that this same phenomenon can be obtained with slamming doors. = = see also = = mcgurk effect = = references = =
they often allow their owners to understand information about sound waves traveling through the aid. vestibular β these types of receptors are usually found within organs used to hear, and they aid in the detection of movement that surrounds the creature using it. gustatory β these sensory receptors are present within the mouth and are responsive to the molecular stimuli that enter the mouth. the receptors in the mouth typically fall into two of the following categories : receptors that are responsive to specific chemicals and receptors that are responsive to particles such as hydrogen ions, which are charged. tactile β these types of receptors are normally present within the skin and are able to respond to stimulation such as heat, pressure, and movement = = classes = = there are several different types of stimuli to which adequate stimuli respond. the following are examples of stimuli to which receptors may : light β when the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is light, the sensory receptors contain pigment molecules whose shape is transformed by light, and the changes in these molecules activate ion channels which initiate sensory transduction. sound β when the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is sound, the sensory receptors are hair cells ( mechanoreceptors ). these hair cells contain stereocilia, which when bent, trigger the opening of ion channels. thus hair cells transform the pressure waves of the sound into receptor potentials to initiate sensory transduction. = = sensory receptors = = sensory receptors are the ends of nerves within the body that respond to stimuli. there are many different types of sensory receptors that each respond to stimuli that they are uniquely fitted to res types of sensory receptors include the following : nociceptor β these are stimulus that are responsive to the stimuli that signal potential damage to the body. photoreceptors β these are receptors that are responsive to light that enters the eye and produces the visual stimuli that many animals use to function. mechanoreceptors β these are receptors that are responsive to physical stimulation such as movement, vibration, and stress. thermoreceptors β these are types of receptors that are present within the skin and monitor any changes in the skins temperature = = classic examples of absolute threshold = = in 1962, eugene galanter, a psychologist, tested stimuli till people were able to feel them approximately 50 % of the time, then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual β on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory β a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms.
Answer:
|
a silent movie
| 0.3 |
sound can be heard when it reaches what?
0. hearing organ
1. brain
2. eyes
3. neck
, sonic detection ). frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or audible frequencies, the range of which is typically considered to be between 20 hz and 20, 000 hz. frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. the auditory system includes the outer ears, which collect and filter sound waves ; the middle ear, which transforms the sound pressure ( impedance matching ) ; and the inner ear, which produces neural signals in response to the sound. by the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the cerebral cortex for further processing. sound does not usually come from a single source : in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction. = = = touch = = = the process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception. it involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface ( e. g., edges, curvature, and texture ) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. people can rapidly and accurately identify three - dimensional objects by touch. this involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. professor gibson defined the haptic system as " the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body. " gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is active exploration. the concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. = = = taste = = = taste ( formally known as gustation ) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances, including, but not limited to, food. humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the
the receptive field, or sensory space, is a delimited medium where some physiological stimuli can evoke a sensory neuronal response in specific organisms. complexity of the receptive field ranges from the unidimensional chemical structure of odorants to the multidimensional spacetime of human visual field, through the bidimensional skin surface, being a receptive field for touch perception. receptive fields can positively or negatively alter the membrane potential with or without affecting the rate of action potentials. a sensory space can be dependent of an animal's location. for a particular sound wave traveling in an appropriate transmission medium, by means of sound localization, an auditory space would amount to a reference system that continuously shifts as the animal moves ( taking into consideration the space inside the ears as well ). conversely, receptive fields can be largely independent of the animal's location, as in the case of place cells. a sensory space can also map into a particular region on an animal's body. for example, it could be a hair in the cochlea or a piece of skin, retina, or tongue or other part of an animal's body. receptive fields have been identified for neurons of the auditory system, the somatosensory system, and the visual system. the term receptive field was first used by sherrington in 1906 to describe the area of skin from which a scratch reflex could be elicited in a dog. in 1938, hartline started to apply the term to single neurons, this time from the frog retina. this concept of receptive fields can be extended further up the nervous system. if many sensory receptors all form synapses with a single cell further up, they collectively form the receptive field of that cell. for example, the receptive field of a ganglion cell in the retina of the eye is composed of input from all of the photoreceptors which synapse with it, and a group of ganglion cells in turn forms the receptive field for a cell in the brain. this process is called convergence. receptive fields have been used in modern artificial deep neural networks that work with local operations. = = auditory system = = the auditory system processes the temporal and spectral ( i. e. frequency ) characteristics of sound waves, so the receptive fields of neurons in the auditory system are modeled as spectro - temporal patterns that cause the firing rate of the neuron to modulate with the auditory stimulus. auditory
relies on human physical ability to produce sound, which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum. this ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs. these organs consist of the lungs, the voice box ( larynx ), and the upper vocal tract β the throat, the mouth, and the nose. by controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds. the sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental elements. the segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences, which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts, such as the roman script. in free flowing speech, there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next, nor usually are there any audible pauses between them. segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations, and can be either vowels or consonants. suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments. consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances ; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave. formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound. vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract. they vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity. vowels are called close when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel [ i ] ( english " ee " ), or open when the lips are relatively open, as in the vowel [ a ] ( english " ah " ). if the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as [ u ] ( english " oo " ). the quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between [ i ] ( unrounded front vowel such as english " ee " ) and [ y ] ( rounded front vowel such as german " u " ). consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure
= motor theory = = = some of the earliest work in the study of how humans perceive speech sounds was conducted by alvin liberman and his colleagues at haskins laboratories. using a speech synthesizer, they constructed speech sounds that varied in place of articulation along a continuum from / bΙ / to / dΙ / to / Ι‘Ι /. listeners were asked to identify which sound they heard and to discriminate between two different sounds. the results of the experiment showed that listeners grouped sounds into discrete categories, even though the sounds they were hearing were varying continuously. based on these results, they proposed the notion of categorical perception as a mechanism by which humans can identify speech sounds. more recent research using different tasks and methods suggests that listeners are highly sensitive to acoustic differences within a single phonetic category, contrary to a strict categorical account of speech perception. to provide a theoretical account of the categorical perception data, liberman and colleagues worked out the motor theory of speech perception, where " the complicated articulatory encoding was assumed to be decoded in the perception of speech by the same processes that are involved in production " ( this is referred to as analysis - by - synthesis ). for instance, the english consonant / d / may vary in its acoustic details across different phonetic contexts ( see above ), yet all / d /'s as perceived by a listener fall within one category ( voiced alveolar plosive ) and that is because " linguistic representations are abstract, canonical, phonetic segments or the gestures that underlie these segments ". when describing units of perception, liberman later abandoned articulatory movements and proceeded to the neural commands to the articulators and even later to intended articulatory gestures, thus " the neural representation of the utterance that determines the speaker's production is the distal object the listener perceives ". the theory is closely related to the modularity hypothesis, which proposes the existence of a special - purpose module, which is supposed to be innate and probably human - specific. the theory has been criticized in terms of not being able to " provide an account of just how acoustic signals are translated into intended gestures " by listeners. furthermore, it is unclear how indexical information ( e. g. talker - identity ) is encoded / decoded along with linguistically relevant information. = = = exemplar theory = = = exemplar models of speech perception differ from the four theories mentioned above which suppose that there is no connection between word - and talker -
##ing some kind of toxin. color also serves as an inferential cue that can prime both the motor action and interpretation of a persuasive message. = = = = = contrast = = = = = contrast, or the difference in luminance and / or color that helps make an object distinguishable, is important in edge detection and serves as a cue. = = auditory cues = = an auditory cue is a sound signal that represents an incoming sign received through the ears, causing the brain to hear. the results of receiving and processing these cues are collectively known as the sense of hearing and are the subject of research within the fields of psychology, cognitive science, and neurobiology. = = = auditory system = = = the auditory system of humans and animals allows individuals to assimilate information from the surroundings, represented as sound waves. sound waves first pass through the pinnae and the auditory canal, the parts of the ear that comprise the outer ear. sound then reaches the tympanic membrane in the middle ear ( also known as the eardrum ). the tympanic membrane sets the malleus, incus, and stapes into vibration. the stapes transmits these vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. the inner ear contains the cochlea, the liquid - filled structure containing the hair cells. these cells serve to transform the incoming vibration to electrical signals, which can then be transmitted to the brain. the auditory nerve carries the signal generated by the hair cells away from the inner ear and towards the auditory receiving area in the cortex. the signal then travels through fibers to several subcortical structures and on to the primary auditory receiving area in the temporal lobe. = = = cues for locating sound = = = humans use several cues to determine the location of a given stimuli, mainly by using the timing difference between ears. these cues allow individuals to identify both the elevation, the height of the stimuli relative to the individual, and the azimuth, or the angle of the sound relative to the direction the individual is facing. = = = = interaural time and level difference = = = = unless a sound is directly in front of or behind the individual, the sound stimuli will have a slightly different distance to travel to reach each ear. this difference in distance causes a slight delay in the time the signal is perceived by each ear. the magnitude of the interaural time difference is greater the more the signal comes from the side
Answer:
|
hearing organ
| null |
sound can be heard when it reaches what?
0. hearing organ
1. brain
2. eyes
3. neck
, sonic detection ). frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or audible frequencies, the range of which is typically considered to be between 20 hz and 20, 000 hz. frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. the auditory system includes the outer ears, which collect and filter sound waves ; the middle ear, which transforms the sound pressure ( impedance matching ) ; and the inner ear, which produces neural signals in response to the sound. by the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the cerebral cortex for further processing. sound does not usually come from a single source : in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction. = = = touch = = = the process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception. it involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface ( e. g., edges, curvature, and texture ) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. people can rapidly and accurately identify three - dimensional objects by touch. this involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. professor gibson defined the haptic system as " the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body. " gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is active exploration. the concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. = = = taste = = = taste ( formally known as gustation ) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances, including, but not limited to, food. humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue, called taste buds or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the
the receptive field, or sensory space, is a delimited medium where some physiological stimuli can evoke a sensory neuronal response in specific organisms. complexity of the receptive field ranges from the unidimensional chemical structure of odorants to the multidimensional spacetime of human visual field, through the bidimensional skin surface, being a receptive field for touch perception. receptive fields can positively or negatively alter the membrane potential with or without affecting the rate of action potentials. a sensory space can be dependent of an animal's location. for a particular sound wave traveling in an appropriate transmission medium, by means of sound localization, an auditory space would amount to a reference system that continuously shifts as the animal moves ( taking into consideration the space inside the ears as well ). conversely, receptive fields can be largely independent of the animal's location, as in the case of place cells. a sensory space can also map into a particular region on an animal's body. for example, it could be a hair in the cochlea or a piece of skin, retina, or tongue or other part of an animal's body. receptive fields have been identified for neurons of the auditory system, the somatosensory system, and the visual system. the term receptive field was first used by sherrington in 1906 to describe the area of skin from which a scratch reflex could be elicited in a dog. in 1938, hartline started to apply the term to single neurons, this time from the frog retina. this concept of receptive fields can be extended further up the nervous system. if many sensory receptors all form synapses with a single cell further up, they collectively form the receptive field of that cell. for example, the receptive field of a ganglion cell in the retina of the eye is composed of input from all of the photoreceptors which synapse with it, and a group of ganglion cells in turn forms the receptive field for a cell in the brain. this process is called convergence. receptive fields have been used in modern artificial deep neural networks that work with local operations. = = auditory system = = the auditory system processes the temporal and spectral ( i. e. frequency ) characteristics of sound waves, so the receptive fields of neurons in the auditory system are modeled as spectro - temporal patterns that cause the firing rate of the neuron to modulate with the auditory stimulus. auditory
relies on human physical ability to produce sound, which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum. this ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs. these organs consist of the lungs, the voice box ( larynx ), and the upper vocal tract β the throat, the mouth, and the nose. by controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds. the sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental elements. the segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences, which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts, such as the roman script. in free flowing speech, there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next, nor usually are there any audible pauses between them. segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations, and can be either vowels or consonants. suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments. consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances ; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave. formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound. vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract. they vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity. vowels are called close when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel [ i ] ( english " ee " ), or open when the lips are relatively open, as in the vowel [ a ] ( english " ah " ). if the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as [ u ] ( english " oo " ). the quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between [ i ] ( unrounded front vowel such as english " ee " ) and [ y ] ( rounded front vowel such as german " u " ). consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure
= motor theory = = = some of the earliest work in the study of how humans perceive speech sounds was conducted by alvin liberman and his colleagues at haskins laboratories. using a speech synthesizer, they constructed speech sounds that varied in place of articulation along a continuum from / bΙ / to / dΙ / to / Ι‘Ι /. listeners were asked to identify which sound they heard and to discriminate between two different sounds. the results of the experiment showed that listeners grouped sounds into discrete categories, even though the sounds they were hearing were varying continuously. based on these results, they proposed the notion of categorical perception as a mechanism by which humans can identify speech sounds. more recent research using different tasks and methods suggests that listeners are highly sensitive to acoustic differences within a single phonetic category, contrary to a strict categorical account of speech perception. to provide a theoretical account of the categorical perception data, liberman and colleagues worked out the motor theory of speech perception, where " the complicated articulatory encoding was assumed to be decoded in the perception of speech by the same processes that are involved in production " ( this is referred to as analysis - by - synthesis ). for instance, the english consonant / d / may vary in its acoustic details across different phonetic contexts ( see above ), yet all / d /'s as perceived by a listener fall within one category ( voiced alveolar plosive ) and that is because " linguistic representations are abstract, canonical, phonetic segments or the gestures that underlie these segments ". when describing units of perception, liberman later abandoned articulatory movements and proceeded to the neural commands to the articulators and even later to intended articulatory gestures, thus " the neural representation of the utterance that determines the speaker's production is the distal object the listener perceives ". the theory is closely related to the modularity hypothesis, which proposes the existence of a special - purpose module, which is supposed to be innate and probably human - specific. the theory has been criticized in terms of not being able to " provide an account of just how acoustic signals are translated into intended gestures " by listeners. furthermore, it is unclear how indexical information ( e. g. talker - identity ) is encoded / decoded along with linguistically relevant information. = = = exemplar theory = = = exemplar models of speech perception differ from the four theories mentioned above which suppose that there is no connection between word - and talker -
##ing some kind of toxin. color also serves as an inferential cue that can prime both the motor action and interpretation of a persuasive message. = = = = = contrast = = = = = contrast, or the difference in luminance and / or color that helps make an object distinguishable, is important in edge detection and serves as a cue. = = auditory cues = = an auditory cue is a sound signal that represents an incoming sign received through the ears, causing the brain to hear. the results of receiving and processing these cues are collectively known as the sense of hearing and are the subject of research within the fields of psychology, cognitive science, and neurobiology. = = = auditory system = = = the auditory system of humans and animals allows individuals to assimilate information from the surroundings, represented as sound waves. sound waves first pass through the pinnae and the auditory canal, the parts of the ear that comprise the outer ear. sound then reaches the tympanic membrane in the middle ear ( also known as the eardrum ). the tympanic membrane sets the malleus, incus, and stapes into vibration. the stapes transmits these vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. the inner ear contains the cochlea, the liquid - filled structure containing the hair cells. these cells serve to transform the incoming vibration to electrical signals, which can then be transmitted to the brain. the auditory nerve carries the signal generated by the hair cells away from the inner ear and towards the auditory receiving area in the cortex. the signal then travels through fibers to several subcortical structures and on to the primary auditory receiving area in the temporal lobe. = = = cues for locating sound = = = humans use several cues to determine the location of a given stimuli, mainly by using the timing difference between ears. these cues allow individuals to identify both the elevation, the height of the stimuli relative to the individual, and the azimuth, or the angle of the sound relative to the direction the individual is facing. = = = = interaural time and level difference = = = = unless a sound is directly in front of or behind the individual, the sound stimuli will have a slightly different distance to travel to reach each ear. this difference in distance causes a slight delay in the time the signal is perceived by each ear. the magnitude of the interaural time difference is greater the more the signal comes from the side
Answer:
|
neck
| 0.3 |
If someone is dying of thirst, they can hydrate by
0. catching rain
1. visiting a valley
2. drink acid
3. find snow
, beaches and water parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other flowing water structures are popular decorations. some keep fish and other flora and fauna inside aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. humans also use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which require the water to be at a low temperature either as ice or crystallized into snow. = = = = water industry = = = = the water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services ( including sewage treatment ) to households and industry. water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. atmospheric water generators are in development. drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings ( wells ) in the ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers. building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. other water sources include rainwater collection. water may require purification for human consumption. this may involve the removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. distillation does all three functions. more advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates. the distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled water. governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. reducing usage by using drinking ( potable ) water only for human consumption is another option. in some cities such as hong kong, seawater is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve freshwater resources. polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water ; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms'profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution
the coldest and driest areas in the world. the central region of beacon valley is considered to be one of the best terrestrial analogues for the current conditions on mars. there is snowdrift and limited melting around the edges and occasionally in the central region, but for the most part, moisture is only found as thin films of brine around permafrost structures. it has slightly alkaline salt rich soil. = = = don juan pond = = = don juan pond is a small pond in antarctica, 100 meters by 300 meters, and 10 cm deep, that is of great interest for studying the limits of habitability in general. research using a time - lapse camera shows that it is partly fed by deliquescing salts. the salts absorb water by deliquescence only, at times of high humidity, then flows down the slope as salty brines. these then mix with snow melt, which feeds the lake. the first part of this process may be related to the processes that form the recurring slope lineae ( rsls ) on mars. this valley has an exceptionally low water activity ( aw ) of 0. 3 to 0. 6. though microbes have been retrieved from it, they have not been shown to be able to reproduce in the salty conditions present in the lake, and it is possible that they only got there through being washed in by the rare occasions of snow melt feeding the lake. = = = blood falls = = = this unusual flow of melt water from below the glacier gives scientists access to an environment they could otherwise only explore by drilling ( which would also risk contaminating it ). the melt water source is a subglacial pool of unknown size which sometimes overflows. biogeochemical analysis shows that the water is marine in source originally. one hypothesis is that the source may be the remains of an ancient fjord that occupied the taylor valley in the tertiary period. the ferrous iron dissolved in the water oxidizes as the water reaches the surface, turning the water red. its autotrophic bacteria metabolize sulfate and ferric ions. according to geomicrobiologist jill mikucki at the university of tennessee, water samples from blood falls contained at least 17 different types of microbes and almost no oxygen. an explanation may be that the microbes use sulfate as a catalyst to respire with ferric ions and metabolize the trace levels of organic matter trapped with them. such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature.
provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. in libya, for example, muammar gaddafi's great manmade river project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the sahara to populous areas near the coast. though this has saved libya money over the alternative, seawater desalination, the aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years. = = = in developing countries = = = = = challenges = = first, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence, with associated infrastructure damage β as well as, third, saline intrusion. fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low - lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams. = = = overdraft = = = groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource. most land areas on earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. in some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. such over - use, over - abstraction or overdraft can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. the most evident problem ( as far as human groundwater use is concerned ) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. as a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater ; in some places ( e. g., california, texas, and india ) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. the grace satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion. in the punjab region of india, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. a lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater - related subsidence and saltwater intrusion. another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over - allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems β in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs. the importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes,
management are difficult. governments need to fully assume their role as resource custodians in view of the common - good aspects of groundwater. : 2 domestic laws and regulations regulate access to groundwater as well as human activities that impact the quality of groundwater. legal frameworks also need to include protection of discharge and recharge zones and of the area surrounding water supply wells, as well as sustainable yield norms and abstraction controls, and conjunctive use regulations. in some jurisdictions, groundwater is regulated in conjunction with surface water, including rivers. : 2 = = by country = = groundwater is an important water resource for the supply of drinking water, especially in arid countries. the arab region is one of the most water - scarce in the world and groundwater is the most relied - upon water source in at least 11 of the 22 arab states. over - extraction of groundwater in many parts of the region has led to groundwater table declines, especially in highly populated and agricultural areas. : 7 = = see also = = all pages with titles containing groundwater baseflow β stream flow between precipitation events hydrology list of aquifers list of aquifers in the united states water resources β sources of water that are potentially useful for humans water security β goal of water management to harness water - related opportunities and manage risks = = references = = = = external links = = usgs office of groundwater iah, international association of hydrogeologists the groundwater project online platform for groundwater knowledge ugpro 7 - year research project on the " potential of groundwater for the poor " ( 2013 β 2020 )
per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of 200 β 1, 000 metres ( 660 β 3, 280 ft ). on 18 march 2013, nasa reported evidence from instruments on the curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of " tintina " rock and " sutton inlier " rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like " knorr " rock and " wernicke " rock. analysis using the rover's dan instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4 % water content, down to a depth of 60 centimetres ( 24 in ), during the rover's traverse from the bradbury landing site to the yellowknife bay area in the glenelg terrain. in september 2015, nasa announced that they had found strong evidence of hydrated brine flows in recurring slope lineae, based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes. these streaks flow downhill in martian summer, when the temperature is above β23 Β°c, and freeze at lower temperatures. these observations supported earlier hypotheses, based on timing of formation and their rate of growth, that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing just below the surface. however, later work suggested that the lineae may be dry, granular flows instead, with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process. a definitive conclusion about the presence, extent, and role of liquid water on the martian surface remains elusive. researchers suspect much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep, though this theory remains controversial. in march 2015, scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of earth's arctic ocean. this finding was derived from the ratio of protium to deuterium in the modern martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on earth. the amount of martian deuterium ( d / h = 9. 3 Β± 1. 7 10β4 ) is five to seven times the amount on earth ( d / h = 1. 56 10β4 ), suggesting that ancient mars had significantly higher levels of water. results from the curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in gale crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to
Answer:
|
catching rain
| null |
If someone is dying of thirst, they can hydrate by
0. catching rain
1. visiting a valley
2. drink acid
3. find snow
, beaches and water parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other flowing water structures are popular decorations. some keep fish and other flora and fauna inside aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. humans also use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which require the water to be at a low temperature either as ice or crystallized into snow. = = = = water industry = = = = the water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services ( including sewage treatment ) to households and industry. water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. atmospheric water generators are in development. drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings ( wells ) in the ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers. building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. other water sources include rainwater collection. water may require purification for human consumption. this may involve the removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. distillation does all three functions. more advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates. the distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled water. governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. reducing usage by using drinking ( potable ) water only for human consumption is another option. in some cities such as hong kong, seawater is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve freshwater resources. polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water ; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms'profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution
the coldest and driest areas in the world. the central region of beacon valley is considered to be one of the best terrestrial analogues for the current conditions on mars. there is snowdrift and limited melting around the edges and occasionally in the central region, but for the most part, moisture is only found as thin films of brine around permafrost structures. it has slightly alkaline salt rich soil. = = = don juan pond = = = don juan pond is a small pond in antarctica, 100 meters by 300 meters, and 10 cm deep, that is of great interest for studying the limits of habitability in general. research using a time - lapse camera shows that it is partly fed by deliquescing salts. the salts absorb water by deliquescence only, at times of high humidity, then flows down the slope as salty brines. these then mix with snow melt, which feeds the lake. the first part of this process may be related to the processes that form the recurring slope lineae ( rsls ) on mars. this valley has an exceptionally low water activity ( aw ) of 0. 3 to 0. 6. though microbes have been retrieved from it, they have not been shown to be able to reproduce in the salty conditions present in the lake, and it is possible that they only got there through being washed in by the rare occasions of snow melt feeding the lake. = = = blood falls = = = this unusual flow of melt water from below the glacier gives scientists access to an environment they could otherwise only explore by drilling ( which would also risk contaminating it ). the melt water source is a subglacial pool of unknown size which sometimes overflows. biogeochemical analysis shows that the water is marine in source originally. one hypothesis is that the source may be the remains of an ancient fjord that occupied the taylor valley in the tertiary period. the ferrous iron dissolved in the water oxidizes as the water reaches the surface, turning the water red. its autotrophic bacteria metabolize sulfate and ferric ions. according to geomicrobiologist jill mikucki at the university of tennessee, water samples from blood falls contained at least 17 different types of microbes and almost no oxygen. an explanation may be that the microbes use sulfate as a catalyst to respire with ferric ions and metabolize the trace levels of organic matter trapped with them. such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature.
provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. in libya, for example, muammar gaddafi's great manmade river project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the sahara to populous areas near the coast. though this has saved libya money over the alternative, seawater desalination, the aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years. = = = in developing countries = = = = = challenges = = first, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence, with associated infrastructure damage β as well as, third, saline intrusion. fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low - lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams. = = = overdraft = = = groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource. most land areas on earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. in some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. such over - use, over - abstraction or overdraft can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. the most evident problem ( as far as human groundwater use is concerned ) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. as a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater ; in some places ( e. g., california, texas, and india ) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. the grace satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion. in the punjab region of india, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. a lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater - related subsidence and saltwater intrusion. another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over - allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems β in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs. the importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes,
management are difficult. governments need to fully assume their role as resource custodians in view of the common - good aspects of groundwater. : 2 domestic laws and regulations regulate access to groundwater as well as human activities that impact the quality of groundwater. legal frameworks also need to include protection of discharge and recharge zones and of the area surrounding water supply wells, as well as sustainable yield norms and abstraction controls, and conjunctive use regulations. in some jurisdictions, groundwater is regulated in conjunction with surface water, including rivers. : 2 = = by country = = groundwater is an important water resource for the supply of drinking water, especially in arid countries. the arab region is one of the most water - scarce in the world and groundwater is the most relied - upon water source in at least 11 of the 22 arab states. over - extraction of groundwater in many parts of the region has led to groundwater table declines, especially in highly populated and agricultural areas. : 7 = = see also = = all pages with titles containing groundwater baseflow β stream flow between precipitation events hydrology list of aquifers list of aquifers in the united states water resources β sources of water that are potentially useful for humans water security β goal of water management to harness water - related opportunities and manage risks = = references = = = = external links = = usgs office of groundwater iah, international association of hydrogeologists the groundwater project online platform for groundwater knowledge ugpro 7 - year research project on the " potential of groundwater for the poor " ( 2013 β 2020 )
per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of 200 β 1, 000 metres ( 660 β 3, 280 ft ). on 18 march 2013, nasa reported evidence from instruments on the curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of " tintina " rock and " sutton inlier " rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like " knorr " rock and " wernicke " rock. analysis using the rover's dan instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4 % water content, down to a depth of 60 centimetres ( 24 in ), during the rover's traverse from the bradbury landing site to the yellowknife bay area in the glenelg terrain. in september 2015, nasa announced that they had found strong evidence of hydrated brine flows in recurring slope lineae, based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes. these streaks flow downhill in martian summer, when the temperature is above β23 Β°c, and freeze at lower temperatures. these observations supported earlier hypotheses, based on timing of formation and their rate of growth, that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing just below the surface. however, later work suggested that the lineae may be dry, granular flows instead, with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process. a definitive conclusion about the presence, extent, and role of liquid water on the martian surface remains elusive. researchers suspect much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep, though this theory remains controversial. in march 2015, scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of earth's arctic ocean. this finding was derived from the ratio of protium to deuterium in the modern martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on earth. the amount of martian deuterium ( d / h = 9. 3 Β± 1. 7 10β4 ) is five to seven times the amount on earth ( d / h = 1. 56 10β4 ), suggesting that ancient mars had significantly higher levels of water. results from the curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in gale crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to
Answer:
|
visiting a valley
| 0.3 |
An example of seed dispersal is animals eating what?
0. dirt
1. hard shells
2. grass
3. animals
= = seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living ( biotic ) vectors like birds. seeds can be dispersed away from the parent plant individually or collectively, as well as dispersed in both space and time. the patterns of seed dispersal are determined in large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as migration patterns and species interactions. there are five main modes of seed dispersal : gravity, wind, ballistic, water, and by animals. some plants are serotinous and only disperse their seeds in response to an environmental stimulus. dispersal involves the letting go or detachment of a diaspore from the main parent plant. = = = long - term interactions ( symbioses ) = = = the six possible types of symbiosis are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, neutralism, amensalism, and competition. these are distinguished by the degree of benefit or harm they cause to each partner. = = = = mutualism = = = = mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit, for example an increased carrying capacity. similar interactions within a species are known as co - operation. mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism. one or both species involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the other species. though mutualism has historically received less attention than other interactions such as predation, it is an important subject in ecology. examples include cleaning symbiosis, gut flora, mullerian mimicry, and nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the root nodules of legumes. = = = = commensalism = = = = commensalism benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. it occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with another organism by which the host organism is not affected. a good example is a remora living with a manatee. remoras feed on the manatee's faeces. the manatee is not affected by this interaction, as the remora does not deplete the manatee's resources. = = = = parasitism
longer distance dispersal. = = animal dispersal = = dispersal by animals is called zoochory. zoochory can be specified by which animal is acting as a dispersal vector. animals are an important dispersal vector because they provide the ability to transfer dispersal units longer distances than their parent organism can. the main groups include dispersal by birds ( ornithochory ), dispersal by ants ( myrmecochory ), dispersal by mammals ( mammaliochory ), dispersal by amphibians or reptiles, and dispersal by insects, such as bees. animals are also a large contributor to pollination via zoophily. flowering plants are mainly pollinated by animals, and while invertebrates are involved in the majority of that pollination, birds and mammals also play a role. = = = ornithochory = = = birds contribute to seed dispersal in several ways that are unique from general vectors. birds often cache, or store, the seeds of trees and shrubs to consume later. only some of these seeds are later recovered and eaten, so many of the seeds are able to use the behavior of seed storage to allow them to germinate away from the mother tree. long - distance dispersal is rarely achieved by a parent plant alone. it could then be mediated by the migratory movements of birds. long - distance dispersal operates over areas that span thousands of kilometres, allowing it to promote rapid range shifts and determine species distributions. in seed dispersal, ingestion of seeds that can resist digestive juices allows such seeds to be scattered in faeces and dispersed far from the parent organism. for these seeds, passing through the gut makes them more able to germinate when they are ingested by birds and mammals. finally, the ingestion of herbivores by carnivores may help disperse seeds as they prey on primary seed dispersers such as herbivores or omnivores. when a bird is eaten by a cat or another carnivore, that animal will inadvertently consume the seeds that the prey species ate. these seeds may then be later deposited in a process called diplochory, where a seed is moved by more than one dispersal agent. this greatly affects seed dispersal outcomes as carnivores range widely and make dispersed populations have more connected genes. birds act as dispersal vectors for its other types as well. hummingbirds spread pollen on their beaks, and fungal spores may stick to the bottom of birds'feet. water birds may also help to disperse aquatic invertebrates, specifically branchiopods, ostra
a dispersal vector is an agent of biological dispersal that moves a dispersal unit, or organism, away from its birth population to another location or population in which the individual will reproduce. these dispersal units can range from pollen to seeds to fungi to entire organisms. there are two types of dispersal vector, those that are active and those that are passive. active dispersal involves pollen, seeds and fungal spores that are capable of movement under their own energy. passive dispersal involves those that rely on the kinetic energy of the environment to move. in plants, some dispersal units have tissue that assists with dispersal and are called diaspores. some types of dispersal are self - driven ( autochory ), such as using gravity ( barochory ), and does not rely on external agents. other types of dispersal are due to external agents, which can be other organisms, such as animals ( zoochory ), or non - living vectors, such as the wind ( anemochory ) or water ( hydrochory ). in many cases, a dispersal unit will be dispersed by more than one vector before reaching its final destination. it is often a combination of two or more modes of dispersal that act together to maximize dispersal distance, such as wind blowing a seed into a nearby river, that will carry it farther down stream. = = self - generated dispersal = = autochory is the dispersal of diaspores, which are dispersal units consisting of seeds or spores, using only the energy provided by the diaspore or the parent plant. the plant of origin is the dispersal agent itself, instead of an external agent. there are five main types of autochory that act on such seeds or spores : ballochory, or violent ejection by the parent organism ; blastochory, or crawling with horizontal runners ; barochory, or relying on gravity for dispersal ; herpochory, or crawling with fine hair - like structures called trichomes ; or being pushed or twisted into the ground by hygromorphic awns in response to humidity changes, e. g. erodium cicutarium. in some cases, ballochory can be more effective when combined with a secondary dispersal vector : ejecting the seeds or spores in order for them to use wind or water for longer distance dispersal. = = animal dispersal = = dispersal by animals is called zoochory. zoochory can be specified by which animal is acting as a dispersal vector. animals are an important dispersal vector because they provide the ability to transfer dispersal units
ate a seed ) along with the seeds it is carrying is eaten by a predator that then carries the seed further before depositing it. = = = = humans = = = = dispersal by humans ( anthropochory ) used to be seen as a form of dispersal by animals. its most widespread and intense cases account for the planting of much of the land area on the planet, through agriculture. in this case, human societies form a long - term relationship with plant species, and create conditions for their growth. recent research points out that human dispersers differ from animal dispersers by having a much higher mobility, based on the technical means of human transport. on the one hand, dispersal by humans also acts on smaller, regional scales and drives the dynamics of existing biological populations. on the other hand, dispersal by humans may act on large geographical scales and lead to the spread of invasive species. humans may disperse seeds by many various means and some surprisingly high distances have been repeatedly measured. examples are : dispersal on human clothes ( up to 250 m ), on shoes ( up to 5 km ), or by cars ( regularly ~ 250 m, single cases > 100 km ). humans can unintentionally transport seeds by car, which can carry the seeds much greater distances than other conventional methods of dispersal. soil on cars can contain viable seeds. a study by dunmail j. hodkinson and ken thompson found that the most common seeds carried by vehicle were broadleaf plantain ( plantago major ), annual meadow grass ( poa annua ), rough meadow grass ( poa trivialis ), stinging nettle ( urtica dioica ) and wild chamomile ( matricaria discoidea ). deliberate seed dispersal also occurs as seed bombing. this has risks, as it may introduce genetically unsuitable plants to new environments. = = consequences = = seed dispersal has many consequences for the ecology and evolution of plants. dispersal is necessary for species migrations, and in recent times dispersal ability is an important factor in whether or not a species transported to a new habitat by humans will become an invasive species. dispersal is also predicted to play a major role in the origin and maintenance of species diversity. for example, myrmecochory increased the rate of diversification more than twofold in plant groups in which it has evolved, because myrmecochorous lineages contain more than twice as many species as their non - myrmecochorous sister groups. dispersal of seeds away from the parent organism has a
are not only dispersed short distances but are also buried underground by the ants. these seeds can thus avoid adverse environmental effects such as fire or drought, reach nutrient - rich microsites and survive longer than other seeds. these features are peculiar to myrmecochory, which may thus provide additional benefits not present in other dispersal modes. seed dispersal may also allow plants to colonize vacant habitats and even new geographic regions. dispersal distances and deposition sites depend on the movement range of the disperser, and longer dispersal distances are sometimes accomplished through diplochory, the sequential dispersal by two or more different dispersal mechanisms. in fact, recent evidence suggests that the majority of seed dispersal events involves more than one dispersal phase. = = types = = seed dispersal is sometimes split into autochory ( when dispersal is attained using the plant's own means ) and allochory ( when obtained through external means ). = = = long distance = = = long - distance seed dispersal ( ldd ) is a type of spatial dispersal that is currently defined by two forms, proportional and actual distance. a plant's fitness and survival may heavily depend on this method of seed dispersal depending on certain environmental factors. the first form of ldd, proportional distance, measures the percentage of seeds ( 1 % out of total number of seeds produced ) that travel the farthest distance out of a 99 % probability distribution. the proportional definition of ldd is in actuality a descriptor for more extreme dispersal events. an example of ldd would be that of a plant developing a specific dispersal vector or morphology in order to allow for the dispersal of its seeds over a great distance. the actual or absolute method identifies ldd as a literal distance. it classifies 1 km as the threshold distance for seed dispersal. here, threshold means the minimum distance a plant can disperse its seeds and have it still count as ldd. there is a second, unmeasurable, form of ldd besides proportional and actual. this is known as the non - standard form. non - standard ldd is when seed dispersal occurs in an unusual and difficult - to - predict manner. an example would be a rare or unique incident in which a normally - lemur - dependent deciduous tree of madagascar was to have seeds transported to the coastline of south africa via attachment to a mermaid purse ( egg case ) laid by a shark or skate. a driving factor for the evolutionary significance of ldd is that it increases plant fitness by decreasing neighboring plant competition for offspring. however, it is still unclear today as
Answer:
|
hard shells
| null |
An example of seed dispersal is animals eating what?
0. dirt
1. hard shells
2. grass
3. animals
= = seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living ( biotic ) vectors like birds. seeds can be dispersed away from the parent plant individually or collectively, as well as dispersed in both space and time. the patterns of seed dispersal are determined in large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as migration patterns and species interactions. there are five main modes of seed dispersal : gravity, wind, ballistic, water, and by animals. some plants are serotinous and only disperse their seeds in response to an environmental stimulus. dispersal involves the letting go or detachment of a diaspore from the main parent plant. = = = long - term interactions ( symbioses ) = = = the six possible types of symbiosis are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, neutralism, amensalism, and competition. these are distinguished by the degree of benefit or harm they cause to each partner. = = = = mutualism = = = = mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit, for example an increased carrying capacity. similar interactions within a species are known as co - operation. mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism. one or both species involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the other species. though mutualism has historically received less attention than other interactions such as predation, it is an important subject in ecology. examples include cleaning symbiosis, gut flora, mullerian mimicry, and nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the root nodules of legumes. = = = = commensalism = = = = commensalism benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. it occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with another organism by which the host organism is not affected. a good example is a remora living with a manatee. remoras feed on the manatee's faeces. the manatee is not affected by this interaction, as the remora does not deplete the manatee's resources. = = = = parasitism
longer distance dispersal. = = animal dispersal = = dispersal by animals is called zoochory. zoochory can be specified by which animal is acting as a dispersal vector. animals are an important dispersal vector because they provide the ability to transfer dispersal units longer distances than their parent organism can. the main groups include dispersal by birds ( ornithochory ), dispersal by ants ( myrmecochory ), dispersal by mammals ( mammaliochory ), dispersal by amphibians or reptiles, and dispersal by insects, such as bees. animals are also a large contributor to pollination via zoophily. flowering plants are mainly pollinated by animals, and while invertebrates are involved in the majority of that pollination, birds and mammals also play a role. = = = ornithochory = = = birds contribute to seed dispersal in several ways that are unique from general vectors. birds often cache, or store, the seeds of trees and shrubs to consume later. only some of these seeds are later recovered and eaten, so many of the seeds are able to use the behavior of seed storage to allow them to germinate away from the mother tree. long - distance dispersal is rarely achieved by a parent plant alone. it could then be mediated by the migratory movements of birds. long - distance dispersal operates over areas that span thousands of kilometres, allowing it to promote rapid range shifts and determine species distributions. in seed dispersal, ingestion of seeds that can resist digestive juices allows such seeds to be scattered in faeces and dispersed far from the parent organism. for these seeds, passing through the gut makes them more able to germinate when they are ingested by birds and mammals. finally, the ingestion of herbivores by carnivores may help disperse seeds as they prey on primary seed dispersers such as herbivores or omnivores. when a bird is eaten by a cat or another carnivore, that animal will inadvertently consume the seeds that the prey species ate. these seeds may then be later deposited in a process called diplochory, where a seed is moved by more than one dispersal agent. this greatly affects seed dispersal outcomes as carnivores range widely and make dispersed populations have more connected genes. birds act as dispersal vectors for its other types as well. hummingbirds spread pollen on their beaks, and fungal spores may stick to the bottom of birds'feet. water birds may also help to disperse aquatic invertebrates, specifically branchiopods, ostra
a dispersal vector is an agent of biological dispersal that moves a dispersal unit, or organism, away from its birth population to another location or population in which the individual will reproduce. these dispersal units can range from pollen to seeds to fungi to entire organisms. there are two types of dispersal vector, those that are active and those that are passive. active dispersal involves pollen, seeds and fungal spores that are capable of movement under their own energy. passive dispersal involves those that rely on the kinetic energy of the environment to move. in plants, some dispersal units have tissue that assists with dispersal and are called diaspores. some types of dispersal are self - driven ( autochory ), such as using gravity ( barochory ), and does not rely on external agents. other types of dispersal are due to external agents, which can be other organisms, such as animals ( zoochory ), or non - living vectors, such as the wind ( anemochory ) or water ( hydrochory ). in many cases, a dispersal unit will be dispersed by more than one vector before reaching its final destination. it is often a combination of two or more modes of dispersal that act together to maximize dispersal distance, such as wind blowing a seed into a nearby river, that will carry it farther down stream. = = self - generated dispersal = = autochory is the dispersal of diaspores, which are dispersal units consisting of seeds or spores, using only the energy provided by the diaspore or the parent plant. the plant of origin is the dispersal agent itself, instead of an external agent. there are five main types of autochory that act on such seeds or spores : ballochory, or violent ejection by the parent organism ; blastochory, or crawling with horizontal runners ; barochory, or relying on gravity for dispersal ; herpochory, or crawling with fine hair - like structures called trichomes ; or being pushed or twisted into the ground by hygromorphic awns in response to humidity changes, e. g. erodium cicutarium. in some cases, ballochory can be more effective when combined with a secondary dispersal vector : ejecting the seeds or spores in order for them to use wind or water for longer distance dispersal. = = animal dispersal = = dispersal by animals is called zoochory. zoochory can be specified by which animal is acting as a dispersal vector. animals are an important dispersal vector because they provide the ability to transfer dispersal units
ate a seed ) along with the seeds it is carrying is eaten by a predator that then carries the seed further before depositing it. = = = = humans = = = = dispersal by humans ( anthropochory ) used to be seen as a form of dispersal by animals. its most widespread and intense cases account for the planting of much of the land area on the planet, through agriculture. in this case, human societies form a long - term relationship with plant species, and create conditions for their growth. recent research points out that human dispersers differ from animal dispersers by having a much higher mobility, based on the technical means of human transport. on the one hand, dispersal by humans also acts on smaller, regional scales and drives the dynamics of existing biological populations. on the other hand, dispersal by humans may act on large geographical scales and lead to the spread of invasive species. humans may disperse seeds by many various means and some surprisingly high distances have been repeatedly measured. examples are : dispersal on human clothes ( up to 250 m ), on shoes ( up to 5 km ), or by cars ( regularly ~ 250 m, single cases > 100 km ). humans can unintentionally transport seeds by car, which can carry the seeds much greater distances than other conventional methods of dispersal. soil on cars can contain viable seeds. a study by dunmail j. hodkinson and ken thompson found that the most common seeds carried by vehicle were broadleaf plantain ( plantago major ), annual meadow grass ( poa annua ), rough meadow grass ( poa trivialis ), stinging nettle ( urtica dioica ) and wild chamomile ( matricaria discoidea ). deliberate seed dispersal also occurs as seed bombing. this has risks, as it may introduce genetically unsuitable plants to new environments. = = consequences = = seed dispersal has many consequences for the ecology and evolution of plants. dispersal is necessary for species migrations, and in recent times dispersal ability is an important factor in whether or not a species transported to a new habitat by humans will become an invasive species. dispersal is also predicted to play a major role in the origin and maintenance of species diversity. for example, myrmecochory increased the rate of diversification more than twofold in plant groups in which it has evolved, because myrmecochorous lineages contain more than twice as many species as their non - myrmecochorous sister groups. dispersal of seeds away from the parent organism has a
are not only dispersed short distances but are also buried underground by the ants. these seeds can thus avoid adverse environmental effects such as fire or drought, reach nutrient - rich microsites and survive longer than other seeds. these features are peculiar to myrmecochory, which may thus provide additional benefits not present in other dispersal modes. seed dispersal may also allow plants to colonize vacant habitats and even new geographic regions. dispersal distances and deposition sites depend on the movement range of the disperser, and longer dispersal distances are sometimes accomplished through diplochory, the sequential dispersal by two or more different dispersal mechanisms. in fact, recent evidence suggests that the majority of seed dispersal events involves more than one dispersal phase. = = types = = seed dispersal is sometimes split into autochory ( when dispersal is attained using the plant's own means ) and allochory ( when obtained through external means ). = = = long distance = = = long - distance seed dispersal ( ldd ) is a type of spatial dispersal that is currently defined by two forms, proportional and actual distance. a plant's fitness and survival may heavily depend on this method of seed dispersal depending on certain environmental factors. the first form of ldd, proportional distance, measures the percentage of seeds ( 1 % out of total number of seeds produced ) that travel the farthest distance out of a 99 % probability distribution. the proportional definition of ldd is in actuality a descriptor for more extreme dispersal events. an example of ldd would be that of a plant developing a specific dispersal vector or morphology in order to allow for the dispersal of its seeds over a great distance. the actual or absolute method identifies ldd as a literal distance. it classifies 1 km as the threshold distance for seed dispersal. here, threshold means the minimum distance a plant can disperse its seeds and have it still count as ldd. there is a second, unmeasurable, form of ldd besides proportional and actual. this is known as the non - standard form. non - standard ldd is when seed dispersal occurs in an unusual and difficult - to - predict manner. an example would be a rare or unique incident in which a normally - lemur - dependent deciduous tree of madagascar was to have seeds transported to the coastline of south africa via attachment to a mermaid purse ( egg case ) laid by a shark or skate. a driving factor for the evolutionary significance of ldd is that it increases plant fitness by decreasing neighboring plant competition for offspring. however, it is still unclear today as
Answer:
|
dirt
| 0.3 |
Cactus store their liquids in their
0. flowers
1. lockers
2. super market
3. trunks
the city's coastline and its commercial harbor. the gardens cannot be seen from the city even though it is just a ten - minute walk from the columbus monument, at the lower end of la rambla. = = botany = = a total of 800 different types of cacti and succulent plants populate the gardens. the plants originate from all over the world, but mostly from african, american, and australian desert areas. besides the gardens offer a wide variety of trees that are typical of the mediterranean climates as well as other subtropical trees. one can find up to 12 different species of palm trees, olive and fig trees, and the like. many of the subtropical trees are several hundred years old. some special species the garden offers are : drago : a subtropical tree pitas : a typical mexican plant xanthorrhoea : a native australian plant cereus jamacaru : a brazilian cactus aloe brevifolia : a cactus that originates in south africa = = artistic elements = = the mossen costa i llobera gardens displays many decorative and artistic elements. among them is a pergola and many sculptures by catalan artists, such as : l'au dels temporals, el pi de formentor by joaquim ros i bofarull, which pays tribute to costa i llobera's poem, the pine of formentor la puntaire by josep viladomat, located on a mountain outcrop that serves as a stunning viewpoint a joan panella by meritxell duran, dedicated to cactus enthusiast joan panella = = climate = = thanks to its convenient location at the foot of the montjuic mountain and next to the sea, temperatures in the middle of the gardens average two or three degrees celsius higher than those in the rest of the area. this microclimate protects the species that are contained within the gardens. it is also protected from the intense winds that often affect the area. = = visiting the park = = access to the gardens is free of charge. the park has several entrances inside montjuic. the main entrance is located between carretera de miramar and paseo de josep carner. the parks opens at 10 a. m. until sunset. = = see also = = miquel costa i llobera desert city jardin de cactus parks and gardens of barcelona = = references = = = = external links = = mossen costa i llobera gardens - barcelona city council official tourist information site ( authorized by
life in being thus exploited ; for example, the flattened pile of residue from the 11 / 19 site of loos - en - gohelle. conversely, others are painstakingly preserved on account of their ecological wealth. with the passage of time, they become colonised with a variety of flora and fauna, sometimes foreign to the region. this diversity follows the mining exploitation. in south wales some spoil tips are protected as sites of special scientific interest because they provide a unique habitat for 57 species of lichen, several of which are at risk due to their limited environment being developed and by vegetation development. for example, because the miners threw their apple or pear cores into the wagons, the spoil tips became colonised with fruit trees. one can even observe the proliferation of buckler - leaved sorrel ( french sorrel β rumex scutatus ), the seeds of which have been carried within the cracks in the pine timber used in the mines. furthermore, on account of its dark colour, the south face of the spoil tip is significantly warmer than its surroundings, which contributes to the diverse ecology of the area. in this way, the spoil tip of pinchonvalles, at avion, hosts 522 different varieties of higher plants. some sixty species of birds nest there. some are used to cultivate vines, as in the case of spoil tip no. 7 of the coal - mining region of mariemont - bascoup near chapelle - lez - herlaimont ( province of hainaut ). it produces some 3, 000 litres of wine each year from a vineyard on its slopes. some spoil tips are used for various sporting activities. the slopes of the spoil tips of 11 / 19 at loos - en - gohelle, or again, at nΕux - les - mines, are used for winter sports, for example ski and luge. a piste was built on the flank of the heap. in belgium, a long distance footpath along the spoil tips ( gr - 412, sentier des terrils ) was opened in 2005. it leads from bernissart in western hainaut to blegny in the province of liege. in the united states, coal mining companies have not been allowed to leave behind abandoned piles since the surface mining control and reclamation act was passed in 1977. the virginia city hybrid energy center uses coal gob as a fuel source for energy production. = = examples = = one of the highest, at least in western europe, is in loos - en
catalan ; among many are sequia ( " irrigation ditch " ), noria ( " waterwheel, noria " ), algorfa ( " loft " ), magatzem ( " warehouse " ), alfabia ( " earthenware jar " ), barnus ( " bathrobe " ), aladroc ( " anchovy " ), dacsa ( " corn " ), safanoria ( " carrot " ), carxofa ( " artichoke " ), alberginia ( " aubergine " ), xirivia ( " parsnip " ), alfals ( " alfalfa " ), albercoc ( " apricot " ), tramus ( " lupin " ), corfa ( " bark, peel " ), xara ( " thicket " ), matalaf / matalas ( " mattress " ), alacra ( " scorpion " ), fardatxo ( " lizard " ) alfab ( r ) ega ( " basil " ), etc. and expressions such as a la babala ( " randomly, to god's will " ) and a betzef ( " abundance, plenty " ). = = = = toponymy = = = = many places of the land of valencia, and also a few from catalonia and the balearic islands, have names of partial or total arabic origin, such as algemesi, alzira, almassora, etc. a large number of places have the arabic roots beni, bena and bene, which mean " son of " or " sons of " : benidorm, benimuslem, benilloba, benillup, benimantell, benimarfull, benicassim, benissa, benissoda, benirredra, benaguasil, benasau, beneixama, benaixeve, beneixida, benetusser, benifla, beniarda, beniarres, beniatjar, benicarlo, benicolet, benicull de xuquer, benidoleig, benifaio, benifairo de la valldigna, benifairo de les valls, benifato, beniganim, benigembla, benimodo, benimassot, benimeli, benipar
a tinaja [ tiΛnaxa ] is a surface pocket ( depression ) formed in bedrock that occurs below waterfalls, that is carved out by spring flow or seepage, or that is caused by sand and gravel scouring in intermittent streams ( arroyos ). tinajas are an important source of surface water storage in arid environments. these relatively rare landforms are important ecologically, because they support unique plant communities and provide important services to terrestrial wildlife. the term originates in spain, being spanish for " clay jar ", and is used in the american southwest. = = examples = = the tinajas altas ( " high tinajas " ) in southern arizona. several in el pinacate y gran desierto de altar biosphere reserve, sonora, mexico. las tinajas de los indios, california las tinajas, zinapecuaro, mexico san estaban dam on alamito creek at the tinaja in presidio county, texas seven sacred pools, sedona, arizona = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of tinaja at wiktionary
spiders have been observed to purposely roll away from predators. these species may roll passively ( under the influence of gravity or wind ) or actively, typically by altering their shape to generate a propulsive force. tumbleweeds, which are the above - ground portions of certain plants, separate from their root structure and roll in the wind to distribute their seeds. these plants are found especially in open plain environments. the most well - known of these include kali tragus ( also known as salsola tragus ), or prickly russian thistle, which arrived in north america in the late 19th century, and gained a reputation as a noxious weed. fungi of the genus bovista are known to use the same strategy to disperse their spores. rotifers are a phylum of microscopic but multi - celled animals, typically found in freshwater environments. although the latin name rotifer means'wheel - bearer ', these organisms do not have any rotating structures, but rather a ring of rhythmically beating cilia used for feeding and propulsion. keratinocytes, a type of skin cell, migrate with a rolling motion during the process of wound healing. these cells serve to form a barrier against pathogens and moisture loss through wounded tissue. dung beetles form spherical balls of animal excrement, which they roll with their bodies, generally by walking backwards and pushing the ball with their rear legs. phylogenetic analysis indicates that this rolling behavior evolved independently several times. the behavior of these beetles was noted in ancient egyptian culture, which imparted sacred significance to their activities. although it is the dung ball that rolls rather than the beetle itself, the beetles face many of the same mechanical difficulties that rolling organisms contend with. = = = free rotation = = = = = = = macroscopic = = = = among animals, there exists a single known example of an apparently freely rotating structure, though it is used for digestion rather than propulsion : the crystalline style of certain bivalves and gastropods. : 89 the style consists of a transparent glycoprotein rod which is continuously formed in a cilia - lined sac and extends into the stomach. the cilia rotate the rod, so that it becomes wrapped in strands of mucus. as the rod slowly dissolves in the stomach, it releases digestive enzymes. estimates of the speed of rotation of the style in vivo vary significantly, and it is unclear if the style is rotated continuously or intermittently. = = = = microscopic = = = = there are two known examples of molecular
Answer:
|
trunks
| null |
Cactus store their liquids in their
0. flowers
1. lockers
2. super market
3. trunks
the city's coastline and its commercial harbor. the gardens cannot be seen from the city even though it is just a ten - minute walk from the columbus monument, at the lower end of la rambla. = = botany = = a total of 800 different types of cacti and succulent plants populate the gardens. the plants originate from all over the world, but mostly from african, american, and australian desert areas. besides the gardens offer a wide variety of trees that are typical of the mediterranean climates as well as other subtropical trees. one can find up to 12 different species of palm trees, olive and fig trees, and the like. many of the subtropical trees are several hundred years old. some special species the garden offers are : drago : a subtropical tree pitas : a typical mexican plant xanthorrhoea : a native australian plant cereus jamacaru : a brazilian cactus aloe brevifolia : a cactus that originates in south africa = = artistic elements = = the mossen costa i llobera gardens displays many decorative and artistic elements. among them is a pergola and many sculptures by catalan artists, such as : l'au dels temporals, el pi de formentor by joaquim ros i bofarull, which pays tribute to costa i llobera's poem, the pine of formentor la puntaire by josep viladomat, located on a mountain outcrop that serves as a stunning viewpoint a joan panella by meritxell duran, dedicated to cactus enthusiast joan panella = = climate = = thanks to its convenient location at the foot of the montjuic mountain and next to the sea, temperatures in the middle of the gardens average two or three degrees celsius higher than those in the rest of the area. this microclimate protects the species that are contained within the gardens. it is also protected from the intense winds that often affect the area. = = visiting the park = = access to the gardens is free of charge. the park has several entrances inside montjuic. the main entrance is located between carretera de miramar and paseo de josep carner. the parks opens at 10 a. m. until sunset. = = see also = = miquel costa i llobera desert city jardin de cactus parks and gardens of barcelona = = references = = = = external links = = mossen costa i llobera gardens - barcelona city council official tourist information site ( authorized by
life in being thus exploited ; for example, the flattened pile of residue from the 11 / 19 site of loos - en - gohelle. conversely, others are painstakingly preserved on account of their ecological wealth. with the passage of time, they become colonised with a variety of flora and fauna, sometimes foreign to the region. this diversity follows the mining exploitation. in south wales some spoil tips are protected as sites of special scientific interest because they provide a unique habitat for 57 species of lichen, several of which are at risk due to their limited environment being developed and by vegetation development. for example, because the miners threw their apple or pear cores into the wagons, the spoil tips became colonised with fruit trees. one can even observe the proliferation of buckler - leaved sorrel ( french sorrel β rumex scutatus ), the seeds of which have been carried within the cracks in the pine timber used in the mines. furthermore, on account of its dark colour, the south face of the spoil tip is significantly warmer than its surroundings, which contributes to the diverse ecology of the area. in this way, the spoil tip of pinchonvalles, at avion, hosts 522 different varieties of higher plants. some sixty species of birds nest there. some are used to cultivate vines, as in the case of spoil tip no. 7 of the coal - mining region of mariemont - bascoup near chapelle - lez - herlaimont ( province of hainaut ). it produces some 3, 000 litres of wine each year from a vineyard on its slopes. some spoil tips are used for various sporting activities. the slopes of the spoil tips of 11 / 19 at loos - en - gohelle, or again, at nΕux - les - mines, are used for winter sports, for example ski and luge. a piste was built on the flank of the heap. in belgium, a long distance footpath along the spoil tips ( gr - 412, sentier des terrils ) was opened in 2005. it leads from bernissart in western hainaut to blegny in the province of liege. in the united states, coal mining companies have not been allowed to leave behind abandoned piles since the surface mining control and reclamation act was passed in 1977. the virginia city hybrid energy center uses coal gob as a fuel source for energy production. = = examples = = one of the highest, at least in western europe, is in loos - en
catalan ; among many are sequia ( " irrigation ditch " ), noria ( " waterwheel, noria " ), algorfa ( " loft " ), magatzem ( " warehouse " ), alfabia ( " earthenware jar " ), barnus ( " bathrobe " ), aladroc ( " anchovy " ), dacsa ( " corn " ), safanoria ( " carrot " ), carxofa ( " artichoke " ), alberginia ( " aubergine " ), xirivia ( " parsnip " ), alfals ( " alfalfa " ), albercoc ( " apricot " ), tramus ( " lupin " ), corfa ( " bark, peel " ), xara ( " thicket " ), matalaf / matalas ( " mattress " ), alacra ( " scorpion " ), fardatxo ( " lizard " ) alfab ( r ) ega ( " basil " ), etc. and expressions such as a la babala ( " randomly, to god's will " ) and a betzef ( " abundance, plenty " ). = = = = toponymy = = = = many places of the land of valencia, and also a few from catalonia and the balearic islands, have names of partial or total arabic origin, such as algemesi, alzira, almassora, etc. a large number of places have the arabic roots beni, bena and bene, which mean " son of " or " sons of " : benidorm, benimuslem, benilloba, benillup, benimantell, benimarfull, benicassim, benissa, benissoda, benirredra, benaguasil, benasau, beneixama, benaixeve, beneixida, benetusser, benifla, beniarda, beniarres, beniatjar, benicarlo, benicolet, benicull de xuquer, benidoleig, benifaio, benifairo de la valldigna, benifairo de les valls, benifato, beniganim, benigembla, benimodo, benimassot, benimeli, benipar
a tinaja [ tiΛnaxa ] is a surface pocket ( depression ) formed in bedrock that occurs below waterfalls, that is carved out by spring flow or seepage, or that is caused by sand and gravel scouring in intermittent streams ( arroyos ). tinajas are an important source of surface water storage in arid environments. these relatively rare landforms are important ecologically, because they support unique plant communities and provide important services to terrestrial wildlife. the term originates in spain, being spanish for " clay jar ", and is used in the american southwest. = = examples = = the tinajas altas ( " high tinajas " ) in southern arizona. several in el pinacate y gran desierto de altar biosphere reserve, sonora, mexico. las tinajas de los indios, california las tinajas, zinapecuaro, mexico san estaban dam on alamito creek at the tinaja in presidio county, texas seven sacred pools, sedona, arizona = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of tinaja at wiktionary
spiders have been observed to purposely roll away from predators. these species may roll passively ( under the influence of gravity or wind ) or actively, typically by altering their shape to generate a propulsive force. tumbleweeds, which are the above - ground portions of certain plants, separate from their root structure and roll in the wind to distribute their seeds. these plants are found especially in open plain environments. the most well - known of these include kali tragus ( also known as salsola tragus ), or prickly russian thistle, which arrived in north america in the late 19th century, and gained a reputation as a noxious weed. fungi of the genus bovista are known to use the same strategy to disperse their spores. rotifers are a phylum of microscopic but multi - celled animals, typically found in freshwater environments. although the latin name rotifer means'wheel - bearer ', these organisms do not have any rotating structures, but rather a ring of rhythmically beating cilia used for feeding and propulsion. keratinocytes, a type of skin cell, migrate with a rolling motion during the process of wound healing. these cells serve to form a barrier against pathogens and moisture loss through wounded tissue. dung beetles form spherical balls of animal excrement, which they roll with their bodies, generally by walking backwards and pushing the ball with their rear legs. phylogenetic analysis indicates that this rolling behavior evolved independently several times. the behavior of these beetles was noted in ancient egyptian culture, which imparted sacred significance to their activities. although it is the dung ball that rolls rather than the beetle itself, the beetles face many of the same mechanical difficulties that rolling organisms contend with. = = = free rotation = = = = = = = macroscopic = = = = among animals, there exists a single known example of an apparently freely rotating structure, though it is used for digestion rather than propulsion : the crystalline style of certain bivalves and gastropods. : 89 the style consists of a transparent glycoprotein rod which is continuously formed in a cilia - lined sac and extends into the stomach. the cilia rotate the rod, so that it becomes wrapped in strands of mucus. as the rod slowly dissolves in the stomach, it releases digestive enzymes. estimates of the speed of rotation of the style in vivo vary significantly, and it is unclear if the style is rotated continuously or intermittently. = = = = microscopic = = = = there are two known examples of molecular
Answer:
|
flowers
| 0.3 |
Which has molecules?
0. a Popsicle
1. suicide
2. therapy
3. thoughts
a molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds ; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the distinction from ions is dropped and molecule is often used when referring to polyatomic ions. a molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, e. g. two atoms in the oxygen molecule ( o2 ) ; or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, e. g. water ( two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom ; h2o ). in the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. this relaxes the requirement that a molecule contains two or more atoms, since the noble gases are individual atoms. atoms and complexes connected by non - covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules. concepts similar to molecules have been discussed since ancient times, but modern investigation into the nature of molecules and their bonds began in the 17th century. refined over time by scientists such as robert boyle, amedeo avogadro, jean perrin, and linus pauling, the study of molecules is today known as molecular physics or molecular chemistry. = = etymology = = according to merriam - webster and the online etymology dictionary, the word " molecule " derives from the latin " moles " or small unit of mass. the word is derived from french molecule ( 1678 ), from neo - latin molecula, diminutive of latin moles " mass, barrier ". the word, which until the late 18th century was used only in latin form, became popular after being used in works of philosophy by descartes. = = history = = the definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. this definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules. the modern concept of molecules can be traced back towards pre - scientific and greek philosophers such as leucippus and democritus who argued that all the universe is composed of atoms and voids.
biohappiness, or bio - happiness, is the elevation of well - being in humans and other animals through biological methods, including germline engineering through screening embryos with genes associated with a high level of happiness, or the use of drugs intended to raise baseline levels of happiness. the object is to facilitate the achievement of a state of " better than well ". proponents of biohappiness include the transhumanist philosopher david pearce, whose goal is to end the suffering of all sentient beings and the canadian ethicist mark alan walker. walker coined the term " bio - happiness " to describe the idea of directly manipulating the biological roots of happiness in order to increase it. he sought to defend it on the grounds that happiness ought to be of interest to a wide range of moral theorists ; and that hyperthymia, a state of high baseline happiness, is associated with better outcomes in health and human achievement. = = potential risks = = a significant danger of bio happiness is the ethical problems of altering the natural human emotional state through technological methods. molding organic brain chemistry or genetic structures to achieve happiness would raise concerns about the authenticity of the human body / experience. it is argued that tampering with the state of the human mind and creating an eternal happiness would disrupt the natural range of emotions that a human will experience. sadness, grief and anger are all crucial for emotional growth, empathy and understanding. additionally, the long term effects of bio happiness are not yet understood, meaning later down the line, issues could arise. loss of individuality, emotional depth and the risk of being dependent on an external source for happiness are all concerns regarding this. = = current research and technologies = = antidepressants are a short term form of biohappiness. depending on the specific drug, they can either keep certain chemicals ( i. e. serotonin or dopamine ) active in the brain for longer, stop chemicals from breaking down, or increase the rate of chemical release. the acceptance of antidepressant use makes way for the normalization of technology use in mental health. postmenopausal women with depression were given a questionnaire to determine their mood and to give a rating to how depressed they were feeling. the women then took a newly engineered neuroactive steroid geared towards the dampening of the gabaa receptors. the women were then asked to repeat the questionnaire after the drug had kicked in and their average self reports showed a significant mood increase although no specific numbers were given as
deaths. this has been termed transgenerational prophylaxis. = = value to humans = = in an interview with neil campbell, eloy rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity to medicine : some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against tumors. there is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world. = = media = = 2002 british documentary television series weird nature episode 6 " peculiar potions " documents variety of animals engaging in intoxication or zoopharmacognosy. 2014 documentary dolphins - spy in the pod shows dolphins getting intoxicated on pufferfish. = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = samorini, giorgio ( 2002 ) animals and psychedelics : the natural world and the instinct to alter consciousness
largest section of the mse report. it would describe a patient's suicidal thoughts, depressed cognition, delusions, overvalued ideas, obsessions, phobias and preoccupations. one should separate the thought content into pathological thought, versus non - pathological thought. importantly one should specify suicidal thoughts as either intrusive, unwanted, and not able to translate in the capacity to act on these thoughts ( mens rea ), versus suicidal thoughts that may lead to the act of suicide ( actus reus ). abnormalities of thought content are established by exploring individuals'thoughts in an open - ended conversational manner with regard to their intensity, salience, the emotions associated with the thoughts, the extent to which the thoughts are experienced as one's own and under one's control, and the degree of belief or conviction associated with the thoughts. = = = = delusions = = = = a delusion has three essential qualities : it can be defined as " a false, unshakeable idea or belief ( 1 ) which is out of keeping with the patient's educational, cultural and social background ( 2 )... held with extraordinary conviction and subjective certainty ( 3 ) ", and is a core feature of psychotic disorders. for instance an alliance to a particular political party, or sports team would not be considered a delusion in some societies. the patient's delusions may be described within the segue pm mnemonic as : somatic, erotomanic delusions, grandiose delusions, unspecified delusions, envious delusions ( cf. delusional jealousy ), persecutory or paranoid delusions, or multifactorial delusions. there are several other forms of delusions, these include descriptions such as : delusions of reference, or delusional misidentification, or delusional memories ( e. g., " i was a lamb last year " ) among others. delusional symptoms can be reported as on a continuum from : full symptoms ( with no insight ), partial symptoms ( where they may start questioning these delusions ), nil symptoms ( where symptoms are resolved ), or after complete treatment there are still delusional symptoms or ideas that could develop into delusions you can characterize this as residual symptoms. delusions can suggest several diseases such as schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, mania, depression with psychotic features, or delusional disorders. one
molecular medicine is a broad field, where physical, chemical, biological, bioinformatics and medical techniques are used to describe molecular structures and mechanisms, identify fundamental molecular and genetic errors of disease, and to develop molecular interventions to correct them. the molecular medicine perspective emphasizes cellular and molecular phenomena and interventions rather than the previous conceptual and observational focus on patients and their organs. = = history = = in november 1949, with the seminal paper, " sickle cell anemia, a molecular disease ", in science magazine, linus pauling, harvey itano and their collaborators laid the groundwork for establishing the field of molecular medicine. in 1956, roger j. williams wrote biochemical individuality, a prescient book about genetics, prevention and treatment of disease on a molecular basis, and nutrition which is now variously referred to as individualized medicine and orthomolecular medicine. another paper in science by pauling in 1968, introduced and defined this view of molecular medicine that focuses on natural and nutritional substances used for treatment and prevention. published research and progress was slow until the 1970s'" biological revolution " that introduced many new techniques and commercial applications. = = molecular surgery = = some researchers separate molecular surgery as a compartment of molecular medicine. = = education = = molecular medicine is a new scientific discipline in european universities. combining contemporary medical studies with the field of biochemistry, it offers a bridge between the two subjects. at present only a handful of universities offer the course to undergraduates. with a degree in this discipline, the graduate is able to pursue a career in medical sciences, scientific research, laboratory work, and postgraduate medical degrees. = = = subjects = = = core subjects are similar to biochemistry courses and typically include gene expression, research methods, proteins, cancer research, immunology, biotechnology and many more. in some universities molecular medicine is combined with another discipline such as chemistry, functioning as an additional study to enrich the undergraduate program. = = see also = = = = citations = =
Answer:
|
a Popsicle
| null |
Which has molecules?
0. a Popsicle
1. suicide
2. therapy
3. thoughts
a molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds ; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the distinction from ions is dropped and molecule is often used when referring to polyatomic ions. a molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, e. g. two atoms in the oxygen molecule ( o2 ) ; or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, e. g. water ( two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom ; h2o ). in the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. this relaxes the requirement that a molecule contains two or more atoms, since the noble gases are individual atoms. atoms and complexes connected by non - covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules. concepts similar to molecules have been discussed since ancient times, but modern investigation into the nature of molecules and their bonds began in the 17th century. refined over time by scientists such as robert boyle, amedeo avogadro, jean perrin, and linus pauling, the study of molecules is today known as molecular physics or molecular chemistry. = = etymology = = according to merriam - webster and the online etymology dictionary, the word " molecule " derives from the latin " moles " or small unit of mass. the word is derived from french molecule ( 1678 ), from neo - latin molecula, diminutive of latin moles " mass, barrier ". the word, which until the late 18th century was used only in latin form, became popular after being used in works of philosophy by descartes. = = history = = the definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. this definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules. the modern concept of molecules can be traced back towards pre - scientific and greek philosophers such as leucippus and democritus who argued that all the universe is composed of atoms and voids.
biohappiness, or bio - happiness, is the elevation of well - being in humans and other animals through biological methods, including germline engineering through screening embryos with genes associated with a high level of happiness, or the use of drugs intended to raise baseline levels of happiness. the object is to facilitate the achievement of a state of " better than well ". proponents of biohappiness include the transhumanist philosopher david pearce, whose goal is to end the suffering of all sentient beings and the canadian ethicist mark alan walker. walker coined the term " bio - happiness " to describe the idea of directly manipulating the biological roots of happiness in order to increase it. he sought to defend it on the grounds that happiness ought to be of interest to a wide range of moral theorists ; and that hyperthymia, a state of high baseline happiness, is associated with better outcomes in health and human achievement. = = potential risks = = a significant danger of bio happiness is the ethical problems of altering the natural human emotional state through technological methods. molding organic brain chemistry or genetic structures to achieve happiness would raise concerns about the authenticity of the human body / experience. it is argued that tampering with the state of the human mind and creating an eternal happiness would disrupt the natural range of emotions that a human will experience. sadness, grief and anger are all crucial for emotional growth, empathy and understanding. additionally, the long term effects of bio happiness are not yet understood, meaning later down the line, issues could arise. loss of individuality, emotional depth and the risk of being dependent on an external source for happiness are all concerns regarding this. = = current research and technologies = = antidepressants are a short term form of biohappiness. depending on the specific drug, they can either keep certain chemicals ( i. e. serotonin or dopamine ) active in the brain for longer, stop chemicals from breaking down, or increase the rate of chemical release. the acceptance of antidepressant use makes way for the normalization of technology use in mental health. postmenopausal women with depression were given a questionnaire to determine their mood and to give a rating to how depressed they were feeling. the women then took a newly engineered neuroactive steroid geared towards the dampening of the gabaa receptors. the women were then asked to repeat the questionnaire after the drug had kicked in and their average self reports showed a significant mood increase although no specific numbers were given as
deaths. this has been termed transgenerational prophylaxis. = = value to humans = = in an interview with neil campbell, eloy rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity to medicine : some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against tumors. there is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world. = = media = = 2002 british documentary television series weird nature episode 6 " peculiar potions " documents variety of animals engaging in intoxication or zoopharmacognosy. 2014 documentary dolphins - spy in the pod shows dolphins getting intoxicated on pufferfish. = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = samorini, giorgio ( 2002 ) animals and psychedelics : the natural world and the instinct to alter consciousness
largest section of the mse report. it would describe a patient's suicidal thoughts, depressed cognition, delusions, overvalued ideas, obsessions, phobias and preoccupations. one should separate the thought content into pathological thought, versus non - pathological thought. importantly one should specify suicidal thoughts as either intrusive, unwanted, and not able to translate in the capacity to act on these thoughts ( mens rea ), versus suicidal thoughts that may lead to the act of suicide ( actus reus ). abnormalities of thought content are established by exploring individuals'thoughts in an open - ended conversational manner with regard to their intensity, salience, the emotions associated with the thoughts, the extent to which the thoughts are experienced as one's own and under one's control, and the degree of belief or conviction associated with the thoughts. = = = = delusions = = = = a delusion has three essential qualities : it can be defined as " a false, unshakeable idea or belief ( 1 ) which is out of keeping with the patient's educational, cultural and social background ( 2 )... held with extraordinary conviction and subjective certainty ( 3 ) ", and is a core feature of psychotic disorders. for instance an alliance to a particular political party, or sports team would not be considered a delusion in some societies. the patient's delusions may be described within the segue pm mnemonic as : somatic, erotomanic delusions, grandiose delusions, unspecified delusions, envious delusions ( cf. delusional jealousy ), persecutory or paranoid delusions, or multifactorial delusions. there are several other forms of delusions, these include descriptions such as : delusions of reference, or delusional misidentification, or delusional memories ( e. g., " i was a lamb last year " ) among others. delusional symptoms can be reported as on a continuum from : full symptoms ( with no insight ), partial symptoms ( where they may start questioning these delusions ), nil symptoms ( where symptoms are resolved ), or after complete treatment there are still delusional symptoms or ideas that could develop into delusions you can characterize this as residual symptoms. delusions can suggest several diseases such as schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, mania, depression with psychotic features, or delusional disorders. one
molecular medicine is a broad field, where physical, chemical, biological, bioinformatics and medical techniques are used to describe molecular structures and mechanisms, identify fundamental molecular and genetic errors of disease, and to develop molecular interventions to correct them. the molecular medicine perspective emphasizes cellular and molecular phenomena and interventions rather than the previous conceptual and observational focus on patients and their organs. = = history = = in november 1949, with the seminal paper, " sickle cell anemia, a molecular disease ", in science magazine, linus pauling, harvey itano and their collaborators laid the groundwork for establishing the field of molecular medicine. in 1956, roger j. williams wrote biochemical individuality, a prescient book about genetics, prevention and treatment of disease on a molecular basis, and nutrition which is now variously referred to as individualized medicine and orthomolecular medicine. another paper in science by pauling in 1968, introduced and defined this view of molecular medicine that focuses on natural and nutritional substances used for treatment and prevention. published research and progress was slow until the 1970s'" biological revolution " that introduced many new techniques and commercial applications. = = molecular surgery = = some researchers separate molecular surgery as a compartment of molecular medicine. = = education = = molecular medicine is a new scientific discipline in european universities. combining contemporary medical studies with the field of biochemistry, it offers a bridge between the two subjects. at present only a handful of universities offer the course to undergraduates. with a degree in this discipline, the graduate is able to pursue a career in medical sciences, scientific research, laboratory work, and postgraduate medical degrees. = = = subjects = = = core subjects are similar to biochemistry courses and typically include gene expression, research methods, proteins, cancer research, immunology, biotechnology and many more. in some universities molecular medicine is combined with another discipline such as chemistry, functioning as an additional study to enrich the undergraduate program. = = see also = = = = citations = =
Answer:
|
thoughts
| 0.3 |
Items are all ultimately compromised of which?
0. Cells
1. Molecules
2. Air
3. Nerves
. most of the elements needed for life are relatively common in the earth's crust. aluminium, the third most common element in the earth's crust ( after oxygen and silicon ), serves no function in living cells, but is toxic in large amounts, depending on its physical and chemical forms and magnitude, duration, frequency of exposure, and how it was absorbed by the human body. transferrins can bind aluminium. = = = periodic table = = = = = composition = = the composition of the human body can be classified as follows : water proteins fats ( or lipids ) hydroxyapatite in bones carbohydrates such as glycogen and glucose dna and rna inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate gases mainly being oxygen, carbon dioxide many cofactors. the estimated contents of a typical 20 - micrometre human cell is as follows : = = tissues = = body composition can also be expressed in terms of various types of material, such as : muscle fat bone and teeth nervous tissue ( brain and nerves ) hormones connective tissue body fluids ( blood, lymph, urine ) contents of digestive tract, including intestinal gas air in lungs epithelium = = = composition by cell type = = = there are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. in fact, there are roughly as many microbial as human cells in the human body by number. ( much less by mass or volume ). some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms. = = see also = = list of organs of the human body hydrostatic weighing dietary element composition of blood list of human blood components body composition abundance of elements in earth's crust abundance of the chemical elements = = references = =
##toskeleton is made of fibers that support the structure of the cell and help the cell move. = = physiological processes = = there are different ways through which cells can transport substances across the cell membrane. the two main pathways are passive transport and active transport. passive transport is more direct and does not require the use of the cell's energy. it relies on an area that maintains a high - to - low concentration gradient. active transport uses adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) to transport a substance that moves against its concentration gradient. = = = movement of proteins = = = the pathway for proteins to move in cells starts at the er. lipids and proteins are synthesized in the er, and carbohydrates are added to make glycoproteins. glycoproteins undergo further synthesis in the golgi apparatus, becoming glycolipids. both glycoproteins and glycolipids are transported into vesicles to the plasma membrane. the cell releases secretory proteins known as exocytosis. = = = transport of ions = = = ions travel across cell membranes through channels, pumps or transporters. in channels, they move down an electrochemical gradient to produce electrical signals. pumps maintain electrochemical gradients. the main type of pump is the na / k pump. it moves 3 sodium ions out of a cell and 2 potassium ions into a cell. the process converts one atp molecule to adenosine diphosphate ( adp ) and phosphate. in a transporter, ions use more than one gradient to produce electrical signals. = = = endocytosis in animal cells = = = endocytosis is a form of active transport where a cell takes in molecules, using the plasma membrane, and packages them into vesicles. : 139 β 140 = = = phagocytosis = = = in phagocytosis, a cell surrounds particles including food particles through an extension of the pseudopods, which are located on the plasma membrane. the pseudopods then package the particles in a food vacuole. the lysosome, which contains hydrolytic enzymes, then fuses with the food vacuole. hydrolytic enzymes, also known as digestive enzymes, then digest the particles within the food vacuole. : 139 β 140 = = = pinocytosis = = = in pinocytosis, a cell takes in ( " gulps " ) extracellular fluid into vesicles,
within a lipid membrane ). in theory, a large dna virus could take control of a bacterial or archaeal cell. instead of replicating and destroying the host cell, it would remain within the cell, thus overcoming the tradeoff dilemma typically faced by viruses. with the virus in control of the host cell's molecular machinery, it would effectively become a functional nucleus. through the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis, the virus would thus recruit the entire cell as a symbiont β a new way to survive and proliferate. = = other views = = = = see also = = endogenous retrovirus endogenous viral element paleovirology = = references = = = = further reading = =
in cells that are only used for storage of nutrients. despite its useful functioning in many cells, endoreduplication has also been observed in cancerous cells, and it is not fully understood whether endoreduplication leads to cancerous behavior or whether other mutations lead to endoreduplication. other mechanisms may be involved in mediating these changes. = = references = =
neuromuscular junction to stimulate a muscle to contract is an example of very small ( about 0. 05ΞΌm ) vesicles being directly involved in regulating intercellular communication. the neuron produces thousands of tiny vesicles, each containing thousands of signalling molecules. one vesicle is released close to the muscle every second or so when resting. when activated by a nerve impulse more than 100 vesicles will be released at once, hundreds of thousands of signalling molecules, causing a significant contraction of the muscle fiber. all this happens in a small fraction of a second. generally small vesicles used to transport signalling molecules released from the cell are termed exosomes or simply extracellular vesicles ( ev ), and in addition to their importance to the organism they are also important for biosensors. extracellular vesicles can be released from malignant cancer cells. these extracellular vesicles have been shown to contain gap junction proteins over - expressed in the malignant cells that spread to non - cancerous cells appearing to enhance the spread of the malignancy. vesicles are also associated with the transport of materials outside of the cell to enable growth and repair of tissues in the extracellular matrix. in situations such as these they may be given special designations such as matrix vesicles ( mv ). examples of larger vesicles are in regulatory secretary pathways in endocrine, exocrine tissues, transcytosis and the vesiculo - vacuolar organelle ( vvo ) in endothelial and perhaps other cell types. another form of transfer of pieces of membrane around junctions is called trans - endocytosis. some large intercellular vesicles also appear to stay intact as they transport their contents from one part of a tissue to another and involve gap junction plaques. = = = communication in nervous systems = = = when we think of intercellular communication we often use our nervous system as a point of reference. nerves made up of many cells in vertebrates are typically highly specialized in form and function usually being the most complex in the brain. they ensure rapid precise, directional cell to cell communication over longer distances, for example from your brain to your hand. the nerve cells can be thought of as intermediary's, not so much communicating with each other but rather passing on the messages from one neighboring cell to another. being " accessory " cells that pass on the message they require an additional space and can consume a lot of energy within an organism. simpler organisms such as
Answer:
|
Molecules
| null |
Items are all ultimately compromised of which?
0. Cells
1. Molecules
2. Air
3. Nerves
. most of the elements needed for life are relatively common in the earth's crust. aluminium, the third most common element in the earth's crust ( after oxygen and silicon ), serves no function in living cells, but is toxic in large amounts, depending on its physical and chemical forms and magnitude, duration, frequency of exposure, and how it was absorbed by the human body. transferrins can bind aluminium. = = = periodic table = = = = = composition = = the composition of the human body can be classified as follows : water proteins fats ( or lipids ) hydroxyapatite in bones carbohydrates such as glycogen and glucose dna and rna inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate gases mainly being oxygen, carbon dioxide many cofactors. the estimated contents of a typical 20 - micrometre human cell is as follows : = = tissues = = body composition can also be expressed in terms of various types of material, such as : muscle fat bone and teeth nervous tissue ( brain and nerves ) hormones connective tissue body fluids ( blood, lymph, urine ) contents of digestive tract, including intestinal gas air in lungs epithelium = = = composition by cell type = = = there are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. in fact, there are roughly as many microbial as human cells in the human body by number. ( much less by mass or volume ). some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms. = = see also = = list of organs of the human body hydrostatic weighing dietary element composition of blood list of human blood components body composition abundance of elements in earth's crust abundance of the chemical elements = = references = =
##toskeleton is made of fibers that support the structure of the cell and help the cell move. = = physiological processes = = there are different ways through which cells can transport substances across the cell membrane. the two main pathways are passive transport and active transport. passive transport is more direct and does not require the use of the cell's energy. it relies on an area that maintains a high - to - low concentration gradient. active transport uses adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) to transport a substance that moves against its concentration gradient. = = = movement of proteins = = = the pathway for proteins to move in cells starts at the er. lipids and proteins are synthesized in the er, and carbohydrates are added to make glycoproteins. glycoproteins undergo further synthesis in the golgi apparatus, becoming glycolipids. both glycoproteins and glycolipids are transported into vesicles to the plasma membrane. the cell releases secretory proteins known as exocytosis. = = = transport of ions = = = ions travel across cell membranes through channels, pumps or transporters. in channels, they move down an electrochemical gradient to produce electrical signals. pumps maintain electrochemical gradients. the main type of pump is the na / k pump. it moves 3 sodium ions out of a cell and 2 potassium ions into a cell. the process converts one atp molecule to adenosine diphosphate ( adp ) and phosphate. in a transporter, ions use more than one gradient to produce electrical signals. = = = endocytosis in animal cells = = = endocytosis is a form of active transport where a cell takes in molecules, using the plasma membrane, and packages them into vesicles. : 139 β 140 = = = phagocytosis = = = in phagocytosis, a cell surrounds particles including food particles through an extension of the pseudopods, which are located on the plasma membrane. the pseudopods then package the particles in a food vacuole. the lysosome, which contains hydrolytic enzymes, then fuses with the food vacuole. hydrolytic enzymes, also known as digestive enzymes, then digest the particles within the food vacuole. : 139 β 140 = = = pinocytosis = = = in pinocytosis, a cell takes in ( " gulps " ) extracellular fluid into vesicles,
within a lipid membrane ). in theory, a large dna virus could take control of a bacterial or archaeal cell. instead of replicating and destroying the host cell, it would remain within the cell, thus overcoming the tradeoff dilemma typically faced by viruses. with the virus in control of the host cell's molecular machinery, it would effectively become a functional nucleus. through the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis, the virus would thus recruit the entire cell as a symbiont β a new way to survive and proliferate. = = other views = = = = see also = = endogenous retrovirus endogenous viral element paleovirology = = references = = = = further reading = =
in cells that are only used for storage of nutrients. despite its useful functioning in many cells, endoreduplication has also been observed in cancerous cells, and it is not fully understood whether endoreduplication leads to cancerous behavior or whether other mutations lead to endoreduplication. other mechanisms may be involved in mediating these changes. = = references = =
neuromuscular junction to stimulate a muscle to contract is an example of very small ( about 0. 05ΞΌm ) vesicles being directly involved in regulating intercellular communication. the neuron produces thousands of tiny vesicles, each containing thousands of signalling molecules. one vesicle is released close to the muscle every second or so when resting. when activated by a nerve impulse more than 100 vesicles will be released at once, hundreds of thousands of signalling molecules, causing a significant contraction of the muscle fiber. all this happens in a small fraction of a second. generally small vesicles used to transport signalling molecules released from the cell are termed exosomes or simply extracellular vesicles ( ev ), and in addition to their importance to the organism they are also important for biosensors. extracellular vesicles can be released from malignant cancer cells. these extracellular vesicles have been shown to contain gap junction proteins over - expressed in the malignant cells that spread to non - cancerous cells appearing to enhance the spread of the malignancy. vesicles are also associated with the transport of materials outside of the cell to enable growth and repair of tissues in the extracellular matrix. in situations such as these they may be given special designations such as matrix vesicles ( mv ). examples of larger vesicles are in regulatory secretary pathways in endocrine, exocrine tissues, transcytosis and the vesiculo - vacuolar organelle ( vvo ) in endothelial and perhaps other cell types. another form of transfer of pieces of membrane around junctions is called trans - endocytosis. some large intercellular vesicles also appear to stay intact as they transport their contents from one part of a tissue to another and involve gap junction plaques. = = = communication in nervous systems = = = when we think of intercellular communication we often use our nervous system as a point of reference. nerves made up of many cells in vertebrates are typically highly specialized in form and function usually being the most complex in the brain. they ensure rapid precise, directional cell to cell communication over longer distances, for example from your brain to your hand. the nerve cells can be thought of as intermediary's, not so much communicating with each other but rather passing on the messages from one neighboring cell to another. being " accessory " cells that pass on the message they require an additional space and can consume a lot of energy within an organism. simpler organisms such as
Answer:
|
Nerves
| 0.3 |
If a liquid disappears then that liquid probably did what?
0. gasify
1. condense
2. melted
3. solidified
pressure is reduced, the excess gas comes out of solution. fizzy drinks are made by subjecting the liquid to carbon dioxide, under pressure. in champagne the co2 is produced naturally in the final stage of fermentation. when the bottle or can is opened some gas is released in the form of bubbles. release of gas from supersaturated tissues can cause an underwater diver to suffer from decompression sickness ( a. k. a. the bends ) when returning to the surface. this can be fatal if the released gas obstructs critical blood supplies causing ischaemia in vital tissues. dissolved gases can be released during oil exploration when a strike is made. this occurs because the oil in oil - bearing rock is under considerable pressure from the over - lying rock, allowing the oil to be supersaturated with respect to dissolved gases. = = = liquid formation from a mixture of gases = = = a cloudburst is an extreme form of production of liquid water from a supersaturated mixture of air and water vapour in the atmosphere. supersaturation in the vapour phase is related to the surface tension of liquids through the kelvin equation, the gibbs β thomson effect and the poynting effect. the international association for the properties of water and steam ( iapws ) provides a special equation for the gibbs free energy in the metastable - vapor region of water in its revised release on the iapws industrial formulation 1997 for the thermodynamic properties of water and steam. all thermodynamic properties for the metastable - vapor region of water can be derived from this equation by means of the appropriate relations of thermodynamic properties to the gibbs free energy. = = measurement = = when measuring the concentration of a solute in a supersaturated gaseous or liquid mixture it is obvious that the pressure inside the cuvette may be greater than the ambient pressure. when this is so a specialized cuvette must be used. the choice of analytical technique to use will depend on the characteristics of the analyte. = = applications = = the characteristics of supersaturation have practical applications in terms of pharmaceuticals. by creating a supersaturated solution of a certain drug, it can be ingested in liquid form. the drug can be made driven into a supersaturated state through any normal mechanism and then prevented from precipitating out by adding precipitation inhibitors. drugs in this state are referred to as " supersaturating drug delivery services
solution, eventually creating cumulates. however, when this is interrupted by sudden eruption of the melt as lava, or when the density of the crystals and remaining melt remains similar, they become entrapped in the final rock. this can also occur when the chemical composition of the remaining melt is close to the eutectic point as it cools, resulting in multiple different minerals solidifying at once and filling the remaining space simultaneously, limiting their size and shape. = = references = =
gas layers as a function of their relative density. diffusion forces efficiently counteract gravitation forces under normal conditions prevailing on earth. the case of condensable vapors is different : once the saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature is reached, vapor excess condenses into the liquid state. = = = liquid solutions = = = liquids dissolve gases, other liquids, and solids. an example of a dissolved gas is oxygen in water, which allows fish to breathe under water. an examples of a dissolved liquid is ethanol in water, as found in alcoholic beverages. an example of a dissolved solid is sugar water, which contains dissolved sucrose. = = = solid solutions = = = if the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. gas in solids : hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium ; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage. liquid in solid : mercury in gold, forming an amalgam water in solid salt or sugar, forming moist solids hexane in paraffin wax polymers containing plasticizers such as phthalate ( liquid ) in pvc ( solid ) solid in solid : steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms alloys like bronze and many others radium sulfate dissolved in barium sulfate : a true solid solution of ra in baso4 = = solubility = = the ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. when a liquid can completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. two substances that can never mix to form a solution are said to be immiscible. all solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. the interactions between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or not. if interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. at some point, the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be dissolved ; the solution is said to be saturated. however, the point at which a solution can become saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. for some solute - solvent combinations, a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the solubility ( for example by increasing the temperature ) to dissolve more solute and then lowering it ( for example by cooling ). usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. however, most
on the phases that are involved in the system, phase change problems can be classified as : ( 1 ) solid β liquid phase change ( melting and solidification ), ( 2 ) solid β vapor phase change ( sublimation and deposition ), and ( 3 ) liquid β vapor phase change ( boiling / evaporation and condensation ). melting and sublimation are also referred to as fluidification because both liquid and vapor are regarded as fluids. = = references = = faghri, a., and zhang, y., 2020, fundamentals of multiphase heat transfer and flow, isbn 978 - 3 - 030 - 22136 - 2, springer nature switzerland ag. faghri, a., and zhang, y., 2006, transport phenomena in multiphase systems, isbn 0 - 12 - 370610 - 6, elsevier, burlington, ma. lock, g. s. h., 1994, latent heat transfer, oxford science publications, oxford university, oxford, uk.
and g { \ displaystyle g } in fig. 1 ) bubbles nucleate so the fluid is no longer homogeneous, but rather it has become a heterogeneous mixture of boiling liquid and condensing vapor. gravity separates the boiling ( saturated ) liquid, v f = v f / n f { \ displaystyle v _ { f } = v _ { f } / n _ { f } }, from the less dense condensing ( saturated ) vapor, v g = v g / n g > v f, { \ displaystyle v _ { \ text { g } } = v _ { \ text { g } } / n _ { \ text { g } } > v _ { f }, } that coexist at the same saturation temperature and pressure. as the heating continues the amount of vapor, n g { \ displaystyle n _ { \ text { g } } } increases and that of the liquid, n f = n β n g { \ displaystyle n _ { f } = n - n _ { \ text { g } } }, decreases. all the while the pressure, p s { \ displaystyle p _ { s } } and temperature, t { \ displaystyle t }, remain constant and the volume v = v f + v g { \ displaystyle v = v _ { f } + v _ { \ text { g } } } increases. in this situation the molar volume of the mixture is a weighted average of its components v = v / n = ( v f / n f ) ( n β n g ) / n + ( v g / n g ) ( n g / n ) = v f ( 1 β x ) + v g x { \ displaystyle v = v / n = ( v _ { f } / n _ { f } ) ( n - n _ { \ text { g } } ) / n + ( v _ { \ text { g } } / n _ { \ text { g } } ) ( n _ { \ text { g } } / n ) = v _ { f } ( 1 - x ) + v _ { \ text { g } } x } where x = n g / n { \ displaystyle x = n _ { \ text { g } } / n }, the mole fraction of the vapor, 0 β€ x β€ 1 { \ displaystyle 0 \ leq x \ leq 1 }, increases continuously ; however, the mo
Answer:
|
gasify
| null |
If a liquid disappears then that liquid probably did what?
0. gasify
1. condense
2. melted
3. solidified
pressure is reduced, the excess gas comes out of solution. fizzy drinks are made by subjecting the liquid to carbon dioxide, under pressure. in champagne the co2 is produced naturally in the final stage of fermentation. when the bottle or can is opened some gas is released in the form of bubbles. release of gas from supersaturated tissues can cause an underwater diver to suffer from decompression sickness ( a. k. a. the bends ) when returning to the surface. this can be fatal if the released gas obstructs critical blood supplies causing ischaemia in vital tissues. dissolved gases can be released during oil exploration when a strike is made. this occurs because the oil in oil - bearing rock is under considerable pressure from the over - lying rock, allowing the oil to be supersaturated with respect to dissolved gases. = = = liquid formation from a mixture of gases = = = a cloudburst is an extreme form of production of liquid water from a supersaturated mixture of air and water vapour in the atmosphere. supersaturation in the vapour phase is related to the surface tension of liquids through the kelvin equation, the gibbs β thomson effect and the poynting effect. the international association for the properties of water and steam ( iapws ) provides a special equation for the gibbs free energy in the metastable - vapor region of water in its revised release on the iapws industrial formulation 1997 for the thermodynamic properties of water and steam. all thermodynamic properties for the metastable - vapor region of water can be derived from this equation by means of the appropriate relations of thermodynamic properties to the gibbs free energy. = = measurement = = when measuring the concentration of a solute in a supersaturated gaseous or liquid mixture it is obvious that the pressure inside the cuvette may be greater than the ambient pressure. when this is so a specialized cuvette must be used. the choice of analytical technique to use will depend on the characteristics of the analyte. = = applications = = the characteristics of supersaturation have practical applications in terms of pharmaceuticals. by creating a supersaturated solution of a certain drug, it can be ingested in liquid form. the drug can be made driven into a supersaturated state through any normal mechanism and then prevented from precipitating out by adding precipitation inhibitors. drugs in this state are referred to as " supersaturating drug delivery services
solution, eventually creating cumulates. however, when this is interrupted by sudden eruption of the melt as lava, or when the density of the crystals and remaining melt remains similar, they become entrapped in the final rock. this can also occur when the chemical composition of the remaining melt is close to the eutectic point as it cools, resulting in multiple different minerals solidifying at once and filling the remaining space simultaneously, limiting their size and shape. = = references = =
gas layers as a function of their relative density. diffusion forces efficiently counteract gravitation forces under normal conditions prevailing on earth. the case of condensable vapors is different : once the saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature is reached, vapor excess condenses into the liquid state. = = = liquid solutions = = = liquids dissolve gases, other liquids, and solids. an example of a dissolved gas is oxygen in water, which allows fish to breathe under water. an examples of a dissolved liquid is ethanol in water, as found in alcoholic beverages. an example of a dissolved solid is sugar water, which contains dissolved sucrose. = = = solid solutions = = = if the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. gas in solids : hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium ; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage. liquid in solid : mercury in gold, forming an amalgam water in solid salt or sugar, forming moist solids hexane in paraffin wax polymers containing plasticizers such as phthalate ( liquid ) in pvc ( solid ) solid in solid : steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms alloys like bronze and many others radium sulfate dissolved in barium sulfate : a true solid solution of ra in baso4 = = solubility = = the ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. when a liquid can completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. two substances that can never mix to form a solution are said to be immiscible. all solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. the interactions between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or not. if interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. at some point, the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be dissolved ; the solution is said to be saturated. however, the point at which a solution can become saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. for some solute - solvent combinations, a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the solubility ( for example by increasing the temperature ) to dissolve more solute and then lowering it ( for example by cooling ). usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. however, most
on the phases that are involved in the system, phase change problems can be classified as : ( 1 ) solid β liquid phase change ( melting and solidification ), ( 2 ) solid β vapor phase change ( sublimation and deposition ), and ( 3 ) liquid β vapor phase change ( boiling / evaporation and condensation ). melting and sublimation are also referred to as fluidification because both liquid and vapor are regarded as fluids. = = references = = faghri, a., and zhang, y., 2020, fundamentals of multiphase heat transfer and flow, isbn 978 - 3 - 030 - 22136 - 2, springer nature switzerland ag. faghri, a., and zhang, y., 2006, transport phenomena in multiphase systems, isbn 0 - 12 - 370610 - 6, elsevier, burlington, ma. lock, g. s. h., 1994, latent heat transfer, oxford science publications, oxford university, oxford, uk.
and g { \ displaystyle g } in fig. 1 ) bubbles nucleate so the fluid is no longer homogeneous, but rather it has become a heterogeneous mixture of boiling liquid and condensing vapor. gravity separates the boiling ( saturated ) liquid, v f = v f / n f { \ displaystyle v _ { f } = v _ { f } / n _ { f } }, from the less dense condensing ( saturated ) vapor, v g = v g / n g > v f, { \ displaystyle v _ { \ text { g } } = v _ { \ text { g } } / n _ { \ text { g } } > v _ { f }, } that coexist at the same saturation temperature and pressure. as the heating continues the amount of vapor, n g { \ displaystyle n _ { \ text { g } } } increases and that of the liquid, n f = n β n g { \ displaystyle n _ { f } = n - n _ { \ text { g } } }, decreases. all the while the pressure, p s { \ displaystyle p _ { s } } and temperature, t { \ displaystyle t }, remain constant and the volume v = v f + v g { \ displaystyle v = v _ { f } + v _ { \ text { g } } } increases. in this situation the molar volume of the mixture is a weighted average of its components v = v / n = ( v f / n f ) ( n β n g ) / n + ( v g / n g ) ( n g / n ) = v f ( 1 β x ) + v g x { \ displaystyle v = v / n = ( v _ { f } / n _ { f } ) ( n - n _ { \ text { g } } ) / n + ( v _ { \ text { g } } / n _ { \ text { g } } ) ( n _ { \ text { g } } / n ) = v _ { f } ( 1 - x ) + v _ { \ text { g } } x } where x = n g / n { \ displaystyle x = n _ { \ text { g } } / n }, the mole fraction of the vapor, 0 β€ x β€ 1 { \ displaystyle 0 \ leq x \ leq 1 }, increases continuously ; however, the mo
Answer:
|
solidified
| 0.3 |
What best explains a muddy road becoming dry later?
0. alien heat rays
1. evaporation
2. precipitation
3. torrential rain
major contamination source in many watersheds throughout the united states. : vii the report explained that "... further declines in water quality remain likely if the land - use changes that typify more diffuse sources of pollution are not addressed... these include land - disturbing agricultural, silvicultural, urban, industrial, and construction activities from which hard - to - monitor pollutants emerge during wet - weather events. pollution from these landscapes has been almost universally acknowledged as the most pressing challenge to the restoration of waterbodies and aquatic ecosystems nationwide. " : 24 the runoff also increases temperatures in streams, harming fish and other organisms. ( a sudden burst of runoff from a rainstorm can cause a fish - killing shock of hot water. ) also, road salt used to melt snow on sidewalks and roadways can contaminate streams and groundwater aquifers. one of the most pronounced effects of urban runoff is on watercourses that historically contained little or no water during dry weather periods ( often called ephemeral streams ). when an area around such a stream is urbanized, the resultant runoff creates an unnatural year - round streamflow that hurts the vegetation, wildlife and stream bed of the waterway. containing little or no sediment relative to the historic ratio of sediment to water, urban runoff rushes down the stream channel, ruining natural features such as meanders and sandbars, and creates severe erosion β increasing sediment loads at the mouth while severely carving the stream bed upstream. as an example, on many southern california beaches at the mouth of a waterway, urban runoff carries trash, pollutants, excessive silt, and other wastes, and can pose moderate to severe health hazards. because of fertilizer and organic waste that urban runoff often carries, eutrophication often occurs in waterways affected by this type of runoff. after heavy rains, organic matter in the waterway is relatively high compared with natural levels, spurring growth of algae blooms that soon consume most of the oxygen. once the naturally occurring oxygen in the water is depleted, the algae blooms die, and their decomposition causes further eutrophication. these algae blooms mostly occur in areas with still water, such as stream pools and the pools behind dams, weirs, and some drop structures. eutrophication usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures
reason. in areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. however, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. on the extremely ancient soils of australia and southern africa, proteoid roots with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even with substantial amounts of rainfall. in these regions, even on less infertile cracking clay soils, high amounts of rainfall and potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable ( usually ephemeral ) streams. = = = infiltration excess overland flow = = = this occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. this is also called hortonian overland flow ( after robert e. horton ), or unsaturated overland flow. this more commonly occurs in arid and semi - arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing, or in urban areas where pavements prevent water from infiltrating. = = = saturation excess overland flow = = = when the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. the level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. this runoff is called saturation excess overland flow, saturated overland flow, or dunne runoff. = = = antecedent soil moisture = = = soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. this residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration capacity. during the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. the higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. therefore, surface runoff is a significantly factor in the controlling of soil moisture after medium and low intensity storms. = = = subsurface return flow = = = after water infiltrates the soil on an up - slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate ( flow out of the soil ) closer to a channel. this is called subsurface return flow or throughflow. as it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways : a small portion of it may evapotranspire ; water may become temporarily stored in micro
on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are then transported to the oceans through a variety of mechanisms : streams and rivers : various forms of runoff deposit large amounts of sediment into the oceans, mostly in the form of finer - grained particles. about 90 % of the lithogenous sediment in the oceans is thought to have come from river discharge, particularly from asia. most of this sediment, especially the larger particles, will be deposited and remain fairly close to the coastline, however, smaller clay particles may remain suspended in the water column for long periods of time and may be transported great distances from the source. wind : windborne ( aeolian ) transport can take small particles of sand and dust and move them thousands of kilometres from the source. these small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down, or can serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes form. aeolian transport is particularly important near desert areas. glaciers and ice rafting : as glaciers grind their way over land, they pick up lots of soil and rock particles, including very large boulders, that get carried by the ice. when the glacier meets the ocean and begins to break apart or melt, these particles get deposited. most of the deposition will happen close to where the glacier meets the water, but a small amount of material is also transported longer distances by rafting, where larger pieces of ice drift far from the glacier before releasing their sediment. gravity : landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and other gravity - driven events can deposit large amounts of material into the ocean when they happen close to shore. waves : wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will pull loose particles from beaches and shorelines into the water. volcanoes : volcanic eruptions emit vast amounts of ash and other debris into the atmosphere, where it can then be transported by wind to eventually get deposited in the oceans. gastroliths : another, relatively minor, means of transporting lithogenous sediment to the ocean are gastroliths. gastrolith means " stomach stone ". many animals, including seabirds, pinnipeds, and some crocodiles deliberately swallow stones and regurgitate them latter. stones swallowed on land can be regurgitated at sea. the stones can help grind food in the stomach or act as
surface runoff ( also known as overland flow or terrestrial runoff ) is the unconfined flow of water over the ground surface, in contrast to channel runoff ( or stream flow ). it occurs when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. this can occur when the soil is saturated by water to its full capacity, and the rain arrives more quickly than the soil can absorb it. surface runoff often occurs because impervious areas ( such as roofs and pavement ) do not allow water to soak into the ground. furthermore, runoff can occur either through natural or human - made processes. surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. it is the primary agent of soil erosion by water. the land area producing runoff that drains to a common point is called a drainage basin. runoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a channel can be a nonpoint source of pollution, as it can carry human - made contaminants or natural forms of pollution ( such as rotting leaves ). human - made contaminants in runoff include petroleum, pesticides, fertilizers and others. much agricultural pollution is exacerbated by surface runoff, leading to a number of down stream impacts, including nutrient pollution that causes eutrophication. in addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface runoff in urban areas is a primary cause of urban flooding, which can result in property damage, damp and mold in basements, and street flooding. = = generation = = surface runoff is defined as precipitation ( rain, snow, sleet, or hail ) that reaches a surface stream without ever passing below the soil surface. it is distinct from direct runoff, which is runoff that reaches surface streams immediately after rainfall or melting snowfall and excludes runoff generated by the melting of snowpack or glaciers. snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. the determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. in high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason. in areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. however, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. on the extremely ancient soils of australia and southern africa, proteoid roots with their
through a drainage basin is proportional to the square of drainage density : q r u n o f f d d 2. { \ displaystyle q _ { runoff } \ propto d _ { d } ^ { 2 }. } this relation illustrates that a higher - drainage - density environment transports water more efficiently through the basin. in a relatively low - drainage - density environment, the lower average discharge results predicted by this relation would be the result of the surface runoff spending more time travelling over hillslope and having a larger time for infiltration to occur. the increased infiltration results in a decreased surface runoff according to the water balance equation. these two equations agree with each other and follow the water balance equation. according to the equations, in a basin with high drainage density, the contribution of surface runoff to stream discharge will be high, while that from baseflow will be low. conversely, a stream in a low - drainage - density system will have a larger contribution from baseflow and a smaller contribution from overland flow. = = relation to hydrographs = = the discharge through the central stream draining a catchment reflects the drainage density, which makes it a useful diagnostic for predicting the flooding behavior of a catchment following a storm event due to being intimately tied to the hydrograph. the material that overland flow travels over is one factor that influences the speed that water can flow out of a catchment. water flows significantly slower over hillslopes compared to channels. according to horton's interpretation of half of the inverse of drainage density as the average length of overland flow implies that overland flow in high - drainage environments will reach a fast - flowing channel faster over a shorter range. on the hydrograph, the peak is higher and occurs over a shorter range. this more compact and higher peak is often referred to as being " flashy ". the timing of the hydrograph in relation to the peak of the hyetograph is influenced by the drainage density. the water that enters a high - drainage watershed during a storm will reach a channel relatively fast and travel in the high - velocity channels to the outlet of the watershed in a relatively short time. conversely, the water entering a low - drainage - density basin will, on average, have to travel a longer distance over the low - velocity hillslope to reach the channels. as a result, the water will require more time to reach the exit of the catchment. the lag time between the peak of the hyetograph and the hydrograph is then inversely related to drainage density ; as drainage density
Answer:
|
evaporation
| null |
What best explains a muddy road becoming dry later?
0. alien heat rays
1. evaporation
2. precipitation
3. torrential rain
major contamination source in many watersheds throughout the united states. : vii the report explained that "... further declines in water quality remain likely if the land - use changes that typify more diffuse sources of pollution are not addressed... these include land - disturbing agricultural, silvicultural, urban, industrial, and construction activities from which hard - to - monitor pollutants emerge during wet - weather events. pollution from these landscapes has been almost universally acknowledged as the most pressing challenge to the restoration of waterbodies and aquatic ecosystems nationwide. " : 24 the runoff also increases temperatures in streams, harming fish and other organisms. ( a sudden burst of runoff from a rainstorm can cause a fish - killing shock of hot water. ) also, road salt used to melt snow on sidewalks and roadways can contaminate streams and groundwater aquifers. one of the most pronounced effects of urban runoff is on watercourses that historically contained little or no water during dry weather periods ( often called ephemeral streams ). when an area around such a stream is urbanized, the resultant runoff creates an unnatural year - round streamflow that hurts the vegetation, wildlife and stream bed of the waterway. containing little or no sediment relative to the historic ratio of sediment to water, urban runoff rushes down the stream channel, ruining natural features such as meanders and sandbars, and creates severe erosion β increasing sediment loads at the mouth while severely carving the stream bed upstream. as an example, on many southern california beaches at the mouth of a waterway, urban runoff carries trash, pollutants, excessive silt, and other wastes, and can pose moderate to severe health hazards. because of fertilizer and organic waste that urban runoff often carries, eutrophication often occurs in waterways affected by this type of runoff. after heavy rains, organic matter in the waterway is relatively high compared with natural levels, spurring growth of algae blooms that soon consume most of the oxygen. once the naturally occurring oxygen in the water is depleted, the algae blooms die, and their decomposition causes further eutrophication. these algae blooms mostly occur in areas with still water, such as stream pools and the pools behind dams, weirs, and some drop structures. eutrophication usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures
reason. in areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. however, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. on the extremely ancient soils of australia and southern africa, proteoid roots with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even with substantial amounts of rainfall. in these regions, even on less infertile cracking clay soils, high amounts of rainfall and potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable ( usually ephemeral ) streams. = = = infiltration excess overland flow = = = this occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. this is also called hortonian overland flow ( after robert e. horton ), or unsaturated overland flow. this more commonly occurs in arid and semi - arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing, or in urban areas where pavements prevent water from infiltrating. = = = saturation excess overland flow = = = when the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. the level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. this runoff is called saturation excess overland flow, saturated overland flow, or dunne runoff. = = = antecedent soil moisture = = = soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. this residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration capacity. during the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. the higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. therefore, surface runoff is a significantly factor in the controlling of soil moisture after medium and low intensity storms. = = = subsurface return flow = = = after water infiltrates the soil on an up - slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate ( flow out of the soil ) closer to a channel. this is called subsurface return flow or throughflow. as it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways : a small portion of it may evapotranspire ; water may become temporarily stored in micro
on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are then transported to the oceans through a variety of mechanisms : streams and rivers : various forms of runoff deposit large amounts of sediment into the oceans, mostly in the form of finer - grained particles. about 90 % of the lithogenous sediment in the oceans is thought to have come from river discharge, particularly from asia. most of this sediment, especially the larger particles, will be deposited and remain fairly close to the coastline, however, smaller clay particles may remain suspended in the water column for long periods of time and may be transported great distances from the source. wind : windborne ( aeolian ) transport can take small particles of sand and dust and move them thousands of kilometres from the source. these small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down, or can serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes form. aeolian transport is particularly important near desert areas. glaciers and ice rafting : as glaciers grind their way over land, they pick up lots of soil and rock particles, including very large boulders, that get carried by the ice. when the glacier meets the ocean and begins to break apart or melt, these particles get deposited. most of the deposition will happen close to where the glacier meets the water, but a small amount of material is also transported longer distances by rafting, where larger pieces of ice drift far from the glacier before releasing their sediment. gravity : landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and other gravity - driven events can deposit large amounts of material into the ocean when they happen close to shore. waves : wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will pull loose particles from beaches and shorelines into the water. volcanoes : volcanic eruptions emit vast amounts of ash and other debris into the atmosphere, where it can then be transported by wind to eventually get deposited in the oceans. gastroliths : another, relatively minor, means of transporting lithogenous sediment to the ocean are gastroliths. gastrolith means " stomach stone ". many animals, including seabirds, pinnipeds, and some crocodiles deliberately swallow stones and regurgitate them latter. stones swallowed on land can be regurgitated at sea. the stones can help grind food in the stomach or act as
surface runoff ( also known as overland flow or terrestrial runoff ) is the unconfined flow of water over the ground surface, in contrast to channel runoff ( or stream flow ). it occurs when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. this can occur when the soil is saturated by water to its full capacity, and the rain arrives more quickly than the soil can absorb it. surface runoff often occurs because impervious areas ( such as roofs and pavement ) do not allow water to soak into the ground. furthermore, runoff can occur either through natural or human - made processes. surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. it is the primary agent of soil erosion by water. the land area producing runoff that drains to a common point is called a drainage basin. runoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a channel can be a nonpoint source of pollution, as it can carry human - made contaminants or natural forms of pollution ( such as rotting leaves ). human - made contaminants in runoff include petroleum, pesticides, fertilizers and others. much agricultural pollution is exacerbated by surface runoff, leading to a number of down stream impacts, including nutrient pollution that causes eutrophication. in addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface runoff in urban areas is a primary cause of urban flooding, which can result in property damage, damp and mold in basements, and street flooding. = = generation = = surface runoff is defined as precipitation ( rain, snow, sleet, or hail ) that reaches a surface stream without ever passing below the soil surface. it is distinct from direct runoff, which is runoff that reaches surface streams immediately after rainfall or melting snowfall and excludes runoff generated by the melting of snowpack or glaciers. snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. the determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. in high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason. in areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. however, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. on the extremely ancient soils of australia and southern africa, proteoid roots with their
through a drainage basin is proportional to the square of drainage density : q r u n o f f d d 2. { \ displaystyle q _ { runoff } \ propto d _ { d } ^ { 2 }. } this relation illustrates that a higher - drainage - density environment transports water more efficiently through the basin. in a relatively low - drainage - density environment, the lower average discharge results predicted by this relation would be the result of the surface runoff spending more time travelling over hillslope and having a larger time for infiltration to occur. the increased infiltration results in a decreased surface runoff according to the water balance equation. these two equations agree with each other and follow the water balance equation. according to the equations, in a basin with high drainage density, the contribution of surface runoff to stream discharge will be high, while that from baseflow will be low. conversely, a stream in a low - drainage - density system will have a larger contribution from baseflow and a smaller contribution from overland flow. = = relation to hydrographs = = the discharge through the central stream draining a catchment reflects the drainage density, which makes it a useful diagnostic for predicting the flooding behavior of a catchment following a storm event due to being intimately tied to the hydrograph. the material that overland flow travels over is one factor that influences the speed that water can flow out of a catchment. water flows significantly slower over hillslopes compared to channels. according to horton's interpretation of half of the inverse of drainage density as the average length of overland flow implies that overland flow in high - drainage environments will reach a fast - flowing channel faster over a shorter range. on the hydrograph, the peak is higher and occurs over a shorter range. this more compact and higher peak is often referred to as being " flashy ". the timing of the hydrograph in relation to the peak of the hyetograph is influenced by the drainage density. the water that enters a high - drainage watershed during a storm will reach a channel relatively fast and travel in the high - velocity channels to the outlet of the watershed in a relatively short time. conversely, the water entering a low - drainage - density basin will, on average, have to travel a longer distance over the low - velocity hillslope to reach the channels. as a result, the water will require more time to reach the exit of the catchment. the lag time between the peak of the hyetograph and the hydrograph is then inversely related to drainage density ; as drainage density
Answer:
|
alien heat rays
| 0.3 |
Pit bulls thin their thicker coats by
0. getting a haircut
1. shaving
2. shedding
3. selling
than during the rut ( mating season ) and for the first six months after giving birth. adult males in particular are widely separated. marking grass and bushes with secretions from their preorbital glands appears to be involved in the acquisition and maintenance of territory. = = in bovids = = the bovids ( family bovidae ) comprise some 140 species of ruminants in which at least the males bear unbranched, hollow horns covered in a permanent sheath of keratin. most species of bovids have means of spacing themselves across their habitat ; territorial behavior is the most consistent type of spacing behavior. caprids ( dwarf antelope, such as the sheep, goats, muskox, serows, gorals, and several similar species ) use their preorbital glands to establish social rank. for example, when competition arises between two grazing sheep ( ovis aries ), they have been observed to nuzzle each other's preorbital glands. by sending and receiving olfactory cues, this behavior appears to be a means of establishing dominance and of avoiding a fight, which would otherwise involve potentially injurious butting or clashing with the forehead. the antilopine bovids ( dwarf antelope, such as the springbok, blackbuck, gazelles, dik - diks, oribi, and several similar species ) have well - developed preorbital glands. among the cephalophines, members of the philantomba and sylvicapra genera are all solitary animals which display territorial behavior and have well - developed preorbital glands. maxwell's duiker ( philantomba maxwellii ) is a solitary animal which utilizes preorbital gland secretions to mark its territory. this behavior is observed most in adult males, less frequently in females, and less still in subadults of this species. secretions from the preorbital gland of the common duiker contain at least 33 different chemical compounds. two thiazole compounds and an epoxy ketone are present in significantly higher concentrations in male than in female secretions, suggesting that they could serve as sex recognition cues. the alcephine bovids ( wildebeests, hartebeests, hirola, bontebok, blesbok, and several similar species ) have preorbital glands which secrete complex mixtures of chemical compounds. the preor
success of 37 β 100 % over 15 attempted hunts. hunters who hunted with bows and arrows had a hunting success of only 5 %, whereas others who hunted with springhare probe had a hunting success of 14 % and yet others who used clubs and spears had a success rate of 45 %. the study was based on the hunting methods of the bushmen in southern africa. = = = factors influencing success of human hunters = = = in kentucky, us, a study was conducted about the factors influencing the flush and hunting success of hunters in three game species which were ruffed grouse, northern bobwhite and the cottontail rabbit. encounter rates may have effects on population dynamics, hunter satisfaction, and hunter retention. in a 12 - year span between 2003 and 2015, there were about 3, 948 grouse hunts, 19, 301 rabbit hunts, and 4, 798 bobwhite hunts took place. in this case, hunting success was defined as the number of animals a hunting party flushed out. hunting success was expected to increase over the hunting season due to cover being reduced and weather being more hospitable for upland hunting. hunting was usually enhanced when more hunters and dogs were introduced to hunting parties. = = = hunting types and methods = = = there are many types of hunting that human hunters employ, these types include recreational hunting ( e. g. trophy hunting ), medium / small game hunting ( e. g. deer hunting ), fowling, pest control / nuisance management, commercial hunting ( e. g. whaling ) and poaching. in terms of hunting methods 24 methods are used. this methods include baiting ( i. e. the use of baits to lure animals ), battue ( i. e. scaring animals into a killing zone ), beagling ( i. e. using beagles in hunts ), the use of camouflage to hunt, shooting, the use of dogs, persistence hunting ( i. e. use of stamina to exhaust prey ), stalking and much more. modern regulations differentiate between lawful hunting and illegal poaching, where uncontrolled hunting of animals occur. historical, substinence, and sport hunting can greatly differ, with modern hunting regulations addressing the issues of hunting and the most sustainable way to hunt. techniques vary between government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local practices, hunting equipment, and the target animal species. hunters may use a combined of two or more hunting techniques, though law may forbid hunters
by geographic region. for example, the progeny from one area may have a higher percentage of terrier than bulldog, whereas other reports claim that bulldog to terrier was preferred over bull and terrier to bull terrier. dog breeders made careful selections to reinforce inheritable traits from specific dog types. many of the mixed breed types, or mongrels that were used to create the early fighting dogs have long since evolved and stabilised into the modern purebred dogs we know today. many of the desirable phylogenetic traits of the breed's ancestry have been preserved and further refined by selective breeding to better suit the stafford's modern purpose as a conformation show dog, while the unwanted traits have been bred out. = = = two bull terriers = = = in the mid β 19th century, bull and terrier hybrids were known by several different aliases, such as the patched fighting terrier, staffordshire pit - dog, brindle bull, and bull - and - terrier. they were also referred to as half - and - halfs, half - breds, or more commonly as the bull and terrier, although they were not true breeds in the same sense that modern dog breeds are known. however, at least six modern breeds can trace their ancestry to the bull and terrier crosses. another common name used for bull and terrier was simply bull terrier, which became the name for the new breed that james hinks developed. : 18 hinks used various undocumented outcrosses, including dalmatians and collies, that devotees of the original strain considered undesirable. they chose instead to remain loyal to their preferred type. as a result, two different breeds of bull terriers emerged : the bull terrier, nicknamed the white cavalier, and the staffordshire bull terrier, named for the county where it was developed. the bull terrier's fighting heritage was left behind whereas breeders of staffordshire bull terriers in the uk continued their illegal competitions which paralleled what was happening in the u. s. with the american staffordshire terrier ; neither breed could gain official acceptance in their respective native lands. journalist and dog expert denise flaim stated succinctly : " no established registry wanted to be affiliated with a dog that drew the blood of its own kind for a living. " = = = recognition as a purebred = = = traceable pedigrees did not exist prior to the founding of the kennel club ( kc ) in 1873, which was initially
in finance, a bull is a speculator in a stock market who buys a holding in a stock in the expectation that, in the very short - term, it will rise in value, whereupon they will sell the stock to make a quick profit on the transaction. strictly speaking, the term applies to speculators who borrow money to fund such a purchase, and are thus under great pressure to complete the transaction before the loan is repayable or the seller of the stock demands payment on settlement day for delivery of the bargain. if the value of the stock falls contrary to their expectation, a bull suffers a loss, frequently very large if they are trading on margin. a bull has a great incentive to " talk - up " the value of their stock or to manipulate the market of their stock, for example by spreading false rumors, to procure a buyer or to cause a temporary price increase which will provide them with the selling opportunity and profit they require. a bull must be contrasted with an investor, who purchases a stock in expectation of a medium - term ( 5 years ) or long - term increase in value due to the underlying performance of the company and its assets. the speculator who takes a directly opposite view to the bull is the bear, who speculates on a stock decreasing in value, having sold short. a bull market is a period during which stock market prices rise over a sustained period, therefore to the advantage of bulls. = = history of the term = = an early mention of the terms bull and bear appears in the 1769 edition of thomas mortimer's book every man his own broker, published in london, as follows, relating to speculators operating in jonathan's coffee - house in exchange alley ( the original london proto - stock exchange ) : " a bull is the name by which the gentlemen of'change alley choose to call all persons who contract to buy any quantity of government securities, without an intention or ability to pay for it, and who consequently are obliged to sell it again, either at a profit or a loss, before the time comes when they have contracted to take it ". this refers to the former practice of stock - brokers, abolished circa 1980's in london, allowing their clients to trade on credit during a period of about two weeks, known as an account, on the completion of which all purchases and sales made during the account period had to be paid for on the settlement date. a net trading loss would result in the client having to make a cash payment to the broker. = = quasi
larger scrotal circumference and his daughters to reach puberty sooner and therefore have calves sooner. gestation length is an indicator of the probability of dystocia. the longer a calf is in utero the larger it will be at birth and the greater the chance of it having dystocia. it also gives the cow a larger postpartum interval between pregnancies. a shorter gestation length is usually preferred because of this. stayability is an indicator epd of longevity of a bull's daughter in a cow herd. the higher the epd value the greater chance a cow will stay in a herd over six years and continue producing quality offspring. = = = carcass epds = = = carcass weight predicts what an animal's total retail product will be compared to other animals of that breed. it does not however predict percent retail value, or the actual amount of sellable meat that can be produced from the carcass. fat thickness determined the expected external and seam fat the animal will contain. these two factors contribute to the greatest waste in an animal and best way to reduce economic loss. fat thickness epds can help producers reduce this loss, by using animals with mid range epds, so as not to have too little or too much fat. marbling epds are also important in the beef industry for predicting palatability in a beef carcass. they show the estimated usda quality grading system and marbling score an animal would receive if it were slaughtered. this edp is different in that it is measured in units of marbling score, and not in weight gained by an animal. higher values indicate the presence of genes that will produce more intramuscular fat. = = use and accuracy = = epds are used in both scientific research and in typical farm usage. through mathematical equations and computing power epds can be generated for use in both situations. through epds certain phenotypes can be chosen for over others. use of epss and dna markers can help when choosing certain traits over others. by using certain epds of an animal one can rapidly improve genetics of a herd, especially for highly heritable traits such as marbling. in addition, by using a combination of epds and dna markers, epds can be made more accurate. when new dna markers are used, they can help adjust the epd according to the genotype and therefore produce a more accurate measurement. to determine how accurate epds are for an individual, samples of
Answer:
|
shedding
| null |
Pit bulls thin their thicker coats by
0. getting a haircut
1. shaving
2. shedding
3. selling
than during the rut ( mating season ) and for the first six months after giving birth. adult males in particular are widely separated. marking grass and bushes with secretions from their preorbital glands appears to be involved in the acquisition and maintenance of territory. = = in bovids = = the bovids ( family bovidae ) comprise some 140 species of ruminants in which at least the males bear unbranched, hollow horns covered in a permanent sheath of keratin. most species of bovids have means of spacing themselves across their habitat ; territorial behavior is the most consistent type of spacing behavior. caprids ( dwarf antelope, such as the sheep, goats, muskox, serows, gorals, and several similar species ) use their preorbital glands to establish social rank. for example, when competition arises between two grazing sheep ( ovis aries ), they have been observed to nuzzle each other's preorbital glands. by sending and receiving olfactory cues, this behavior appears to be a means of establishing dominance and of avoiding a fight, which would otherwise involve potentially injurious butting or clashing with the forehead. the antilopine bovids ( dwarf antelope, such as the springbok, blackbuck, gazelles, dik - diks, oribi, and several similar species ) have well - developed preorbital glands. among the cephalophines, members of the philantomba and sylvicapra genera are all solitary animals which display territorial behavior and have well - developed preorbital glands. maxwell's duiker ( philantomba maxwellii ) is a solitary animal which utilizes preorbital gland secretions to mark its territory. this behavior is observed most in adult males, less frequently in females, and less still in subadults of this species. secretions from the preorbital gland of the common duiker contain at least 33 different chemical compounds. two thiazole compounds and an epoxy ketone are present in significantly higher concentrations in male than in female secretions, suggesting that they could serve as sex recognition cues. the alcephine bovids ( wildebeests, hartebeests, hirola, bontebok, blesbok, and several similar species ) have preorbital glands which secrete complex mixtures of chemical compounds. the preor
success of 37 β 100 % over 15 attempted hunts. hunters who hunted with bows and arrows had a hunting success of only 5 %, whereas others who hunted with springhare probe had a hunting success of 14 % and yet others who used clubs and spears had a success rate of 45 %. the study was based on the hunting methods of the bushmen in southern africa. = = = factors influencing success of human hunters = = = in kentucky, us, a study was conducted about the factors influencing the flush and hunting success of hunters in three game species which were ruffed grouse, northern bobwhite and the cottontail rabbit. encounter rates may have effects on population dynamics, hunter satisfaction, and hunter retention. in a 12 - year span between 2003 and 2015, there were about 3, 948 grouse hunts, 19, 301 rabbit hunts, and 4, 798 bobwhite hunts took place. in this case, hunting success was defined as the number of animals a hunting party flushed out. hunting success was expected to increase over the hunting season due to cover being reduced and weather being more hospitable for upland hunting. hunting was usually enhanced when more hunters and dogs were introduced to hunting parties. = = = hunting types and methods = = = there are many types of hunting that human hunters employ, these types include recreational hunting ( e. g. trophy hunting ), medium / small game hunting ( e. g. deer hunting ), fowling, pest control / nuisance management, commercial hunting ( e. g. whaling ) and poaching. in terms of hunting methods 24 methods are used. this methods include baiting ( i. e. the use of baits to lure animals ), battue ( i. e. scaring animals into a killing zone ), beagling ( i. e. using beagles in hunts ), the use of camouflage to hunt, shooting, the use of dogs, persistence hunting ( i. e. use of stamina to exhaust prey ), stalking and much more. modern regulations differentiate between lawful hunting and illegal poaching, where uncontrolled hunting of animals occur. historical, substinence, and sport hunting can greatly differ, with modern hunting regulations addressing the issues of hunting and the most sustainable way to hunt. techniques vary between government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local practices, hunting equipment, and the target animal species. hunters may use a combined of two or more hunting techniques, though law may forbid hunters
by geographic region. for example, the progeny from one area may have a higher percentage of terrier than bulldog, whereas other reports claim that bulldog to terrier was preferred over bull and terrier to bull terrier. dog breeders made careful selections to reinforce inheritable traits from specific dog types. many of the mixed breed types, or mongrels that were used to create the early fighting dogs have long since evolved and stabilised into the modern purebred dogs we know today. many of the desirable phylogenetic traits of the breed's ancestry have been preserved and further refined by selective breeding to better suit the stafford's modern purpose as a conformation show dog, while the unwanted traits have been bred out. = = = two bull terriers = = = in the mid β 19th century, bull and terrier hybrids were known by several different aliases, such as the patched fighting terrier, staffordshire pit - dog, brindle bull, and bull - and - terrier. they were also referred to as half - and - halfs, half - breds, or more commonly as the bull and terrier, although they were not true breeds in the same sense that modern dog breeds are known. however, at least six modern breeds can trace their ancestry to the bull and terrier crosses. another common name used for bull and terrier was simply bull terrier, which became the name for the new breed that james hinks developed. : 18 hinks used various undocumented outcrosses, including dalmatians and collies, that devotees of the original strain considered undesirable. they chose instead to remain loyal to their preferred type. as a result, two different breeds of bull terriers emerged : the bull terrier, nicknamed the white cavalier, and the staffordshire bull terrier, named for the county where it was developed. the bull terrier's fighting heritage was left behind whereas breeders of staffordshire bull terriers in the uk continued their illegal competitions which paralleled what was happening in the u. s. with the american staffordshire terrier ; neither breed could gain official acceptance in their respective native lands. journalist and dog expert denise flaim stated succinctly : " no established registry wanted to be affiliated with a dog that drew the blood of its own kind for a living. " = = = recognition as a purebred = = = traceable pedigrees did not exist prior to the founding of the kennel club ( kc ) in 1873, which was initially
in finance, a bull is a speculator in a stock market who buys a holding in a stock in the expectation that, in the very short - term, it will rise in value, whereupon they will sell the stock to make a quick profit on the transaction. strictly speaking, the term applies to speculators who borrow money to fund such a purchase, and are thus under great pressure to complete the transaction before the loan is repayable or the seller of the stock demands payment on settlement day for delivery of the bargain. if the value of the stock falls contrary to their expectation, a bull suffers a loss, frequently very large if they are trading on margin. a bull has a great incentive to " talk - up " the value of their stock or to manipulate the market of their stock, for example by spreading false rumors, to procure a buyer or to cause a temporary price increase which will provide them with the selling opportunity and profit they require. a bull must be contrasted with an investor, who purchases a stock in expectation of a medium - term ( 5 years ) or long - term increase in value due to the underlying performance of the company and its assets. the speculator who takes a directly opposite view to the bull is the bear, who speculates on a stock decreasing in value, having sold short. a bull market is a period during which stock market prices rise over a sustained period, therefore to the advantage of bulls. = = history of the term = = an early mention of the terms bull and bear appears in the 1769 edition of thomas mortimer's book every man his own broker, published in london, as follows, relating to speculators operating in jonathan's coffee - house in exchange alley ( the original london proto - stock exchange ) : " a bull is the name by which the gentlemen of'change alley choose to call all persons who contract to buy any quantity of government securities, without an intention or ability to pay for it, and who consequently are obliged to sell it again, either at a profit or a loss, before the time comes when they have contracted to take it ". this refers to the former practice of stock - brokers, abolished circa 1980's in london, allowing their clients to trade on credit during a period of about two weeks, known as an account, on the completion of which all purchases and sales made during the account period had to be paid for on the settlement date. a net trading loss would result in the client having to make a cash payment to the broker. = = quasi
larger scrotal circumference and his daughters to reach puberty sooner and therefore have calves sooner. gestation length is an indicator of the probability of dystocia. the longer a calf is in utero the larger it will be at birth and the greater the chance of it having dystocia. it also gives the cow a larger postpartum interval between pregnancies. a shorter gestation length is usually preferred because of this. stayability is an indicator epd of longevity of a bull's daughter in a cow herd. the higher the epd value the greater chance a cow will stay in a herd over six years and continue producing quality offspring. = = = carcass epds = = = carcass weight predicts what an animal's total retail product will be compared to other animals of that breed. it does not however predict percent retail value, or the actual amount of sellable meat that can be produced from the carcass. fat thickness determined the expected external and seam fat the animal will contain. these two factors contribute to the greatest waste in an animal and best way to reduce economic loss. fat thickness epds can help producers reduce this loss, by using animals with mid range epds, so as not to have too little or too much fat. marbling epds are also important in the beef industry for predicting palatability in a beef carcass. they show the estimated usda quality grading system and marbling score an animal would receive if it were slaughtered. this edp is different in that it is measured in units of marbling score, and not in weight gained by an animal. higher values indicate the presence of genes that will produce more intramuscular fat. = = use and accuracy = = epds are used in both scientific research and in typical farm usage. through mathematical equations and computing power epds can be generated for use in both situations. through epds certain phenotypes can be chosen for over others. use of epss and dna markers can help when choosing certain traits over others. by using certain epds of an animal one can rapidly improve genetics of a herd, especially for highly heritable traits such as marbling. in addition, by using a combination of epds and dna markers, epds can be made more accurate. when new dna markers are used, they can help adjust the epd according to the genotype and therefore produce a more accurate measurement. to determine how accurate epds are for an individual, samples of
Answer:
|
getting a haircut
| 0.3 |
Over your head is dark though it is only afternoon on a summer's day. Lacking an eclipse of the sun, a viable reason for this darkness is
0. the sky lacks clouds
1. the sun is shining
2. its about to storm
3. clouds are completely absent
, causing airglow. the degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the earth's shadow. lower in the atmosphere all the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of n2 and o2 have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs. apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the milky way, but also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles. the amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite varied ( depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and the solar cycle ) but given optimal conditions, the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude / square arc second. if a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to about 18 magnitude / sq. arcsecond depending on local atmospheric transparency, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. in densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude / sq. an arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural. = = = satellite imagery measuring = = = to precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the number and intensity of light sources. these are put into a physical model of scattering due to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared for the entire world. = = = ground - based monitoring = = = in addition to satellite - based observations, ground - based networks of photometers have become essential for monitoring light pollution over time. one of the most widely used instruments is the sky quality meter ( sqm ), a compact device that measures night sky brightness ( nsb ) in magnitudes per square arcsecond. sqms are deployed by both professional observatories and citizen scientists worldwide, providing high temporal resolution data that complements remote sensing approaches. long - term sqm datasets from urban, intermediate, and rural sites have revealed measurable increases in light pollution. a 2023 study analyzing over a decade of data from 26 sites across europe - including cities such as stockholm, berlin, and vienna - found average annual increases in nsb of 1. 7 % in rural areas, 1. 8 % in urban areas, and 3. 7 % in intermediate areas. these trends were corrected for sensor aging using
street illumination into the country parts of england, these poor winged atoms are slain by thousands at each light every warm summer evening.... the fear is expressed, that when england is lighted from one end to the other with electricity the songbirds will die out from the failure of their food supply. = = = effect on astronomy = = = astronomy is very sensitive to light pollution. the night sky viewed from a city bears no resemblance to what can be seen from dark skies. skyglow ( the scattering of light in the atmosphere at night ) reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies and the sky itself, making it much harder to see fainter objects. this is one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly remote areas. even at apparent clear night skies, there can be a lot of stray light that becomes visible at longer exposure times in astrophotography. by means of software, the stray light can be reduced, but at the same time, object detail could be lost in the image. the following picture of the area around the pinwheel galaxy ( messier 101 ) with the apparent magnitude of 7. 5m with all stars down to an apparent magnitude of 10m was taken in berlin in a direction close to the zenith with a fast lens ( f - number 1. 2 ) and an exposure time of five seconds at an exposure index of iso 12800 : pinwheel galaxy in stray light some astronomers use narrow - band " nebula filters ", which allow only specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in nebulae, or broad - band " light pollution filters ", which are designed to reduce ( but not eliminate ) the effects of light pollution by filtering out spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium - and mercury - vapor lamps, thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as galaxies and nebulae. unfortunately, these light pollution reduction ( lpr ) filters are not a cure for light pollution. lpr filters reduce the brightness of the object under study and this limits the use of higher magnifications. lpr filters work by blocking light of certain wavelengths, which alters the color of the object, often creating a pronounced green cast. furthermore, lpr filters work only on certain object types ( mainly emission nebulae ) and are of little use on galaxies and stars. no filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographic purposes. light pollution affects the visibility of diffuse sky objects like nebulae and galaxies more than stars, due to their low surface brightness. most such objects are rendered invisible in heavily
area lighting ( such as car parks ), offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. it is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of north america, europe, and asia and in major cities in the middle east and north africa like tehran and cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and create problems. awareness of the harmful effects of light pollution began in the second half of the 19th century, but efforts to address its effects did not begin until the 1950s. in the 1980s a global dark - sky movement emerged with the founding of the international dark - sky association ( ida ). there are now such educational and advocacy organizations in many countries worldwide. about 83 % of people, including 99 % of europeans and americans, live under light - polluted skies that are more than 10 % brighter than natural darkness. 80 % of north americans cannot see the milky way galaxy. = = types = = = = = light trespass = = = light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbour's fence. a common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation. a number of cities in the u. s. have developed standards for outdoor lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass. to assist them, the international dark - sky association has developed a set of model lighting ordinances. the dark - sky association was started to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces the visibility of stars ( see skyglow below ). this is any light that is emitted more than 90Β° above nadir. by limiting light at this 90Β° mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80 β 90Β° range which creates most of the light trespass issues. u. s. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction. for instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of faa minimum lighting requirements the federal communications commission maintains an antenna structure registration database information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a mechanism for processing citizen inquiries and complaints. the u. s. green building council ( usgbc ) has also incorporated a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow into their environmentally friendly building standard known as leed. light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures that limit the amount of light emitted more than
light pollution is the presence of any unwanted, inappropriate, or excessive artificial lighting. in a descriptive sense, the term light pollution refers to the effects of any poorly implemented lighting sources, during the day or night. light pollution can be understood not only as a phenomenon resulting from a specific source or kind of pollution, but also as a contributor to the wider, collective impact of various sources of pollution. although this type of pollution can exist throughout the day, its effects are magnified during the night with the contrast of the sky's darkness. it has been estimated that 83 % of the world's people live under light - polluted skies and that 23 % of the world's land area is affected by skyglow. the area affected by artificial illumination continues to increase. a major side effect of urbanization, light pollution is blamed for compromising health, disrupting ecosystems, and spoiling aesthetic environments. studies show that urban areas are more at risk. globally, it has increased by at least 49 % from 1992 to 2017. light pollution is caused by inefficient or unnecessary use of artificial light. specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over - illumination, glare, light clutter, and skyglow. a single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories. solutions to light pollution are often easy steps like adjusting light fixtures or using more appropriate light bulbs. further remediation can be done with more efforts to educate the public in order to push legislative change. however, because it is a man - made phenomenon, addressing its impacts on humans and the environment has political, social, and economic considerations. = = definitions = = light pollution is the presence of anthropogenic artificial light in otherwise dark conditions. the term is most commonly used in relation to in the outdoor environment and surrounding, but is also used to refer to artificial light indoors. adverse consequences are multiple ; some of them may not be known yet. light pollution competes with starlight in the night sky for urban residents, interferes with astronomical observatories, and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. light pollution is a side - effect of industrial civilization. its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, outdoor area lighting ( such as car parks ), offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. it is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of north america, europe, and asia and in major cities in the middle east and
integral when planning a successful event ( e. g. ceremony, concert, conference etc. ). = = = in time = = = the temporal dimension of liminality can relate to moments ( sudden events ), periods ( weeks, months, or possibly years ), and epochs ( decades, generations, maybe even centuries ). = = = = examples = = = = twilight serves as a liminal time, between day and night β where one is " in the twilight zone, in a liminal nether region of the night ". the title of the television fiction series the twilight zone makes reference to this, describing it as " the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition " in one variant of the original series'opening. the name is from an actual zone observable from space in the place where daylight or shadow advances or retreats about the earth. noon and, more often, midnight can be considered liminal, the first transitioning between morning and afternoon, the latter between days. within the years, liminal times include equinoxes when day and night have equal length, and solstices, when the increase of day or night shifts over to its decrease. this " qualitative bounding of quantitatively unbounded phenomena " marks the cyclical changes of seasons throughout the year. where the quarter days are held to mark the change in seasons, they also are liminal times. new year's day, whatever its connection or lack of one to the astrological sky, is a liminal time. customs such as fortune - telling take advantage of this liminal state. in a number of cultures, actions and events on the first day of the year can determine the year, leading to such beliefs as first - foot. many cultures regard it as a time especially prone to hauntings by ghosts β liminal beings, neither alive nor dead. = = = in religion = = = = = = = judeo - christian worship = = = = liminal existence can be located in a separated sacred space, which occupies a sacred time. examples in the bible include the dream of jacob ( genesis 28 : 12 β 19 ) where he encounters god between heaven and earth and the instance when isaiah meets the lord in the temple of holiness ( isaiah 6 : 1 β 6 ). in such a liminal space, the individual experiences the revelation of sacred knowledge where god imparts his knowledge on the person. worship can be understood in this context as the church community ( or commun
Answer:
|
its about to storm
| null |
Over your head is dark though it is only afternoon on a summer's day. Lacking an eclipse of the sun, a viable reason for this darkness is
0. the sky lacks clouds
1. the sun is shining
2. its about to storm
3. clouds are completely absent
, causing airglow. the degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the earth's shadow. lower in the atmosphere all the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of n2 and o2 have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs. apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the milky way, but also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles. the amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite varied ( depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and the solar cycle ) but given optimal conditions, the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude / square arc second. if a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to about 18 magnitude / sq. arcsecond depending on local atmospheric transparency, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. in densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude / sq. an arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural. = = = satellite imagery measuring = = = to precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the number and intensity of light sources. these are put into a physical model of scattering due to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared for the entire world. = = = ground - based monitoring = = = in addition to satellite - based observations, ground - based networks of photometers have become essential for monitoring light pollution over time. one of the most widely used instruments is the sky quality meter ( sqm ), a compact device that measures night sky brightness ( nsb ) in magnitudes per square arcsecond. sqms are deployed by both professional observatories and citizen scientists worldwide, providing high temporal resolution data that complements remote sensing approaches. long - term sqm datasets from urban, intermediate, and rural sites have revealed measurable increases in light pollution. a 2023 study analyzing over a decade of data from 26 sites across europe - including cities such as stockholm, berlin, and vienna - found average annual increases in nsb of 1. 7 % in rural areas, 1. 8 % in urban areas, and 3. 7 % in intermediate areas. these trends were corrected for sensor aging using
street illumination into the country parts of england, these poor winged atoms are slain by thousands at each light every warm summer evening.... the fear is expressed, that when england is lighted from one end to the other with electricity the songbirds will die out from the failure of their food supply. = = = effect on astronomy = = = astronomy is very sensitive to light pollution. the night sky viewed from a city bears no resemblance to what can be seen from dark skies. skyglow ( the scattering of light in the atmosphere at night ) reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies and the sky itself, making it much harder to see fainter objects. this is one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly remote areas. even at apparent clear night skies, there can be a lot of stray light that becomes visible at longer exposure times in astrophotography. by means of software, the stray light can be reduced, but at the same time, object detail could be lost in the image. the following picture of the area around the pinwheel galaxy ( messier 101 ) with the apparent magnitude of 7. 5m with all stars down to an apparent magnitude of 10m was taken in berlin in a direction close to the zenith with a fast lens ( f - number 1. 2 ) and an exposure time of five seconds at an exposure index of iso 12800 : pinwheel galaxy in stray light some astronomers use narrow - band " nebula filters ", which allow only specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in nebulae, or broad - band " light pollution filters ", which are designed to reduce ( but not eliminate ) the effects of light pollution by filtering out spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium - and mercury - vapor lamps, thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as galaxies and nebulae. unfortunately, these light pollution reduction ( lpr ) filters are not a cure for light pollution. lpr filters reduce the brightness of the object under study and this limits the use of higher magnifications. lpr filters work by blocking light of certain wavelengths, which alters the color of the object, often creating a pronounced green cast. furthermore, lpr filters work only on certain object types ( mainly emission nebulae ) and are of little use on galaxies and stars. no filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographic purposes. light pollution affects the visibility of diffuse sky objects like nebulae and galaxies more than stars, due to their low surface brightness. most such objects are rendered invisible in heavily
area lighting ( such as car parks ), offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. it is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of north america, europe, and asia and in major cities in the middle east and north africa like tehran and cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and create problems. awareness of the harmful effects of light pollution began in the second half of the 19th century, but efforts to address its effects did not begin until the 1950s. in the 1980s a global dark - sky movement emerged with the founding of the international dark - sky association ( ida ). there are now such educational and advocacy organizations in many countries worldwide. about 83 % of people, including 99 % of europeans and americans, live under light - polluted skies that are more than 10 % brighter than natural darkness. 80 % of north americans cannot see the milky way galaxy. = = types = = = = = light trespass = = = light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbour's fence. a common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation. a number of cities in the u. s. have developed standards for outdoor lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass. to assist them, the international dark - sky association has developed a set of model lighting ordinances. the dark - sky association was started to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces the visibility of stars ( see skyglow below ). this is any light that is emitted more than 90Β° above nadir. by limiting light at this 90Β° mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80 β 90Β° range which creates most of the light trespass issues. u. s. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction. for instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of faa minimum lighting requirements the federal communications commission maintains an antenna structure registration database information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a mechanism for processing citizen inquiries and complaints. the u. s. green building council ( usgbc ) has also incorporated a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow into their environmentally friendly building standard known as leed. light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures that limit the amount of light emitted more than
light pollution is the presence of any unwanted, inappropriate, or excessive artificial lighting. in a descriptive sense, the term light pollution refers to the effects of any poorly implemented lighting sources, during the day or night. light pollution can be understood not only as a phenomenon resulting from a specific source or kind of pollution, but also as a contributor to the wider, collective impact of various sources of pollution. although this type of pollution can exist throughout the day, its effects are magnified during the night with the contrast of the sky's darkness. it has been estimated that 83 % of the world's people live under light - polluted skies and that 23 % of the world's land area is affected by skyglow. the area affected by artificial illumination continues to increase. a major side effect of urbanization, light pollution is blamed for compromising health, disrupting ecosystems, and spoiling aesthetic environments. studies show that urban areas are more at risk. globally, it has increased by at least 49 % from 1992 to 2017. light pollution is caused by inefficient or unnecessary use of artificial light. specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over - illumination, glare, light clutter, and skyglow. a single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories. solutions to light pollution are often easy steps like adjusting light fixtures or using more appropriate light bulbs. further remediation can be done with more efforts to educate the public in order to push legislative change. however, because it is a man - made phenomenon, addressing its impacts on humans and the environment has political, social, and economic considerations. = = definitions = = light pollution is the presence of anthropogenic artificial light in otherwise dark conditions. the term is most commonly used in relation to in the outdoor environment and surrounding, but is also used to refer to artificial light indoors. adverse consequences are multiple ; some of them may not be known yet. light pollution competes with starlight in the night sky for urban residents, interferes with astronomical observatories, and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. light pollution is a side - effect of industrial civilization. its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, outdoor area lighting ( such as car parks ), offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. it is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of north america, europe, and asia and in major cities in the middle east and
integral when planning a successful event ( e. g. ceremony, concert, conference etc. ). = = = in time = = = the temporal dimension of liminality can relate to moments ( sudden events ), periods ( weeks, months, or possibly years ), and epochs ( decades, generations, maybe even centuries ). = = = = examples = = = = twilight serves as a liminal time, between day and night β where one is " in the twilight zone, in a liminal nether region of the night ". the title of the television fiction series the twilight zone makes reference to this, describing it as " the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition " in one variant of the original series'opening. the name is from an actual zone observable from space in the place where daylight or shadow advances or retreats about the earth. noon and, more often, midnight can be considered liminal, the first transitioning between morning and afternoon, the latter between days. within the years, liminal times include equinoxes when day and night have equal length, and solstices, when the increase of day or night shifts over to its decrease. this " qualitative bounding of quantitatively unbounded phenomena " marks the cyclical changes of seasons throughout the year. where the quarter days are held to mark the change in seasons, they also are liminal times. new year's day, whatever its connection or lack of one to the astrological sky, is a liminal time. customs such as fortune - telling take advantage of this liminal state. in a number of cultures, actions and events on the first day of the year can determine the year, leading to such beliefs as first - foot. many cultures regard it as a time especially prone to hauntings by ghosts β liminal beings, neither alive nor dead. = = = in religion = = = = = = = judeo - christian worship = = = = liminal existence can be located in a separated sacred space, which occupies a sacred time. examples in the bible include the dream of jacob ( genesis 28 : 12 β 19 ) where he encounters god between heaven and earth and the instance when isaiah meets the lord in the temple of holiness ( isaiah 6 : 1 β 6 ). in such a liminal space, the individual experiences the revelation of sacred knowledge where god imparts his knowledge on the person. worship can be understood in this context as the church community ( or commun
Answer:
|
the sky lacks clouds
| 0.3 |
What might you use for heat?
0. an ice cube
1. a mini flashlight
2. snow
3. glaciers
laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment temperature changes. the effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to reduce temperature differences caused by direct sunlight on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, where it is dissipated as thermal radiation to space. since 1961, some uncrewed spacecraft ( including the curiosity mars rover ) utilize radioisotope thermoelectric generators ( rtgs ) that convert thermal energy into electrical energy using the seebeck effect. the devices can last several decades, as they are fueled by the decay of high - energy radioactive materials. peltier elements are also used to make cloud chambers to visualize ionizing radiation. just by passing an electric current, they can cool vapors below β26 Β°c without dry ice or moving parts, making cloud chambers easy to make and use. photon detectors such as ccds in astronomical telescopes, spectrometers, or very high - end digital cameras are often cooled by peltier elements that may be arranged in a multi - stage, cascade refrigeration configuration. this reduces dark counts due to thermal noise. a dark count occurs when a pixel registers an electron caused by thermal fluctuation rather than a photon. on digital photos taken at low light these occur as speckles ( or " pixel noise " ). they are also used in energy - dispersive spectrometers to cool the sensor crystals, eliminating the necessity of large liquid nitrogen dewars. = = = experimental = = = around 1955, rca laboratories built a refrigerator and a small room that was air conditioned using the peltier effect. these were research demonstrations and did not result in products. the air conditioner was one of the " birthday presents " asked for by ceo david sarnoff to challenge the researchers. one of the lead researchers was nils e. lindenblad. = = see also = = thermoacoustics = = references = =
also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = = = quantifying latent heat = = = = in 1762, black announced the following research and results to a society of professors at the university of glasgow. black had placed equal masses of ice at 32 Β°f ( 0 Β°c ) and water at 33 Β°f ( 0. 6 Β°c ) respectively in two identical, well separated containers. the water and the ice were both evenly heated to 40 Β°f by the air in the room, which was at a constant 47 Β°f ( 8 Β°c ). the water had therefore received 40 β 33 = 7 β degrees of heat β. the ice had been heated for 21 times longer and had therefore received 7 Γ 21 = 147 β degrees of heat β. the temperature of the ice had increased by 8 Β°f. the ice had thus absorbed 8 β degrees of heat β, which black called sensible heat, manifest as a temperature increase, which could be felt and measured. in addition to that, 147 β 8 = 139 β degrees of heat β were absorbed as latent heat, manifest as phase change rather than as temperature change. black next showed that a water temperature of 176 Β°f was needed to melt an equal mass of ice until it was all 32 Β°f. so now 176 β 32 = 144 β degrees of heat β seemed to be needed to melt the ice. the modern value for the heat of fusion of ice would be 143 β degrees of heat β on the same scale ( 79. 5 β degrees of heat celsius β ). finally, black increased the temperature of a mass of water, then vaporized an equal mass of water by even heating. he showed that 830 β degrees of heat β was needed for the vaporization ; again based on the time required. the modern value for the heat of vaporization of water would be 967 β degrees of heat β on the same scale. = = = james prescott joule = = = later, james prescott joule characterised latent energy as the energy of interaction in a given configuration of particles, i. e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer, relating the latter to thermal energy. = = specific latent heat = = a specific latent heat ( l ) expresses the amount of energy in the form of heat ( q ) required
experiment was updated by the accademia del cimento using a thermometer invented by ferdinand ii, grand duke of tuscany. = = = enlightenment = = = in 1761, benjamin franklin wrote a letter describing his experiments on the relationship between color and heat absorption. he found that darker color clothes got hotter when exposed to sunlight than lighter color clothes. one experiment he performed consisted of placing square pieces of cloth of various colors out in the snow on a sunny day. he waited some time and then measured that the black pieces sank furthest into the snow of all the colors, indicating that they got the hottest and melted the most snow. = = = caloric theory = = = antoine lavoisier considered that radiation of heat was concerned with the condition of the surface of a physical body rather than the material of which it was composed. lavoisier described a poor radiator to be a substance with a polished or smooth surface as it possessed its molecules lying in a plane closely bound together thus creating a surface layer of caloric fluid which insulated the release of the rest within. he described a good radiator to be a substance with a rough surface as only a small proportion of molecules held caloric in within a given plane, allowing for greater escape from within. count rumford would later cite this explanation of caloric movement as insufficient to explain the radiation of cold, which became a point of contention for the theory as a whole. in his first memoir, augustin - jean fresnel responded to a view he extracted from a french translation of isaac newton's optics. he says that newton imagined particles of light traversing space uninhibited by the caloric medium filling it, and refutes this view ( never actually held by newton ) by saying that a body under illumination would increase indefinitely in heat. in marc - auguste pictet's famous experiment of 1790, it was reported that a thermometer detected a lower temperature when a set of mirrors were used to focus " frigorific rays " from a cold object. in 1791, pierre prevost a colleague of pictet, introduced the concept of radiative equilibrium, wherein all objects both radiate and absorb heat. when an object is cooler than its surroundings, it absorbs more heat than it emits, causing its temperature to increase until it reaches equilibrium. even at equilibrium, it continues to radiate heat, balancing absorption and emission. the discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to astronomer william herschel. herschel published
##humidifiers. a camping / car type ( 12 v ) electric cooler can typically reduce the temperature by up to 20 Β°c ( 36 Β°f ) below the ambient temperature, which is 25 Β°c if the car reaches 45 Β°c under the sun. climate - controlled jackets are beginning to use peltier elements. thermoelectric coolers can be used to cool computer components to keep temperatures within design limits or to maintain stable functioning when overclocking. a peltier cooler with a heat sink or waterblock can cool a chip to well below ambient temperature. some intel core cpus from the 10th generation and onwards are capable of using the intel cryo technology, which uses a combination of thermoelectric cooling and a liquid heat exchanger to deliver a much greater cooling performance than normally possible with standard liquid cooling. local environment conditions are electronically monitored to prevent shorting from condensation. = = = industrial = = = thermoelectric coolers are used in many fields of industrial manufacturing and require a thorough performance analysis as they face the test of running thousands of cycles before these industrial products are launched to the market. some of the applications include laser equipment, thermoelectric air conditioners or coolers, industrial electronics and telecommunications, automotive, mini refrigerators or incubators, military cabinets, it enclosures, and more. in fiber - optic applications, where the wavelength of a laser or a component is highly dependent on temperature, peltier coolers are used along with a thermistor in a feedback loop to maintain a constant temperature and thereby stabilize the wavelength of the device. some electronic equipment intended for military use in the field is thermoelectrically cooled. = = = science and imaging = = = peltier elements are used in scientific devices. they are a common component in thermal cyclers, used for the synthesis of dna by polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ), a common molecular biological technique, which requires the rapid heating and cooling of the reaction mixture for denaturation, primer annealing, and enzymatic synthesis cycles. with feedback circuitry, peltier elements can be used to implement highly stable temperature controllers that keep desired temperature within Β±0. 01 Β°c. such stability may be used in precise laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment temperature changes. the effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to reduce temperature differences caused by direct sunlight on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, where it is
temperature of the anvils and includes fine resistive heaters placed within the sample chamber and laser heating. the main advantage to resistive heating is the precise measurement of temperature with thermocouples, but the temperature range is limited by the properties of the diamond which will oxidize in air at 700 Β°c the use of an inert atmosphere can extend this range above 1000 Β°c. a tungsten ring - wire resistive heater inside a bx90 dac filled with ar gas was reported to reach 1400 Β°c. with laser heating the sample can reach temperature above 5000 Β°c, but the minimum temperature that can be measured when using a laser - heating system is ~ 1200 Β°c and the measurement is much less precise. advances in resistive heating are closing the gap between the two techniques so that systems can be studied from room temperature to beyond 5700 Β°c with the combination of the two. = = = laser heating = = = the development of laser heating began only 8 years after charles weir, of the national bureau of standards ( nbs ), made the first diamond anvil cell and alvin van valkenburg, nbs, realized the potential of being able to see the sample while under pressure. william bassett and his colleague taro takahashi focused a laser beam on the sample while under pressure. the first laser heating system used a single 7 joule pulsed ruby laser that heated the sample to 3000 Β°c while at 260 kilobars. this was sufficient to convert graphite to diamond. the major flaws within the first system related to control and temperature measurement. temperature measurement was initially done by basset using an optical pyrometer to measure the intensity of the incandescent light from the sample. colleagues at uc berkeley were better able to utilize the black - body radiation and more accurately measure the temperature. the hot spot produced by the laser also created large thermal gradients in between the portions of sample that were hit by the focused laser and those that were not. the solution to this problem is ongoing but advances have been made with the introduction of a double - sided approach. = = = = double - sided heating = = = = the use of two lasers to heat the sample reduces the axial temperature gradient, which allows for thicker samples to be heated more evenly. in order for a double - sided heating system to be successful it is essential that the two lasers are aligned so that they are both focused on the sample position. for in situ heating in diffraction experiments, the lasers need to be focused to the same point in space where the
Answer:
|
a mini flashlight
| null |
What might you use for heat?
0. an ice cube
1. a mini flashlight
2. snow
3. glaciers
laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment temperature changes. the effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to reduce temperature differences caused by direct sunlight on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, where it is dissipated as thermal radiation to space. since 1961, some uncrewed spacecraft ( including the curiosity mars rover ) utilize radioisotope thermoelectric generators ( rtgs ) that convert thermal energy into electrical energy using the seebeck effect. the devices can last several decades, as they are fueled by the decay of high - energy radioactive materials. peltier elements are also used to make cloud chambers to visualize ionizing radiation. just by passing an electric current, they can cool vapors below β26 Β°c without dry ice or moving parts, making cloud chambers easy to make and use. photon detectors such as ccds in astronomical telescopes, spectrometers, or very high - end digital cameras are often cooled by peltier elements that may be arranged in a multi - stage, cascade refrigeration configuration. this reduces dark counts due to thermal noise. a dark count occurs when a pixel registers an electron caused by thermal fluctuation rather than a photon. on digital photos taken at low light these occur as speckles ( or " pixel noise " ). they are also used in energy - dispersive spectrometers to cool the sensor crystals, eliminating the necessity of large liquid nitrogen dewars. = = = experimental = = = around 1955, rca laboratories built a refrigerator and a small room that was air conditioned using the peltier effect. these were research demonstrations and did not result in products. the air conditioner was one of the " birthday presents " asked for by ceo david sarnoff to challenge the researchers. one of the lead researchers was nils e. lindenblad. = = see also = = thermoacoustics = = references = =
also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = = = quantifying latent heat = = = = in 1762, black announced the following research and results to a society of professors at the university of glasgow. black had placed equal masses of ice at 32 Β°f ( 0 Β°c ) and water at 33 Β°f ( 0. 6 Β°c ) respectively in two identical, well separated containers. the water and the ice were both evenly heated to 40 Β°f by the air in the room, which was at a constant 47 Β°f ( 8 Β°c ). the water had therefore received 40 β 33 = 7 β degrees of heat β. the ice had been heated for 21 times longer and had therefore received 7 Γ 21 = 147 β degrees of heat β. the temperature of the ice had increased by 8 Β°f. the ice had thus absorbed 8 β degrees of heat β, which black called sensible heat, manifest as a temperature increase, which could be felt and measured. in addition to that, 147 β 8 = 139 β degrees of heat β were absorbed as latent heat, manifest as phase change rather than as temperature change. black next showed that a water temperature of 176 Β°f was needed to melt an equal mass of ice until it was all 32 Β°f. so now 176 β 32 = 144 β degrees of heat β seemed to be needed to melt the ice. the modern value for the heat of fusion of ice would be 143 β degrees of heat β on the same scale ( 79. 5 β degrees of heat celsius β ). finally, black increased the temperature of a mass of water, then vaporized an equal mass of water by even heating. he showed that 830 β degrees of heat β was needed for the vaporization ; again based on the time required. the modern value for the heat of vaporization of water would be 967 β degrees of heat β on the same scale. = = = james prescott joule = = = later, james prescott joule characterised latent energy as the energy of interaction in a given configuration of particles, i. e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer, relating the latter to thermal energy. = = specific latent heat = = a specific latent heat ( l ) expresses the amount of energy in the form of heat ( q ) required
experiment was updated by the accademia del cimento using a thermometer invented by ferdinand ii, grand duke of tuscany. = = = enlightenment = = = in 1761, benjamin franklin wrote a letter describing his experiments on the relationship between color and heat absorption. he found that darker color clothes got hotter when exposed to sunlight than lighter color clothes. one experiment he performed consisted of placing square pieces of cloth of various colors out in the snow on a sunny day. he waited some time and then measured that the black pieces sank furthest into the snow of all the colors, indicating that they got the hottest and melted the most snow. = = = caloric theory = = = antoine lavoisier considered that radiation of heat was concerned with the condition of the surface of a physical body rather than the material of which it was composed. lavoisier described a poor radiator to be a substance with a polished or smooth surface as it possessed its molecules lying in a plane closely bound together thus creating a surface layer of caloric fluid which insulated the release of the rest within. he described a good radiator to be a substance with a rough surface as only a small proportion of molecules held caloric in within a given plane, allowing for greater escape from within. count rumford would later cite this explanation of caloric movement as insufficient to explain the radiation of cold, which became a point of contention for the theory as a whole. in his first memoir, augustin - jean fresnel responded to a view he extracted from a french translation of isaac newton's optics. he says that newton imagined particles of light traversing space uninhibited by the caloric medium filling it, and refutes this view ( never actually held by newton ) by saying that a body under illumination would increase indefinitely in heat. in marc - auguste pictet's famous experiment of 1790, it was reported that a thermometer detected a lower temperature when a set of mirrors were used to focus " frigorific rays " from a cold object. in 1791, pierre prevost a colleague of pictet, introduced the concept of radiative equilibrium, wherein all objects both radiate and absorb heat. when an object is cooler than its surroundings, it absorbs more heat than it emits, causing its temperature to increase until it reaches equilibrium. even at equilibrium, it continues to radiate heat, balancing absorption and emission. the discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to astronomer william herschel. herschel published
##humidifiers. a camping / car type ( 12 v ) electric cooler can typically reduce the temperature by up to 20 Β°c ( 36 Β°f ) below the ambient temperature, which is 25 Β°c if the car reaches 45 Β°c under the sun. climate - controlled jackets are beginning to use peltier elements. thermoelectric coolers can be used to cool computer components to keep temperatures within design limits or to maintain stable functioning when overclocking. a peltier cooler with a heat sink or waterblock can cool a chip to well below ambient temperature. some intel core cpus from the 10th generation and onwards are capable of using the intel cryo technology, which uses a combination of thermoelectric cooling and a liquid heat exchanger to deliver a much greater cooling performance than normally possible with standard liquid cooling. local environment conditions are electronically monitored to prevent shorting from condensation. = = = industrial = = = thermoelectric coolers are used in many fields of industrial manufacturing and require a thorough performance analysis as they face the test of running thousands of cycles before these industrial products are launched to the market. some of the applications include laser equipment, thermoelectric air conditioners or coolers, industrial electronics and telecommunications, automotive, mini refrigerators or incubators, military cabinets, it enclosures, and more. in fiber - optic applications, where the wavelength of a laser or a component is highly dependent on temperature, peltier coolers are used along with a thermistor in a feedback loop to maintain a constant temperature and thereby stabilize the wavelength of the device. some electronic equipment intended for military use in the field is thermoelectrically cooled. = = = science and imaging = = = peltier elements are used in scientific devices. they are a common component in thermal cyclers, used for the synthesis of dna by polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ), a common molecular biological technique, which requires the rapid heating and cooling of the reaction mixture for denaturation, primer annealing, and enzymatic synthesis cycles. with feedback circuitry, peltier elements can be used to implement highly stable temperature controllers that keep desired temperature within Β±0. 01 Β°c. such stability may be used in precise laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment temperature changes. the effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to reduce temperature differences caused by direct sunlight on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, where it is
temperature of the anvils and includes fine resistive heaters placed within the sample chamber and laser heating. the main advantage to resistive heating is the precise measurement of temperature with thermocouples, but the temperature range is limited by the properties of the diamond which will oxidize in air at 700 Β°c the use of an inert atmosphere can extend this range above 1000 Β°c. a tungsten ring - wire resistive heater inside a bx90 dac filled with ar gas was reported to reach 1400 Β°c. with laser heating the sample can reach temperature above 5000 Β°c, but the minimum temperature that can be measured when using a laser - heating system is ~ 1200 Β°c and the measurement is much less precise. advances in resistive heating are closing the gap between the two techniques so that systems can be studied from room temperature to beyond 5700 Β°c with the combination of the two. = = = laser heating = = = the development of laser heating began only 8 years after charles weir, of the national bureau of standards ( nbs ), made the first diamond anvil cell and alvin van valkenburg, nbs, realized the potential of being able to see the sample while under pressure. william bassett and his colleague taro takahashi focused a laser beam on the sample while under pressure. the first laser heating system used a single 7 joule pulsed ruby laser that heated the sample to 3000 Β°c while at 260 kilobars. this was sufficient to convert graphite to diamond. the major flaws within the first system related to control and temperature measurement. temperature measurement was initially done by basset using an optical pyrometer to measure the intensity of the incandescent light from the sample. colleagues at uc berkeley were better able to utilize the black - body radiation and more accurately measure the temperature. the hot spot produced by the laser also created large thermal gradients in between the portions of sample that were hit by the focused laser and those that were not. the solution to this problem is ongoing but advances have been made with the introduction of a double - sided approach. = = = = double - sided heating = = = = the use of two lasers to heat the sample reduces the axial temperature gradient, which allows for thicker samples to be heated more evenly. in order for a double - sided heating system to be successful it is essential that the two lasers are aligned so that they are both focused on the sample position. for in situ heating in diffraction experiments, the lasers need to be focused to the same point in space where the
Answer:
|
snow
| 0.3 |
People use hand dryers after washing their hands in order to
0. fly
1. Remove the fire
2. clear away moisture
3. go to space.
medical attention and special treatment needed section 5 : firefighting measures 5. 1. extinguishing media 5. 2. special hazards arising from the substance or mixture 5. 3. advice for firefighters section 6 : accidental release measure 6. 1. personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures 6. 2. environmental precautions 6. 3. methods and material for containment and cleaning up 6. 4. reference to other sections section 7 : handling and storage 7. 1. precautions for safe handling 7. 2. conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities 7. 3. specific end use ( s ) section 8 : exposure controls / personal protection 8. 1. control parameters 8. 2. exposure controls section 9 : physical and chemical properties 9. 1. information on basic physical and chemical properties 9. 2. other information section 10 : stability and reactivity 10. 1. reactivity 10. 2. chemical stability 10. 3. possibility of hazardous reactions 10. 4. conditions to avoid 10. 5. incompatible materials 10. 6. hazardous decomposition products section 11 : toxicological information 11. 1. information on toxicological effects section 12 : ecological information 12. 1. toxicity 12. 2. persistence and degradability 12. 3. bioaccumulative potential 12. 4. mobility in soil 12. 5. results of pbt and vpvb assessment 12. 6. other adverse effects section 13 : disposal considerations 13. 1. waste treatment methods section 14 : transport information 14. 1. un number 14. 2. un proper shipping name 14. 3. transport hazard class ( es ) 14. 4. packing group 14. 5. environmental hazards 14. 6. special precautions for user 14. 7. transport in bulk according to annex ii of marpol and the ibc code section 15 : regulatory information 15. 1. safety, health and environmental regulations / legislation specific for the substance or mixture 15. 2. chemical safety assessment section 16 : other information 16. 2. date of the latest revision of the sds = = national and international requirements = = = = = canada = = = in canada, the program known as the workplace hazardous materials information system ( whmis ) establishes the requirements for sdss in workplaces and is administered federally by health canada under the hazardous products act, part ii, and the controlled products regulations. = = = european union = = = safety data sheets have been made an integral part of the system of regulation ( ec ) no 1907 / 2006 ( reach ). the original requirements
##itate against catastrophic wildfires. forest fires gained a negative connotation because of cultural references to uncontrolled fires that take lives and destroy homes and properties. controlled burns can decrease the risk of wildfires through the regular burning of undergrowth that would otherwise fuel rampant burning. broadcast burning has helped to fireproof landscapes by burning off undergrowth and using up potential fuel, leaving little or no chance for a wildfire to be sparked by lightning. of all of the mechanisms of human - mediated disturbances, anthropogenic fire has become one of great interest to ecologists, geographers, soil scientists, and anthropologists alike. by studying the effects of anthropogenic fires, anthropologists have been able to identify landscape uses and requirements of past cultures. ecologists became interested in the study of anthropogenic fire as to utilize methods from previous cultures to develop policies for regular burning. geographers and soil scientists are interested in the utility of anthropic soils caused by burning in the past. the interest in anthropogenic fire came about in the wake of the industrial revolution. this time period included a mass migration from rural to urban areas, which decreased controlled burning in the countryside. this led to an increase in the frequency and strength of wildfires, thus initiating a need to develop proper prevention methods. historical ecology focuses on the impact on landscapes through human - mediated disturbances, once such being anthropogenic fire. it is a fusion of ecological, geographical, anthropological, and pedological interests. = = = biological invasions = = = biological invasions are composed of exotic biota that enter a landscape and replace species with which they share similarities in structure and ecological function. because they multiply and grow quickly, invasive species can eliminate or greatly reduce existing flora and fauna by various mechanisms, such as direct competitive exclusion. invasive species typically spread at a faster rate when they have no natural predators or when they fill an empty niche. these invasions often occur in a historical context and are classified as a type of human - mediated disturbance called human - mediated invasions. invasive species can be transported intentionally or accidentally. many invasive species originate in shipping areas from where they are unintentionally transported to their new location. sometimes human populations intentionally introduce species into new landscapes to serve various purposes, ranging from decoration to erosion control. these species can later become invasive and dramatically modify the landscape. it is important to note that not all exotic species are invasive ; in fact, the majority of newly introduced species never become invasive. humans have on their
embers are typically burnt leaves and thus small and lightweight, they can easily become airborne. during a large fire, with the right conditions, embers can be blown far ahead of the fire front, starting spot fires several kilometres / miles away. a number of practical measures can be undertaken by homeowners to reduce the consequences of such an " ember attack " that bombards especially wooden structures and starts property fires. = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of ember at wiktionary
the combustion process. a hot rich flashover occurs when the hot smoke with flammable gas ratio above the upper limit of flammability range and temperature higher than the ignition temperature leaves the compartment. upon dilution with air it can spontaneously ignite, and the resultant flame can propagate back into the compartment, resulting in an event similar to a rich flashover. the common definition of this process is known as auto - ignition, which is another form of fire gas ignition. = = dangers = = flashover is one of the most feared phenomena among firefighters. firefighters are taught to recognize the signs of imminent rollovers and flashovers and to avoid backdrafts. for example, there are certain routines for opening closed doors to buildings and compartments on fire, known as door entry procedures, ensuring fire crew safety where possible. = = indicators = = the following are some of the signs that firefighters are looking for when they attempt to determine whether a flashover is likely to occur. fast dark smoke. the neutral plane is moving down towards the floor. in this situation, a flashover is plausible. all directly exposed combustible materials are showing signs of pyrolysis. " rollover " or tongues of fire appear ( known as " angel fingers " to firefighters ) as gases reach their auto - ignition temperatures. there is a rapid build - up ( or " spike " ) in temperature due to the compound effect of rapidly burning ( i. e., deflagrating ) gases and the thermal cycle they produce. this is generally the best indication of a flashover. the fire is in a ventilated compartment, so there is no shortage of oxygen in the room. firefighters memorize a chant to help remember these during training : " thick dark smoke, high heat, rollover, free burning. " the colour of the smoke is often considered as well, but there is no connection between the colour of the smoke and the risk of flashovers. traditionally, black, dense smoke was considered particularly dangerous, but history shows this to be an unreliable indicator. for example, there was a fire in a rubber mattress factory in london in 1975 which produced white smoke. the white smoke was not considered dangerous, so firefighters decided to ventilate, which caused a smoke explosion and killed two firefighters. the white smoke from the pyrolysis of the rubber turned out to be extremely flammable. = = see also = = = = references = = = = external links = = living room flashover video rapid fire progress & flash
at risk. extensive use puts agricultural workers in particular at increased risk for pesticide illnesses. exposure can occur through inhalation of pesticide fumes, and often occurs in settings including greenhouse spraying operations and other closed environments like tractor cabs or while operating rotary fan mist sprayers in facilities or locations with poor ventilation systems. workers in other industries are at risk for exposure as well. for example, commercial availability of pesticides in stores puts retail workers at risk for exposure and illness when they handle pesticide products. the ubiquity of pesticides puts emergency responders such as fire - fighters and police officers at risk, because they are often the first responders to emergency events and may be unaware of the presence of a poisoning hazard. the process of aircraft disinsection, in which pesticides are used on inbound international flights for insect and disease control, can also make flight attendants sick. different job functions can lead to different levels of exposure. most occupational exposures are caused by absorption through exposed skin such as the face, hands, forearms, neck, and chest. this exposure is sometimes enhanced by inhalation in settings including spraying operations in greenhouses and other closed environments, tractor cabs, and the operation of rotary fan mist sprayers. = = = residential = = = the majority of households in canada use pesticides while taking part in activities such as gardening. in canada, 96 percent of households report having a lawn or a garden. 56 percent of the households who have a lawn or a garden utilize fertilizer or pesticide. this form of pesticide use may contribute to the third type of poisoning, which is caused by long - term low - level exposure. as mentioned before, long - term low - level exposure affects individuals from sources such as pesticide residues in food as well as contact with pesticide residues in the air, water, soil, sediment, food materials, plants and animals. = = pathophysiology = = = = = organochlorines = = = the organochlorine pesticides, like ddt, aldrin, and dieldrin, are extremely persistent and accumulate in fatty tissue. through the process of bioaccumulation ( lower amounts in the environment get magnified sequentially up the food chain ), large amounts of organochlorines can accumulate in top species like humans. there is substantial evidence to suggest that ddt, and its metabolite dde, act as endocrine disruptors, interfering with hormonal function of estrogen,
Answer:
|
clear away moisture
| null |
People use hand dryers after washing their hands in order to
0. fly
1. Remove the fire
2. clear away moisture
3. go to space.
medical attention and special treatment needed section 5 : firefighting measures 5. 1. extinguishing media 5. 2. special hazards arising from the substance or mixture 5. 3. advice for firefighters section 6 : accidental release measure 6. 1. personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures 6. 2. environmental precautions 6. 3. methods and material for containment and cleaning up 6. 4. reference to other sections section 7 : handling and storage 7. 1. precautions for safe handling 7. 2. conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities 7. 3. specific end use ( s ) section 8 : exposure controls / personal protection 8. 1. control parameters 8. 2. exposure controls section 9 : physical and chemical properties 9. 1. information on basic physical and chemical properties 9. 2. other information section 10 : stability and reactivity 10. 1. reactivity 10. 2. chemical stability 10. 3. possibility of hazardous reactions 10. 4. conditions to avoid 10. 5. incompatible materials 10. 6. hazardous decomposition products section 11 : toxicological information 11. 1. information on toxicological effects section 12 : ecological information 12. 1. toxicity 12. 2. persistence and degradability 12. 3. bioaccumulative potential 12. 4. mobility in soil 12. 5. results of pbt and vpvb assessment 12. 6. other adverse effects section 13 : disposal considerations 13. 1. waste treatment methods section 14 : transport information 14. 1. un number 14. 2. un proper shipping name 14. 3. transport hazard class ( es ) 14. 4. packing group 14. 5. environmental hazards 14. 6. special precautions for user 14. 7. transport in bulk according to annex ii of marpol and the ibc code section 15 : regulatory information 15. 1. safety, health and environmental regulations / legislation specific for the substance or mixture 15. 2. chemical safety assessment section 16 : other information 16. 2. date of the latest revision of the sds = = national and international requirements = = = = = canada = = = in canada, the program known as the workplace hazardous materials information system ( whmis ) establishes the requirements for sdss in workplaces and is administered federally by health canada under the hazardous products act, part ii, and the controlled products regulations. = = = european union = = = safety data sheets have been made an integral part of the system of regulation ( ec ) no 1907 / 2006 ( reach ). the original requirements
##itate against catastrophic wildfires. forest fires gained a negative connotation because of cultural references to uncontrolled fires that take lives and destroy homes and properties. controlled burns can decrease the risk of wildfires through the regular burning of undergrowth that would otherwise fuel rampant burning. broadcast burning has helped to fireproof landscapes by burning off undergrowth and using up potential fuel, leaving little or no chance for a wildfire to be sparked by lightning. of all of the mechanisms of human - mediated disturbances, anthropogenic fire has become one of great interest to ecologists, geographers, soil scientists, and anthropologists alike. by studying the effects of anthropogenic fires, anthropologists have been able to identify landscape uses and requirements of past cultures. ecologists became interested in the study of anthropogenic fire as to utilize methods from previous cultures to develop policies for regular burning. geographers and soil scientists are interested in the utility of anthropic soils caused by burning in the past. the interest in anthropogenic fire came about in the wake of the industrial revolution. this time period included a mass migration from rural to urban areas, which decreased controlled burning in the countryside. this led to an increase in the frequency and strength of wildfires, thus initiating a need to develop proper prevention methods. historical ecology focuses on the impact on landscapes through human - mediated disturbances, once such being anthropogenic fire. it is a fusion of ecological, geographical, anthropological, and pedological interests. = = = biological invasions = = = biological invasions are composed of exotic biota that enter a landscape and replace species with which they share similarities in structure and ecological function. because they multiply and grow quickly, invasive species can eliminate or greatly reduce existing flora and fauna by various mechanisms, such as direct competitive exclusion. invasive species typically spread at a faster rate when they have no natural predators or when they fill an empty niche. these invasions often occur in a historical context and are classified as a type of human - mediated disturbance called human - mediated invasions. invasive species can be transported intentionally or accidentally. many invasive species originate in shipping areas from where they are unintentionally transported to their new location. sometimes human populations intentionally introduce species into new landscapes to serve various purposes, ranging from decoration to erosion control. these species can later become invasive and dramatically modify the landscape. it is important to note that not all exotic species are invasive ; in fact, the majority of newly introduced species never become invasive. humans have on their
embers are typically burnt leaves and thus small and lightweight, they can easily become airborne. during a large fire, with the right conditions, embers can be blown far ahead of the fire front, starting spot fires several kilometres / miles away. a number of practical measures can be undertaken by homeowners to reduce the consequences of such an " ember attack " that bombards especially wooden structures and starts property fires. = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of ember at wiktionary
the combustion process. a hot rich flashover occurs when the hot smoke with flammable gas ratio above the upper limit of flammability range and temperature higher than the ignition temperature leaves the compartment. upon dilution with air it can spontaneously ignite, and the resultant flame can propagate back into the compartment, resulting in an event similar to a rich flashover. the common definition of this process is known as auto - ignition, which is another form of fire gas ignition. = = dangers = = flashover is one of the most feared phenomena among firefighters. firefighters are taught to recognize the signs of imminent rollovers and flashovers and to avoid backdrafts. for example, there are certain routines for opening closed doors to buildings and compartments on fire, known as door entry procedures, ensuring fire crew safety where possible. = = indicators = = the following are some of the signs that firefighters are looking for when they attempt to determine whether a flashover is likely to occur. fast dark smoke. the neutral plane is moving down towards the floor. in this situation, a flashover is plausible. all directly exposed combustible materials are showing signs of pyrolysis. " rollover " or tongues of fire appear ( known as " angel fingers " to firefighters ) as gases reach their auto - ignition temperatures. there is a rapid build - up ( or " spike " ) in temperature due to the compound effect of rapidly burning ( i. e., deflagrating ) gases and the thermal cycle they produce. this is generally the best indication of a flashover. the fire is in a ventilated compartment, so there is no shortage of oxygen in the room. firefighters memorize a chant to help remember these during training : " thick dark smoke, high heat, rollover, free burning. " the colour of the smoke is often considered as well, but there is no connection between the colour of the smoke and the risk of flashovers. traditionally, black, dense smoke was considered particularly dangerous, but history shows this to be an unreliable indicator. for example, there was a fire in a rubber mattress factory in london in 1975 which produced white smoke. the white smoke was not considered dangerous, so firefighters decided to ventilate, which caused a smoke explosion and killed two firefighters. the white smoke from the pyrolysis of the rubber turned out to be extremely flammable. = = see also = = = = references = = = = external links = = living room flashover video rapid fire progress & flash
at risk. extensive use puts agricultural workers in particular at increased risk for pesticide illnesses. exposure can occur through inhalation of pesticide fumes, and often occurs in settings including greenhouse spraying operations and other closed environments like tractor cabs or while operating rotary fan mist sprayers in facilities or locations with poor ventilation systems. workers in other industries are at risk for exposure as well. for example, commercial availability of pesticides in stores puts retail workers at risk for exposure and illness when they handle pesticide products. the ubiquity of pesticides puts emergency responders such as fire - fighters and police officers at risk, because they are often the first responders to emergency events and may be unaware of the presence of a poisoning hazard. the process of aircraft disinsection, in which pesticides are used on inbound international flights for insect and disease control, can also make flight attendants sick. different job functions can lead to different levels of exposure. most occupational exposures are caused by absorption through exposed skin such as the face, hands, forearms, neck, and chest. this exposure is sometimes enhanced by inhalation in settings including spraying operations in greenhouses and other closed environments, tractor cabs, and the operation of rotary fan mist sprayers. = = = residential = = = the majority of households in canada use pesticides while taking part in activities such as gardening. in canada, 96 percent of households report having a lawn or a garden. 56 percent of the households who have a lawn or a garden utilize fertilizer or pesticide. this form of pesticide use may contribute to the third type of poisoning, which is caused by long - term low - level exposure. as mentioned before, long - term low - level exposure affects individuals from sources such as pesticide residues in food as well as contact with pesticide residues in the air, water, soil, sediment, food materials, plants and animals. = = pathophysiology = = = = = organochlorines = = = the organochlorine pesticides, like ddt, aldrin, and dieldrin, are extremely persistent and accumulate in fatty tissue. through the process of bioaccumulation ( lower amounts in the environment get magnified sequentially up the food chain ), large amounts of organochlorines can accumulate in top species like humans. there is substantial evidence to suggest that ddt, and its metabolite dde, act as endocrine disruptors, interfering with hormonal function of estrogen,
Answer:
|
Remove the fire
| 0.3 |
when organisms die, they
0. reproduce
1. wither away
2. petrify
3. regenerate
one organism. whether all of these can be seen as advantages however is debatable : the vast majority of living organisms are single celled, and even in terms of biomass, single celled organisms are far more successful than animals, although not plants. rather than seeing traits such as longer lifespans and greater size as an advantage, many biologists see these only as examples of diversity, with associated tradeoffs. = = gene expression changes in the transition from uni - to multicellularity = = during the evolutionary transition from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms, the expression of genes associated with reproduction and survival likely changed. in the unicellular state, genes associated with reproduction and survival are expressed in a way that enhances the fitness of individual cells, but after the transition to multicellularity, the pattern of expression of these genes must have substantially changed so that individual cells become more specialized in their function relative to reproduction and survival. as the multicellular organism emerged, gene expression patterns became compartmentalized between cells that specialized in reproduction ( germline cells ) and those that specialized in survival ( somatic cells ). as the transition progressed, cells that specialized tended to lose their own individuality and would no longer be able to both survive and reproduce outside the context of the group. = = see also = = bacterial colony embryogenesis organogenesis unicellular organism = = references = = = = external links = = tree of life eukaryotes. archived 2012 - 01 - 29 at the wayback machine.
, state is retained. it is simply made younger β rejuvenated - without going through the embryonic state. the measure of diagram showing the difference between β classical β and β partial β cloning : classical cloning ( the route given by the black arrows ) can rejuvenate an old cell but requires passage through an embryonic stage. β partial cloning β ( given by the red arrow ) rejuvenates old cells without passage through an embryonic stage. β partial cloning β ( given by the red arrow ) rejuvenates old cells without passage through an embryonic stage. in a new laboratory at the forschungszentrum borstel our work on partial cloning focuses, inter alia, on the restricted, temporary, incubation of an β old β cell within the egg. in this way only the age of the cell is β wiped clean β and its specialized, differentiated, state is retained. it is simply made younger β rejuvenated - without going through the embryonic state. the measure of rejuvenation in our system is, first, the re - acquisition of the ability of an old cell to divide, something that is lost in old cells and, second, the loss of characteristics that are associated with old cells. should such rejuvenation be achievable the consequences for medicine would be profound. it would avoid the need to artificially pass through an embryonic stage β either by nuclear transfer or by the so - called ips cells method - to rejuvenate cells. one would simply be able to take aged cells from a patient and then return to the patient their own, histocompatible, rejuvenated heart cells, liver cells etc. in sharp contrast to the cycle of artificial de - differentiation of somatic cells to stem cells and then the artificial re - differentiation of stem cells to the desired differentiated cell type, which is highly inefficient, time - consuming and results in unstable cell types. the process of partial cloning would be efficient and rapid and thus cheap both in terms of materials and manpower. in short, partial cloning has enormous potential to relieve human suffering and disease : it is the most rapid and cheap route to successful regenerative medicine. partial cloning also avoids the ethical problems associated with β classical β cloning in that it does not result in live born β it mere uses the oocyte briefly as a means to condition and thereby rejuvenate the old cell exclusively.
. ) study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing. = = chapter 9 = = death. beginning with the example of blanding's turtle and certain species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older, brooks discusses theories and research into the evolution of ageing. these include the studies of peter medawar and george c. williams in the 1950s and thomas johnson, david friedman and cynthia kenyon in the 1980s claiming that ageing is a genetic process that has evolved as organism select genes that help them to grow and reproduce over ones that help them to thrive in later life. brooks also talks about leonard hayflick, as well as others, who have observed that cells in culture will at a fixed point in time stop reproducing and die as their dna eventually becomes corrupted by continuous division, a mechanical process at cell level rather than part of a creature's genetic code. = = chapter 10 = = sex. this chapter is a discussion of theories of the evolution of sexual reproduction. the provided explanation is that although asexual reproduction is much easier and more efficient for an organism it is less common than sexual reproduction because having two parents allows species to adapt and evolve more easily to survive in changing environments. brooks discusses efforts to prove this by laboratory experiment and goes on to discuss alternative theories including the work of joan roughgarden of stanford university who proposes that sexual reproduction, rather than being driven by charles darwin's sexual selection in individuals, is a mechanism for the survival of social groupings, which most higher species depend on for survival. = = chapter 11 = = free will. discusses the experimental investigations into the neuroscience of free will by benjamin libet of the university of california, san francisco and others, which show that the brain seems to commit to certain decisions before the person becomes aware of having made them and discusses the implications of these findings on our conception of free will. = = chapter 12 = = the placebo effect. this is a discussion of the role of the placebo in modern medicine, including examples such as diazepam, which, brooks claims, in some situations appears to work only if the patient knows they are taking it. brooks describes research into prescription behaviour which appears to show that use of placebos is commonplace. he describes the paper by asbjΓΈrn hrobjartsson and peter c. gΓΈtzsche in the new england journal of medicine that challenges use of placebos entirely, and the work of others towards an understanding of the mechanism of
reproduction. because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as " organisms at the edge of life ", and as self - replicators. = = ecology = = ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their environment. = = = ecosystems = = = the community of living ( biotic ) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving ( abiotic ) components ( e. g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil ) of their environment is called an ecosystem. these biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. energy from the sun enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. by feeding on plants and on one another, animals move matter and energy through the system. they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. by breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes. = = = populations = = = a population is the group of organisms of the same species that occupies an area and reproduce from generation to generation. population size can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. the carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources that are available. the carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. in human populations, new technologies such as the green revolution have helped increase the earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by thomas malthus in the 18th century. = = = communities = = = a community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time. a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other. they can be either of the same species ( intraspecific interactions ), or of different species ( interspecific interactions ). these effects may be short - term, like pollination and predation, or long - term ; both often strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. a long - term interaction is called a symb
recombination during meiosis and dna repair ; he saw these as processes within the germ cells that were capable of restoring the integrity of dna and chromosomes from the types of damage that caused irreversible ageing in somatic cells. = = basal animals = = basal animals such as sponges ( porifera ) and corals ( anthozoa ) contain multipotent stem cell lineages, that give rise to both somatic and reproductive cells. the weismann barrier appears to be of a more recent evolutionary origin among animals. = = plants = = in plants, genetic changes in somatic lines can and do result in genetic changes in the germ lines, because the germ cells are produced by somatic cell lineages ( vegetative meristems ), which may be old enough ( many years ) to have accumulated multiple mutations since seed germination, some of them subject to natural selection. it is noteworthy in this context that, generally speaking, adult, reproducing plants tend to produce many more offspring in number than animal organisms. = = see also = = alternatives to evolution by natural selection β list of alternatives to darwinian natural selectionpages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets baldwin effect β effect of learned behavior on evolution transgenerational epigenetic inheritance β epigenetic transmission without dna primary structure alteration lamarckism β scientific hypothesis about inheritance pangenesis β darwin's proposed mechanism for heredity = = references = =
Answer:
|
wither away
| null |
when organisms die, they
0. reproduce
1. wither away
2. petrify
3. regenerate
one organism. whether all of these can be seen as advantages however is debatable : the vast majority of living organisms are single celled, and even in terms of biomass, single celled organisms are far more successful than animals, although not plants. rather than seeing traits such as longer lifespans and greater size as an advantage, many biologists see these only as examples of diversity, with associated tradeoffs. = = gene expression changes in the transition from uni - to multicellularity = = during the evolutionary transition from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms, the expression of genes associated with reproduction and survival likely changed. in the unicellular state, genes associated with reproduction and survival are expressed in a way that enhances the fitness of individual cells, but after the transition to multicellularity, the pattern of expression of these genes must have substantially changed so that individual cells become more specialized in their function relative to reproduction and survival. as the multicellular organism emerged, gene expression patterns became compartmentalized between cells that specialized in reproduction ( germline cells ) and those that specialized in survival ( somatic cells ). as the transition progressed, cells that specialized tended to lose their own individuality and would no longer be able to both survive and reproduce outside the context of the group. = = see also = = bacterial colony embryogenesis organogenesis unicellular organism = = references = = = = external links = = tree of life eukaryotes. archived 2012 - 01 - 29 at the wayback machine.
, state is retained. it is simply made younger β rejuvenated - without going through the embryonic state. the measure of diagram showing the difference between β classical β and β partial β cloning : classical cloning ( the route given by the black arrows ) can rejuvenate an old cell but requires passage through an embryonic stage. β partial cloning β ( given by the red arrow ) rejuvenates old cells without passage through an embryonic stage. β partial cloning β ( given by the red arrow ) rejuvenates old cells without passage through an embryonic stage. in a new laboratory at the forschungszentrum borstel our work on partial cloning focuses, inter alia, on the restricted, temporary, incubation of an β old β cell within the egg. in this way only the age of the cell is β wiped clean β and its specialized, differentiated, state is retained. it is simply made younger β rejuvenated - without going through the embryonic state. the measure of rejuvenation in our system is, first, the re - acquisition of the ability of an old cell to divide, something that is lost in old cells and, second, the loss of characteristics that are associated with old cells. should such rejuvenation be achievable the consequences for medicine would be profound. it would avoid the need to artificially pass through an embryonic stage β either by nuclear transfer or by the so - called ips cells method - to rejuvenate cells. one would simply be able to take aged cells from a patient and then return to the patient their own, histocompatible, rejuvenated heart cells, liver cells etc. in sharp contrast to the cycle of artificial de - differentiation of somatic cells to stem cells and then the artificial re - differentiation of stem cells to the desired differentiated cell type, which is highly inefficient, time - consuming and results in unstable cell types. the process of partial cloning would be efficient and rapid and thus cheap both in terms of materials and manpower. in short, partial cloning has enormous potential to relieve human suffering and disease : it is the most rapid and cheap route to successful regenerative medicine. partial cloning also avoids the ethical problems associated with β classical β cloning in that it does not result in live born β it mere uses the oocyte briefly as a means to condition and thereby rejuvenate the old cell exclusively.
. ) study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing. = = chapter 9 = = death. beginning with the example of blanding's turtle and certain species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older, brooks discusses theories and research into the evolution of ageing. these include the studies of peter medawar and george c. williams in the 1950s and thomas johnson, david friedman and cynthia kenyon in the 1980s claiming that ageing is a genetic process that has evolved as organism select genes that help them to grow and reproduce over ones that help them to thrive in later life. brooks also talks about leonard hayflick, as well as others, who have observed that cells in culture will at a fixed point in time stop reproducing and die as their dna eventually becomes corrupted by continuous division, a mechanical process at cell level rather than part of a creature's genetic code. = = chapter 10 = = sex. this chapter is a discussion of theories of the evolution of sexual reproduction. the provided explanation is that although asexual reproduction is much easier and more efficient for an organism it is less common than sexual reproduction because having two parents allows species to adapt and evolve more easily to survive in changing environments. brooks discusses efforts to prove this by laboratory experiment and goes on to discuss alternative theories including the work of joan roughgarden of stanford university who proposes that sexual reproduction, rather than being driven by charles darwin's sexual selection in individuals, is a mechanism for the survival of social groupings, which most higher species depend on for survival. = = chapter 11 = = free will. discusses the experimental investigations into the neuroscience of free will by benjamin libet of the university of california, san francisco and others, which show that the brain seems to commit to certain decisions before the person becomes aware of having made them and discusses the implications of these findings on our conception of free will. = = chapter 12 = = the placebo effect. this is a discussion of the role of the placebo in modern medicine, including examples such as diazepam, which, brooks claims, in some situations appears to work only if the patient knows they are taking it. brooks describes research into prescription behaviour which appears to show that use of placebos is commonplace. he describes the paper by asbjΓΈrn hrobjartsson and peter c. gΓΈtzsche in the new england journal of medicine that challenges use of placebos entirely, and the work of others towards an understanding of the mechanism of
reproduction. because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as " organisms at the edge of life ", and as self - replicators. = = ecology = = ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their environment. = = = ecosystems = = = the community of living ( biotic ) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving ( abiotic ) components ( e. g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil ) of their environment is called an ecosystem. these biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. energy from the sun enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. by feeding on plants and on one another, animals move matter and energy through the system. they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. by breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes. = = = populations = = = a population is the group of organisms of the same species that occupies an area and reproduce from generation to generation. population size can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. the carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources that are available. the carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. in human populations, new technologies such as the green revolution have helped increase the earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by thomas malthus in the 18th century. = = = communities = = = a community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time. a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other. they can be either of the same species ( intraspecific interactions ), or of different species ( interspecific interactions ). these effects may be short - term, like pollination and predation, or long - term ; both often strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. a long - term interaction is called a symb
recombination during meiosis and dna repair ; he saw these as processes within the germ cells that were capable of restoring the integrity of dna and chromosomes from the types of damage that caused irreversible ageing in somatic cells. = = basal animals = = basal animals such as sponges ( porifera ) and corals ( anthozoa ) contain multipotent stem cell lineages, that give rise to both somatic and reproductive cells. the weismann barrier appears to be of a more recent evolutionary origin among animals. = = plants = = in plants, genetic changes in somatic lines can and do result in genetic changes in the germ lines, because the germ cells are produced by somatic cell lineages ( vegetative meristems ), which may be old enough ( many years ) to have accumulated multiple mutations since seed germination, some of them subject to natural selection. it is noteworthy in this context that, generally speaking, adult, reproducing plants tend to produce many more offspring in number than animal organisms. = = see also = = alternatives to evolution by natural selection β list of alternatives to darwinian natural selectionpages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets baldwin effect β effect of learned behavior on evolution transgenerational epigenetic inheritance β epigenetic transmission without dna primary structure alteration lamarckism β scientific hypothesis about inheritance pangenesis β darwin's proposed mechanism for heredity = = references = =
Answer:
|
regenerate
| 0.3 |
Which is likeliest to decay?
0. rock
1. radio waves
2. steel
3. a rhinoceros
of 135cs would be more difficult. palladium - 107 has a very long half - life, a low yield ( though the yield for plutonium fission is higher than the yield from uranium - 235 fission ), and very weak radiation. its initial contribution to llfp radiation should be only about one part in 10000 for 235u fission, or 2000 for 65 % 235u + 35 % 239pu. palladium is a noble metal and extremely inert. iodine - 129 has the longest half - life, 15. 7 million years, and due to its higher half life, lower fission fraction and decay energy it produces only about 1 % the intensity of radioactivity as 99tc. however, radioactive iodine is a disproportionate biohazard because the thyroid gland concentrates iodine. 129i has a half - life nearly a billion times as long as its more hazardous sister isotope 131i ; therefore, with a shorter half - life and a higher decay energy, 131i is approximately a billion times more radioactive than the longer - lived 129i. = = llfp radioactivity compared = = in total, the other six llfps, in thermal reactor spent fuel, initially release only a bit more than 10 % as much energy per unit time as tc - 99 for u - 235 fission, or 25 % as much for 65 % u - 235 + 35 % pu - 239. about 1000 years after fuel use, radioactivity from the medium - lived fission products cs - 137 and sr - 90 drops below the level of radioactivity from tc - 99 or llfps in general. ( actinides, if not removed, will be emitting more radioactivity than either at this point. ) by about 1 million years, tc - 99 radioactivity will have declined below that of zr - 93, though immobility of the latter means it is probably still a lesser hazard. by about 3 million years, zr - 93 decay energy will have declined below that of i - 129. nuclear transmutation is under consideration as a disposal method, primarily for tc - 99 and i - 129 as these both represent the greatest biohazards and have the greatest neutron capture cross sections, although transmutation is still slow compared to fission of actinides in a reactor. transmutation has also been considered for cs - 135, but is almost certainly not worthwhile for the other llfps. given that stable caesium - 133 is also produced
significantly increased due to anthropogenic causes. in soils, technetium - 99 ( 99tc ), carbon - 14, strontium - 90, cobalt - 60 ( 60co ), iodine - 129 ( 129i ), iodine - 131 ( 131i ), americium - 241 ( 241am ), neptunium - 237 ( 237np ) and various forms of radioactive plutonium and uranium are the most common radionuclides. the classification of radioactive waste established by the international atomic energy agency ( iaea ) distinguishes six levels according to equivalent dose, specific activity, heat released and half - life of the radionuclides : exempt waste ( ew ) : waste that meets the criteria for exclusion from regulatory control for radiation protection purposes. very short lived waste ( vslw ) : waste with very short half - lives ( often used for research and medical purposes ) that can be stored over a limited period of up to a few years and subsequently cleared from regulatory control. very low level waste ( vllw ) : waste like soil and rubble ( with low levels of activity concentration ) that may also contain other hazardous waste. low level waste ( llw ) : waste that is above clearance levels and requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near surface facilities. llw include short lived radionuclides at higher levels of activity concentration and also long lived radionuclides, but only at relatively low levels of activity concentration. intermediate level waste ( ilw ) : waste with long lived radionuclides that requires a greater degree of containment and isolation at greater depths. high level waste ( hlw ) : waste with large amounts of long lived radionuclides that need to be stored in deep, stable geological formations usually several hundred metres or more below the surface. = = = ecological and human health consequences = = = radioactive contamination is a potential danger for living organisms and results in external hazards, concerning radiation sources outside the body, and internal dangers, as a result of the incorporation of radionuclides inside the body ( often by inhalation of particles or ingestion of contaminated food ). in humans, single doses from 0. 25 sv produce first anomalies in the amount of leukocytes. this effect is accentuated if the absorbed dose is between 0. 5 and 2 sv, in whose first damage, nausea and hair loss are suffered. the strip ranging between 2 and 5 sv is considered
to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. this atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small - scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter. = = = rare and theoretical forms = = = = = = = superheavy elements = = = = all nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 ( lead ) are known to be radioactive. no nuclide with an atomic number exceeding 92 ( uranium ) exists on earth as a primordial nuclide, and heavier elements generally have shorter half - lives. nevertheless, an " island of stability " encompassing relatively long - lived isotopes of superheavy elements with atomic numbers 110 to 114 might exist. predictions for the half - life of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years. in any case, superheavy elements ( with z > 104 ) would not exist due to increasing coulomb repulsion ( which results in spontaneous fission with increasingly short half - lives ) in the absence of any stabilizing effects. = = = = exotic matter = = = = each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. when a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. the first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. as a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. in 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom ( antihydrogen ) was synthesized at the cern laboratory in geneva. other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. for example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. these types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of physics. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = bibliography = = oliver manuel ( 2001 ). origin of elements in the solar system : implications of post - 1957 observations. springer. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 46562 - 8. oclc 22837
place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. the resistance of rock - forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the goldich dissolution series. in this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred. the amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. in most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been weathered to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite. = = = fossils = = = among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. often these fossils may only be visible under magnification. dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but under exceptional circumstances, these natural processes are unable to take place, leading to fossilisation. the chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high ( so that a carcass is quickly buried ), in anoxic environments ( where little bacterial activity occurs ) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. larger, well - preserved fossils are relatively rare. fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc. as a part of a sedimentary rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the host rock. for example, a shell consisting of calcite can dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. in the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. this preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. the most common minerals involved in permineralization are various forms of amorphous silica ( chalcedony, flint, chert ), carbonates ( especially
risks from its radiation. selenium - 79 is produced at low yields and emits only weak radiation. its decay energy per unit time should be only about 0. 2 % that of tc - 99. zirconium - 93 is produced at a relatively high yield of about 6 %, but its decay is 7. 5 times slower than tc - 99, and its decay energy is only 30 % as great ; therefore its energy production is initially only 4 % as great as tc - 99, though this fraction will increase as the tc - 99 decays. 93zr does produce gamma radiation, but of a very low energy, and zirconium is relatively inert in the environment. caesium - 135's predecessor xenon - 135 is produced at a high rate of over 6 % of fissions, but is an extremely potent absorber of thermal neutrons ( neutron poison ), so that most of it is transmuted to almost - stable xenon - 136 before it can decay to caesium - 135. if 90 % of 135xe is destroyed, then the remaining 135cs's decay energy per unit time is initially only about 1 % as great as that of the 99tc. in a fast reactor, less of the xe - 135 may be destroyed. 135cs is the only alkaline or electropositive llfp ; in contrast, the main medium - lived fission products and the minor actinides other than neptunium are all alkaline and tend to stay together during reprocessing ; with many reprocessing techniques such as salt solution or salt volatilization, 135cs will also stay with this group, although some techniques such as high - temperature volatilization can separate it. often the alkaline wastes are vitrified to form high level waste, which will include the 135cs. fission caesium contains not only 135cs but also stable but neutron - absorbing 133cs ( which wastes neutrons and forms 134cs which is radioactive with a half - life of 2 years ) as well as the common fission product 137cs which does not absorb neutrons but is highly radioactive, making handling more hazardous and complicated ; for all these reasons, transmutation disposal of 135cs would be more difficult. palladium - 107 has a very long half - life, a low yield ( though the yield for plutonium fission is higher than the yield from uranium - 235 fission ), and very weak radiation. its
Answer:
|
a rhinoceros
| null |
Which is likeliest to decay?
0. rock
1. radio waves
2. steel
3. a rhinoceros
of 135cs would be more difficult. palladium - 107 has a very long half - life, a low yield ( though the yield for plutonium fission is higher than the yield from uranium - 235 fission ), and very weak radiation. its initial contribution to llfp radiation should be only about one part in 10000 for 235u fission, or 2000 for 65 % 235u + 35 % 239pu. palladium is a noble metal and extremely inert. iodine - 129 has the longest half - life, 15. 7 million years, and due to its higher half life, lower fission fraction and decay energy it produces only about 1 % the intensity of radioactivity as 99tc. however, radioactive iodine is a disproportionate biohazard because the thyroid gland concentrates iodine. 129i has a half - life nearly a billion times as long as its more hazardous sister isotope 131i ; therefore, with a shorter half - life and a higher decay energy, 131i is approximately a billion times more radioactive than the longer - lived 129i. = = llfp radioactivity compared = = in total, the other six llfps, in thermal reactor spent fuel, initially release only a bit more than 10 % as much energy per unit time as tc - 99 for u - 235 fission, or 25 % as much for 65 % u - 235 + 35 % pu - 239. about 1000 years after fuel use, radioactivity from the medium - lived fission products cs - 137 and sr - 90 drops below the level of radioactivity from tc - 99 or llfps in general. ( actinides, if not removed, will be emitting more radioactivity than either at this point. ) by about 1 million years, tc - 99 radioactivity will have declined below that of zr - 93, though immobility of the latter means it is probably still a lesser hazard. by about 3 million years, zr - 93 decay energy will have declined below that of i - 129. nuclear transmutation is under consideration as a disposal method, primarily for tc - 99 and i - 129 as these both represent the greatest biohazards and have the greatest neutron capture cross sections, although transmutation is still slow compared to fission of actinides in a reactor. transmutation has also been considered for cs - 135, but is almost certainly not worthwhile for the other llfps. given that stable caesium - 133 is also produced
significantly increased due to anthropogenic causes. in soils, technetium - 99 ( 99tc ), carbon - 14, strontium - 90, cobalt - 60 ( 60co ), iodine - 129 ( 129i ), iodine - 131 ( 131i ), americium - 241 ( 241am ), neptunium - 237 ( 237np ) and various forms of radioactive plutonium and uranium are the most common radionuclides. the classification of radioactive waste established by the international atomic energy agency ( iaea ) distinguishes six levels according to equivalent dose, specific activity, heat released and half - life of the radionuclides : exempt waste ( ew ) : waste that meets the criteria for exclusion from regulatory control for radiation protection purposes. very short lived waste ( vslw ) : waste with very short half - lives ( often used for research and medical purposes ) that can be stored over a limited period of up to a few years and subsequently cleared from regulatory control. very low level waste ( vllw ) : waste like soil and rubble ( with low levels of activity concentration ) that may also contain other hazardous waste. low level waste ( llw ) : waste that is above clearance levels and requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near surface facilities. llw include short lived radionuclides at higher levels of activity concentration and also long lived radionuclides, but only at relatively low levels of activity concentration. intermediate level waste ( ilw ) : waste with long lived radionuclides that requires a greater degree of containment and isolation at greater depths. high level waste ( hlw ) : waste with large amounts of long lived radionuclides that need to be stored in deep, stable geological formations usually several hundred metres or more below the surface. = = = ecological and human health consequences = = = radioactive contamination is a potential danger for living organisms and results in external hazards, concerning radiation sources outside the body, and internal dangers, as a result of the incorporation of radionuclides inside the body ( often by inhalation of particles or ingestion of contaminated food ). in humans, single doses from 0. 25 sv produce first anomalies in the amount of leukocytes. this effect is accentuated if the absorbed dose is between 0. 5 and 2 sv, in whose first damage, nausea and hair loss are suffered. the strip ranging between 2 and 5 sv is considered
to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. this atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small - scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter. = = = rare and theoretical forms = = = = = = = superheavy elements = = = = all nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 ( lead ) are known to be radioactive. no nuclide with an atomic number exceeding 92 ( uranium ) exists on earth as a primordial nuclide, and heavier elements generally have shorter half - lives. nevertheless, an " island of stability " encompassing relatively long - lived isotopes of superheavy elements with atomic numbers 110 to 114 might exist. predictions for the half - life of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years. in any case, superheavy elements ( with z > 104 ) would not exist due to increasing coulomb repulsion ( which results in spontaneous fission with increasingly short half - lives ) in the absence of any stabilizing effects. = = = = exotic matter = = = = each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. when a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. the first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. as a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. in 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom ( antihydrogen ) was synthesized at the cern laboratory in geneva. other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. for example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. these types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of physics. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = bibliography = = oliver manuel ( 2001 ). origin of elements in the solar system : implications of post - 1957 observations. springer. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 46562 - 8. oclc 22837
place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. the resistance of rock - forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the goldich dissolution series. in this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred. the amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. in most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been weathered to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite. = = = fossils = = = among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. often these fossils may only be visible under magnification. dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but under exceptional circumstances, these natural processes are unable to take place, leading to fossilisation. the chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high ( so that a carcass is quickly buried ), in anoxic environments ( where little bacterial activity occurs ) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. larger, well - preserved fossils are relatively rare. fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc. as a part of a sedimentary rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the host rock. for example, a shell consisting of calcite can dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. in the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. this preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. the most common minerals involved in permineralization are various forms of amorphous silica ( chalcedony, flint, chert ), carbonates ( especially
risks from its radiation. selenium - 79 is produced at low yields and emits only weak radiation. its decay energy per unit time should be only about 0. 2 % that of tc - 99. zirconium - 93 is produced at a relatively high yield of about 6 %, but its decay is 7. 5 times slower than tc - 99, and its decay energy is only 30 % as great ; therefore its energy production is initially only 4 % as great as tc - 99, though this fraction will increase as the tc - 99 decays. 93zr does produce gamma radiation, but of a very low energy, and zirconium is relatively inert in the environment. caesium - 135's predecessor xenon - 135 is produced at a high rate of over 6 % of fissions, but is an extremely potent absorber of thermal neutrons ( neutron poison ), so that most of it is transmuted to almost - stable xenon - 136 before it can decay to caesium - 135. if 90 % of 135xe is destroyed, then the remaining 135cs's decay energy per unit time is initially only about 1 % as great as that of the 99tc. in a fast reactor, less of the xe - 135 may be destroyed. 135cs is the only alkaline or electropositive llfp ; in contrast, the main medium - lived fission products and the minor actinides other than neptunium are all alkaline and tend to stay together during reprocessing ; with many reprocessing techniques such as salt solution or salt volatilization, 135cs will also stay with this group, although some techniques such as high - temperature volatilization can separate it. often the alkaline wastes are vitrified to form high level waste, which will include the 135cs. fission caesium contains not only 135cs but also stable but neutron - absorbing 133cs ( which wastes neutrons and forms 134cs which is radioactive with a half - life of 2 years ) as well as the common fission product 137cs which does not absorb neutrons but is highly radioactive, making handling more hazardous and complicated ; for all these reasons, transmutation disposal of 135cs would be more difficult. palladium - 107 has a very long half - life, a low yield ( though the yield for plutonium fission is higher than the yield from uranium - 235 fission ), and very weak radiation. its
Answer:
|
steel
| 0.3 |
What requires nutrients for survival?
0. buildings
1. rocks
2. badgers
3. clouds
a nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. the requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi and protists. nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non - cellular structures such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. some nutrients can be metabolically converted into smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and fermentation products ( ethanol or vinegar ) leading to end - products of water and carbon dioxide. all organisms require water. essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host. different types of organisms have different essential nutrients. ascorbic acid ( vitamin c ) is essential to humans and some animal species but most other animals and many plants are able to synthesize it. nutrients may be organic or inorganic : organic compounds include most compounds containing carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. inorganic nutrients include nutrients such as iron, selenium, and zinc, while organic nutrients include, protein, fats, sugars and vitamins. a classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into macronutrients and micronutrients. consumed in relatively large amounts ( grams or ounces ), macronutrients ( carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water ) are primarily used to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts ( milligrams or micrograms ) ; they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction. inadequate amounts of essential nutrients or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth, survival and reproduction. consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes such as the united states dietary reference intake, are based on the amount required to prevent deficiency and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. in many countries, regulations require that food product labels display information about the amount of any macronutrients and micronutrients present in the food in significant quantities. nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have
, and oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. together, these six are the elemental macronutrients for all organisms. they are sourced from inorganic matter ( for example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen ) and organic compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins. = = see also = = = = references = = = = external links = = usda. dietary reference intakes
produced may be greater than 4. 5 kg per worm per year. by burrowing, the earthworm improves soil porosity, creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage. other important soil organisms include nematodes, mycorrhiza and bacteria. a quarter of all the animal species live underground. according to the 2020 food and agriculture organization β s report " state of knowledge of soil biodiversity β status, challenges and potentialities ", there are major gaps in knowledge about biodiversity in soils. degraded soil requires synthetic fertilizer to produce high yields. lacking structure increases erosion and carries nitrogen and other pollutants into rivers and streams. each one percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20, 000 gallons more water per acre. = = = mineralization = = = to allow plants to fully realize their phytonutrient potential, active mineralization of the soil is sometimes undertaken. this can involve adding crushed rock or chemical soil supplements. in either case, the purpose is to combat mineral depletion. a broad range of minerals can be used, including common substances such as phosphorus and more exotic substances such as zinc and selenium. extensive research examines the phase transitions of minerals in soil with aqueous contact. flooding can bring significant sediments to an alluvial plain. while this effect may not be desirable if floods endanger life or if the sediment originates from productive land, this process of addition to a floodplain is a natural process that can rejuvenate soil chemistry through mineralization. = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = moorberg, colby j., ed. ( 2019 ). soil and water conservation : an annotated bibliography. npp ebooks. isbn 978 - 1 - 944548 - 26 - 1. online book ( the most current version of the text ) download book β kindle, nook, apple, kobo, and pdf
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
##sms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions. decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen. wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen ( this is especially true in wetlands ), which slows microbial growth. in dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow ( albeit at a slower rate ) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth. : 200 = = = dynamics and resilience = = = ecosystems are dynamic entities. they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances. : 347 when a perturbation occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state. the tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance. the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience. resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the biosphere where we are dependent on ecosystem services for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances. time plays a central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster recovery of a community from disturbance. : 67 disturbance also plays an important role in ecological processes. f. stuart chapin and coauthors define disturbance as " a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass ". : 346 this can range from herbivore outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, glacial advances, to volcanic eruptions. such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content. disturbance is followed by succession, a " directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply. " : 470 the frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function. a major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or glacial advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter. ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo primary succession. a less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in secondary succession and a faster recovery. : 348 more severe and more frequent disturbance result in
Answer:
|
badgers
| null |
What requires nutrients for survival?
0. buildings
1. rocks
2. badgers
3. clouds
a nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. the requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi and protists. nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non - cellular structures such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. some nutrients can be metabolically converted into smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and fermentation products ( ethanol or vinegar ) leading to end - products of water and carbon dioxide. all organisms require water. essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host. different types of organisms have different essential nutrients. ascorbic acid ( vitamin c ) is essential to humans and some animal species but most other animals and many plants are able to synthesize it. nutrients may be organic or inorganic : organic compounds include most compounds containing carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. inorganic nutrients include nutrients such as iron, selenium, and zinc, while organic nutrients include, protein, fats, sugars and vitamins. a classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into macronutrients and micronutrients. consumed in relatively large amounts ( grams or ounces ), macronutrients ( carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water ) are primarily used to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts ( milligrams or micrograms ) ; they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction. inadequate amounts of essential nutrients or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth, survival and reproduction. consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes such as the united states dietary reference intake, are based on the amount required to prevent deficiency and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. in many countries, regulations require that food product labels display information about the amount of any macronutrients and micronutrients present in the food in significant quantities. nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have
, and oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. together, these six are the elemental macronutrients for all organisms. they are sourced from inorganic matter ( for example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen ) and organic compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins. = = see also = = = = references = = = = external links = = usda. dietary reference intakes
produced may be greater than 4. 5 kg per worm per year. by burrowing, the earthworm improves soil porosity, creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage. other important soil organisms include nematodes, mycorrhiza and bacteria. a quarter of all the animal species live underground. according to the 2020 food and agriculture organization β s report " state of knowledge of soil biodiversity β status, challenges and potentialities ", there are major gaps in knowledge about biodiversity in soils. degraded soil requires synthetic fertilizer to produce high yields. lacking structure increases erosion and carries nitrogen and other pollutants into rivers and streams. each one percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20, 000 gallons more water per acre. = = = mineralization = = = to allow plants to fully realize their phytonutrient potential, active mineralization of the soil is sometimes undertaken. this can involve adding crushed rock or chemical soil supplements. in either case, the purpose is to combat mineral depletion. a broad range of minerals can be used, including common substances such as phosphorus and more exotic substances such as zinc and selenium. extensive research examines the phase transitions of minerals in soil with aqueous contact. flooding can bring significant sediments to an alluvial plain. while this effect may not be desirable if floods endanger life or if the sediment originates from productive land, this process of addition to a floodplain is a natural process that can rejuvenate soil chemistry through mineralization. = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = moorberg, colby j., ed. ( 2019 ). soil and water conservation : an annotated bibliography. npp ebooks. isbn 978 - 1 - 944548 - 26 - 1. online book ( the most current version of the text ) download book β kindle, nook, apple, kobo, and pdf
nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. : 183 decomposition processes can be separated into three categories β leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water - soluble components. these are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem ( and are considered lost to it ). : 271 β 280 newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water - soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients. leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. : 69 β 77 fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. : 184 animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. freeze - thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. : 186 the chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. they also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. : 186 = = = = decomposition rates = = = = decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. the rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors β the physical environment ( temperature, moisture, and soil properties ), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. : 194 temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration ; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. freeze - thaw cycles also affect decomposition β freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or
##sms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. this can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. : 280 decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions. decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen. wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen ( this is especially true in wetlands ), which slows microbial growth. in dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow ( albeit at a slower rate ) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth. : 200 = = = dynamics and resilience = = = ecosystems are dynamic entities. they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances. : 347 when a perturbation occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state. the tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance. the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience. resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the biosphere where we are dependent on ecosystem services for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances. time plays a central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster recovery of a community from disturbance. : 67 disturbance also plays an important role in ecological processes. f. stuart chapin and coauthors define disturbance as " a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass ". : 346 this can range from herbivore outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, glacial advances, to volcanic eruptions. such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content. disturbance is followed by succession, a " directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply. " : 470 the frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function. a major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or glacial advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter. ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo primary succession. a less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in secondary succession and a faster recovery. : 348 more severe and more frequent disturbance result in
Answer:
|
buildings
| 0.3 |
If a living being will make it to adulthood, then the most important thing to it will be
0. talons
1. mining
2. edibles
3. hotels
: intrinsic and extrinsic mortality. intrinsic mortality is defined as mortality due to ageing, the physiological decline due to innate processes, whereas extrinsic mortality is the result of environmental factors such as for example predation, starvation, accidents and others. flying animals such as bats, for example, have fewer predators, and therefore have a low extrinsic mortality. birds are warm - blooded and similar in size to many small mammals, yet often live 5 β 10 times as long. they face less predation than ground - dwelling mammals, and thus have lower extrinsic mortality. when examining the body - size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. the explanation for the long lifespans of primates ( such as humans, monkeys, and apes ) relative to body size is that they manage to achieve lower extrinsic mortality due to their intelligence. = = = = potential immortality of the germ line = = = = individual organisms are ordinarily mortal ; they age and die, while the germlines which connect successive generations are potentially immortal. the basis for this difference is a fundamental problem in biology. the russian biologist and historian zhores a. medvedev considered that the accuracy of genome replicative and other synthetic systems alone cannot explain the immortality of germ lines. rather medvedev thought that known features of the biochemistry and genetics of sexual reproduction indicate the presence of unique information maintenance and restoration processes at the different stages of gametogenesis. in particular, medvedev considered that the most important opportunities for information maintenance of germ cells are created by recombination during meiosis and dna repair ; he saw these as processes within the germ cells that were capable of restoring the integrity of dna and chromosomes from the types of damage that cause irreversible ageing in somatic cells. = = diseases = = = = = progeroid syndromes = = = progeroid syndromes are genetic diseases that are linked to premature aging. progeroid syndromes are characterized by having features that resemble those of physiological aging such as hair loss and cardiovascular disease. = = = = progeria = = = = progeria is a single - gene genetic disease that cause acceleration of many or most symptoms of ageing during childhood. it affects about 1 in 4 - 8 million births. those who have this disease are known for failure to thrive and have a series of
affect the life table of an organism, and can be imagined as various investments in growth, reproduction, and survivorship. the goal of life history theory is to understand the variation in such life history strategies. this knowledge can be used to construct models to predict what kinds of traits will be favoured in different environments. without constraints, the highest fitness would belong to a darwinian demon, a hypothetical organism for whom such trade - offs do not exist. the key to life history theory is that there are limited resources available, and focusing on only a few life history characteristics is necessary. examples of some major life history characteristics include : age at first reproductive event reproductive lifespan and ageing number and size of offspring variations in these characteristics reflect different allocations of an individual's resources ( i. e., time, effort, and energy expenditure ) to competing life functions. for any given individual, available resources in any particular environment are finite. time, effort, and energy used for one purpose diminishes the time, effort, and energy available for another. for example, birds with larger broods are unable to afford more prominent secondary sexual characteristics. life history characteristics will, in some cases, change according to the population density, since genotypes with the highest fitness at high population densities will not have the highest fitness at low population densities. other conditions, such as the stability of the environment, will lead to selection for certain life history traits. experiments by michael r. rose and brian charlesworth showed that unstable environments select for flies with both shorter lifespans and higher fecundity β in unreliable conditions, it is better for an organism to breed early and abundantly than waste resources promoting its own survival. biological tradeoffs also appear to characterize the life histories of viruses, including bacteriophages. = = = reproductive value and costs of reproduction = = = reproductive value models the tradeoffs between reproduction, growth, and survivorship. an organism's reproductive value ( rv ) is defined as its expected contribution to the population through both current and future reproduction : rv = current reproduction + residual reproductive value ( rrv ) the residual reproductive value represents an organism's future reproduction through its investment in growth and survivorship. the cost of reproduction hypothesis predicts that higher investment in current reproduction hinders growth and survivorship and reduces future reproduction, while investments in growth will pay off with higher fecundity ( number of offspring produced ) and reproductive episodes in the future. this cost - of - reproduction tradeoff influences major life history characteristics
affect maximum life span. furthermore, a number of species with high metabolic rate, like bats and birds, are long - lived. in a 2007 analysis it was shown that, when modern statistical methods for correcting for the effects of body size and phylogeny are employed, metabolic rate does not correlate with longevity in mammals or birds. = = see also = = dna damage theory of aging life history theory longevity quotient = = references = = rubner, m. ( 1908 ). das problem der lebensdauer und seiner beziehungen zum wachstum und ernahrung. munich : oldenberg. raymond pearl. the rate of living. 1928 speakman j. r. ( 2005 ). " body size, energy metabolism and lifespan ". the journal of experimental biology. 208 ( pt 9 ) : 1717 β 1730. doi : 10. 1242 / jeb. 01556. pmid 15855403. harman d ( 1956 ). " aging : a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry ". journal of gerontology. 11 ( 3 ) : 298 β 300. citeseerx 10. 1. 1. 663. 3809. doi : 10. 1093 / geronj / 11. 3. 298. pmid 13332224. speakman jr, selman c, mclaren js, harper ej ( june 2002 ). " living fast, dying when? the link between aging and energetics ". journal of nutrition. 132 ( 6 ) : 1583s β 97s. doi : 10. 1093 / jn / 132. 6. 1583s. pmid 12042467. holloszy j. o. ; smith e. k. ( 1986 ). " longevity of cold - exposed rats : a reevaluation of the " rate - of - living theory ". journal of applied physiology. 61 ( suppl 2 ) : 1656 β 1660. doi : 10. 1152 / jappl. 1986. 61. 5. 1656. pmid 3781978.
adult development encompasses the changes that occur in biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of one's life. changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by biological theories of adult development and aging. biological changes influence psychological and interpersonal / social developmental changes, which are often described by stage theories of human development. stage theories typically focus on " age - appropriate " developmental tasks to be achieved at each stage. erik erikson and carl jung proposed stage theories of human development that encompass the entire life span, and emphasized the potential for positive change very late in life. the concept of adulthood has legal and socio - cultural definitions. the legal definition of an adult is a person who is fully grown or developed. this is referred to as the age of majority, which is age 18 in most cultures, although there is a variation from 15 to 21. the typical perception of adulthood is that it starts at age 20 or 21. middle - aged adulthood, starts at about age 40, followed by old age around age 60. the socio - cultural definition of being an adult is based on what a culture normatively views as being the required criteria for adulthood, which in turn, influences the lives of individuals within that culture. this may or may not coincide with the legal definition. current views on adult development in late life focus on the concept of successful aging, defined as "... low probability of disease and disease - related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement with life. " biomedical theories hold that one can age successfully by caring for physical health and minimizing loss in function, whereas psychosocial theories posit that capitalizing upon social and cognitive resources, such as a positive attitude or social support from neighbors, family, and friends, is key to aging successfully. jeanne louise calment exemplifies successful aging as the longest living person, dying at 122 years old. her long life can be attributed to her genetics ( both parents lived into their 80s ), her active lifestyle and an optimistic attitude. she enjoyed many hobbies and physical activities, and believed that laughter contributed to her longevity. she poured olive oil on all of her food and skin, which she believed also contributed to her long life and youthful appearance. = = contemporary and classic theories = = adult development is a somewhat new area of study in the field of psychology. previously it was assumed that development would cease at the end of adolescence. further research has concluded that development continues well after adolescence and into late adulthood. this new
' s formal authority or power, specifically in the workplace. if a person does not end their power in the workplace, they risk being disconnected with their own generation, and in conflict with the generation in middle adulthood. after retiring, a person is supposed to take part in valued work that comes from their own creativity, leading into the developmental task of striking a balance between involvement with society and with oneself. levinson suggested that through harnessing one's own inner resources and interests in an unselfish way, one can gain more wisdom about the external world. levinson believed that the main task in the late adulthood stage is to reflect on one's life, including their times of success and failure, and appreciate the rest of their life experiences. = = = life structure = = = levinson's proposal of adult development stemmed primarily from previous concepts such as the life cycle. levinson had a focus on the specific points of someone's life and how it changed over time. levinson believe key aspects of a particulars person's life should be put into perspective through the context of said person's life. the life structure aimed to answer personal questions about one's life and consists of relationships with the external. the life structure requires inquiries into the multiple possible relationships throughout one's life as well as their nature. the life structure forms a barrier between the personality and social structures, although the life structure also works to connect the two as well requiring the connection of the social and psychological sciences. = = history of concept of adult development = = the idea that people develop through adulthood was first explored by g. stanley hall, who examined adult development and aging and published the book " senescence : the last half of life ", in 1922. through hall's research and theorizing on adulthood and old age, he developed the view that aging involved creativity and reviving oneself mentally and emotionally rather than physical and cognitive deterioration. in addition to hall's work on adult development, levinson was also influenced by erik erikson, who is well known for theory on the stages of psychosocial development. erikson was one of the pioneers in adult development, as his theory included stages for adulthood, while other theories, such as jean piaget's theory of cognitive development, did not extend past adolescence. erikson's theory has three stages that he found occurring in early, middle, and late adulthood. these stages revolve around intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair.
Answer:
|
edibles
| null |
If a living being will make it to adulthood, then the most important thing to it will be
0. talons
1. mining
2. edibles
3. hotels
: intrinsic and extrinsic mortality. intrinsic mortality is defined as mortality due to ageing, the physiological decline due to innate processes, whereas extrinsic mortality is the result of environmental factors such as for example predation, starvation, accidents and others. flying animals such as bats, for example, have fewer predators, and therefore have a low extrinsic mortality. birds are warm - blooded and similar in size to many small mammals, yet often live 5 β 10 times as long. they face less predation than ground - dwelling mammals, and thus have lower extrinsic mortality. when examining the body - size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. the explanation for the long lifespans of primates ( such as humans, monkeys, and apes ) relative to body size is that they manage to achieve lower extrinsic mortality due to their intelligence. = = = = potential immortality of the germ line = = = = individual organisms are ordinarily mortal ; they age and die, while the germlines which connect successive generations are potentially immortal. the basis for this difference is a fundamental problem in biology. the russian biologist and historian zhores a. medvedev considered that the accuracy of genome replicative and other synthetic systems alone cannot explain the immortality of germ lines. rather medvedev thought that known features of the biochemistry and genetics of sexual reproduction indicate the presence of unique information maintenance and restoration processes at the different stages of gametogenesis. in particular, medvedev considered that the most important opportunities for information maintenance of germ cells are created by recombination during meiosis and dna repair ; he saw these as processes within the germ cells that were capable of restoring the integrity of dna and chromosomes from the types of damage that cause irreversible ageing in somatic cells. = = diseases = = = = = progeroid syndromes = = = progeroid syndromes are genetic diseases that are linked to premature aging. progeroid syndromes are characterized by having features that resemble those of physiological aging such as hair loss and cardiovascular disease. = = = = progeria = = = = progeria is a single - gene genetic disease that cause acceleration of many or most symptoms of ageing during childhood. it affects about 1 in 4 - 8 million births. those who have this disease are known for failure to thrive and have a series of
affect the life table of an organism, and can be imagined as various investments in growth, reproduction, and survivorship. the goal of life history theory is to understand the variation in such life history strategies. this knowledge can be used to construct models to predict what kinds of traits will be favoured in different environments. without constraints, the highest fitness would belong to a darwinian demon, a hypothetical organism for whom such trade - offs do not exist. the key to life history theory is that there are limited resources available, and focusing on only a few life history characteristics is necessary. examples of some major life history characteristics include : age at first reproductive event reproductive lifespan and ageing number and size of offspring variations in these characteristics reflect different allocations of an individual's resources ( i. e., time, effort, and energy expenditure ) to competing life functions. for any given individual, available resources in any particular environment are finite. time, effort, and energy used for one purpose diminishes the time, effort, and energy available for another. for example, birds with larger broods are unable to afford more prominent secondary sexual characteristics. life history characteristics will, in some cases, change according to the population density, since genotypes with the highest fitness at high population densities will not have the highest fitness at low population densities. other conditions, such as the stability of the environment, will lead to selection for certain life history traits. experiments by michael r. rose and brian charlesworth showed that unstable environments select for flies with both shorter lifespans and higher fecundity β in unreliable conditions, it is better for an organism to breed early and abundantly than waste resources promoting its own survival. biological tradeoffs also appear to characterize the life histories of viruses, including bacteriophages. = = = reproductive value and costs of reproduction = = = reproductive value models the tradeoffs between reproduction, growth, and survivorship. an organism's reproductive value ( rv ) is defined as its expected contribution to the population through both current and future reproduction : rv = current reproduction + residual reproductive value ( rrv ) the residual reproductive value represents an organism's future reproduction through its investment in growth and survivorship. the cost of reproduction hypothesis predicts that higher investment in current reproduction hinders growth and survivorship and reduces future reproduction, while investments in growth will pay off with higher fecundity ( number of offspring produced ) and reproductive episodes in the future. this cost - of - reproduction tradeoff influences major life history characteristics
affect maximum life span. furthermore, a number of species with high metabolic rate, like bats and birds, are long - lived. in a 2007 analysis it was shown that, when modern statistical methods for correcting for the effects of body size and phylogeny are employed, metabolic rate does not correlate with longevity in mammals or birds. = = see also = = dna damage theory of aging life history theory longevity quotient = = references = = rubner, m. ( 1908 ). das problem der lebensdauer und seiner beziehungen zum wachstum und ernahrung. munich : oldenberg. raymond pearl. the rate of living. 1928 speakman j. r. ( 2005 ). " body size, energy metabolism and lifespan ". the journal of experimental biology. 208 ( pt 9 ) : 1717 β 1730. doi : 10. 1242 / jeb. 01556. pmid 15855403. harman d ( 1956 ). " aging : a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry ". journal of gerontology. 11 ( 3 ) : 298 β 300. citeseerx 10. 1. 1. 663. 3809. doi : 10. 1093 / geronj / 11. 3. 298. pmid 13332224. speakman jr, selman c, mclaren js, harper ej ( june 2002 ). " living fast, dying when? the link between aging and energetics ". journal of nutrition. 132 ( 6 ) : 1583s β 97s. doi : 10. 1093 / jn / 132. 6. 1583s. pmid 12042467. holloszy j. o. ; smith e. k. ( 1986 ). " longevity of cold - exposed rats : a reevaluation of the " rate - of - living theory ". journal of applied physiology. 61 ( suppl 2 ) : 1656 β 1660. doi : 10. 1152 / jappl. 1986. 61. 5. 1656. pmid 3781978.
adult development encompasses the changes that occur in biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of one's life. changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by biological theories of adult development and aging. biological changes influence psychological and interpersonal / social developmental changes, which are often described by stage theories of human development. stage theories typically focus on " age - appropriate " developmental tasks to be achieved at each stage. erik erikson and carl jung proposed stage theories of human development that encompass the entire life span, and emphasized the potential for positive change very late in life. the concept of adulthood has legal and socio - cultural definitions. the legal definition of an adult is a person who is fully grown or developed. this is referred to as the age of majority, which is age 18 in most cultures, although there is a variation from 15 to 21. the typical perception of adulthood is that it starts at age 20 or 21. middle - aged adulthood, starts at about age 40, followed by old age around age 60. the socio - cultural definition of being an adult is based on what a culture normatively views as being the required criteria for adulthood, which in turn, influences the lives of individuals within that culture. this may or may not coincide with the legal definition. current views on adult development in late life focus on the concept of successful aging, defined as "... low probability of disease and disease - related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement with life. " biomedical theories hold that one can age successfully by caring for physical health and minimizing loss in function, whereas psychosocial theories posit that capitalizing upon social and cognitive resources, such as a positive attitude or social support from neighbors, family, and friends, is key to aging successfully. jeanne louise calment exemplifies successful aging as the longest living person, dying at 122 years old. her long life can be attributed to her genetics ( both parents lived into their 80s ), her active lifestyle and an optimistic attitude. she enjoyed many hobbies and physical activities, and believed that laughter contributed to her longevity. she poured olive oil on all of her food and skin, which she believed also contributed to her long life and youthful appearance. = = contemporary and classic theories = = adult development is a somewhat new area of study in the field of psychology. previously it was assumed that development would cease at the end of adolescence. further research has concluded that development continues well after adolescence and into late adulthood. this new
' s formal authority or power, specifically in the workplace. if a person does not end their power in the workplace, they risk being disconnected with their own generation, and in conflict with the generation in middle adulthood. after retiring, a person is supposed to take part in valued work that comes from their own creativity, leading into the developmental task of striking a balance between involvement with society and with oneself. levinson suggested that through harnessing one's own inner resources and interests in an unselfish way, one can gain more wisdom about the external world. levinson believed that the main task in the late adulthood stage is to reflect on one's life, including their times of success and failure, and appreciate the rest of their life experiences. = = = life structure = = = levinson's proposal of adult development stemmed primarily from previous concepts such as the life cycle. levinson had a focus on the specific points of someone's life and how it changed over time. levinson believe key aspects of a particulars person's life should be put into perspective through the context of said person's life. the life structure aimed to answer personal questions about one's life and consists of relationships with the external. the life structure requires inquiries into the multiple possible relationships throughout one's life as well as their nature. the life structure forms a barrier between the personality and social structures, although the life structure also works to connect the two as well requiring the connection of the social and psychological sciences. = = history of concept of adult development = = the idea that people develop through adulthood was first explored by g. stanley hall, who examined adult development and aging and published the book " senescence : the last half of life ", in 1922. through hall's research and theorizing on adulthood and old age, he developed the view that aging involved creativity and reviving oneself mentally and emotionally rather than physical and cognitive deterioration. in addition to hall's work on adult development, levinson was also influenced by erik erikson, who is well known for theory on the stages of psychosocial development. erikson was one of the pioneers in adult development, as his theory included stages for adulthood, while other theories, such as jean piaget's theory of cognitive development, did not extend past adolescence. erikson's theory has three stages that he found occurring in early, middle, and late adulthood. these stages revolve around intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair.
Answer:
|
mining
| 0.3 |
What primarily drives the hydrologic cycle to produce clouds?
0. a stalking butler who upon the finger rests
1. how soiled the clothing is
2. energy from a gun
3. energy from a central star
##odynamic disequilibrium on earth. the ecological balance of ecosystems is predicated on the energy flows through the system. for example, rainwater drives the erosion of rocks, which liberates chemicals that can be used as nutrients ; these are taken up by plankton, using solar energy to grow and thrive ; whales obtain energy by eating plankton, thus indirectly using solar energy as well, but this time in a much more concentrated and higher quality form. water wheels are also driven by rainwater, via the solar evaporation - condensation water cycle ; thus ultimately, industrial cloth - making was driven by the day - night cycle of solar irradiation. this is a holistic view of energy sources as a system - in - the - large. thus, discussions of energy quality can sometimes be found in the humanities, such as dialectics, marxism and postmodernism. this is effectively because disciplines such as economics failed to recognize the thermodynamic inputs into the economy ( now recognized as thermoeconomics ), while disciplines such as physics and engineering were unable to address either the economic impacts of human activity, or the impacts of thermodynamic flows in biological ecosystems. thus, the broad - stroke, global system - in - the - large discussions were taken up by those best trained for the nebulous, non - specific reasoning that such complex systems require. the resulting mismatch of vocabulary and outlook across disciplines can lead to considerable contention. = = history = = according to ohta ( 1994, pp. 90 β 91 ) the ranking and scientific analysis of energy quality was first proposed in 1851 by william thomson under the concept of " availability ". this concept was continued in germany by z. rant, who developed it under the title, " die exergie " ( the exergy ). it was later continued and standardised in japan. exergy analysis now forms a common part of many industrial and ecological energy analyses. for example, i. dincer and y. a. cengel ( 2001, p. 132 ) state that energy forms of different qualities are now commonly dealt with in steam power engineering industry. here the " quality index " is the relation of exergy to the energy content ( ibid. ). however energy engineers were aware that the notion of heat quality involved the notion of value β for example a. thumann wrote, " the essential quality of heat is not the amount but rather its'value'" ( 1984, p
climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes affect ecosystems, water availability, agriculture, and human societies. = = description = = = = = overall process = = = the water cycle is powered by the energy emitted from the sun. there are several ways in which this is accomplished, one of the first ways is through evaporation where the energy from the sun heats the water in oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, seas, ponds, etc. and that water goes through a phase change to become a gas ( water vapor ) that goes up into the atmosphere. two other ways that water gets into the atmosphere is through snow and ice sublimating into water vapor and through evapotranspiration which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. clouds form because water molecules have a smaller molecular mass than the major gas components of the atmosphere ( oxygen, o2 ; and nitrogen, n2 ) ; this smaller molecular mass leads to water having a lower density which drives the water molecules higher up in the atmosphere due to buoyancy. however, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases which causes a drop in temperature. the lower temperature forces the water vapor to go through another phase change, this time it forces it to condense into liquid water droplets which are supported by an updraft ; if there is enough of these water droplets over a large area, it is considered a cloud. condensation of the water vapour closer to the ground level is referred to as fog. atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe ; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. some precipitation falls as snow, hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. most water falls as rain back into the ocean or onto land, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. a portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. runoff and water emerging from the ground ( groundwater ) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. not all runoff flows into rivers ; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. some infiltration stays
80 watts ( 3. 47222kwh / day ). a 100 watt light bulb therefore runs at 1. 25 he. humus β semi - persistent organic matter in the soil that can no longer be recognised as tissue. hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen that are found in raw materials such as petroleum, coal and natural gas, and derived products such as plastics. hydroelectric power - the electrical power generated using the power of falling water. hydrological cycle ( water cycle ) - the natural cycle of water from evaporation, transpiration in the atmosphere, condensation ( rain and snow ), and flows back to the ocean ( e. g. rivers ). hydrosphere - all the earth's water ; this would include water found in the sea, streams, lakes and other waterbodies, the soil, groundwater, and in the air. = = i = = incineration - combustion ( by chemical oxidation ) of waste material to treat or dispose of that waste material. indicator species - any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. industrial agriculture - a form of modern farming that involves industrialized production of livestock, poultry, fish, and crops. industrial revolution - a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions. infiltration β movement of water below topsoil to the plant roots and below. infiltration - the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. indicators β quantitative markers for monitoring progress towards desired goals. industrial ecology ( term int. harry zvi evan 1973 ) - the observation that nature produces no waste and therefore provides an example of sustainable waste management. natural capitalism espouses industrial ecology as one of its four pillars together with energy conservation, material conservation, and redefinition of commodity markets and product stewardship in terms of a service economy. publications : insecticide - a pesticide used to control insects in all developmental forms. integrated pest management ( ipm ) - a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods : natural predators and parasites, pest - resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and the strategic use of pesticides. intercropping - the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time. in - stream - the use of freshwater where it occurs, usually within a river or stream : it includes hydroelectricity, recreation, tourism, scientific
the water cycle ( or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle ) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth across different reservoirs. the mass of water on earth remains fairly constant over time. however, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. the water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. the processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. in doing so, the water goes through different phases : liquid, solid ( ice ) and vapor. the ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86 % of global evaporation. the water cycle is driven by energy exchanges in the form of heat transfers between different phases. the energy released or absorbed during a phase change can result in temperature changes. heat is absorbed as water transitions from the liquid to the vapor phase through evaporation. this heat is also known as the latent heat of vaporization. conversely, when water condenses or melts from solid ice it releases energy and heat. on a global scale, water plays a critical role in transferring heat from the tropics to the poles via ocean circulation. the evaporative phase of the cycle also acts as a purification process by separating water molecules from salts and other particles that are present in its liquid phase. the condensation phase in the atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. the flow of liquid water transports minerals across the globe. it also reshapes the geological features of the earth, through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. the water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes ( land use changes ) all have an effect on the water cycle. : 1153 on top of this, climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
Answer:
|
energy from a central star
| null |
What primarily drives the hydrologic cycle to produce clouds?
0. a stalking butler who upon the finger rests
1. how soiled the clothing is
2. energy from a gun
3. energy from a central star
##odynamic disequilibrium on earth. the ecological balance of ecosystems is predicated on the energy flows through the system. for example, rainwater drives the erosion of rocks, which liberates chemicals that can be used as nutrients ; these are taken up by plankton, using solar energy to grow and thrive ; whales obtain energy by eating plankton, thus indirectly using solar energy as well, but this time in a much more concentrated and higher quality form. water wheels are also driven by rainwater, via the solar evaporation - condensation water cycle ; thus ultimately, industrial cloth - making was driven by the day - night cycle of solar irradiation. this is a holistic view of energy sources as a system - in - the - large. thus, discussions of energy quality can sometimes be found in the humanities, such as dialectics, marxism and postmodernism. this is effectively because disciplines such as economics failed to recognize the thermodynamic inputs into the economy ( now recognized as thermoeconomics ), while disciplines such as physics and engineering were unable to address either the economic impacts of human activity, or the impacts of thermodynamic flows in biological ecosystems. thus, the broad - stroke, global system - in - the - large discussions were taken up by those best trained for the nebulous, non - specific reasoning that such complex systems require. the resulting mismatch of vocabulary and outlook across disciplines can lead to considerable contention. = = history = = according to ohta ( 1994, pp. 90 β 91 ) the ranking and scientific analysis of energy quality was first proposed in 1851 by william thomson under the concept of " availability ". this concept was continued in germany by z. rant, who developed it under the title, " die exergie " ( the exergy ). it was later continued and standardised in japan. exergy analysis now forms a common part of many industrial and ecological energy analyses. for example, i. dincer and y. a. cengel ( 2001, p. 132 ) state that energy forms of different qualities are now commonly dealt with in steam power engineering industry. here the " quality index " is the relation of exergy to the energy content ( ibid. ). however energy engineers were aware that the notion of heat quality involved the notion of value β for example a. thumann wrote, " the essential quality of heat is not the amount but rather its'value'" ( 1984, p
climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes affect ecosystems, water availability, agriculture, and human societies. = = description = = = = = overall process = = = the water cycle is powered by the energy emitted from the sun. there are several ways in which this is accomplished, one of the first ways is through evaporation where the energy from the sun heats the water in oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, seas, ponds, etc. and that water goes through a phase change to become a gas ( water vapor ) that goes up into the atmosphere. two other ways that water gets into the atmosphere is through snow and ice sublimating into water vapor and through evapotranspiration which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. clouds form because water molecules have a smaller molecular mass than the major gas components of the atmosphere ( oxygen, o2 ; and nitrogen, n2 ) ; this smaller molecular mass leads to water having a lower density which drives the water molecules higher up in the atmosphere due to buoyancy. however, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases which causes a drop in temperature. the lower temperature forces the water vapor to go through another phase change, this time it forces it to condense into liquid water droplets which are supported by an updraft ; if there is enough of these water droplets over a large area, it is considered a cloud. condensation of the water vapour closer to the ground level is referred to as fog. atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe ; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. some precipitation falls as snow, hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. most water falls as rain back into the ocean or onto land, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. a portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. runoff and water emerging from the ground ( groundwater ) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. not all runoff flows into rivers ; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. some infiltration stays
80 watts ( 3. 47222kwh / day ). a 100 watt light bulb therefore runs at 1. 25 he. humus β semi - persistent organic matter in the soil that can no longer be recognised as tissue. hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen that are found in raw materials such as petroleum, coal and natural gas, and derived products such as plastics. hydroelectric power - the electrical power generated using the power of falling water. hydrological cycle ( water cycle ) - the natural cycle of water from evaporation, transpiration in the atmosphere, condensation ( rain and snow ), and flows back to the ocean ( e. g. rivers ). hydrosphere - all the earth's water ; this would include water found in the sea, streams, lakes and other waterbodies, the soil, groundwater, and in the air. = = i = = incineration - combustion ( by chemical oxidation ) of waste material to treat or dispose of that waste material. indicator species - any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. industrial agriculture - a form of modern farming that involves industrialized production of livestock, poultry, fish, and crops. industrial revolution - a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions. infiltration β movement of water below topsoil to the plant roots and below. infiltration - the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. indicators β quantitative markers for monitoring progress towards desired goals. industrial ecology ( term int. harry zvi evan 1973 ) - the observation that nature produces no waste and therefore provides an example of sustainable waste management. natural capitalism espouses industrial ecology as one of its four pillars together with energy conservation, material conservation, and redefinition of commodity markets and product stewardship in terms of a service economy. publications : insecticide - a pesticide used to control insects in all developmental forms. integrated pest management ( ipm ) - a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods : natural predators and parasites, pest - resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and the strategic use of pesticides. intercropping - the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time. in - stream - the use of freshwater where it occurs, usually within a river or stream : it includes hydroelectricity, recreation, tourism, scientific
the water cycle ( or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle ) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth across different reservoirs. the mass of water on earth remains fairly constant over time. however, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. the water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. the processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. in doing so, the water goes through different phases : liquid, solid ( ice ) and vapor. the ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86 % of global evaporation. the water cycle is driven by energy exchanges in the form of heat transfers between different phases. the energy released or absorbed during a phase change can result in temperature changes. heat is absorbed as water transitions from the liquid to the vapor phase through evaporation. this heat is also known as the latent heat of vaporization. conversely, when water condenses or melts from solid ice it releases energy and heat. on a global scale, water plays a critical role in transferring heat from the tropics to the poles via ocean circulation. the evaporative phase of the cycle also acts as a purification process by separating water molecules from salts and other particles that are present in its liquid phase. the condensation phase in the atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. the flow of liquid water transports minerals across the globe. it also reshapes the geological features of the earth, through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. the water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes ( land use changes ) all have an effect on the water cycle. : 1153 on top of this, climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. : 85 these water cycle changes
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
Answer:
|
how soiled the clothing is
| 0.3 |
Animals are unable to grow or remain healthy without
0. proper sustenance
1. ice
2. restaurants
3. socks
as energy for growth as a hatchling. the use of more yolk energy during development diminishes the reserves available for hatchling growth and can impact hatchling survival. another hypothesis is that animals that grow quickly do not expend as much energy on differentiation or cellular maintenance because they have shorter incubation times. this allows more energy to be used for growth, but less energy for differentiation. increased growth has been shown to lead to higher occurrences of defects or complications that cause higher rates of mortality. some examples include rapid growth leading to bone deformities in sandhill cranes and increased risk of cardiovascular problems in atlantic salmon. animals are able to employ different strategies for growth and development to counteract environmental challenges. however, the fact that all individuals do not grow faster and the presence of the mentioned potential fitness trade - offs show that there must be some limit to how much animals can use countergradient growth to compensate for environmental conditions that cause slow growth. studies of countergradient variation are being explored as a useful way to predict the evolutionary constraints animals face in differing environmental conditions. = = notes = =
found, too, among cooperatively breeding fish ; cooperatively breeding birds such as some woodpeckers ; and mammals in which a breeding pair depends on helpers whose reproduction is suppressed. in eusocial and cooperatively breeding animals, most non - reproducing helpers engage in kin selection, enhancing their own inclusive fitness by ensuring the survival of offspring they are closely related to. wolf packs suppress subordinate breeding. = = pre - fertilization = = = = = environmental cues = = = = = = = food shortage = = = = female mammals experience delays in the onset of puberty or increase their interbirth intervals in response to environmental conditions that are associated with low abundance and poor quality of foods. nutritional stress is apparently linked to the female endocrine system and ovulatory pheromonal cycle. for example, orangutans ( pongo pygmaeus ) experience high ketone ( due to fat burning ) and low estrogen levels during times of low food availability and poor food quality, but low ketone and high estrogen levels that stimulates onset of the ovulation during the fruit masting seasons that occurs about every four years on sumatra. since adult female orangutans are solitary, interference by other females can be ruled out as influencing their temporary reproductive suppression and facultatively long interbirth intervals. polygynandrous yellow baboons ( papio cynocephalus ) in kenya were far less likely to ovulate or conceive during periods of drought or extreme heat, especially if they live in large groups, resulting in longer interbirth intervals during periods of nutritional and thermal stress. = = = = population density = = = = high population density can lead to reproductive suppression. for example, when high numbers of yellow baboon ( papio cynocephalus ) females are simultaneously in estrous at mikumi national park, tanzania, dominant females form coalitions that attack subordinate females, disrupting their reproductive cycle and preventing conception. this places constraints on the number of offspring born in a single generation. since infant mortality in these baboons depends in part on the number and ages of other infants born into the group, pre - ovulatory females that are most susceptible to stress - induced delay or inhibition of ovulation are the most frequent targets of female coalition attacks. female attackers are often in advanced stages of pregnancy and have the most to lose if the number of infants in the group reaches an unsus
marked adults feed 65 % of the chicks in creches, revealing that allofeeding behaviour was most common during the breeding season. lecomte et al. ( 2015 ) also identified that most of the 22 % of adult king penguins demonstrating allofeeding behaviour were unable to successfully breed along with few breeders performing the behaviour. the allofeeding behaviour resulted in more feedings for chicks, which is consistent with study by pierre et al. ( 1994 ) that showed that allofeeding in penguins increases the chick growth rate from 35g / day to 190g / day. from these results, lecomte et al. ( 2015 ) concluded that allofeeding increased the survival rate of chicks in creches. the results imply that parental allofeeding in king penguins is an altruistic behaviour, where allofeeding benefits the young at a cost to the non - biological parent. notably, no direct benefits to the non - biological parents have been described. the cost of allofeeding non - biological chicks resulted in no detrimental effects to the fitness of the alloparent, because the cost of allofeeding is low ( several grams ) when compared to the nutritional costs of an adult king penguin, which is several kilograms. however, it is suggested that allofeeding many chicks may cost each chick lost meals that can cause negative effects on the fitness of allofed chicks. in addition, allofeeding decreases when non - biological parents had offspring. = = = pygoscelis antarcticus = = = the chinstrap penguin ( p. antarcticus ) is another species of penguin that displays parental allofeeding. allofeeding in the chinstrap penguin has been observed between the female and its offspring. similar to mate allofeeding in this species, the offspring of a female will peck the side of the female's bill to signal the female to regurgitate its food into the chick's open mouth. = = = perisoreus internigrans = = = in sichuan jays ( p. internigrans ), females are not the only sex that participates in the allofeeding of their offspring. during their first week of life, the chicks are only fed by the male. the male forages and stores food in a pouch within its throat. at the nest, the male regurgitates the semi - digested food from its pouch into the mouths of its chicks. after the first week, the
which contribute to deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and overfishing. by opting for sustainable pet food options, such as plant - based or eco - friendly alternatives, pet owners can reduce their pets'carbon footprint and support more ethical and sustainable practices in the pet food industry. additionally, sustainable pet food may also prioritize the use of responsibly sourced ingredients, organic farming practices, and minimal packaging waste. it is important to note that when considering a vegan or alternative diet for pets, consultation with a veterinarian is crucial. each pet has unique nutritional requirements, and a professional can help determine the most suitable diet plan to ensure all necessary nutrients are provided. = = = substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy = = = = = = = meat reduction strategies = = = = = = = = effects and combination of measures = = = = " policy sequencing " to gradually extend regulations once established to other forest risk commodities ( e. g. other than beef ) and regions while coordinating with other importing countries could prevent ineffectiveness. = = = = meat and dairy = = = = despite meat from livestock such as beef and lamb being considered unsustainable, some regenerative agriculture proponents suggest rearing livestock with a mixed farming system to restore organic matter in grasslands. organizations such as the canadian roundtable for sustainable beef ( crsb ) are looking for solutions to reduce the impact of meat production on the environment. in october 2021, 17 % of beef sold in canada was certified as sustainable beef by the crsb. however, sustainable meat has led to criticism, as environmentalists point out that the meat industry excludes most of its emissions. important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection, introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen, vaccines, feeds, toilet - training, diet modification and grazing management. other options include shifting to ruminant - free alternatives, such as milk substitutes and meat analogues or poultry, which generates far fewer emissions. plant - based meat is proposed for sustainable alternatives to meat consumption. plant - based meat emits 30 % β 90 % less greenhouse gas than conventional meat ( kg - co2 - eq / kg - meat ) and 72 % β 99 % less water than conventional meat. public company beyond meat and privately held company impossible foods are examples of plant - based food production. however, consulting firm sustainalytics assured that these companies are not more sustainable than meat - processors competitors such as food processor jbs,
lead to uncertainty in resources, which puts them at a higher risk of malnutrition. in addition, the areas in africa with the highest rates of malnutrition also experience poverty which impact and limit the supply of food and necessary services. for example, some experience limited access to health services, sanitation, clean water, consistent food supply. not only do these things directly contribute to malnutrition, but they can also lead to illnesses such as malaria and water - borne disease. = = references = =
Answer:
|
proper sustenance
| null |
Animals are unable to grow or remain healthy without
0. proper sustenance
1. ice
2. restaurants
3. socks
as energy for growth as a hatchling. the use of more yolk energy during development diminishes the reserves available for hatchling growth and can impact hatchling survival. another hypothesis is that animals that grow quickly do not expend as much energy on differentiation or cellular maintenance because they have shorter incubation times. this allows more energy to be used for growth, but less energy for differentiation. increased growth has been shown to lead to higher occurrences of defects or complications that cause higher rates of mortality. some examples include rapid growth leading to bone deformities in sandhill cranes and increased risk of cardiovascular problems in atlantic salmon. animals are able to employ different strategies for growth and development to counteract environmental challenges. however, the fact that all individuals do not grow faster and the presence of the mentioned potential fitness trade - offs show that there must be some limit to how much animals can use countergradient growth to compensate for environmental conditions that cause slow growth. studies of countergradient variation are being explored as a useful way to predict the evolutionary constraints animals face in differing environmental conditions. = = notes = =
found, too, among cooperatively breeding fish ; cooperatively breeding birds such as some woodpeckers ; and mammals in which a breeding pair depends on helpers whose reproduction is suppressed. in eusocial and cooperatively breeding animals, most non - reproducing helpers engage in kin selection, enhancing their own inclusive fitness by ensuring the survival of offspring they are closely related to. wolf packs suppress subordinate breeding. = = pre - fertilization = = = = = environmental cues = = = = = = = food shortage = = = = female mammals experience delays in the onset of puberty or increase their interbirth intervals in response to environmental conditions that are associated with low abundance and poor quality of foods. nutritional stress is apparently linked to the female endocrine system and ovulatory pheromonal cycle. for example, orangutans ( pongo pygmaeus ) experience high ketone ( due to fat burning ) and low estrogen levels during times of low food availability and poor food quality, but low ketone and high estrogen levels that stimulates onset of the ovulation during the fruit masting seasons that occurs about every four years on sumatra. since adult female orangutans are solitary, interference by other females can be ruled out as influencing their temporary reproductive suppression and facultatively long interbirth intervals. polygynandrous yellow baboons ( papio cynocephalus ) in kenya were far less likely to ovulate or conceive during periods of drought or extreme heat, especially if they live in large groups, resulting in longer interbirth intervals during periods of nutritional and thermal stress. = = = = population density = = = = high population density can lead to reproductive suppression. for example, when high numbers of yellow baboon ( papio cynocephalus ) females are simultaneously in estrous at mikumi national park, tanzania, dominant females form coalitions that attack subordinate females, disrupting their reproductive cycle and preventing conception. this places constraints on the number of offspring born in a single generation. since infant mortality in these baboons depends in part on the number and ages of other infants born into the group, pre - ovulatory females that are most susceptible to stress - induced delay or inhibition of ovulation are the most frequent targets of female coalition attacks. female attackers are often in advanced stages of pregnancy and have the most to lose if the number of infants in the group reaches an unsus
marked adults feed 65 % of the chicks in creches, revealing that allofeeding behaviour was most common during the breeding season. lecomte et al. ( 2015 ) also identified that most of the 22 % of adult king penguins demonstrating allofeeding behaviour were unable to successfully breed along with few breeders performing the behaviour. the allofeeding behaviour resulted in more feedings for chicks, which is consistent with study by pierre et al. ( 1994 ) that showed that allofeeding in penguins increases the chick growth rate from 35g / day to 190g / day. from these results, lecomte et al. ( 2015 ) concluded that allofeeding increased the survival rate of chicks in creches. the results imply that parental allofeeding in king penguins is an altruistic behaviour, where allofeeding benefits the young at a cost to the non - biological parent. notably, no direct benefits to the non - biological parents have been described. the cost of allofeeding non - biological chicks resulted in no detrimental effects to the fitness of the alloparent, because the cost of allofeeding is low ( several grams ) when compared to the nutritional costs of an adult king penguin, which is several kilograms. however, it is suggested that allofeeding many chicks may cost each chick lost meals that can cause negative effects on the fitness of allofed chicks. in addition, allofeeding decreases when non - biological parents had offspring. = = = pygoscelis antarcticus = = = the chinstrap penguin ( p. antarcticus ) is another species of penguin that displays parental allofeeding. allofeeding in the chinstrap penguin has been observed between the female and its offspring. similar to mate allofeeding in this species, the offspring of a female will peck the side of the female's bill to signal the female to regurgitate its food into the chick's open mouth. = = = perisoreus internigrans = = = in sichuan jays ( p. internigrans ), females are not the only sex that participates in the allofeeding of their offspring. during their first week of life, the chicks are only fed by the male. the male forages and stores food in a pouch within its throat. at the nest, the male regurgitates the semi - digested food from its pouch into the mouths of its chicks. after the first week, the
which contribute to deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and overfishing. by opting for sustainable pet food options, such as plant - based or eco - friendly alternatives, pet owners can reduce their pets'carbon footprint and support more ethical and sustainable practices in the pet food industry. additionally, sustainable pet food may also prioritize the use of responsibly sourced ingredients, organic farming practices, and minimal packaging waste. it is important to note that when considering a vegan or alternative diet for pets, consultation with a veterinarian is crucial. each pet has unique nutritional requirements, and a professional can help determine the most suitable diet plan to ensure all necessary nutrients are provided. = = = substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy = = = = = = = meat reduction strategies = = = = = = = = effects and combination of measures = = = = " policy sequencing " to gradually extend regulations once established to other forest risk commodities ( e. g. other than beef ) and regions while coordinating with other importing countries could prevent ineffectiveness. = = = = meat and dairy = = = = despite meat from livestock such as beef and lamb being considered unsustainable, some regenerative agriculture proponents suggest rearing livestock with a mixed farming system to restore organic matter in grasslands. organizations such as the canadian roundtable for sustainable beef ( crsb ) are looking for solutions to reduce the impact of meat production on the environment. in october 2021, 17 % of beef sold in canada was certified as sustainable beef by the crsb. however, sustainable meat has led to criticism, as environmentalists point out that the meat industry excludes most of its emissions. important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection, introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen, vaccines, feeds, toilet - training, diet modification and grazing management. other options include shifting to ruminant - free alternatives, such as milk substitutes and meat analogues or poultry, which generates far fewer emissions. plant - based meat is proposed for sustainable alternatives to meat consumption. plant - based meat emits 30 % β 90 % less greenhouse gas than conventional meat ( kg - co2 - eq / kg - meat ) and 72 % β 99 % less water than conventional meat. public company beyond meat and privately held company impossible foods are examples of plant - based food production. however, consulting firm sustainalytics assured that these companies are not more sustainable than meat - processors competitors such as food processor jbs,
lead to uncertainty in resources, which puts them at a higher risk of malnutrition. in addition, the areas in africa with the highest rates of malnutrition also experience poverty which impact and limit the supply of food and necessary services. for example, some experience limited access to health services, sanitation, clean water, consistent food supply. not only do these things directly contribute to malnutrition, but they can also lead to illnesses such as malaria and water - borne disease. = = references = =
Answer:
|
restaurants
| 0.3 |
What will reflect the most light
0. A car tire
1. A bath towel
2. sheet of paper
3. silver spoon
= = electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly encountered forms of radiation that undergo scattering. scattering of light and radio waves ( especially in radar ) is particularly important. several different aspects of electromagnetic scattering are distinct enough to have conventional names. major forms of elastic light scattering ( involving negligible energy transfer ) are rayleigh scattering and mie scattering. inelastic scattering includes brillouin scattering, raman scattering, inelastic x - ray scattering and compton scattering. light scattering is one of the two major physical processes that contribute to the visible appearance of most objects, the other being absorption. surfaces described as white owe their appearance to multiple scattering of light by internal or surface inhomogeneities in the object, for example by the boundaries of transparent microscopic crystals that make up a stone or by the microscopic fibers in a sheet of paper. more generally, the gloss ( or lustre or sheen ) of the surface is determined by scattering. highly scattering surfaces are described as being dull or having a matte finish, while the absence of surface scattering leads to a glossy appearance, as with polished metal or stone. spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colors, determines the color of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering. the apparent blue color of veins in skin is a common example where both spectral absorption and scattering play important and complex roles in the coloration. light scattering can also create color without absorption, often shades of blue, as with the sky ( rayleigh scattering ), the human blue iris, and the feathers of some birds ( prum et al. 1998 ). however, resonant light scattering in nanoparticles can produce many different highly saturated and vibrant hues, especially when surface plasmon resonance is involved ( roque et al. 2006 ). models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a dimensionless size parameter, Ξ± which is defined as : Ξ± = Ο d p / Ξ», { \ displaystyle \ alpha = \ pi d _ { \ text { p } } / \ lambda, } where Οdp is the circumference of a particle and Ξ» is the wavelength of incident radiation in the medium. based on the value of Ξ±, these domains are : Ξ± 1 : rayleigh scattering ( small particle compared to wavelength of light ) ; Ξ± β 1 : mie scattering ( particle about the same size as wavelength of light, valid only for spheres ) ; Ξ± 1 : geometric scattering ( particle much larger than wavelength of light ). rayleigh scattering
light. ) specular gloss distinctness of image gloss sheen reflection haze, h ( for a specified specular angle ), the ratio of ( light ) flux reflected at a specified angle ( or angles ) from the specular direction to the flux similarly reflected at the specular angle by a specified gloss standard. transmissive objects transmittance, t haze ( turbidity ) clarity = = see also = = shading = = references = = r. s. hunter, r. w. harold : the measurement of appearance, 2nd edition, wiley - ieee ( 1987 ) cie no 38 - 1977 : radiometric and photometric characteristics of materials and their measurement cie no 44 - 1979 : absolute methods for reflection measurements brdf f. e. nicodemus, et al., geometric considerations and nomenclature for reflectance, u. s. dept. of commerce, nbs monograph 160 ( 1977 ) john c. stover, optical scattering, measurement and analysis, spie press ( 1995 )
= = = lighting = = = cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. these include headlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night ; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied ; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver ; white - coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car ( and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing ) ; and on some vehicles, additional lights ( e. g., side marker lights ) to increase the visibility of the car. interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. = = = weight and size = = = during the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries, modern steel safety cages, anti - lock brakes, airbags, and " more - powerful β if more efficient β engines " and, as of 2019, typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes ( 1. 1 and 3. 3 short tons ; 0. 98 and 2. 95 long tons ). heavier cars are safer for the driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. the weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. the wuling hongguang mini ev, a typical city car, weighs about 700 kilograms ( 1, 500 lb ). heavier cars include suvs and extended - length suvs like the suburban. cars have also become wider. some places tax heavier cars more : as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel. it has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure is that cars can use lighter batteries. = = = seating and body style = = = most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. full - size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. on the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. utility vehicles like pickup trucks, combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. the differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted
a. with long viewing distances, fluorescent green and yellow - green. b. with short viewing distances, fluorescent orange is excellent. 2. with natural illumination : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, orange, and white. 3. with incandescent light source : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, orange, and white. 4. with a mercury light source : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, white. the most difficult colors at the limits of visibility with a water background are dark colors such as gray or black. = = visibility = = visibility is a term which generally predicts the ability of some human or instrument to detect an object in the given environment, and may be expressed as a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be discerned. the theoretical black body visibility of pure water based on the values for the optical properties of water for light of 550 nm has been estimated at 74 m. for the case of a relatively large object, sufficiently illuminated by daylight, the horizontal visibility of the object is a function of the photopic beam attenuation coefficient ( spectral sensitivity of the eye ). this function has been reported as 4. 6 divided by the photopic beam attenuation coefficient. factors affecting visibility include : particles in the water ( turbidity ), salinity gradients ( haloclines ), temperature gradients ( thermoclines ) and dissolved organic matter. reduction of contrast with distance in a horizontal plane at a specific wavelength has been found to depend directly on the beam attenuation coefficient for that wavelength. the inherent contrast of a black target is - 1, so the visibility of a black target in the horizontal direction depends on a single parameter, which is not the case for any other colour or direction, making horizontal visibility of a black target the simplest case, and for this reason it has been proposed as a standard for underwater visibility, as it can be measured with reasonably simple instrumentation. the photopic beam attenuation coefficient, on which diver visibility depends, is the attenuation of natural light as perceived by the human eye, but in practice it is simpler and more usual to measure the attenuation coefficient for one or more wavelength bands. it has been shown that the function 4. 8 divided by the photopic beam attenuation coefficient, as derived by davies - colley, gives a value for visibility with an average error of less than 10 % for a large range of typical coastal and inland water conditions and viewing conditions,
images that can be associated with an actual ( real ) or extrapolated ( virtual ) location in space. diffuse reflection describes non - glossy materials, such as paper or rock. the reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. in specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. the incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. this is known as the law of reflection. for flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. the image size is the same as the object size. the law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left - right inversion. images formed from reflection in two ( or any even number of ) mirrors are not parity inverted. corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. this is called retroreflection. mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. for mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. in particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. an upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. = = = = refractions = = = = refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction ; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. the simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform
Answer:
|
silver spoon
| null |
What will reflect the most light
0. A car tire
1. A bath towel
2. sheet of paper
3. silver spoon
= = electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly encountered forms of radiation that undergo scattering. scattering of light and radio waves ( especially in radar ) is particularly important. several different aspects of electromagnetic scattering are distinct enough to have conventional names. major forms of elastic light scattering ( involving negligible energy transfer ) are rayleigh scattering and mie scattering. inelastic scattering includes brillouin scattering, raman scattering, inelastic x - ray scattering and compton scattering. light scattering is one of the two major physical processes that contribute to the visible appearance of most objects, the other being absorption. surfaces described as white owe their appearance to multiple scattering of light by internal or surface inhomogeneities in the object, for example by the boundaries of transparent microscopic crystals that make up a stone or by the microscopic fibers in a sheet of paper. more generally, the gloss ( or lustre or sheen ) of the surface is determined by scattering. highly scattering surfaces are described as being dull or having a matte finish, while the absence of surface scattering leads to a glossy appearance, as with polished metal or stone. spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colors, determines the color of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering. the apparent blue color of veins in skin is a common example where both spectral absorption and scattering play important and complex roles in the coloration. light scattering can also create color without absorption, often shades of blue, as with the sky ( rayleigh scattering ), the human blue iris, and the feathers of some birds ( prum et al. 1998 ). however, resonant light scattering in nanoparticles can produce many different highly saturated and vibrant hues, especially when surface plasmon resonance is involved ( roque et al. 2006 ). models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a dimensionless size parameter, Ξ± which is defined as : Ξ± = Ο d p / Ξ», { \ displaystyle \ alpha = \ pi d _ { \ text { p } } / \ lambda, } where Οdp is the circumference of a particle and Ξ» is the wavelength of incident radiation in the medium. based on the value of Ξ±, these domains are : Ξ± 1 : rayleigh scattering ( small particle compared to wavelength of light ) ; Ξ± β 1 : mie scattering ( particle about the same size as wavelength of light, valid only for spheres ) ; Ξ± 1 : geometric scattering ( particle much larger than wavelength of light ). rayleigh scattering
light. ) specular gloss distinctness of image gloss sheen reflection haze, h ( for a specified specular angle ), the ratio of ( light ) flux reflected at a specified angle ( or angles ) from the specular direction to the flux similarly reflected at the specular angle by a specified gloss standard. transmissive objects transmittance, t haze ( turbidity ) clarity = = see also = = shading = = references = = r. s. hunter, r. w. harold : the measurement of appearance, 2nd edition, wiley - ieee ( 1987 ) cie no 38 - 1977 : radiometric and photometric characteristics of materials and their measurement cie no 44 - 1979 : absolute methods for reflection measurements brdf f. e. nicodemus, et al., geometric considerations and nomenclature for reflectance, u. s. dept. of commerce, nbs monograph 160 ( 1977 ) john c. stover, optical scattering, measurement and analysis, spie press ( 1995 )
= = = lighting = = = cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. these include headlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night ; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied ; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver ; white - coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car ( and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing ) ; and on some vehicles, additional lights ( e. g., side marker lights ) to increase the visibility of the car. interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. = = = weight and size = = = during the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries, modern steel safety cages, anti - lock brakes, airbags, and " more - powerful β if more efficient β engines " and, as of 2019, typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes ( 1. 1 and 3. 3 short tons ; 0. 98 and 2. 95 long tons ). heavier cars are safer for the driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. the weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. the wuling hongguang mini ev, a typical city car, weighs about 700 kilograms ( 1, 500 lb ). heavier cars include suvs and extended - length suvs like the suburban. cars have also become wider. some places tax heavier cars more : as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel. it has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure is that cars can use lighter batteries. = = = seating and body style = = = most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. full - size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. on the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. utility vehicles like pickup trucks, combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. the differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted
a. with long viewing distances, fluorescent green and yellow - green. b. with short viewing distances, fluorescent orange is excellent. 2. with natural illumination : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, orange, and white. 3. with incandescent light source : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, orange, and white. 4. with a mercury light source : a. fluorescent paints. b. regular yellow, white. the most difficult colors at the limits of visibility with a water background are dark colors such as gray or black. = = visibility = = visibility is a term which generally predicts the ability of some human or instrument to detect an object in the given environment, and may be expressed as a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be discerned. the theoretical black body visibility of pure water based on the values for the optical properties of water for light of 550 nm has been estimated at 74 m. for the case of a relatively large object, sufficiently illuminated by daylight, the horizontal visibility of the object is a function of the photopic beam attenuation coefficient ( spectral sensitivity of the eye ). this function has been reported as 4. 6 divided by the photopic beam attenuation coefficient. factors affecting visibility include : particles in the water ( turbidity ), salinity gradients ( haloclines ), temperature gradients ( thermoclines ) and dissolved organic matter. reduction of contrast with distance in a horizontal plane at a specific wavelength has been found to depend directly on the beam attenuation coefficient for that wavelength. the inherent contrast of a black target is - 1, so the visibility of a black target in the horizontal direction depends on a single parameter, which is not the case for any other colour or direction, making horizontal visibility of a black target the simplest case, and for this reason it has been proposed as a standard for underwater visibility, as it can be measured with reasonably simple instrumentation. the photopic beam attenuation coefficient, on which diver visibility depends, is the attenuation of natural light as perceived by the human eye, but in practice it is simpler and more usual to measure the attenuation coefficient for one or more wavelength bands. it has been shown that the function 4. 8 divided by the photopic beam attenuation coefficient, as derived by davies - colley, gives a value for visibility with an average error of less than 10 % for a large range of typical coastal and inland water conditions and viewing conditions,
images that can be associated with an actual ( real ) or extrapolated ( virtual ) location in space. diffuse reflection describes non - glossy materials, such as paper or rock. the reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. in specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. the incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. this is known as the law of reflection. for flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. the image size is the same as the object size. the law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left - right inversion. images formed from reflection in two ( or any even number of ) mirrors are not parity inverted. corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. this is called retroreflection. mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. for mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. in particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. an upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. = = = = refractions = = = = refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction ; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. the simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform
Answer:
|
A car tire
| 0.3 |
High temperatures can be caused when which is exposed to heat?
0. Wire
1. Circuit
2. Cell
3. Conductor
resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such as insulators. thermal contact conductance is an important factor in a variety of applications, largely because many physical systems contain a mechanical combination of two materials. some of the fields where contact conductance is of importance are : electronics electronic packaging heat sinks brackets industry nuclear reactor cooling gas turbine cooling internal combustion engines heat exchangers thermal insulation press hardening of automotive steels flight hypersonic flight vehicles thermal supervision for space vehicles residential / building science performance of building envelopes = = factors influencing contact conductance = = thermal contact conductance is a complicated phenomenon, influenced by many factors. experience shows that the most important ones are as follows : = = = contact pressure = = = for thermal transport between two contacting bodies, such as particles in a granular medium, the contact pressure, and the area of true contact area that arises from this, is the factor of most influence on overall contact conductance. governed by an interface's normal contact stiffness, as contact pressure grows, true contact area increases and contact conductance grows ( contact resistance becomes smaller ). since the contact pressure is the most important factor, most studies, correlations and mathematical models for measurement of contact conductance are done as a function of this factor. the thermal contact resistance of certain sandwich kinds of materials that are manufactured by rolling under high temperatures may sometimes be ignored because the decrease in thermal conductivity between them is negligible. = = = interstitial materials = = = no truly smooth surfaces really exist, and surface imperfections are visible under a microscope. as a result, when two bodies are pressed together, contact is only performed in a finite number of points, separated by relatively large gaps, as can be shown in fig. 2. since the actual contact area is reduced, another resistance for heat flow exists. the gases / fluids filling these gaps may largely influence the total heat flow across the interface. the thermal conductivity of the interstitial material and its pressure, examined through reference to the knudsen number, are the two properties governing its influence on contact conductance, and thermal transport in heterogeneous materials in general. in the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant. = = = surface
the heat is dissipated in the leads outside of the " ballistic " conductor, where inelastic scattering effects can take place. = = theory = = = = = scattering mechanisms = = = in general, carriers will exhibit ballistic conduction when l β€ Ξ» m f p { \ displaystyle l \ leq \ lambda _ { \ rm { mfp } } } where l { \ displaystyle l } is the length of the active part of the device ( e. g., a channel in a mosfet ). Ξ» m f p { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ rm { mfp } } } is the mean free path for the carrier which can be given by matthiessen's rule, written here for electrons : 1 Ξ» m f p = 1 Ξ» e l β e l + 1 Ξ» a p + 1 Ξ» o p, e m s + 1 Ξ» o p, a b s + 1 Ξ» i m p u r i t y + 1 Ξ» d e f e c t + 1 Ξ» b o u n d a r y { \ displaystyle { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { mfp } } } } = { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { el - el } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { ap } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, ems } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, abs } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { impurity } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { defect } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { boundary } } } } } where Ξ» e l β e l { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { el - el } } } is the electron - electron scattering length, Ξ» a p { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { ap } } } is the acoustic phonon ( emission and absorption ) scattering length, Ξ» o p, e m s { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, ems } } } is the optical phonon emission scattering length, Ξ» o p
in physics, thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid or liquid bodies in thermal contact. the thermal contact conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }, is a property indicating the thermal conductivity, or ability to conduct heat, between two bodies in contact. the inverse of this property is termed thermal contact resistance. = = definition = = when two solid bodies come in contact, such as a and b in figure 1, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body. from experience, the temperature profile along the two bodies varies, approximately, as shown in the figure. a temperature drop is observed at the interface between the two surfaces in contact. this phenomenon is said to be a result of a thermal contact resistance existing between the contacting surfaces. thermal contact resistance is defined as the ratio between this temperature drop and the average heat flow across the interface. according to fourier's law, the heat flow between the bodies is found by the relation : where q { \ displaystyle q } is the heat flow, k { \ displaystyle k } is the thermal conductivity, a { \ displaystyle a } is the cross sectional area and d t / d x { \ displaystyle dt / dx } is the temperature gradient in the direction of flow. from considerations of conservation of energy, the heat flow between the two bodies in contact, bodies a and b, is found as : one may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, k a { \ displaystyle k _ { a } } and k b { \ displaystyle k _ { b } }, the contact area a { \ displaystyle a }, and the thermal contact resistance, 1 / h c { \ displaystyle 1 / h _ { c } }, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }. = = importance = = most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between 0. 000005 and 0. 0005 m2 k / w ( the corresponding range of thermal contact conductance is 200, 000 to 2000 w / m2 k ). to know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such
in physics, thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid or liquid bodies in thermal contact. the thermal contact conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }, is a property indicating the thermal conductivity, or ability to conduct heat, between two bodies in contact. the inverse of this property is termed thermal contact resistance. = = definition = = when two solid bodies come in contact, such as a and b in figure 1, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body. from experience, the temperature profile along the two bodies varies, approximately, as shown in the figure. a temperature drop is observed at the interface between the two surfaces in contact. this phenomenon is said to be a result of a thermal contact resistance existing between the contacting surfaces. thermal contact resistance is defined as the ratio between this temperature drop and the average heat flow across the interface. according to fourier's law, the heat flow between the bodies is found by the relation : where q { \ displaystyle q } is the heat flow, k { \ displaystyle k } is the thermal conductivity, a { \ displaystyle a } is the cross sectional area and d t / d x { \ displaystyle dt / dx } is the temperature gradient in the direction of flow. from considerations of conservation of energy, the heat flow between the two bodies in contact, bodies a and b, is found as : one may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, k a { \ displaystyle k _ { a } } and k b { \ displaystyle k _ { b } }, the contact area a { \ displaystyle a }, and the thermal contact resistance, 1 / h c { \ displaystyle 1 / h _ { c } }, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }. = = importance = = most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between 0. 000005 and 0. 0005 m2 k / w ( the corresponding range of thermal contact conductance is 200, 000 to 2000 w / m2 k ). to know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such
overheating is a phenomenon of rising temperatures in an electrical circuit. overheating causes damage to the circuit components and can cause fire, explosion, and injury. damage caused by overheating is usually irreversible ; the only way to repair it is to replace some components. = = causes = = when overheating, the temperature of the part rises above the operating temperature. overheating can take place : if heat is produced in more than expected amount ( such as in cases of short - circuits, or applying more voltage than rated ), or if heat dissipation is poor, so that normally produced waste heat does not drain away properly. overheating may be caused from any accidental fault of the circuit ( such as short - circuit or spark - gap ), or may be caused from a wrong design or manufacture ( such as the lack of a proper heat dissipation system ). due to accumulation of heat, the system reaches an equilibrium of heat accumulation vs. dissipation at a much higher temperature than expected. = = preventive measures = = = = = use of circuit breaker or fuse = = = circuit - breakers can be placed at portions of a circuit in series to the path of current it will affect. if more current than expected goes through the circuit - breaker, the circuit breaker " opens " the circuit and stops all current. a fuse is a common type of circuit breaker that involves direct effect of joule - overheating. a fuse is always placed in series with the path of current it will affect. fuses usually consist of a thin strand of wire of definite - material. when more that the rated current flows through the fuse, the wire melts and breaks the circuit. = = = use of heat - dissipating systems = = = many systems use ventilation holes or slits kept on the box of equipment to dissipate heat. heat sinks are often attached to portions of the circuit that produce most heat or are vulnerable to heat. fans are also often used. some high - voltage instruments are kept immersed in oil. in some cases, to remove unwanted heat, a cooling system like air conditioning or refrigerating heat - pumps may be required. = = = control within circuit - design = = = sometimes, special circuits are built for the purpose of sensing and controlling the temperature or voltage status. devices such as thermistors, voltage - dependent resistors, thermostats and sensors such as infrared thermometers are used to modify
Answer:
|
Conductor
| null |
High temperatures can be caused when which is exposed to heat?
0. Wire
1. Circuit
2. Cell
3. Conductor
resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such as insulators. thermal contact conductance is an important factor in a variety of applications, largely because many physical systems contain a mechanical combination of two materials. some of the fields where contact conductance is of importance are : electronics electronic packaging heat sinks brackets industry nuclear reactor cooling gas turbine cooling internal combustion engines heat exchangers thermal insulation press hardening of automotive steels flight hypersonic flight vehicles thermal supervision for space vehicles residential / building science performance of building envelopes = = factors influencing contact conductance = = thermal contact conductance is a complicated phenomenon, influenced by many factors. experience shows that the most important ones are as follows : = = = contact pressure = = = for thermal transport between two contacting bodies, such as particles in a granular medium, the contact pressure, and the area of true contact area that arises from this, is the factor of most influence on overall contact conductance. governed by an interface's normal contact stiffness, as contact pressure grows, true contact area increases and contact conductance grows ( contact resistance becomes smaller ). since the contact pressure is the most important factor, most studies, correlations and mathematical models for measurement of contact conductance are done as a function of this factor. the thermal contact resistance of certain sandwich kinds of materials that are manufactured by rolling under high temperatures may sometimes be ignored because the decrease in thermal conductivity between them is negligible. = = = interstitial materials = = = no truly smooth surfaces really exist, and surface imperfections are visible under a microscope. as a result, when two bodies are pressed together, contact is only performed in a finite number of points, separated by relatively large gaps, as can be shown in fig. 2. since the actual contact area is reduced, another resistance for heat flow exists. the gases / fluids filling these gaps may largely influence the total heat flow across the interface. the thermal conductivity of the interstitial material and its pressure, examined through reference to the knudsen number, are the two properties governing its influence on contact conductance, and thermal transport in heterogeneous materials in general. in the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant. = = = surface
the heat is dissipated in the leads outside of the " ballistic " conductor, where inelastic scattering effects can take place. = = theory = = = = = scattering mechanisms = = = in general, carriers will exhibit ballistic conduction when l β€ Ξ» m f p { \ displaystyle l \ leq \ lambda _ { \ rm { mfp } } } where l { \ displaystyle l } is the length of the active part of the device ( e. g., a channel in a mosfet ). Ξ» m f p { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ rm { mfp } } } is the mean free path for the carrier which can be given by matthiessen's rule, written here for electrons : 1 Ξ» m f p = 1 Ξ» e l β e l + 1 Ξ» a p + 1 Ξ» o p, e m s + 1 Ξ» o p, a b s + 1 Ξ» i m p u r i t y + 1 Ξ» d e f e c t + 1 Ξ» b o u n d a r y { \ displaystyle { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { mfp } } } } = { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { el - el } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { ap } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, ems } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, abs } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { impurity } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { defect } } } } + { \ frac { 1 } { \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { boundary } } } } } where Ξ» e l β e l { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { el - el } } } is the electron - electron scattering length, Ξ» a p { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { ap } } } is the acoustic phonon ( emission and absorption ) scattering length, Ξ» o p, e m s { \ displaystyle \ lambda _ { \ mathrm { op, ems } } } is the optical phonon emission scattering length, Ξ» o p
in physics, thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid or liquid bodies in thermal contact. the thermal contact conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }, is a property indicating the thermal conductivity, or ability to conduct heat, between two bodies in contact. the inverse of this property is termed thermal contact resistance. = = definition = = when two solid bodies come in contact, such as a and b in figure 1, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body. from experience, the temperature profile along the two bodies varies, approximately, as shown in the figure. a temperature drop is observed at the interface between the two surfaces in contact. this phenomenon is said to be a result of a thermal contact resistance existing between the contacting surfaces. thermal contact resistance is defined as the ratio between this temperature drop and the average heat flow across the interface. according to fourier's law, the heat flow between the bodies is found by the relation : where q { \ displaystyle q } is the heat flow, k { \ displaystyle k } is the thermal conductivity, a { \ displaystyle a } is the cross sectional area and d t / d x { \ displaystyle dt / dx } is the temperature gradient in the direction of flow. from considerations of conservation of energy, the heat flow between the two bodies in contact, bodies a and b, is found as : one may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, k a { \ displaystyle k _ { a } } and k b { \ displaystyle k _ { b } }, the contact area a { \ displaystyle a }, and the thermal contact resistance, 1 / h c { \ displaystyle 1 / h _ { c } }, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }. = = importance = = most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between 0. 000005 and 0. 0005 m2 k / w ( the corresponding range of thermal contact conductance is 200, 000 to 2000 w / m2 k ). to know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such
in physics, thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid or liquid bodies in thermal contact. the thermal contact conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }, is a property indicating the thermal conductivity, or ability to conduct heat, between two bodies in contact. the inverse of this property is termed thermal contact resistance. = = definition = = when two solid bodies come in contact, such as a and b in figure 1, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body. from experience, the temperature profile along the two bodies varies, approximately, as shown in the figure. a temperature drop is observed at the interface between the two surfaces in contact. this phenomenon is said to be a result of a thermal contact resistance existing between the contacting surfaces. thermal contact resistance is defined as the ratio between this temperature drop and the average heat flow across the interface. according to fourier's law, the heat flow between the bodies is found by the relation : where q { \ displaystyle q } is the heat flow, k { \ displaystyle k } is the thermal conductivity, a { \ displaystyle a } is the cross sectional area and d t / d x { \ displaystyle dt / dx } is the temperature gradient in the direction of flow. from considerations of conservation of energy, the heat flow between the two bodies in contact, bodies a and b, is found as : one may observe that the heat flow is directly related to the thermal conductivities of the bodies in contact, k a { \ displaystyle k _ { a } } and k b { \ displaystyle k _ { b } }, the contact area a { \ displaystyle a }, and the thermal contact resistance, 1 / h c { \ displaystyle 1 / h _ { c } }, which, as previously noted, is the inverse of the thermal conductance coefficient, h c { \ displaystyle h _ { c } }. = = importance = = most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between 0. 000005 and 0. 0005 m2 k / w ( the corresponding range of thermal contact conductance is 200, 000 to 2000 w / m2 k ). to know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not, magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such
overheating is a phenomenon of rising temperatures in an electrical circuit. overheating causes damage to the circuit components and can cause fire, explosion, and injury. damage caused by overheating is usually irreversible ; the only way to repair it is to replace some components. = = causes = = when overheating, the temperature of the part rises above the operating temperature. overheating can take place : if heat is produced in more than expected amount ( such as in cases of short - circuits, or applying more voltage than rated ), or if heat dissipation is poor, so that normally produced waste heat does not drain away properly. overheating may be caused from any accidental fault of the circuit ( such as short - circuit or spark - gap ), or may be caused from a wrong design or manufacture ( such as the lack of a proper heat dissipation system ). due to accumulation of heat, the system reaches an equilibrium of heat accumulation vs. dissipation at a much higher temperature than expected. = = preventive measures = = = = = use of circuit breaker or fuse = = = circuit - breakers can be placed at portions of a circuit in series to the path of current it will affect. if more current than expected goes through the circuit - breaker, the circuit breaker " opens " the circuit and stops all current. a fuse is a common type of circuit breaker that involves direct effect of joule - overheating. a fuse is always placed in series with the path of current it will affect. fuses usually consist of a thin strand of wire of definite - material. when more that the rated current flows through the fuse, the wire melts and breaks the circuit. = = = use of heat - dissipating systems = = = many systems use ventilation holes or slits kept on the box of equipment to dissipate heat. heat sinks are often attached to portions of the circuit that produce most heat or are vulnerable to heat. fans are also often used. some high - voltage instruments are kept immersed in oil. in some cases, to remove unwanted heat, a cooling system like air conditioning or refrigerating heat - pumps may be required. = = = control within circuit - design = = = sometimes, special circuits are built for the purpose of sensing and controlling the temperature or voltage status. devices such as thermistors, voltage - dependent resistors, thermostats and sensors such as infrared thermometers are used to modify
Answer:
|
Wire
| 0.3 |
Animals cope with the differing temperatures in different ways. When its hot out, which animals pant?
0. seven
1. whales
2. the sun
3. canines
change is a huge topic in today's science world. scientists have been asking many questions about how climate change will affect different ecosystems, organisms, and the human race. this question also arises from the standpoint of temperature - sensitive mutations. as mentioned before, certain species'characteristics or behaviors rely on temperature. with the global climate becoming warmer, the question is what will happen with organisms that are sensitive to temperature change, and it affects their characteristics or ability to obtain nutrients. though climate change is not necessarily a good thing, some research has shown that some organisms have benefited from the increasing climate temperature. it showed that the rising temperature can increase the fitness of an organism. climate change can also begin to effect the outcome of the ratio of male and females in the wild. some animals mainly reptiles sex is determined by the temperature of the outside world when developing in an egg. example of this happen in most species of turtles, which the increasing tempurute this could lead to more of one sex which would result in less mates being coulped to repopulate. though this is not a mutation it does show that many processes in certain species are sesntive to temperature. = = use in research = = [ edit ] temperature - sensitive mutantations are useful in biological research. they allow the study of essential processes required for the survival of the cell or organism. mutations to essential genes are generally lethal, and hence, temperature - sensitive mutations enable researchers to induce the phenotype at restrictive temperatures and study the effects. the temperature - sensitive phenotype could be expressed during a specific developmental stage to study the effects. this is also done to determine what can happen to certain living organisms with the effects of climate change. temperature senstive mutations are imortant for many different kinds of research especially for genetic reseach which can help us determine many aspect of life from a molecular level. = = = examples = = = [ edit ] in the late 1970s, the saccharomyces cerevisiae secretory pathway, essential for viability of the cell and for growth of new buds, was dissected using temperature - sensitive mutants, resulting in the identification of twenty - three essential genes. in the 1970s, several temperature - sensitive mutant genes were identified in drosophila melanogaster, such as shibirets, which led to the first genetic dissection of synaptic function. < in the 1990s, the heat shock promoter hsp70 was used in temperature - modulated gene expression in the fruit fly
range that extends from iceland and central norway in the north to south africa and victoria, australia in the south, including more temperate regions like northwest africa in between. the green crab has been shown to survive in waters at least as cold as 8 Β°c, and at least as warm as 35 Β°c. boreal deciduous conifers ( genus larix ) are the primary plants occupying the boreal forests of siberia and north america. although they are conifers, they are deciduous, and therefore lose their needles in autumn. species like the black spruce, or tamarack ( larix laricina ) occupy wide swaths of land ranging from indiana in the south, well into the arctic circle in northern alaska, canada, and siberia in the north. it has been shown that the black spruce can endure temperatures as cold as β 85Β°, and at least as warm as 20 Β°c. killer whales ( orcinus orca ) are found at nearly every latitude on earth. they are able to withstand water temperatures ranging from 0Β° to 30 - 35 Β°c. killer whales are deemed a cosmopolitan species, along with the osprey ( pandion haliaetus ) and the house sparrow ( passer domesticus ). = = advantages over stenotherms = = it is thought that adaptations to cold temperatures ( cold - eurythermy ) in animals, despite the high cost of functional adaptation, has allowed for mobility and agility. this cold eurythermy is also viewed as a near necessity for survival of the evolutionary crises, including ice ages, that occur with relative frequency over the evolutionary timescale. due to its ability to provide the excess energy and aerobic scope required for endothermy, eurythermy is considered to be the " missing link " between ectothermy and endothermy. the green crab's success demonstrates one example of eurythermic advantage. although invasive species are typically considered to be detrimental to the environment in which they are introduced, and even considered to be a leading cause of animal extinctions, the ability of an animal to thrive in various environmental conditions is a form of evolutionary fitness, and therefore is typically a characteristic of successful species. a species'relative eurythermality is one of the main factors in its ability to survive in different conditions. one example of eurythermic advantage can be seen in the failure of many of the world's coral reefs. most species of coral are considered to be stenothermic. the worldwide increase in oceanic temperatures has caused
does not have a land mammal population. there are also no birds that reside in antarctica. though, it has been known that various birds from south america have been spotted in antarctica. two studies have assessed the contributions of soil invertebrates to the polar ecosystem in antarctica, suggesting that biotic interactions play crucial roles in such a seemingly simple ecosystem. for animals to be able to live in the polar region they have to have adaptations which allow them to live in the cold and windy environments. these animals have originated with these adaptations, and animals that live in these regions are accumulating adaptations to be able to live in this type of environment. some of these adaptations may be to be big and insolated, have a lot of fur, and to be darker. also, many animals live in groups to be able to protect themselves from the cold. animals also tend to be homeotherms which are animals that maintain a high temperature. smaller invertebrates also tend to be smaller in polar regions which helps them conserve energy. there are also many different animals that live in the sea water near polar regions. squids are one animal that live in both antarctica and the arctic. they are the food source for other large animals such as the male sperm whale. there is also a wide variety of fish in the polar regions. arctic cod is a major species in the arctic. halibut, cod, herring, and alaska pollock ( walleye pollock ) are some other types of fish. in antarctica there is not a lot of diversity among the fish ; there is a lot of the same kind. antarctic silverfish and lanternfish are some examples of fish that live in antarctica. seals are also found in polar regions and number around 2. 5 million. they are known to breed on land in the polar regions. whales are also in the polar regions and can be found near the surfaces of water where they pray. there are also birds that breed in the polar regions. in the arctic, 95 % of the birds breeding here consists of only four different species. these include the northern fulmar, kittiwake, the little auk and the thick - billed murre. these birds breed here when the ice starts to thaw and when there are cracks in the ice so the birds are able to feed. in the antarctic there are two different birds that live there including the penguin and the procellariiformes. = = vegetation = = there is a wide source of vegetation in the polar region but there are few species in common in the southern and northern polar
large temperature changes adapt to higher temperatures through a variety of methods. in green crabs, the process of initial warming results in an increase of oxygen consumption and heart rate, accompanied by a decrease in stroke volume and haemolymph oxygen partial pressure. as this warming continues, dissolved oxygen levels decrease below the threshold for full haemocyanin oxygen saturation. this heating then progressively releases haemocyanin - bound oxygen, saving energy in oxygen transport and resulting in an associated leveling off of metabolic rate. key to maintaining homeostasis, individual thermoregulation is the ability to maintain internal body temperature in humans, the most recognizable eurytherm. in humans, deep - body temperature is regulated by cutaneous blood flow, which maintains this temperature despite changes in the external environment. homo sapiens'ability to survive in different ambient temperatures is a key factor in the species success, and one cited reason for why homo sapiens eventually outcompeted neanderthals ( homo neanderthalensis ). humans have two major forms of thermogenesis. the first is shivering, in which a warm - blooded creature produces involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle in order to produce heat. in addition, shivering also signals the body to produce irisin, a hormone that has been shown to convert white fat to brown fat, which is used in non - shivering thermogenesis, the second type of human thermogensis. non - shivering thermogenesis occurs in the brown fat, which contains the uncoupling protein thermogenin. this protein decreases the proton gradient generated in oxidative phosphorylation during the synthesis of atp, uncoupling the electron transport in the mitochondrion from the production of chemical energy ( atp ). this creation of a gradient across the mitochondrial membrane causes energy to be lost as heat. on the other hand, humans have only one method of cooling themselves, biologically speaking : sweat evaporation. cutaneous eccrine sweat glands produce sweat, which is made up of mostly water with a small amount of ions. evaporation of this sweat helps to cool the blood beneath the skin, resulting in a cooling of deep - body temperature. while some organisms are eurythermic due to their ability to regulate internal body temperature, like humans, others have wildly different methods of extreme temperature tolerance. tardigrades are able to enter an anhydrobiotic state, often called a tun, in order to both prevent desiccation and
physical and social ) influences selection for the chirps, eods, and detection. interactions between territorial fish favour different signal parameters than interactions within social groups of fish. = = behaviour = = the behaviour of parents and their offspring during feeding is influenced by one another. parents feed depending on how much their offspring begs, while the offspring begs depending on how hungry it is. this would normally lead to a conflict of interest between parent and offspring, as the offspring will want to be fed as much as possible, whereas the parent can only invest a limited amount of energy into parental care. as such, selection would occur for the combination of begging and feeding behaviours that leads to the highest fitness, resulting in co - adaptation. parent - offspring co - adaptation can be further influenced by information asymmetry, such as female blue tits being exposed more to begging behaviour in nature, resulting in them responding more than males to similar levels of stimuli. = = partial and antagonistic co - adaptation = = it is also possible for related traits to only partially co - adapt due to traits not developing at the same speed, or contradict each other entirely. research on australian skinks revealed that diurnal skinks have a high temperature preference and can sprint optimally at higher temperatures, while nocturnal skinks have a low preferred temperature and optimum temperature. however, the differences between high and low optimal temperatures were much smaller than between preferred temperatures, which means that nocturnal skinks sprint slower compared to their diurnal counterparts. in the case of eremiascincus, the optimum temperature and preferred temperature diverged from one another in opposite directions, creating antagonistic co - adaptation. = = see also = = evolutionary biology coevolution mutualism symbiosis linkage disequilibrium epistasis = = references = = = = external links = = coadaptation entry in a dictionary on evolution.
Answer:
|
canines
| null |
Animals cope with the differing temperatures in different ways. When its hot out, which animals pant?
0. seven
1. whales
2. the sun
3. canines
change is a huge topic in today's science world. scientists have been asking many questions about how climate change will affect different ecosystems, organisms, and the human race. this question also arises from the standpoint of temperature - sensitive mutations. as mentioned before, certain species'characteristics or behaviors rely on temperature. with the global climate becoming warmer, the question is what will happen with organisms that are sensitive to temperature change, and it affects their characteristics or ability to obtain nutrients. though climate change is not necessarily a good thing, some research has shown that some organisms have benefited from the increasing climate temperature. it showed that the rising temperature can increase the fitness of an organism. climate change can also begin to effect the outcome of the ratio of male and females in the wild. some animals mainly reptiles sex is determined by the temperature of the outside world when developing in an egg. example of this happen in most species of turtles, which the increasing tempurute this could lead to more of one sex which would result in less mates being coulped to repopulate. though this is not a mutation it does show that many processes in certain species are sesntive to temperature. = = use in research = = [ edit ] temperature - sensitive mutantations are useful in biological research. they allow the study of essential processes required for the survival of the cell or organism. mutations to essential genes are generally lethal, and hence, temperature - sensitive mutations enable researchers to induce the phenotype at restrictive temperatures and study the effects. the temperature - sensitive phenotype could be expressed during a specific developmental stage to study the effects. this is also done to determine what can happen to certain living organisms with the effects of climate change. temperature senstive mutations are imortant for many different kinds of research especially for genetic reseach which can help us determine many aspect of life from a molecular level. = = = examples = = = [ edit ] in the late 1970s, the saccharomyces cerevisiae secretory pathway, essential for viability of the cell and for growth of new buds, was dissected using temperature - sensitive mutants, resulting in the identification of twenty - three essential genes. in the 1970s, several temperature - sensitive mutant genes were identified in drosophila melanogaster, such as shibirets, which led to the first genetic dissection of synaptic function. < in the 1990s, the heat shock promoter hsp70 was used in temperature - modulated gene expression in the fruit fly
range that extends from iceland and central norway in the north to south africa and victoria, australia in the south, including more temperate regions like northwest africa in between. the green crab has been shown to survive in waters at least as cold as 8 Β°c, and at least as warm as 35 Β°c. boreal deciduous conifers ( genus larix ) are the primary plants occupying the boreal forests of siberia and north america. although they are conifers, they are deciduous, and therefore lose their needles in autumn. species like the black spruce, or tamarack ( larix laricina ) occupy wide swaths of land ranging from indiana in the south, well into the arctic circle in northern alaska, canada, and siberia in the north. it has been shown that the black spruce can endure temperatures as cold as β 85Β°, and at least as warm as 20 Β°c. killer whales ( orcinus orca ) are found at nearly every latitude on earth. they are able to withstand water temperatures ranging from 0Β° to 30 - 35 Β°c. killer whales are deemed a cosmopolitan species, along with the osprey ( pandion haliaetus ) and the house sparrow ( passer domesticus ). = = advantages over stenotherms = = it is thought that adaptations to cold temperatures ( cold - eurythermy ) in animals, despite the high cost of functional adaptation, has allowed for mobility and agility. this cold eurythermy is also viewed as a near necessity for survival of the evolutionary crises, including ice ages, that occur with relative frequency over the evolutionary timescale. due to its ability to provide the excess energy and aerobic scope required for endothermy, eurythermy is considered to be the " missing link " between ectothermy and endothermy. the green crab's success demonstrates one example of eurythermic advantage. although invasive species are typically considered to be detrimental to the environment in which they are introduced, and even considered to be a leading cause of animal extinctions, the ability of an animal to thrive in various environmental conditions is a form of evolutionary fitness, and therefore is typically a characteristic of successful species. a species'relative eurythermality is one of the main factors in its ability to survive in different conditions. one example of eurythermic advantage can be seen in the failure of many of the world's coral reefs. most species of coral are considered to be stenothermic. the worldwide increase in oceanic temperatures has caused
does not have a land mammal population. there are also no birds that reside in antarctica. though, it has been known that various birds from south america have been spotted in antarctica. two studies have assessed the contributions of soil invertebrates to the polar ecosystem in antarctica, suggesting that biotic interactions play crucial roles in such a seemingly simple ecosystem. for animals to be able to live in the polar region they have to have adaptations which allow them to live in the cold and windy environments. these animals have originated with these adaptations, and animals that live in these regions are accumulating adaptations to be able to live in this type of environment. some of these adaptations may be to be big and insolated, have a lot of fur, and to be darker. also, many animals live in groups to be able to protect themselves from the cold. animals also tend to be homeotherms which are animals that maintain a high temperature. smaller invertebrates also tend to be smaller in polar regions which helps them conserve energy. there are also many different animals that live in the sea water near polar regions. squids are one animal that live in both antarctica and the arctic. they are the food source for other large animals such as the male sperm whale. there is also a wide variety of fish in the polar regions. arctic cod is a major species in the arctic. halibut, cod, herring, and alaska pollock ( walleye pollock ) are some other types of fish. in antarctica there is not a lot of diversity among the fish ; there is a lot of the same kind. antarctic silverfish and lanternfish are some examples of fish that live in antarctica. seals are also found in polar regions and number around 2. 5 million. they are known to breed on land in the polar regions. whales are also in the polar regions and can be found near the surfaces of water where they pray. there are also birds that breed in the polar regions. in the arctic, 95 % of the birds breeding here consists of only four different species. these include the northern fulmar, kittiwake, the little auk and the thick - billed murre. these birds breed here when the ice starts to thaw and when there are cracks in the ice so the birds are able to feed. in the antarctic there are two different birds that live there including the penguin and the procellariiformes. = = vegetation = = there is a wide source of vegetation in the polar region but there are few species in common in the southern and northern polar
large temperature changes adapt to higher temperatures through a variety of methods. in green crabs, the process of initial warming results in an increase of oxygen consumption and heart rate, accompanied by a decrease in stroke volume and haemolymph oxygen partial pressure. as this warming continues, dissolved oxygen levels decrease below the threshold for full haemocyanin oxygen saturation. this heating then progressively releases haemocyanin - bound oxygen, saving energy in oxygen transport and resulting in an associated leveling off of metabolic rate. key to maintaining homeostasis, individual thermoregulation is the ability to maintain internal body temperature in humans, the most recognizable eurytherm. in humans, deep - body temperature is regulated by cutaneous blood flow, which maintains this temperature despite changes in the external environment. homo sapiens'ability to survive in different ambient temperatures is a key factor in the species success, and one cited reason for why homo sapiens eventually outcompeted neanderthals ( homo neanderthalensis ). humans have two major forms of thermogenesis. the first is shivering, in which a warm - blooded creature produces involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle in order to produce heat. in addition, shivering also signals the body to produce irisin, a hormone that has been shown to convert white fat to brown fat, which is used in non - shivering thermogenesis, the second type of human thermogensis. non - shivering thermogenesis occurs in the brown fat, which contains the uncoupling protein thermogenin. this protein decreases the proton gradient generated in oxidative phosphorylation during the synthesis of atp, uncoupling the electron transport in the mitochondrion from the production of chemical energy ( atp ). this creation of a gradient across the mitochondrial membrane causes energy to be lost as heat. on the other hand, humans have only one method of cooling themselves, biologically speaking : sweat evaporation. cutaneous eccrine sweat glands produce sweat, which is made up of mostly water with a small amount of ions. evaporation of this sweat helps to cool the blood beneath the skin, resulting in a cooling of deep - body temperature. while some organisms are eurythermic due to their ability to regulate internal body temperature, like humans, others have wildly different methods of extreme temperature tolerance. tardigrades are able to enter an anhydrobiotic state, often called a tun, in order to both prevent desiccation and
physical and social ) influences selection for the chirps, eods, and detection. interactions between territorial fish favour different signal parameters than interactions within social groups of fish. = = behaviour = = the behaviour of parents and their offspring during feeding is influenced by one another. parents feed depending on how much their offspring begs, while the offspring begs depending on how hungry it is. this would normally lead to a conflict of interest between parent and offspring, as the offspring will want to be fed as much as possible, whereas the parent can only invest a limited amount of energy into parental care. as such, selection would occur for the combination of begging and feeding behaviours that leads to the highest fitness, resulting in co - adaptation. parent - offspring co - adaptation can be further influenced by information asymmetry, such as female blue tits being exposed more to begging behaviour in nature, resulting in them responding more than males to similar levels of stimuli. = = partial and antagonistic co - adaptation = = it is also possible for related traits to only partially co - adapt due to traits not developing at the same speed, or contradict each other entirely. research on australian skinks revealed that diurnal skinks have a high temperature preference and can sprint optimally at higher temperatures, while nocturnal skinks have a low preferred temperature and optimum temperature. however, the differences between high and low optimal temperatures were much smaller than between preferred temperatures, which means that nocturnal skinks sprint slower compared to their diurnal counterparts. in the case of eremiascincus, the optimum temperature and preferred temperature diverged from one another in opposite directions, creating antagonistic co - adaptation. = = see also = = evolutionary biology coevolution mutualism symbiosis linkage disequilibrium epistasis = = references = = = = external links = = coadaptation entry in a dictionary on evolution.
Answer:
|
the sun
| 0.3 |
deserts are known for having what type of climates?
0. moderate
1. comfortable
2. freezing
3. scorching
tropical deserts are located in regions between 15 and 30 degrees latitude. the environment is very extreme, and they have the highest average monthly temperature on earth. rainfall is sporadic ; precipitation may not be observed at all in a few years. in addition to these extreme environmental and climate conditions, most tropical deserts are covered with sand and rocks, and thus too flat and lacking in vegetation to block out the wind. wind may erode and transport sand, rocks and other materials ; these are known as eolian processes. landforms caused by wind erosion vary greatly in characteristics and size. representative landforms include depressions and pans, yardangs, inverted topography and ventifacts. no significant populations can survive in tropical deserts due to extreme aridity, heat and the paucity of vegetation ; only specific flora and fauna with special behavioral and physical mechanisms are supported. although tropical deserts are considered to be harsh and barren, they are in fact important sources of natural resources and play a significant role in economic development. besides the equatorial deserts, there are many hot deserts situated in the tropical zone. = = distribution = = = = = geographical distribution = = = tropical deserts are located in both continental interiors and coastal areas between the tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn. representative deserts include the sahara desert in north africa, the australian desert in western and southern australia, arabian desert and syrian desert in western asia, the kalahari desert in southern africa, sonoran desert in the united states and mexico, mojave desert in the united states, thar desert in india and pakistan, dasht - e margo and registan desert in afghanistan and dasht - e kavir and dasht - e loot in iran. = = = controlling factor = = = tropics form a belt around the equator from latitude 3 degrees north to latitude 3 degrees south, which is called the intertropical convergence zone. tropical heat generates unstable air in this area, and air masses become extremely dry due to the loss of moisture during the process of tropical ascent. another significant determinant of tropical desert climate are hadley cells. hadley cells concentrate all precipitations in the hotter humid lower pressure equator, leaving colder higher pressure deserts with no precipitation. = = characteristics = = = = = temperature = = = tropical deserts have the highest average daily temperature on the planet, as both the energy input during the day and the loss of heat at night are large. this phenomenon causes an extremely large daily temperature range. specifically, temperatures in a low elevation inland
= = tropical deserts have the highest average daily temperature on the planet, as both the energy input during the day and the loss of heat at night are large. this phenomenon causes an extremely large daily temperature range. specifically, temperatures in a low elevation inland desert can reach 40Β°c to 50Β°c during the day, and drop to approximately 5Β°c at night ; the daily range is around 30 to 40Β°c. there are some other reasons for significant changes in temperature in tropical deserts. for instance, a lack of water and vegetation on the ground can enhance the absorption of the heat due to insolation. subsiding air from dominant high pressure areas in a cloud - free sky can also lead to large amounts of insolation ; a cloudless sky enables day temperature to escape rapidly at night. precipitation is very irregular in tropical deserts. the average annual precipitation in low latitude deserts is less than 250 mm. relative humidity is very low β only 10 % to 30 % in interior locations, and even the dewpoints are typically very low, often being well below the freezing mark. some deserts do not have rainfall all year round, they are located far from the ocean. high - pressure cells and high temperatures can also increase the level of aridity. = = = wind = = = wind greatly contributes to aridity in tropical deserts. if wind speed exceeds 80 km / h, it can generate dust storms and sandstorms and erode the rocky surface. therefore, wind plays an important role in shaping various landforms. this phenomenon is known as the eolian process. there are two types of eolian process : deflation and abrasion. first, deflation may cause the light lowering of ground surface, leading to deflation hollows, plains, basins, blowouts, wind - eroded plains and parabolic dunes. second, the eolian process leads to abrasion, which forms special landforms with a significant undercut. = = = landforms = = = various landforms are found in tropical deserts due to different kinds of eolian process. the major landforms are dunes, depressions and pans, yardangs, and inverted topography. = = = = dunes = = = = there are various kinds of dune in tropical deserts. representative dunes include dome dunes, transverse dunes, barchans, star dunes, shadow dunes, linear dunes and longitudinal dunes. = = = = depression = = = = a desert depression is caused by polygenetic factors such as wind erosion, broad
##lga central desert southern mulga / saltbush tropical grasslands and savannas northern savanna northern grasslands temperate grasslands eastern grasslands and savannas = = indomalayan realm = = tropical humid forests malabar rainforest ceylonese rainforest bengalian rainforest burman rainforest indochinese rainforest south chinese rainforest malayan rainforest tropical dry or deciduous forests ( incl. monsoon forests ) or woodlands indus - ganges monsoon forest burman monsoon forest thai monsoon forest mahanadian coromandel ceylonese monsoon forest deccan thorn forest warm deserts and semideserts thar desert mixed island systems seychelles and amirantes islands laccadives islands maldives and chagos islands cocos - keeling and christmas islands andaman and nicobar islands sumatra java lesser sunda islands celebes borneo philippines taiwan = = nearctic realm = = subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands sitkan oregonian temperate needle - leaf forests or woodlands yukon taiga canadian taiga temperate broad - leaf forests or woodlands, and subpolar deciduous thickets eastern forest austroriparian evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands californian warm deserts and semideserts sonoran chihuahuan tamaulipan cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts great basin tundra communities and barren arctic desert aleutian islands alaskan tundra canadian tundra arctic archipelago greenland tundra arctic desert and icecap temperate grasslands grasslands mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation rocky mountains sierra - cascade madrean - cordilleran lake systems great lakes = = neotropical realm = = tropical humid forests campechean panamanian colombian coastal guayanan amazon rainforest madeiran serra do mar ( bahian coast ) subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands brazilian rainforest ( brazilian deciduous forest ) brazilian planalto ( brazilian araucaria forest ) valdivian forest ( chilean temperate rain forest ) chilean nothofagus tropical dry or deciduous forests ( incl. monsoon forests ) or woodlands everglades sinaloan guerreran yucatecan ( yucatan ) central american ( carib - pacific ) venezuelan dry forest venezuelan deciduous forest ecuadoran dry forest caatinga gran chaco temperate broad - leaf forests or woodlands, and subpolar deciduous thickets chilean araucaria forest evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands chilean sclerophyll warm deserts and semideserts pacific desert ( peruvian and atacama desert ) monte ( argentinian thorn - scrub ) cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts patagonian tropical grasslands and savannas ll
and kurdistan - iran highlands ) altai highlands pamir - tian shan highlands hindu kush highlands himalayan highlands szechwan highlands mixed island systems macaronesian islands ryukyu islands lake systems lake ladoga aral sea lake baikal = = region coding = = the hierarchy of the scheme is ( with early replaced terms in parentheses ) : biogeographic realm ( = biogeographic regions and subregions ), with 8 categories biogeographic province ( = biotic province ), with 193 categories, each characterized by a major biome or biome - complex biome, with 14 types : tropical humid forests ( 1 ) ; subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands ( 2 ) ; temperate needle - leaf forests or woodlands ( 3 ) ; tropical dry of deciduous forests ( including monsoon forests ) or woodlands ( 4 ) ; temperate broad - lead forests or woodlands and subpolar deciduous thickets ( 5 ) ; evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands ( 6 ) ; warm deserts and semideserts ( 7 ) ; cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts ( 8 ) ; tundra communities and barren arctic desert ( 9 ) ; tropical grassland and savannas ( 10 ) ; temperate grasslands ( 11 ) ; mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation ( 12 ) ; mixed island systems ( 13 ) ; lake systems ( 14 ). so, for example, the australian central desert province is in the australasian realm ( 6 ), is the 9th biogeographic province in that realm, and its biome falls within " warm deserts and semideserts " ( 7 ), so it is coded 6. 9. 7. the realms and provinces of the scheme are hence coded as follows : = = see also = = biogeographic provinces of hydrothermal vent systems floristic province list of ecoregions = = references = = = = bibliography = = dassman, raymond ( 1976 ). " biogeographical provinces ". coevolution quarterly, number 11, fall 1976.
a sharply continental climate is a type of climate in temperate latitudes, characteristic of the interior regions of continents, isolated from the world's oceans and under the influence of high pressure areas. = = peculiarities = = the weather type is anticyclonic ; the amount of precipitation is insignificant - less than 400 mm ; humidity is low, with a moisture coefficient of less than 1. large amplitudes of temperature fluctuations are typical - both annual and daily. winters are long, with little snow and very cold - at the pole of cold in the central and eastern regions of the sakha republic, temperatures down to - 65Β°c are possible. summer is usually warm ( the average temperature of the warmest month is 15 - 20Β°c, the average maximum is over 25Β°c ), but short ; there is slightly more precipitation in summer than in winter ( most of it falls in july ). = = area of distribution = = a sharply continental climate is found only in the northern hemisphere - this is due to the fact that in the temperate latitudes of the southern hemisphere there is almost no land, and therefore no conditions for the formation of continental air masses. it is typical for the internal regions of north america and eurasia ; in russia, the areas of sharply continental climate are eastern and central siberia. examples of a sharply continental climate are the city of yakutsk, located in the center of yakutia, and the city of verkhoyansk in its north ( characterized by the largest seasonal temperature differences in the world ), as well as astrakhan. = = see also = = continental climate = = references = = = = external links = =
Answer:
|
scorching
| null |
deserts are known for having what type of climates?
0. moderate
1. comfortable
2. freezing
3. scorching
tropical deserts are located in regions between 15 and 30 degrees latitude. the environment is very extreme, and they have the highest average monthly temperature on earth. rainfall is sporadic ; precipitation may not be observed at all in a few years. in addition to these extreme environmental and climate conditions, most tropical deserts are covered with sand and rocks, and thus too flat and lacking in vegetation to block out the wind. wind may erode and transport sand, rocks and other materials ; these are known as eolian processes. landforms caused by wind erosion vary greatly in characteristics and size. representative landforms include depressions and pans, yardangs, inverted topography and ventifacts. no significant populations can survive in tropical deserts due to extreme aridity, heat and the paucity of vegetation ; only specific flora and fauna with special behavioral and physical mechanisms are supported. although tropical deserts are considered to be harsh and barren, they are in fact important sources of natural resources and play a significant role in economic development. besides the equatorial deserts, there are many hot deserts situated in the tropical zone. = = distribution = = = = = geographical distribution = = = tropical deserts are located in both continental interiors and coastal areas between the tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn. representative deserts include the sahara desert in north africa, the australian desert in western and southern australia, arabian desert and syrian desert in western asia, the kalahari desert in southern africa, sonoran desert in the united states and mexico, mojave desert in the united states, thar desert in india and pakistan, dasht - e margo and registan desert in afghanistan and dasht - e kavir and dasht - e loot in iran. = = = controlling factor = = = tropics form a belt around the equator from latitude 3 degrees north to latitude 3 degrees south, which is called the intertropical convergence zone. tropical heat generates unstable air in this area, and air masses become extremely dry due to the loss of moisture during the process of tropical ascent. another significant determinant of tropical desert climate are hadley cells. hadley cells concentrate all precipitations in the hotter humid lower pressure equator, leaving colder higher pressure deserts with no precipitation. = = characteristics = = = = = temperature = = = tropical deserts have the highest average daily temperature on the planet, as both the energy input during the day and the loss of heat at night are large. this phenomenon causes an extremely large daily temperature range. specifically, temperatures in a low elevation inland
= = tropical deserts have the highest average daily temperature on the planet, as both the energy input during the day and the loss of heat at night are large. this phenomenon causes an extremely large daily temperature range. specifically, temperatures in a low elevation inland desert can reach 40Β°c to 50Β°c during the day, and drop to approximately 5Β°c at night ; the daily range is around 30 to 40Β°c. there are some other reasons for significant changes in temperature in tropical deserts. for instance, a lack of water and vegetation on the ground can enhance the absorption of the heat due to insolation. subsiding air from dominant high pressure areas in a cloud - free sky can also lead to large amounts of insolation ; a cloudless sky enables day temperature to escape rapidly at night. precipitation is very irregular in tropical deserts. the average annual precipitation in low latitude deserts is less than 250 mm. relative humidity is very low β only 10 % to 30 % in interior locations, and even the dewpoints are typically very low, often being well below the freezing mark. some deserts do not have rainfall all year round, they are located far from the ocean. high - pressure cells and high temperatures can also increase the level of aridity. = = = wind = = = wind greatly contributes to aridity in tropical deserts. if wind speed exceeds 80 km / h, it can generate dust storms and sandstorms and erode the rocky surface. therefore, wind plays an important role in shaping various landforms. this phenomenon is known as the eolian process. there are two types of eolian process : deflation and abrasion. first, deflation may cause the light lowering of ground surface, leading to deflation hollows, plains, basins, blowouts, wind - eroded plains and parabolic dunes. second, the eolian process leads to abrasion, which forms special landforms with a significant undercut. = = = landforms = = = various landforms are found in tropical deserts due to different kinds of eolian process. the major landforms are dunes, depressions and pans, yardangs, and inverted topography. = = = = dunes = = = = there are various kinds of dune in tropical deserts. representative dunes include dome dunes, transverse dunes, barchans, star dunes, shadow dunes, linear dunes and longitudinal dunes. = = = = depression = = = = a desert depression is caused by polygenetic factors such as wind erosion, broad
##lga central desert southern mulga / saltbush tropical grasslands and savannas northern savanna northern grasslands temperate grasslands eastern grasslands and savannas = = indomalayan realm = = tropical humid forests malabar rainforest ceylonese rainforest bengalian rainforest burman rainforest indochinese rainforest south chinese rainforest malayan rainforest tropical dry or deciduous forests ( incl. monsoon forests ) or woodlands indus - ganges monsoon forest burman monsoon forest thai monsoon forest mahanadian coromandel ceylonese monsoon forest deccan thorn forest warm deserts and semideserts thar desert mixed island systems seychelles and amirantes islands laccadives islands maldives and chagos islands cocos - keeling and christmas islands andaman and nicobar islands sumatra java lesser sunda islands celebes borneo philippines taiwan = = nearctic realm = = subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands sitkan oregonian temperate needle - leaf forests or woodlands yukon taiga canadian taiga temperate broad - leaf forests or woodlands, and subpolar deciduous thickets eastern forest austroriparian evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands californian warm deserts and semideserts sonoran chihuahuan tamaulipan cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts great basin tundra communities and barren arctic desert aleutian islands alaskan tundra canadian tundra arctic archipelago greenland tundra arctic desert and icecap temperate grasslands grasslands mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation rocky mountains sierra - cascade madrean - cordilleran lake systems great lakes = = neotropical realm = = tropical humid forests campechean panamanian colombian coastal guayanan amazon rainforest madeiran serra do mar ( bahian coast ) subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands brazilian rainforest ( brazilian deciduous forest ) brazilian planalto ( brazilian araucaria forest ) valdivian forest ( chilean temperate rain forest ) chilean nothofagus tropical dry or deciduous forests ( incl. monsoon forests ) or woodlands everglades sinaloan guerreran yucatecan ( yucatan ) central american ( carib - pacific ) venezuelan dry forest venezuelan deciduous forest ecuadoran dry forest caatinga gran chaco temperate broad - leaf forests or woodlands, and subpolar deciduous thickets chilean araucaria forest evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands chilean sclerophyll warm deserts and semideserts pacific desert ( peruvian and atacama desert ) monte ( argentinian thorn - scrub ) cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts patagonian tropical grasslands and savannas ll
and kurdistan - iran highlands ) altai highlands pamir - tian shan highlands hindu kush highlands himalayan highlands szechwan highlands mixed island systems macaronesian islands ryukyu islands lake systems lake ladoga aral sea lake baikal = = region coding = = the hierarchy of the scheme is ( with early replaced terms in parentheses ) : biogeographic realm ( = biogeographic regions and subregions ), with 8 categories biogeographic province ( = biotic province ), with 193 categories, each characterized by a major biome or biome - complex biome, with 14 types : tropical humid forests ( 1 ) ; subtropical and temperate rain forests or woodlands ( 2 ) ; temperate needle - leaf forests or woodlands ( 3 ) ; tropical dry of deciduous forests ( including monsoon forests ) or woodlands ( 4 ) ; temperate broad - lead forests or woodlands and subpolar deciduous thickets ( 5 ) ; evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrubs or woodlands ( 6 ) ; warm deserts and semideserts ( 7 ) ; cold - winter ( continental ) deserts and semideserts ( 8 ) ; tundra communities and barren arctic desert ( 9 ) ; tropical grassland and savannas ( 10 ) ; temperate grasslands ( 11 ) ; mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation ( 12 ) ; mixed island systems ( 13 ) ; lake systems ( 14 ). so, for example, the australian central desert province is in the australasian realm ( 6 ), is the 9th biogeographic province in that realm, and its biome falls within " warm deserts and semideserts " ( 7 ), so it is coded 6. 9. 7. the realms and provinces of the scheme are hence coded as follows : = = see also = = biogeographic provinces of hydrothermal vent systems floristic province list of ecoregions = = references = = = = bibliography = = dassman, raymond ( 1976 ). " biogeographical provinces ". coevolution quarterly, number 11, fall 1976.
a sharply continental climate is a type of climate in temperate latitudes, characteristic of the interior regions of continents, isolated from the world's oceans and under the influence of high pressure areas. = = peculiarities = = the weather type is anticyclonic ; the amount of precipitation is insignificant - less than 400 mm ; humidity is low, with a moisture coefficient of less than 1. large amplitudes of temperature fluctuations are typical - both annual and daily. winters are long, with little snow and very cold - at the pole of cold in the central and eastern regions of the sakha republic, temperatures down to - 65Β°c are possible. summer is usually warm ( the average temperature of the warmest month is 15 - 20Β°c, the average maximum is over 25Β°c ), but short ; there is slightly more precipitation in summer than in winter ( most of it falls in july ). = = area of distribution = = a sharply continental climate is found only in the northern hemisphere - this is due to the fact that in the temperate latitudes of the southern hemisphere there is almost no land, and therefore no conditions for the formation of continental air masses. it is typical for the internal regions of north america and eurasia ; in russia, the areas of sharply continental climate are eastern and central siberia. examples of a sharply continental climate are the city of yakutsk, located in the center of yakutia, and the city of verkhoyansk in its north ( characterized by the largest seasonal temperature differences in the world ), as well as astrakhan. = = see also = = continental climate = = references = = = = external links = =
Answer:
|
moderate
| 0.3 |
When you press on the brakes in a car, because of friction,
0. it flies
1. coconut
2. speed goes down
3. the speed increases
to change the speed of the combined mass m of rider plus bike. this is a negative acceleration a in the line of travel. f = ma, the acceleration a causes an inertial forward force f on mass m. the braking a is from an initial speed u to a final speed v, over a length of time t. the equation u - v = at implies that the greater the acceleration the shorter the time needed to change speed. the stopping distance s is also shortest when acceleration a is at the highest possible value compatible with road conditions : the equation s = ut + 1 / 2 at2 makes s low when a is high and t is low. how much braking force to apply to each wheel depends both on ground conditions and on the balance of weight on the wheels at each instant in time. the total braking force cannot exceed the gravity force on the rider and bike times the coefficient of friction ΞΌ of the tire on the ground. mgΞΌ > = ff + fr. a skid occurs if the ratio of either ff over nf or fr over nr is greater than ΞΌ, with a rear wheel skid having less of a negative impact on lateral stability. when braking, the inertial force ma in the line of travel, not being co - linear with f, tends to rotate m about f. this tendency to rotate, an overturning moment, is resisted by a moment from mg. taking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time : when there is no braking, mass m is typically above the bottom bracket, about 2 / 3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels, with nr thus greater than nf. in constant light braking, whether because an emergency stop is not required or because poor ground conditions prevent heavy braking, much weight still rests on the rear wheel, meaning that nr is still large and fr can contribute towards a. as braking a increases, nr and fr decrease because the moment mah increases with a. at maximum constant a, clockwise and anti - clockwise moments are equal, at which point nr = 0. any greater ff initiates a stoppie. other factors : downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of mg closer to f. to try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep m as far back as possible. when braking is increasing the center of mass m may move forward relative to the front wheel, as the rider moves forward relative to the bike, and, if
the jump - discontinuity. for a more tangible example of discontinuous acceleration, consider an ideal spring β mass system with the mass oscillating on an idealized surface with friction. the force on the mass is equal to the vector sum of the spring force and the kinetic frictional force. when the velocity changes sign ( at the maximum and minimum displacements ), the magnitude of the force on the mass changes by twice the magnitude of the frictional force, because the spring force is continuous and the frictional force reverses direction with velocity. the jump in acceleration equals the force on the mass divided by the mass. that is, each time the mass passes through a minimum or maximum displacement, the mass experiences a discontinuous acceleration, and the jerk contains a dirac delta until the mass stops. the static friction force adapts to the residual spring force, establishing equilibrium with zero net force and zero velocity. consider the example of a braking and decelerating car. the brake pads generate kinetic frictional forces and constant braking torques on the disks ( or drums ) of the wheels. rotational velocity decreases linearly to zero with constant angular deceleration. the frictional force, torque, and car deceleration suddenly reach zero, which indicates a dirac delta in physical jerk. the dirac delta is smoothed down by the real environment, the cumulative effects of which are analogous to damping of the physiologically perceived jerk. this example neglects the effects of tire sliding, suspension dipping, real deflection of all ideally rigid mechanisms, etc. another example of significant jerk, analogous to the first example, is the cutting of a rope with a particle on its end. assume the particle is oscillating in a circular path with non - zero centripetal acceleration. when the rope is cut, the particle's path changes abruptly to a straight path, and the force in the inward direction changes suddenly to zero. imagine a monomolecular fiber cut by a laser ; the particle would experience very high rates of jerk because of the extremely short cutting time. = = in rotation = = consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis in an inertial reference frame. if its angular position as a function of time is ΞΈ ( t ), the angular velocity, acceleration, and jerk can be expressed as follows : angular velocity, Ο ( t ) = ΞΈ ( t ) = d ΞΈ ( t ) d t { \ displaystyle \ omega ( t ) = { \ dot
are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. at normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. : 188 at faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. these may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider ; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. they are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. = = = internal forces = = = internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. in addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism ( front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc. ) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. friction exists between any parts that move against each other : in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. in addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non - rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. on bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. = = motions = = motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry : lateral ; and those in the central plane of symmetry : longitudinal or vertical. lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. an uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self - stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. conversely, a bike is
simple systems of motion ) by newton's second law f = m a { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma } f e β f k = m a { \ displaystyle f _ { e } - f _ { k } = ma } where f e { \ displaystyle f _ { e } } is the external force. acceleration occurs when the external force is greater than the force of kinetic friction. slowing down ( or stopping ) occurs when the force of kinetic friction is greater than that of the external force. this also follows newton's first law of motion as there exists a net force on the object. constant velocity occurs when there is no net force on the object, that is the external force is equal to force of kinetic friction. = = = motion on an inclined plane = = = a common problem presented in introductory physics classes is a block subject to friction as it slides up or down an inclined plane. this is shown in the free body diagram to the right. the component of the force of gravity in the direction of the incline is given by : f g = m g sin ΞΈ { \ displaystyle f _ { g } = mg \ sin { \ theta } } the normal force ( perpendicular to the surface ) is given by : n = m g cos ΞΈ { \ displaystyle n = mg \ cos { \ theta } } therefore, since the force of friction opposes the motion of the block, f k = ΞΌ k β
m g cos ΞΈ { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = \ mu _ { k } \ cdot mg \ cos { \ theta } } to find the coefficient of kinetic friction on an inclined plane, one must find the moment where the force parallel to the plane is equal to the force perpendicular ; this occurs when the block is moving at a constant velocity at some angle ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ theta } f = m a = 0 { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma = 0 } f k = f g { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = f _ { g } } or ΞΌ k m g cos ΞΈ = m g sin ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ mu _ { k } mg \ cos { \ theta } = mg \ sin { \ theta } } here it is found that : ΞΌ k = m g sin ΞΈ m g cos ΞΈ = tan ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ mu _ { k } = { \ frac { mg \ sin { \ theta } } { mg \ co
in astrophysics, dynamical friction or chandrasekhar friction, sometimes called gravitational drag, is loss of momentum and kinetic energy of moving bodies through gravitational interactions with surrounding matter in space. it was first discussed in detail by subrahmanyan chandrasekhar in 1943. = = intuitive account = = an intuition for the effect can be obtained by thinking of a massive object moving through a cloud of smaller lighter bodies. the effect of gravity causes the light bodies to accelerate and gain momentum and kinetic energy ( see slingshot effect ). by conservation of energy and momentum, we may conclude that the heavier body will be slowed by an amount to compensate. since there is a loss of momentum and kinetic energy for the body under consideration, the effect is called dynamical friction. another equivalent way of thinking about this process is that as a large object moves through a cloud of smaller objects, the gravitational effect of the larger object pulls the smaller objects towards it. there then exists a concentration of smaller objects behind the larger body ( a gravitational wake ), as it has already moved past its previous position. this concentration of small objects behind the larger body exerts a collective gravitational force on the large object, slowing it down. of course, the mechanism works the same for all masses of interacting bodies and for any relative velocities between them. however, while the most probable outcome for an object moving through a cloud is a loss of momentum and energy, as described intuitively above, in the general case it might be either loss or gain. when the body under consideration is gaining momentum and energy the same physical mechanism is called slingshot effect, or gravity assist. this technique is sometimes used by interplanetary probes to obtain a boost in velocity by passing close by a planet. = = chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula = = the full chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula for the change in velocity of the object involves integrating over the phase space density of the field of matter and is far from transparent. the chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula reads as d v m d t = β 16 Ο 2 ( ln Ξ» ) g 2 m ( m + m ) 1 v m 3 0 v m v 2 f ( v ) d v v m { \ displaystyle { \ frac { d \ mathbf { v } _ { m } } { dt } } = - 16 \ pi ^ { 2 } ( \ ln \ lambda ) g ^ { 2 } m ( m + m ) { \ frac { 1 }
Answer:
|
speed goes down
| null |
When you press on the brakes in a car, because of friction,
0. it flies
1. coconut
2. speed goes down
3. the speed increases
to change the speed of the combined mass m of rider plus bike. this is a negative acceleration a in the line of travel. f = ma, the acceleration a causes an inertial forward force f on mass m. the braking a is from an initial speed u to a final speed v, over a length of time t. the equation u - v = at implies that the greater the acceleration the shorter the time needed to change speed. the stopping distance s is also shortest when acceleration a is at the highest possible value compatible with road conditions : the equation s = ut + 1 / 2 at2 makes s low when a is high and t is low. how much braking force to apply to each wheel depends both on ground conditions and on the balance of weight on the wheels at each instant in time. the total braking force cannot exceed the gravity force on the rider and bike times the coefficient of friction ΞΌ of the tire on the ground. mgΞΌ > = ff + fr. a skid occurs if the ratio of either ff over nf or fr over nr is greater than ΞΌ, with a rear wheel skid having less of a negative impact on lateral stability. when braking, the inertial force ma in the line of travel, not being co - linear with f, tends to rotate m about f. this tendency to rotate, an overturning moment, is resisted by a moment from mg. taking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time : when there is no braking, mass m is typically above the bottom bracket, about 2 / 3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels, with nr thus greater than nf. in constant light braking, whether because an emergency stop is not required or because poor ground conditions prevent heavy braking, much weight still rests on the rear wheel, meaning that nr is still large and fr can contribute towards a. as braking a increases, nr and fr decrease because the moment mah increases with a. at maximum constant a, clockwise and anti - clockwise moments are equal, at which point nr = 0. any greater ff initiates a stoppie. other factors : downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of mg closer to f. to try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep m as far back as possible. when braking is increasing the center of mass m may move forward relative to the front wheel, as the rider moves forward relative to the bike, and, if
the jump - discontinuity. for a more tangible example of discontinuous acceleration, consider an ideal spring β mass system with the mass oscillating on an idealized surface with friction. the force on the mass is equal to the vector sum of the spring force and the kinetic frictional force. when the velocity changes sign ( at the maximum and minimum displacements ), the magnitude of the force on the mass changes by twice the magnitude of the frictional force, because the spring force is continuous and the frictional force reverses direction with velocity. the jump in acceleration equals the force on the mass divided by the mass. that is, each time the mass passes through a minimum or maximum displacement, the mass experiences a discontinuous acceleration, and the jerk contains a dirac delta until the mass stops. the static friction force adapts to the residual spring force, establishing equilibrium with zero net force and zero velocity. consider the example of a braking and decelerating car. the brake pads generate kinetic frictional forces and constant braking torques on the disks ( or drums ) of the wheels. rotational velocity decreases linearly to zero with constant angular deceleration. the frictional force, torque, and car deceleration suddenly reach zero, which indicates a dirac delta in physical jerk. the dirac delta is smoothed down by the real environment, the cumulative effects of which are analogous to damping of the physiologically perceived jerk. this example neglects the effects of tire sliding, suspension dipping, real deflection of all ideally rigid mechanisms, etc. another example of significant jerk, analogous to the first example, is the cutting of a rope with a particle on its end. assume the particle is oscillating in a circular path with non - zero centripetal acceleration. when the rope is cut, the particle's path changes abruptly to a straight path, and the force in the inward direction changes suddenly to zero. imagine a monomolecular fiber cut by a laser ; the particle would experience very high rates of jerk because of the extremely short cutting time. = = in rotation = = consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis in an inertial reference frame. if its angular position as a function of time is ΞΈ ( t ), the angular velocity, acceleration, and jerk can be expressed as follows : angular velocity, Ο ( t ) = ΞΈ ( t ) = d ΞΈ ( t ) d t { \ displaystyle \ omega ( t ) = { \ dot
are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. at normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. : 188 at faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. these may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider ; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. they are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. = = = internal forces = = = internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. in addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism ( front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc. ) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. friction exists between any parts that move against each other : in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. in addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non - rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. on bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. = = motions = = motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry : lateral ; and those in the central plane of symmetry : longitudinal or vertical. lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. an uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self - stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. conversely, a bike is
simple systems of motion ) by newton's second law f = m a { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma } f e β f k = m a { \ displaystyle f _ { e } - f _ { k } = ma } where f e { \ displaystyle f _ { e } } is the external force. acceleration occurs when the external force is greater than the force of kinetic friction. slowing down ( or stopping ) occurs when the force of kinetic friction is greater than that of the external force. this also follows newton's first law of motion as there exists a net force on the object. constant velocity occurs when there is no net force on the object, that is the external force is equal to force of kinetic friction. = = = motion on an inclined plane = = = a common problem presented in introductory physics classes is a block subject to friction as it slides up or down an inclined plane. this is shown in the free body diagram to the right. the component of the force of gravity in the direction of the incline is given by : f g = m g sin ΞΈ { \ displaystyle f _ { g } = mg \ sin { \ theta } } the normal force ( perpendicular to the surface ) is given by : n = m g cos ΞΈ { \ displaystyle n = mg \ cos { \ theta } } therefore, since the force of friction opposes the motion of the block, f k = ΞΌ k β
m g cos ΞΈ { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = \ mu _ { k } \ cdot mg \ cos { \ theta } } to find the coefficient of kinetic friction on an inclined plane, one must find the moment where the force parallel to the plane is equal to the force perpendicular ; this occurs when the block is moving at a constant velocity at some angle ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ theta } f = m a = 0 { \ displaystyle \ sum f = ma = 0 } f k = f g { \ displaystyle f _ { k } = f _ { g } } or ΞΌ k m g cos ΞΈ = m g sin ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ mu _ { k } mg \ cos { \ theta } = mg \ sin { \ theta } } here it is found that : ΞΌ k = m g sin ΞΈ m g cos ΞΈ = tan ΞΈ { \ displaystyle \ mu _ { k } = { \ frac { mg \ sin { \ theta } } { mg \ co
in astrophysics, dynamical friction or chandrasekhar friction, sometimes called gravitational drag, is loss of momentum and kinetic energy of moving bodies through gravitational interactions with surrounding matter in space. it was first discussed in detail by subrahmanyan chandrasekhar in 1943. = = intuitive account = = an intuition for the effect can be obtained by thinking of a massive object moving through a cloud of smaller lighter bodies. the effect of gravity causes the light bodies to accelerate and gain momentum and kinetic energy ( see slingshot effect ). by conservation of energy and momentum, we may conclude that the heavier body will be slowed by an amount to compensate. since there is a loss of momentum and kinetic energy for the body under consideration, the effect is called dynamical friction. another equivalent way of thinking about this process is that as a large object moves through a cloud of smaller objects, the gravitational effect of the larger object pulls the smaller objects towards it. there then exists a concentration of smaller objects behind the larger body ( a gravitational wake ), as it has already moved past its previous position. this concentration of small objects behind the larger body exerts a collective gravitational force on the large object, slowing it down. of course, the mechanism works the same for all masses of interacting bodies and for any relative velocities between them. however, while the most probable outcome for an object moving through a cloud is a loss of momentum and energy, as described intuitively above, in the general case it might be either loss or gain. when the body under consideration is gaining momentum and energy the same physical mechanism is called slingshot effect, or gravity assist. this technique is sometimes used by interplanetary probes to obtain a boost in velocity by passing close by a planet. = = chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula = = the full chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula for the change in velocity of the object involves integrating over the phase space density of the field of matter and is far from transparent. the chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula reads as d v m d t = β 16 Ο 2 ( ln Ξ» ) g 2 m ( m + m ) 1 v m 3 0 v m v 2 f ( v ) d v v m { \ displaystyle { \ frac { d \ mathbf { v } _ { m } } { dt } } = - 16 \ pi ^ { 2 } ( \ ln \ lambda ) g ^ { 2 } m ( m + m ) { \ frac { 1 }
Answer:
|
it flies
| 0.3 |
if a place has experienced fog, what could be responsible?
0. there has been excess condensed vapor
1. animals are reproducing currently
2. the local deities are angry
3. the water lacks oxygen
turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. the measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and water quality. fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. while some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand ( the settable solids ), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. these small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. turbidity ( or haze ) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. in plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5Β° from the incoming light direction. = = causes and effects = = turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges, parking lots and airports. some industries such as quarrying, mining, and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. in drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases. this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. the suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the particles act as shields for viruses and bacteria. similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet ( uv ) sterilization of water. in water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. this phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout the chesapeake bay in the eastern united states
turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. the measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and water quality. fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. while some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand ( the settable solids ), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. these small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. turbidity ( or haze ) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. in plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5Β° from the incoming light direction. = = causes and effects = = turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges, parking lots and airports. some industries such as quarrying, mining, and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. in drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases. this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. the suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the particles act as shields for viruses and bacteria. similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet ( uv ) sterilization of water. in water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. this phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout the chesapeake bay in the eastern united states
affect 11 % of the uk population. due to climate change, the season for some of these allergens might occur earlier and for some it might be more severe. = = = indoors = = = milder winters can lead to increased levels of biological contaminants like house dust mite and fungi. flooding can also lead to the presence of mould such as cladosporium, aspergillus, penicillium, alternaria, and stachybotrys fungi in flooded dwellings, which can cause respiratory issues. climate change can impact indoor pollutant levels by influencing people's behavior. for instance, during hotter summers, people may open windows more often, which alters ventilation and allows outdoor pollutants to enter. if not properly installed, measures to improve housing energy efficiency, such as increased air tightness, can inadvertently lead to reduced air quality by trapping pollutants indoors. poor ventilation can also exacerbate issues caused by biological contaminants, such as mould, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular problems. = = food and water = = = = = food insecurity = = = food systems are both a driver of climate change and are also extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. with rising temperatures and worse weather projected by 2100, the nutrient content and yields of crops will likely be affected. uk agriculture might initially benefit by extended growing seasons, but ongoing heating trends and increased extreme weather events will likely strain domestic food production. domestic supply may drop especially for volatile crops such as fruit and vegetables, which has already reduced by at least 20 % since the 1980s. increased pest pressure may also reduce yields for key crops, potentially intensifying reliance on imports, especially given the rise in demand for tropical fruits. the uk already heavily relies on imported foods from nations vulnerable to climate impacts, with 78 % of its fruits and vegetables sourced from these regions. climate - related sensitivity in exporting countries can disrupt supply chains, leading to shortages and price spikes in the uk. such disruptions could particularly impact the availability of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which are crucial for a healthy diet, leading to issues in food access, affordability, and ultimately, food insecurity. in the uk in 2020, about 70, 000 deaths were linked to insufficient intake of nutritious, plant - based foods, while nearly 42, 000 deaths were associated with the overconsumption of dairy, red meat, and processed meats ( e. g., meats that
key features of many hydrologic cycles to which ecosystems are tied. in addition, global cloud cover is a significant factor in the overall radiation budget and therefore, temperature of the earth. bioaerosols make up a small fraction of the total cloud condensation nuclei in the atmosphere ( between 0. 001 % and 0. 01 % ) so their global impact ( i. e. radiation budget ) is questionable. however, there are specific cases where bioaerosols may form a significant fraction of the clouds in an area. these include : areas where there is cloud formation at temperatures over - 15 Β°c since some bacteria have developed proteins which allow them to nucleate ice at higher temperatures. areas over vegetated regions or under remote conditions where the air is less impacted by anthropogenic activity. near surface air in remote marine regions like the southern ocean where sea spray may be more prevalent than dust transported from continents. the collection of bioaerosol particles on a surface is called deposition. the removal of these particles from the atmosphere affects human health in regard to air quality and respiratory systems. = = = alpine lakes in spain = = = alpine lakes located in the central pyrenees region of northeast spain are unaffected by anthropogenic factors making these oligotrophic lakes ideal indicators for sediment input and environmental change. dissolved organic matter and nutrients from dust transport can aid bacteria with growth and production in low nutrient waters. within the collected samples of one study, a high diversity of airborne microorganisms were detected and had strong similarities to mauritian soils despite saharan dust storms occurring at the time of detection. = = = affected ocean species = = = the types and sizes of bioaerosols vary in marine environments and occur largely because of wet - discharges caused by changes in osmotic pressure or surface tension. some types of marine originated bioaerosols excrete dry - discharges of fungal spores that are transported by the wind. one instance of impact on marine species was the 1983 die off of caribbean sea fans and sea urchins that correlated with dust storms originating in africa. this correlation was determined by the work of microbiologists and a total ozone mapping spectrometer, which identified bacteria, viral, and fungal bioaerosols in the dust clouds that were tracked over the atlantic ocean. another instance in of this occurred in 1997 when el nino possibly impacted seasonal trade wind patterns from africa to barbados, resulting in similar die offs. modeling instances like these can contribute to more accurate predictions of future events. = =
availability can be very disjunct and precludes the great range of observed diversity across landscapes. = = threats to subterranean fauna = = floodwaters can be detrimental to subterranean species, by dramatically changing the availability of habitat, food and connectivity to other habitats and oxygen. many subterranean fauna are likely to be sensitive to changes in their environment and floods, which can accompany a drop in temperature, may adversely affect some animals. humans also pose a threat to troglofauna. mismanagement of contaminants ( e. g. pesticides and sewage ) may poison subterranean fauna communities and removal of habitat ( e. g. rising / lowering of the watertable or various forms of mining ) can also be a major threat. = = see also = = cave conservation list of troglobites speleology subterranean river trogloxene = = references = =
Answer:
|
there has been excess condensed vapor
| null |
if a place has experienced fog, what could be responsible?
0. there has been excess condensed vapor
1. animals are reproducing currently
2. the local deities are angry
3. the water lacks oxygen
turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. the measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and water quality. fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. while some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand ( the settable solids ), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. these small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. turbidity ( or haze ) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. in plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5Β° from the incoming light direction. = = causes and effects = = turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges, parking lots and airports. some industries such as quarrying, mining, and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. in drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases. this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. the suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the particles act as shields for viruses and bacteria. similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet ( uv ) sterilization of water. in water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. this phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout the chesapeake bay in the eastern united states
turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. the measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and water quality. fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. while some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand ( the settable solids ), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. these small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. turbidity ( or haze ) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. in plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5Β° from the incoming light direction. = = causes and effects = = turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges, parking lots and airports. some industries such as quarrying, mining, and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. in drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases. this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. the suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the particles act as shields for viruses and bacteria. similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet ( uv ) sterilization of water. in water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. this phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout the chesapeake bay in the eastern united states
affect 11 % of the uk population. due to climate change, the season for some of these allergens might occur earlier and for some it might be more severe. = = = indoors = = = milder winters can lead to increased levels of biological contaminants like house dust mite and fungi. flooding can also lead to the presence of mould such as cladosporium, aspergillus, penicillium, alternaria, and stachybotrys fungi in flooded dwellings, which can cause respiratory issues. climate change can impact indoor pollutant levels by influencing people's behavior. for instance, during hotter summers, people may open windows more often, which alters ventilation and allows outdoor pollutants to enter. if not properly installed, measures to improve housing energy efficiency, such as increased air tightness, can inadvertently lead to reduced air quality by trapping pollutants indoors. poor ventilation can also exacerbate issues caused by biological contaminants, such as mould, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular problems. = = food and water = = = = = food insecurity = = = food systems are both a driver of climate change and are also extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. with rising temperatures and worse weather projected by 2100, the nutrient content and yields of crops will likely be affected. uk agriculture might initially benefit by extended growing seasons, but ongoing heating trends and increased extreme weather events will likely strain domestic food production. domestic supply may drop especially for volatile crops such as fruit and vegetables, which has already reduced by at least 20 % since the 1980s. increased pest pressure may also reduce yields for key crops, potentially intensifying reliance on imports, especially given the rise in demand for tropical fruits. the uk already heavily relies on imported foods from nations vulnerable to climate impacts, with 78 % of its fruits and vegetables sourced from these regions. climate - related sensitivity in exporting countries can disrupt supply chains, leading to shortages and price spikes in the uk. such disruptions could particularly impact the availability of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which are crucial for a healthy diet, leading to issues in food access, affordability, and ultimately, food insecurity. in the uk in 2020, about 70, 000 deaths were linked to insufficient intake of nutritious, plant - based foods, while nearly 42, 000 deaths were associated with the overconsumption of dairy, red meat, and processed meats ( e. g., meats that
key features of many hydrologic cycles to which ecosystems are tied. in addition, global cloud cover is a significant factor in the overall radiation budget and therefore, temperature of the earth. bioaerosols make up a small fraction of the total cloud condensation nuclei in the atmosphere ( between 0. 001 % and 0. 01 % ) so their global impact ( i. e. radiation budget ) is questionable. however, there are specific cases where bioaerosols may form a significant fraction of the clouds in an area. these include : areas where there is cloud formation at temperatures over - 15 Β°c since some bacteria have developed proteins which allow them to nucleate ice at higher temperatures. areas over vegetated regions or under remote conditions where the air is less impacted by anthropogenic activity. near surface air in remote marine regions like the southern ocean where sea spray may be more prevalent than dust transported from continents. the collection of bioaerosol particles on a surface is called deposition. the removal of these particles from the atmosphere affects human health in regard to air quality and respiratory systems. = = = alpine lakes in spain = = = alpine lakes located in the central pyrenees region of northeast spain are unaffected by anthropogenic factors making these oligotrophic lakes ideal indicators for sediment input and environmental change. dissolved organic matter and nutrients from dust transport can aid bacteria with growth and production in low nutrient waters. within the collected samples of one study, a high diversity of airborne microorganisms were detected and had strong similarities to mauritian soils despite saharan dust storms occurring at the time of detection. = = = affected ocean species = = = the types and sizes of bioaerosols vary in marine environments and occur largely because of wet - discharges caused by changes in osmotic pressure or surface tension. some types of marine originated bioaerosols excrete dry - discharges of fungal spores that are transported by the wind. one instance of impact on marine species was the 1983 die off of caribbean sea fans and sea urchins that correlated with dust storms originating in africa. this correlation was determined by the work of microbiologists and a total ozone mapping spectrometer, which identified bacteria, viral, and fungal bioaerosols in the dust clouds that were tracked over the atlantic ocean. another instance in of this occurred in 1997 when el nino possibly impacted seasonal trade wind patterns from africa to barbados, resulting in similar die offs. modeling instances like these can contribute to more accurate predictions of future events. = =
availability can be very disjunct and precludes the great range of observed diversity across landscapes. = = threats to subterranean fauna = = floodwaters can be detrimental to subterranean species, by dramatically changing the availability of habitat, food and connectivity to other habitats and oxygen. many subterranean fauna are likely to be sensitive to changes in their environment and floods, which can accompany a drop in temperature, may adversely affect some animals. humans also pose a threat to troglofauna. mismanagement of contaminants ( e. g. pesticides and sewage ) may poison subterranean fauna communities and removal of habitat ( e. g. rising / lowering of the watertable or various forms of mining ) can also be a major threat. = = see also = = cave conservation list of troglobites speleology subterranean river trogloxene = = references = =
Answer:
|
the water lacks oxygen
| 0.3 |
Solar energy might be used for
0. the air
1. making pasta
2. feelings
3. time travel
infrastructure ( grind interaction ). both can be expressed by suitable indicators which are intended as assessment tools only. = = design and construction = = the most cost - effective steps toward a reduction in a building's energy consumption usually occur during the design process. to achieve efficient energy use, zero energy design departs significantly from conventional construction practice. successful zero energy building designers typically combine time tested passive solar, or artificial / fake conditioning, principles that work with the on - site assets. sunlight and solar heat, prevailing breezes, and the cool of the earth below a building, can provide daylighting and stable indoor temperatures with minimum mechanical means. zebs are normally optimized to use passive solar heat gain and shading, combined with thermal mass to stabilize diurnal temperature variations throughout the day, and in most climates are superinsulated. all the technologies needed to create zero energy buildings are available off - the - shelf today. sophisticated 3 - d building energy simulation tools are available to model how a building will perform with a range of design variables such as building orientation ( relative to the daily and seasonal position of the sun ), window and door type and placement, overhang depth, insulation type and values of the building elements, air tightness ( weatherization ), the efficiency of heating, cooling, lighting, and other equipment, as well as local climate. these simulations help the designers predict how the building will perform before it is built, and enable them to model the economic and financial implications on building cost benefit analysis, or even more appropriate β life - cycle assessment. zero - energy buildings are built with significant energy - saving features. the heating and cooling loads are lowered by using high - efficiency equipment ( such as heat pumps rather than furnaces. heat pumps are about four times as efficient as furnaces ) added insulation ( especially in the attic and in the basement of houses ), high - efficiency windows ( such as low emissivity, triple - glazed windows ), draft - proofing, high efficiency appliances ( particularly modern high - efficiency refrigerators ), high - efficiency led lighting, passive solar gain in winter and passive shading in the summer, natural ventilation, and other techniques. these features vary depending on climate zones in which the construction occurs. water heating loads can be lowered by using water conservation fixtures, heat recovery units on waste water, and by using solar water heating, and high - efficiency water heating equipment. in addition, daylighting with skylights or solartubes can provide 100 % of daytime illumination within the home. nighttime
water conservation fixtures, heat recovery units on waste water, and by using solar water heating, and high - efficiency water heating equipment. in addition, daylighting with skylights or solartubes can provide 100 % of daytime illumination within the home. nighttime illumination is typically done with fluorescent and led lighting that use 1 / 3 or less power than incandescent lights, without adding unwanted heat. and miscellaneous electric loads can be lessened by choosing efficient appliances and minimizing phantom loads or standby power. other techniques to reach net zero ( dependent on climate ) are earth sheltered building principles, superinsulation walls using straw - bale construction, pre - fabricated building panels and roof elements plus exterior landscaping for seasonal shading. once the energy use of the building has been minimized it can be possible to generate all that energy on site using roof - mounted solar panels. see examples of zero net energy houses here. zero - energy buildings are often designed to make dual use of energy including that from white goods. for example, using refrigerator exhaust to heat domestic water, ventilation air and shower drain heat exchangers, office machines and computer servers, and body heat to heat the building. these buildings make use of heat energy that conventional buildings may exhaust outside. they may use heat recovery ventilation, hot water heat recycling, combined heat and power, and absorption chiller units. = = energy harvest = = zebs harvest available energy to meet their electricity and heating or cooling needs. by far the most common way to harvest energy is to use roof - mounted solar photovoltaic panels that turn the sun's light into electricity. energy can also be harvested with solar thermal collectors ( which use the sun's heat to heat water for the building ). heat pumps can also harvest heat and cool from the air ( air - sourced ) or ground near the building ( ground - sourced otherwise known as geothermal ). technically, heat pumps move heat rather than harvest it, but the overall effect in terms of reduced energy use and reduced carbon footprint is similar. in the case of individual houses, various microgeneration technologies may be used to provide heat and electricity to the building, using solar cells or wind turbines for electricity, and biofuels or solar thermal collectors linked to a seasonal thermal energy storage ( stes ) for space heating. an stes can also be used for summer cooling by storing the cold of winter underground. to cope with fluctuations in demand, zero energy buildings are frequently connected to the electricity grid, export electricity to the grid when there is a surplus
grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. the buildings are called " energy - plus buildings " or in some cases " low energy houses ". these buildings produce energy onsite using renewable technology like solar and wind, while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient lightning and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning ( hvac ) technologies. the zero - energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase. a notable example is the zero building in spain, which demonstrates how an office building can achieve net - zero and even positive energy performance through architectural design, passive strategies, and integrated renewable systems. the development of modern zero - energy buildings became possible largely through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques. these include highly insulating spray - foam insulation, high - efficiency solar panels, high - efficiency heat pumps and highly insulating, low emissivity, triple and quadruple - glazed windows. these innovations have also been significantly improved by academic research, which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs. a study examines how different countries, including italy, germany, and denmark, approach nearly zero energy buildings. it shows that while the technical solutions are often similar, the targets, baselines, and frameworks for meeting these goals vary significantly ( d'agostino & mazzarella, 2019 ). zero - energy buildings can be part of a smart grid. some advantages of these buildings are as follows : integration of renewable energy resources integration of plug - in electric vehicles β called vehicle - to - grid implementation of zero - energy concepts although the net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources, water and waste, energy is usually the first resource to be targeted because : energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel like natural gas or heating oil, is expensive. hence reducing energy use can save the building owner money. in contrast, water and waste are inexpensive for the individual building owner. energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel, has a high carbon footprint. hence reducing energy use is a major way to reduce the building's carbon footprint. there are well - established means to significantly reduce the energy use and carbon footprint of buildings. these include : adding insulation, using heat pumps instead of furnaces, using low emissivity, triple or quadruple - glazed windows and adding solar panels to the roof. in some countries
a zero - energy building ( zeb ), also known as a net zero - energy ( nze ) building, is a building with net zero energy consumption, meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site or in other definitions by renewable energy sources offsite, using technology such as heat pumps, high efficiency windows and insulation, and solar panels. the goal is that these buildings contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere during operation than similar non - zne buildings. they do at times consume non - renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases, but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount. the development of zero - energy buildings is encouraged by the desire to have less of an impact on the environment, and their expansion is encouraged by tax breaks and savings on energy costs which make zero - energy buildings financially viable. terminology tends to vary between countries, agencies, cities, towns, and reports, so a general knowledge of this concept and its various uses is essential for a versatile understanding of clean energy and renewables. the international energy agency ( iea ) and european union ( eu ) most commonly use " net zero energy ", with the term " zero net " being mainly used in the us. a similar concept approved and implemented by the european union and other agreeing countries is nearly zero energy building ( nzeb ), with the goal of having all new buildings in the region under nzeb standards by 2020. according to d'agostino and mazzarella ( 2019 ), the meaning of nzeb is different in each country. this is because countries have different climates, rules, and ways of calculating energy use. these differences make it hard to compare buildings or set one standard for everyone. = = overview = = typical code - compliant buildings consume 40 % of the total fossil fuel energy in the us and european union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases. to combat such high energy usage, more and more buildings are starting to implement the carbon neutrality principle, which is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. although zero - energy buildings remain limited, even in developed countries, they are gaining importance and popularity. most zero - energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. the buildings are called " energy - plus buildings " or in some cases " low energy houses ". these buildings produce energy onsite using renewable technology
its atmosphere. photography, written articles and the interpretation of other viewers of a space cannot compare to individual experience and interaction in interior spaces. spaces begin as voids, tangible and undefined structures, its atmospheres are articulated through cognitive subjects ( memory, perception, judgement, emotion ) and physical presence. recently an italian philosopher tonino griffero addresses the theory of atmospheres in a thorough and systematic way, examining the role of atmospheres ( underestimated in traditional aesthetics ) in daily life and their main ontological and phenomenological characteristics, and aims to consider atmospherical feelings and moods ( including pain, shame, twilight, gaze, felt - bodily isles, etc. ) as prototypes of the new ontological category of quasi - things. = = in psychopathology = = space that takes on an affective character is what ludwig binswanger called space with an atmosphere. = = features of architectural atmospheres = = several aspects of architectural and spatial design have been identified as contributing to atmosphere : = = = light = = = light that fills a room can give the impression of a space being serene, exhilarating, gloomy, celebratory or creepy. spaces are experienced by the mood transmitted within. peter zumthor describes his interest in light, which is crucial in creating atmospheres within his architecture β β β¦ daylight, the light on things, is so moving to me that i feel almost a spiritual quality. when the sun comes up in the morning β which i always find so marvelous β¦ and casts its light on things, it doesn β t feel as if it quite belongs in this world. i don β t understand light. it gives me the feeling there β s something beyond me, something beyond all understanding β ( atmospheres, p. 61 ). bohme outlines the concept ; that stage design, like architecture provokes emotions and atmosphere. this sense of atmosphere is enhanced β not only of objects, wall and solids, but also of light, sound, colour β¦ β japanese novelist junichiro tanizaki in his book in praise of shadows describes atmospheres poetically, through space and light within japanese thought and practice of inhabiting in variations of darkness. β an empty space β¦ a mere shadow, we are overcome with the feeling that in this small corner of the atmosphere there reigns complete and utter silence ; that here in the darkness immutable tranquillity holds sway β ( p. 33 ). the mystery and ambiguity of shadows created by light are primary atmospheric conditions of interior spaces. the
Answer:
|
making pasta
| null |
Solar energy might be used for
0. the air
1. making pasta
2. feelings
3. time travel
infrastructure ( grind interaction ). both can be expressed by suitable indicators which are intended as assessment tools only. = = design and construction = = the most cost - effective steps toward a reduction in a building's energy consumption usually occur during the design process. to achieve efficient energy use, zero energy design departs significantly from conventional construction practice. successful zero energy building designers typically combine time tested passive solar, or artificial / fake conditioning, principles that work with the on - site assets. sunlight and solar heat, prevailing breezes, and the cool of the earth below a building, can provide daylighting and stable indoor temperatures with minimum mechanical means. zebs are normally optimized to use passive solar heat gain and shading, combined with thermal mass to stabilize diurnal temperature variations throughout the day, and in most climates are superinsulated. all the technologies needed to create zero energy buildings are available off - the - shelf today. sophisticated 3 - d building energy simulation tools are available to model how a building will perform with a range of design variables such as building orientation ( relative to the daily and seasonal position of the sun ), window and door type and placement, overhang depth, insulation type and values of the building elements, air tightness ( weatherization ), the efficiency of heating, cooling, lighting, and other equipment, as well as local climate. these simulations help the designers predict how the building will perform before it is built, and enable them to model the economic and financial implications on building cost benefit analysis, or even more appropriate β life - cycle assessment. zero - energy buildings are built with significant energy - saving features. the heating and cooling loads are lowered by using high - efficiency equipment ( such as heat pumps rather than furnaces. heat pumps are about four times as efficient as furnaces ) added insulation ( especially in the attic and in the basement of houses ), high - efficiency windows ( such as low emissivity, triple - glazed windows ), draft - proofing, high efficiency appliances ( particularly modern high - efficiency refrigerators ), high - efficiency led lighting, passive solar gain in winter and passive shading in the summer, natural ventilation, and other techniques. these features vary depending on climate zones in which the construction occurs. water heating loads can be lowered by using water conservation fixtures, heat recovery units on waste water, and by using solar water heating, and high - efficiency water heating equipment. in addition, daylighting with skylights or solartubes can provide 100 % of daytime illumination within the home. nighttime
water conservation fixtures, heat recovery units on waste water, and by using solar water heating, and high - efficiency water heating equipment. in addition, daylighting with skylights or solartubes can provide 100 % of daytime illumination within the home. nighttime illumination is typically done with fluorescent and led lighting that use 1 / 3 or less power than incandescent lights, without adding unwanted heat. and miscellaneous electric loads can be lessened by choosing efficient appliances and minimizing phantom loads or standby power. other techniques to reach net zero ( dependent on climate ) are earth sheltered building principles, superinsulation walls using straw - bale construction, pre - fabricated building panels and roof elements plus exterior landscaping for seasonal shading. once the energy use of the building has been minimized it can be possible to generate all that energy on site using roof - mounted solar panels. see examples of zero net energy houses here. zero - energy buildings are often designed to make dual use of energy including that from white goods. for example, using refrigerator exhaust to heat domestic water, ventilation air and shower drain heat exchangers, office machines and computer servers, and body heat to heat the building. these buildings make use of heat energy that conventional buildings may exhaust outside. they may use heat recovery ventilation, hot water heat recycling, combined heat and power, and absorption chiller units. = = energy harvest = = zebs harvest available energy to meet their electricity and heating or cooling needs. by far the most common way to harvest energy is to use roof - mounted solar photovoltaic panels that turn the sun's light into electricity. energy can also be harvested with solar thermal collectors ( which use the sun's heat to heat water for the building ). heat pumps can also harvest heat and cool from the air ( air - sourced ) or ground near the building ( ground - sourced otherwise known as geothermal ). technically, heat pumps move heat rather than harvest it, but the overall effect in terms of reduced energy use and reduced carbon footprint is similar. in the case of individual houses, various microgeneration technologies may be used to provide heat and electricity to the building, using solar cells or wind turbines for electricity, and biofuels or solar thermal collectors linked to a seasonal thermal energy storage ( stes ) for space heating. an stes can also be used for summer cooling by storing the cold of winter underground. to cope with fluctuations in demand, zero energy buildings are frequently connected to the electricity grid, export electricity to the grid when there is a surplus
grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. the buildings are called " energy - plus buildings " or in some cases " low energy houses ". these buildings produce energy onsite using renewable technology like solar and wind, while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient lightning and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning ( hvac ) technologies. the zero - energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase. a notable example is the zero building in spain, which demonstrates how an office building can achieve net - zero and even positive energy performance through architectural design, passive strategies, and integrated renewable systems. the development of modern zero - energy buildings became possible largely through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques. these include highly insulating spray - foam insulation, high - efficiency solar panels, high - efficiency heat pumps and highly insulating, low emissivity, triple and quadruple - glazed windows. these innovations have also been significantly improved by academic research, which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs. a study examines how different countries, including italy, germany, and denmark, approach nearly zero energy buildings. it shows that while the technical solutions are often similar, the targets, baselines, and frameworks for meeting these goals vary significantly ( d'agostino & mazzarella, 2019 ). zero - energy buildings can be part of a smart grid. some advantages of these buildings are as follows : integration of renewable energy resources integration of plug - in electric vehicles β called vehicle - to - grid implementation of zero - energy concepts although the net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources, water and waste, energy is usually the first resource to be targeted because : energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel like natural gas or heating oil, is expensive. hence reducing energy use can save the building owner money. in contrast, water and waste are inexpensive for the individual building owner. energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel, has a high carbon footprint. hence reducing energy use is a major way to reduce the building's carbon footprint. there are well - established means to significantly reduce the energy use and carbon footprint of buildings. these include : adding insulation, using heat pumps instead of furnaces, using low emissivity, triple or quadruple - glazed windows and adding solar panels to the roof. in some countries
a zero - energy building ( zeb ), also known as a net zero - energy ( nze ) building, is a building with net zero energy consumption, meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site or in other definitions by renewable energy sources offsite, using technology such as heat pumps, high efficiency windows and insulation, and solar panels. the goal is that these buildings contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere during operation than similar non - zne buildings. they do at times consume non - renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases, but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount. the development of zero - energy buildings is encouraged by the desire to have less of an impact on the environment, and their expansion is encouraged by tax breaks and savings on energy costs which make zero - energy buildings financially viable. terminology tends to vary between countries, agencies, cities, towns, and reports, so a general knowledge of this concept and its various uses is essential for a versatile understanding of clean energy and renewables. the international energy agency ( iea ) and european union ( eu ) most commonly use " net zero energy ", with the term " zero net " being mainly used in the us. a similar concept approved and implemented by the european union and other agreeing countries is nearly zero energy building ( nzeb ), with the goal of having all new buildings in the region under nzeb standards by 2020. according to d'agostino and mazzarella ( 2019 ), the meaning of nzeb is different in each country. this is because countries have different climates, rules, and ways of calculating energy use. these differences make it hard to compare buildings or set one standard for everyone. = = overview = = typical code - compliant buildings consume 40 % of the total fossil fuel energy in the us and european union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases. to combat such high energy usage, more and more buildings are starting to implement the carbon neutrality principle, which is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. although zero - energy buildings remain limited, even in developed countries, they are gaining importance and popularity. most zero - energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. the buildings are called " energy - plus buildings " or in some cases " low energy houses ". these buildings produce energy onsite using renewable technology
its atmosphere. photography, written articles and the interpretation of other viewers of a space cannot compare to individual experience and interaction in interior spaces. spaces begin as voids, tangible and undefined structures, its atmospheres are articulated through cognitive subjects ( memory, perception, judgement, emotion ) and physical presence. recently an italian philosopher tonino griffero addresses the theory of atmospheres in a thorough and systematic way, examining the role of atmospheres ( underestimated in traditional aesthetics ) in daily life and their main ontological and phenomenological characteristics, and aims to consider atmospherical feelings and moods ( including pain, shame, twilight, gaze, felt - bodily isles, etc. ) as prototypes of the new ontological category of quasi - things. = = in psychopathology = = space that takes on an affective character is what ludwig binswanger called space with an atmosphere. = = features of architectural atmospheres = = several aspects of architectural and spatial design have been identified as contributing to atmosphere : = = = light = = = light that fills a room can give the impression of a space being serene, exhilarating, gloomy, celebratory or creepy. spaces are experienced by the mood transmitted within. peter zumthor describes his interest in light, which is crucial in creating atmospheres within his architecture β β β¦ daylight, the light on things, is so moving to me that i feel almost a spiritual quality. when the sun comes up in the morning β which i always find so marvelous β¦ and casts its light on things, it doesn β t feel as if it quite belongs in this world. i don β t understand light. it gives me the feeling there β s something beyond me, something beyond all understanding β ( atmospheres, p. 61 ). bohme outlines the concept ; that stage design, like architecture provokes emotions and atmosphere. this sense of atmosphere is enhanced β not only of objects, wall and solids, but also of light, sound, colour β¦ β japanese novelist junichiro tanizaki in his book in praise of shadows describes atmospheres poetically, through space and light within japanese thought and practice of inhabiting in variations of darkness. β an empty space β¦ a mere shadow, we are overcome with the feeling that in this small corner of the atmosphere there reigns complete and utter silence ; that here in the darkness immutable tranquillity holds sway β ( p. 33 ). the mystery and ambiguity of shadows created by light are primary atmospheric conditions of interior spaces. the
Answer:
|
the air
| 0.3 |
Which would be considered exhaustible?
0. solar
1. oil
2. wind
3. water
megajoule ( mj ) of electricity produced by a hydroelectric plant is equivalent to 3 mj of oil. sunlight is a main source of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth ( fossil fuels ). natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms ( mineral fuel ). = = see also = = capital goods coefficient of performance embedded energy energy and society energy crisis energy pay - back energy resource energy source energy storage energyware entropy exergy future energy development hydrogen economy iso 14000 liquid nitrogen economy lithium economy methanol economy metal energy carriers renewable resource vegetable oil economy renewable energy = = references = = = = further reading = = european nuclear society info pool / glossary : energy carrier archived september 27, 2006, at the wayback machine our energy futures glossary : energy carriers storungsdienst, elektriker ( in german ) = = external links = = " boron : a better energy carrier than hydrogen? " paper by graham cowan iso 13600 technical energy systems - - basic concepts : gives the basic concepts needed to define and describe technical energy systems.
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. ΓΈvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
components in a wind turbine. uncertainty with the long - term component reliability has a direct impact on the amount of confidence associated with cost of energy ( coe ) estimates. = = = = solar water heating = = = = solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost - effective way to generate hot water for a home. they can be used in any climate, and the fuel they use β sunshine β is free. there are two types of solar water systems : active and passive. an active solar collector system can produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. a passive system will have a lower capacity. active solar water system's efficiency is 35 - 80 % while a passive system is 30 - 50 %, making active solar systems more powerful. there are also two types of circulation, direct circulation systems and indirect circulation systems. direct circulation systems loop the domestic water through the panels. they should not be used in climates with temperatures below freezing. indirect circulation loops glycol or some other fluid through the solar panels and uses a heat exchanger to heat up the domestic water. the two most common types of collector panels are flat - plate and evacuated - tube. the two work similarly except that evacuated tubes do not convectively lose heat, which greatly improves their efficiency ( 5 % β 25 % more efficient ). with these higher efficiencies, evacuated - tube solar collectors can also produce higher - temperature space heating, and even higher temperatures for absorption cooling systems. electric - resistance water heaters that are common in homes today have an electrical demand around 4500 kw Β· h / year. with the use of solar collectors, the energy use is cut in half. the up - front cost of installing solar collectors is high, but with the annual energy savings, payback periods are relatively short. = = = = heat pumps = = = = air source heat pumps ( ashp ) can be thought of as reversible air conditioners. like an air conditioner, an ashp can take heat from a relatively cool space ( e. g. a house at 70 Β°f ) and dump it into a hot place ( e. g. outside at 85 Β°f ). however, unlike an air conditioner, the condenser and evaporator of an ashp can switch roles and absorb heat from the cool outside air and dump it into a warm house. air - source heat pumps are inexpensive relative to other heat pump systems. as the efficiency of air - source heat pumps decline when
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
efforts to maximize solar reflectance or albedo of surfaces, with a goal of thermal emittance of 90 %. for example, increasing reflectivity from 0. 2 ( typical rooftop ) to 0. 9 is far more impactful than improving an already reflective surface, such as from 0. 9 to 0. 97. = = benefits = = studies have reported many pdrc benefits : advancing toward a carbon neutral future and achieving net - zero emissions. alleviating electrical grids and renewable energy sources from devoting electric energy to cooling. balancing the earth's energy budget. cooling human body temperatures during extreme heat. improving atmospheric water collection systems and dew harvesting techniques. improving performance of solar energy systems. mitigating energy crises. mitigating urban heat island effect. reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuel energy use devoted to cooling. reducing local and global temperature increases associated with global warming. reducing thermal pollution of water resources. reducing water consumption for wet cooling processing. = = other geoengineering approaches = = pdrc has been claimed to be more stable, adaptable, and reversible than stratospheric aerosol injection ( sai ). wang et al. claimed that sai " might cause potentially dangerous threats to the earth β s basic climate operations " that may not be reversible, and thus preferred pdrc. munday noted that although " unexpected effects will likely occur " with the global implementation of pdrc, that " these structures can be removed immediately if needed, unlike methods that involve dispersing particulate matter into the atmosphere, which can last for decades. " when compared to the reflective surfaces approach of increasing surface albedo, such as through painting roofs white, or the space mirror proposals of " deploying giant reflective surfaces in space ", munday claimed that " the increased reflectivity likely falls short of what is needed and comes at a high financial cost. " pdrc differs from the reflective surfaces approach by " increasing the radiative heat emission from the earth rather than merely decreasing its solar absorption ". = = function = = the basic measure of pdrcs is their solar reflectivity ( in 0. 4 β 2. 5 ΞΌm ) and heat emissivity ( in 8 β 13 ΞΌm ), to maximize " net emission of longwave thermal radiation " and minimize " absorption of downward shortwave radiation ". pdrcs use the infrared window ( 8 β 13 ΞΌm ) for heat transfer with the coldness of outer space ( ~ 2. 7 k )
Answer:
|
oil
| null |
Which would be considered exhaustible?
0. solar
1. oil
2. wind
3. water
megajoule ( mj ) of electricity produced by a hydroelectric plant is equivalent to 3 mj of oil. sunlight is a main source of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth ( fossil fuels ). natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms ( mineral fuel ). = = see also = = capital goods coefficient of performance embedded energy energy and society energy crisis energy pay - back energy resource energy source energy storage energyware entropy exergy future energy development hydrogen economy iso 14000 liquid nitrogen economy lithium economy methanol economy metal energy carriers renewable resource vegetable oil economy renewable energy = = references = = = = further reading = = european nuclear society info pool / glossary : energy carrier archived september 27, 2006, at the wayback machine our energy futures glossary : energy carriers storungsdienst, elektriker ( in german ) = = external links = = " boron : a better energy carrier than hydrogen? " paper by graham cowan iso 13600 technical energy systems - - basic concepts : gives the basic concepts needed to define and describe technical energy systems.
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. ΓΈvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
components in a wind turbine. uncertainty with the long - term component reliability has a direct impact on the amount of confidence associated with cost of energy ( coe ) estimates. = = = = solar water heating = = = = solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost - effective way to generate hot water for a home. they can be used in any climate, and the fuel they use β sunshine β is free. there are two types of solar water systems : active and passive. an active solar collector system can produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. a passive system will have a lower capacity. active solar water system's efficiency is 35 - 80 % while a passive system is 30 - 50 %, making active solar systems more powerful. there are also two types of circulation, direct circulation systems and indirect circulation systems. direct circulation systems loop the domestic water through the panels. they should not be used in climates with temperatures below freezing. indirect circulation loops glycol or some other fluid through the solar panels and uses a heat exchanger to heat up the domestic water. the two most common types of collector panels are flat - plate and evacuated - tube. the two work similarly except that evacuated tubes do not convectively lose heat, which greatly improves their efficiency ( 5 % β 25 % more efficient ). with these higher efficiencies, evacuated - tube solar collectors can also produce higher - temperature space heating, and even higher temperatures for absorption cooling systems. electric - resistance water heaters that are common in homes today have an electrical demand around 4500 kw Β· h / year. with the use of solar collectors, the energy use is cut in half. the up - front cost of installing solar collectors is high, but with the annual energy savings, payback periods are relatively short. = = = = heat pumps = = = = air source heat pumps ( ashp ) can be thought of as reversible air conditioners. like an air conditioner, an ashp can take heat from a relatively cool space ( e. g. a house at 70 Β°f ) and dump it into a hot place ( e. g. outside at 85 Β°f ). however, unlike an air conditioner, the condenser and evaporator of an ashp can switch roles and absorb heat from the cool outside air and dump it into a warm house. air - source heat pumps are inexpensive relative to other heat pump systems. as the efficiency of air - source heat pumps decline when
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
efforts to maximize solar reflectance or albedo of surfaces, with a goal of thermal emittance of 90 %. for example, increasing reflectivity from 0. 2 ( typical rooftop ) to 0. 9 is far more impactful than improving an already reflective surface, such as from 0. 9 to 0. 97. = = benefits = = studies have reported many pdrc benefits : advancing toward a carbon neutral future and achieving net - zero emissions. alleviating electrical grids and renewable energy sources from devoting electric energy to cooling. balancing the earth's energy budget. cooling human body temperatures during extreme heat. improving atmospheric water collection systems and dew harvesting techniques. improving performance of solar energy systems. mitigating energy crises. mitigating urban heat island effect. reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuel energy use devoted to cooling. reducing local and global temperature increases associated with global warming. reducing thermal pollution of water resources. reducing water consumption for wet cooling processing. = = other geoengineering approaches = = pdrc has been claimed to be more stable, adaptable, and reversible than stratospheric aerosol injection ( sai ). wang et al. claimed that sai " might cause potentially dangerous threats to the earth β s basic climate operations " that may not be reversible, and thus preferred pdrc. munday noted that although " unexpected effects will likely occur " with the global implementation of pdrc, that " these structures can be removed immediately if needed, unlike methods that involve dispersing particulate matter into the atmosphere, which can last for decades. " when compared to the reflective surfaces approach of increasing surface albedo, such as through painting roofs white, or the space mirror proposals of " deploying giant reflective surfaces in space ", munday claimed that " the increased reflectivity likely falls short of what is needed and comes at a high financial cost. " pdrc differs from the reflective surfaces approach by " increasing the radiative heat emission from the earth rather than merely decreasing its solar absorption ". = = function = = the basic measure of pdrcs is their solar reflectivity ( in 0. 4 β 2. 5 ΞΌm ) and heat emissivity ( in 8 β 13 ΞΌm ), to maximize " net emission of longwave thermal radiation " and minimize " absorption of downward shortwave radiation ". pdrcs use the infrared window ( 8 β 13 ΞΌm ) for heat transfer with the coldness of outer space ( ~ 2. 7 k )
Answer:
|
wind
| 0.3 |
Which likely causes the most waste?
0. a twinkie factory
1. sustainable fisheries
2. solar panels
3. a wind farm
energy is sustainable if it " meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. " definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy, and society. these impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste. renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. the role of non - renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial. nuclear power does not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the risk of accidents. switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. fossil fuels provide 85 % of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76 % of global greenhouse gas emissions. around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity, and 2. 6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. limiting global warming to 2 Β°c ( 3. 6 Β°f ) will require transforming energy production, distribution, storage, and consumption. universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries. climate change mitigation pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 Β°c ( 3. 6 Β°f ). these include phasing out coal - fired power plants, conserving energy, producing more electricity from clean sources such as wind and solar, and switching from fossil fuels to electricity for transport and heating buildings. power output from some renewable energy sources varies depending on when the wind blows and the sun shines. switching to renewable energy can therefore require electrical grid upgrades, such as the addition of energy storage. some processes that are difficult to electrify can use hydrogen fuel produced from low - emission energy sources. in the international energy agency's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35 % of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. wind and solar market share grew to 8. 5 % of worldwide electricity in 2019, and costs continue to fall. the inter
are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. human consumption does not affect their quantity. many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. some of these, such as crops, take a short time for renewal ; others, such as water, take a comparatively longer time, while others, such as forests, need even longer periods. depending upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or the total and everlasting destruction of a resource. important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource or as a subtype of renewable resources. conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long - term use of such resources is within the so - called zero ecological footprint, where humans use less than the earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. natural resources are also categorized based on distribution : ubiquitous resources are found everywhere ( for example, air, light, and water ). localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world ( for example metal ores and geothermal power ). actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows : actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them. potential resources are those of which we have insufficient knowledge or do not have the technology to exploit them at present. based on ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. = = labour or human resources = = in economics, labor or human resources refers to the human work in the production of goods and rendering of services. human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. in a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. = = capital or infrastructure = = in economics, capital goods or capital are " those durable produced goods that are in turn used as productive inputs for further production " of goods and services. a typical example is the machinery used in a factory. at the macroeconomic level, " the nation's capital stock includes buildings, equipment, software, and inventories during a given year. " capitals are the most important economic resource. = = tangible versus intangible = = whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, int
petroleum is used in vehicles. the battery supply chain includes : upstream activities include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as copper. midstream activities include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high - purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of cathodes and anodes for battery cells. lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes. downstream activities include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. the production of lithium batteries in china has nearly three times higher emissions than the us because electricity generation in china relies more on coal. end of life activities include recycling or recovery of materials when possible. disposal of spent libs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. recycling lithium - ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51. 3 % natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills. recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the lib recycling industry grows larger. when not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non - sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use. even in the recycling process, co2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how libs are disposed. recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits. = = = other components = = = evs have fewer parts than ices. on average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ice would have 200 or more. some electric vehicles motors are permanent magnet motors that require rare - earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium. production of these materials is also dominated by china and poses environmental problems. an alternative motor is the ac induction motor, which does not use these minerals but requires additional copper. these components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts. another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. used cathodes amplify the
to cleaner energy sources, implementation of stricter emission regulations, and promotion of sustainable practices to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. = = = global estimates = = = in 2010, the international resource panel published the first global scientific assessment on the impacts of consumption and production. the study found that the most critical impacts are related to ecosystem health, human health and resource depletion. from a production perspective, it found that fossil - fuel combustion processes, agriculture and fisheries have the most important impacts. meanwhile, from a final consumption perspective, it found that household consumption related to mobility, shelter, food, and energy - using products causes the majority of life - cycle impacts of consumption. according to the ipcc fifth assessment report, human consumption, with current policy, by the year 2100 will be seven times bigger than in the year 2010. = = footprint = = the idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. the term " ecological footprint " refers to the " resource accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere. " currently, china, for instance, has a per person ecological footprint roughly half the size of the us, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the us. it is estimated that if china developed to the level of the united states that world consumption rates would roughly double. other metrics have been formed to reflect different factors in calculating a country's carbon footprint. these include carbon intensity, which tracks carbon dioxide emissions per unit of gdp, of which china had 0. 37 kilograms and the us had 0. 25 kilograms in 2018, as well as consumption - based emissions, which attribute carbon emissions to the country in which a product is consumed, rather than the country in which it is produced. accounting for such also has china at a higher emissions percentage, 25 %, compared to the us's 16 %. humans, their prevailing growth of demands for livestock and other domestic animals, has added overshoot through domestic animal breeding, keeping, and consumption, especially with the environmentally destructive industrial livestock production. globalization and modernization have brought western consumer cultures to countries like china and india, including meat - intensive diets which are supplanting traditional plant - based diets. between 166 to more than 200 billion land and aquatic animals are consumed by a global population of over 7 billion annually. a 2018 study published in science postulates that meat consumption is set to increase as the result of human population growth and rising affluence, which will increase greenhouse gas emissions and
period of time or use would be considered to be planned obsolescence. the dark side of this vicious cycle is that we have no choice but to keep replacing certain products, which results in a huge amount of waste, known as e - waste. = = = affluence = = = according to a 2020 paper written by a team of scientists titled " scientists'warning on affluence ", the entrenchment of " capitalist, growth - driven economic systems " since world war ii gave rise to increasing affluence along with " enormous increases in inequality, financial instability, resource consumption and environmental pressures on vital earth support systems. " and the world's wealthiest citizens, referred to as " super - affluent consumers... which overlap with powerful fractions of the capitalist class, " are the most responsible for environmental impacts through their consumption patterns worldwide. any sustainable social and environmental pathways must include transcending paradigms fixated on economic growth and also reducing, not simply " greening ", the overconsumption of the super - affluent, the authors contend, and propose adopting either reformist policies which can be implemented within a capitalist framework such as wealth redistribution through taxation ( in particular eco - taxes ), green investments, basic income guarantees and reduced work hours to accomplish this, or looking to more radical approaches associated with degrowth, eco - socialism and eco - anarchism, which would " entail a shift beyond capitalism and / or current centralised states. " in other words, the concentration of wealth allows the affluent to shape policies that maintain consumption - driven economies, limiting systemic change. a 2020 oxfam - sei report found that the top 10 % of earners contribute over half of global carbon emissions, while the wealthiest 1 % emit more than double the poorest 50 % combined. while green technologies offer solutions, the jevons paradox suggests efficiency gains often lead to increased overall consumption rather than reductions. thus, tackling affluence - driven overconsumption requires progressive taxation on high - carbon activities, curbing luxury emissions, and shifting economic priorities from gdp growth to sustainability. without intervention, extreme resource use by the wealthiest will continue to undermine global sustainability efforts. = = effects = = a fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity. excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long - term carrying capacity of its environment ( ecological overshoot ) and subsequently cause resource depletion, environmental degradation and reduced ecosystem health. in
Answer:
|
a twinkie factory
| null |
Which likely causes the most waste?
0. a twinkie factory
1. sustainable fisheries
2. solar panels
3. a wind farm
energy is sustainable if it " meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. " definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy, and society. these impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste. renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. the role of non - renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial. nuclear power does not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the risk of accidents. switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. fossil fuels provide 85 % of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76 % of global greenhouse gas emissions. around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity, and 2. 6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. limiting global warming to 2 Β°c ( 3. 6 Β°f ) will require transforming energy production, distribution, storage, and consumption. universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries. climate change mitigation pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 Β°c ( 3. 6 Β°f ). these include phasing out coal - fired power plants, conserving energy, producing more electricity from clean sources such as wind and solar, and switching from fossil fuels to electricity for transport and heating buildings. power output from some renewable energy sources varies depending on when the wind blows and the sun shines. switching to renewable energy can therefore require electrical grid upgrades, such as the addition of energy storage. some processes that are difficult to electrify can use hydrogen fuel produced from low - emission energy sources. in the international energy agency's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35 % of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. wind and solar market share grew to 8. 5 % of worldwide electricity in 2019, and costs continue to fall. the inter
are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. human consumption does not affect their quantity. many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. some of these, such as crops, take a short time for renewal ; others, such as water, take a comparatively longer time, while others, such as forests, need even longer periods. depending upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or the total and everlasting destruction of a resource. important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource or as a subtype of renewable resources. conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long - term use of such resources is within the so - called zero ecological footprint, where humans use less than the earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. natural resources are also categorized based on distribution : ubiquitous resources are found everywhere ( for example, air, light, and water ). localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world ( for example metal ores and geothermal power ). actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows : actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them. potential resources are those of which we have insufficient knowledge or do not have the technology to exploit them at present. based on ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. = = labour or human resources = = in economics, labor or human resources refers to the human work in the production of goods and rendering of services. human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. in a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. = = capital or infrastructure = = in economics, capital goods or capital are " those durable produced goods that are in turn used as productive inputs for further production " of goods and services. a typical example is the machinery used in a factory. at the macroeconomic level, " the nation's capital stock includes buildings, equipment, software, and inventories during a given year. " capitals are the most important economic resource. = = tangible versus intangible = = whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, int
petroleum is used in vehicles. the battery supply chain includes : upstream activities include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as copper. midstream activities include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high - purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of cathodes and anodes for battery cells. lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes. downstream activities include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. the production of lithium batteries in china has nearly three times higher emissions than the us because electricity generation in china relies more on coal. end of life activities include recycling or recovery of materials when possible. disposal of spent libs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. recycling lithium - ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51. 3 % natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills. recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the lib recycling industry grows larger. when not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non - sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use. even in the recycling process, co2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how libs are disposed. recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits. = = = other components = = = evs have fewer parts than ices. on average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ice would have 200 or more. some electric vehicles motors are permanent magnet motors that require rare - earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium. production of these materials is also dominated by china and poses environmental problems. an alternative motor is the ac induction motor, which does not use these minerals but requires additional copper. these components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts. another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. used cathodes amplify the
to cleaner energy sources, implementation of stricter emission regulations, and promotion of sustainable practices to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. = = = global estimates = = = in 2010, the international resource panel published the first global scientific assessment on the impacts of consumption and production. the study found that the most critical impacts are related to ecosystem health, human health and resource depletion. from a production perspective, it found that fossil - fuel combustion processes, agriculture and fisheries have the most important impacts. meanwhile, from a final consumption perspective, it found that household consumption related to mobility, shelter, food, and energy - using products causes the majority of life - cycle impacts of consumption. according to the ipcc fifth assessment report, human consumption, with current policy, by the year 2100 will be seven times bigger than in the year 2010. = = footprint = = the idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. the term " ecological footprint " refers to the " resource accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere. " currently, china, for instance, has a per person ecological footprint roughly half the size of the us, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the us. it is estimated that if china developed to the level of the united states that world consumption rates would roughly double. other metrics have been formed to reflect different factors in calculating a country's carbon footprint. these include carbon intensity, which tracks carbon dioxide emissions per unit of gdp, of which china had 0. 37 kilograms and the us had 0. 25 kilograms in 2018, as well as consumption - based emissions, which attribute carbon emissions to the country in which a product is consumed, rather than the country in which it is produced. accounting for such also has china at a higher emissions percentage, 25 %, compared to the us's 16 %. humans, their prevailing growth of demands for livestock and other domestic animals, has added overshoot through domestic animal breeding, keeping, and consumption, especially with the environmentally destructive industrial livestock production. globalization and modernization have brought western consumer cultures to countries like china and india, including meat - intensive diets which are supplanting traditional plant - based diets. between 166 to more than 200 billion land and aquatic animals are consumed by a global population of over 7 billion annually. a 2018 study published in science postulates that meat consumption is set to increase as the result of human population growth and rising affluence, which will increase greenhouse gas emissions and
period of time or use would be considered to be planned obsolescence. the dark side of this vicious cycle is that we have no choice but to keep replacing certain products, which results in a huge amount of waste, known as e - waste. = = = affluence = = = according to a 2020 paper written by a team of scientists titled " scientists'warning on affluence ", the entrenchment of " capitalist, growth - driven economic systems " since world war ii gave rise to increasing affluence along with " enormous increases in inequality, financial instability, resource consumption and environmental pressures on vital earth support systems. " and the world's wealthiest citizens, referred to as " super - affluent consumers... which overlap with powerful fractions of the capitalist class, " are the most responsible for environmental impacts through their consumption patterns worldwide. any sustainable social and environmental pathways must include transcending paradigms fixated on economic growth and also reducing, not simply " greening ", the overconsumption of the super - affluent, the authors contend, and propose adopting either reformist policies which can be implemented within a capitalist framework such as wealth redistribution through taxation ( in particular eco - taxes ), green investments, basic income guarantees and reduced work hours to accomplish this, or looking to more radical approaches associated with degrowth, eco - socialism and eco - anarchism, which would " entail a shift beyond capitalism and / or current centralised states. " in other words, the concentration of wealth allows the affluent to shape policies that maintain consumption - driven economies, limiting systemic change. a 2020 oxfam - sei report found that the top 10 % of earners contribute over half of global carbon emissions, while the wealthiest 1 % emit more than double the poorest 50 % combined. while green technologies offer solutions, the jevons paradox suggests efficiency gains often lead to increased overall consumption rather than reductions. thus, tackling affluence - driven overconsumption requires progressive taxation on high - carbon activities, curbing luxury emissions, and shifting economic priorities from gdp growth to sustainability. without intervention, extreme resource use by the wealthiest will continue to undermine global sustainability efforts. = = effects = = a fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity. excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long - term carrying capacity of its environment ( ecological overshoot ) and subsequently cause resource depletion, environmental degradation and reduced ecosystem health. in
Answer:
|
solar panels
| 0.3 |
Sunrises in January are
0. late
1. green
2. old
3. early
in phenology, season creep refers to observed changes in the timing of the seasons, such as earlier indications of spring widely observed in temperate areas across the northern hemisphere. phenological records analyzed by climate scientists have shown significant temporal trends in the observed time of seasonal events, from the end of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century. in europe, season creep has been associated with the arrival of spring moving up by approximately one week in a recent 30 - year period. other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2 β 3 days per decade advancement in spring, and 0. 3 β 1. 6 days per decade delay in autumn, over the past 30 β 80 years. observable changes in nature related to season creep include birds laying their eggs earlier and buds appearing on some trees in late winter. in addition to advanced budding, flowering trees have been blooming earlier, for example the culturally - important cherry blossoms in japan, and washington, d. c. northern hardwood forests have been trending toward leafing out sooner, and retaining their green canopies longer. the agricultural growing season has also expanded by 10 β 20 days over the last few decades. the effects of season creep have been noted by non - scientists as well, including gardeners who have advanced their spring planting times, and experimented with plantings of less hardy warmer climate varieties of non - native plants. while summer growing seasons are expanding, winters are getting warmer and shorter, resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water, earlier ice - out, earlier melt water flows, and earlier spring lake level peaks. some spring events, or " phenophases ", have become intermittent or unobservable ; for example, bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently, and formerly migratory birds are now seen year - round in some areas. = = relationship to global warming = = the full impact of global warming is forecast to happen in the future, but climate scientists have cited season creep as an easily observable effect of climate change that has already occurred and continues to occur. a large systematic phenological examination of data on 542 plant species in 21 european countries from 1971 β 2000 showed that 78 % of all leafing, flowering, and fruiting records advanced while only 3 % were significantly delayed, and these observations were consistent with measurements of observed warming. similar changes in the phenology of plants and animals are occurring across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial groups studied
the sunrise problem can be expressed as follows : " what is the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow? " the sunrise problem illustrates the difficulty of using probability theory when evaluating the plausibility of statements or beliefs. according to the bayesian interpretation of probability, probability theory can be used to evaluate the plausibility of the statement, " the sun will rise tomorrow. " the sunrise problem was first introduced publicly in 1763 by richard price in his famous coverage of thomas bayes'foundational work in bayesianism. = = laplace's approach = = pierre - simon laplace, who treated it by means of his rule of succession. let p be the long - run frequency of sunrises, i. e., the sun rises on 100 Γ p % of days. prior to knowing of any sunrises, one is completely ignorant of the value of p. laplace represented this prior ignorance by means of a uniform probability distribution on p. for instance, the probability that p is between 20 % and 50 % is just 30 %. this must not be interpreted to mean that in 30 % of all cases, p is between 20 % and 50 %. rather, it means that one's state of knowledge ( or ignorance ) justifies one in being 30 % sure that the sun rises between 20 % of the time and 50 % of the time. given the value of p, and no other information relevant to the question of whether the sun will rise tomorrow, the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow is p. but we are not " given the value of p ". what we are given is the observed data : the sun has risen every day on record. laplace inferred the number of days by saying that the universe was created about 6000 years ago, based on a young - earth creationist reading of the bible. to find the conditional probability distribution of p given the data, one uses bayes'theorem, which some call the bayes β laplace rule. having found the conditional probability distribution of p given the data, one may then calculate the conditional probability, given the data, that the sun will rise tomorrow. that conditional probability is given by the rule of succession. the plausibility that the sun will rise tomorrow increases with the number of days on which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p,
in meteorology, a singularity is a weather phenomenon likely to occur with reasonable regularity around a specific approximate calendar date, outside of more general seasonal weather patterns ( e. g., that may day is usually warmer than new year's day in northern locales ). the existence of singularities is disputed, some considering them due to seeing patterns in noise and statistical artifacts from small samples. in north america, the most significant purported singularities are january thaw ( warmer weather around january 25 ) and indian summer ( warmer weather in mid - autumn ). more fanciful ones include the british tradition that rain on st. swithun's day ( 15 july ) will be followed by forty days and nights of rain, and similar folk beliefs around groundhog day. = = studies = = although folk tales such as st swithun's day generally have little credibility, some of these events have a more solid basis. early scientific investigation involved the creation of calendars of singularities based on temperature and rainfall anomalies. later and more successful work by hubert lamb of the climatic research unit was based on air circulation patterns. lamb's work analysed the daily frequency of airflow categories between 1898 and 1947. similar work was carried out by flohn and hess in central europe based on analysis of air flows from 1881 to 1947. a 1955 study by liverpool observatory and tidal institute analysed maximum daily temperatures at a single location from 1900 to 1953. this found problems when attempting to demonstrate the statistical significance of apparent temperature anomalies. in the 1950s, e. g. bowen suggested that some rainfall calendar cities might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory received support from a number of sources. however, such work has now fallen out of favour due to modern dynamic modelling techniques, although articles are still being written reflecting an interest in the topic. = = references = = = = external links = = singularities developed for the british isles " calendar of uk weather singularities ". metcheck. com.
seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum daylight ( i. e. the summer solstice ). this also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after the date of minimum insolation. cultural seasons are often aligned with annual temperature cycles, especially in the agrarian context. peak agricultural growth often depends on both insolation levels and soil / air temperature. rainfall patterns are also tied to temperature cycles, with warmer air able to hold more water vapor than cold air. in most northern hemisphere regions, the month of february is usually colder than the month of november despite february having significantly later sunsets and more daylight overall. conversely, the month of august is usually hotter than the month of may despite august having later sunrises, increasingly earlier sunsets, and less daylight overall. the fall equinox ( september 21 β 23 ) is typically much warmer than the spring equinox ( march 19 β 21 ), despite the two receiving identical amounts of sunlight. in all cases, the change in average air temperature lags behind the more consistent change in daylight patterns β delaying the perceived start of the next season for a month or so. an analogous temperature lag phenomenon occurs in diurnal temperature variation, where maximum daily temperature occurs several hours after noon ( maximum insolation ), and minimum temperature usually occurs just before dawn β well past midnight. both effects are manifestations of the general physical phenomenon of thermal inertia. = = on earth = = earth's seasonal lag is largely caused by the presence of large amounts of water, which has a high latent heat of freezing and of condensation. the length of seasonal lag varies between different climates. extremes range from as little as 15 β 20 days for polar regions in summer, as well as continental interiors, for example fairbanks, alaska, where annual average warmest temperatures occur in early july, and august is notably cooler than june, to 2 β 3 months in oceanic locales, whether in low latitudes, as in miami, florida or higher latitudes as in the kuril islands ( where at simushir annual average temperatures peak in late august ), and at cape sable island in nova scotia, canada, where ( by a slight margin ) september is actually the year's warmest month on average. in mid - latitude continental climates, it is approximately 20 β 25 days in winter and 25 β 35 days in summer. august
which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p, the desired conditional probability is : pr ( sun rises tomorrow it has risen k times previously ) = 0 1 p k + 1 d p 0 1 p k d p = k + 1 k + 2. { \ displaystyle \ pr ( { \ text { sun rises tomorrow } } \ mid { \ text { it has risen } } k { \ text { times previously } } ) = { \ frac { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k + 1 } \, dp } { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k } \, dp } } = { \ frac { k + 1 } { k + 2 } }. } by this formula, if one has observed the sun rising 10000 times previously, the probability it rises the next day is 10001 / 10002 β 0. 99990002 { \ displaystyle 10001 / 10002 \ approx 0. 99990002 }. expressed as a percentage, this is approximately a 99. 990002 % { \ displaystyle 99. 990002 \ % } chance. however, laplace recognized this to be a misapplication of the rule of succession through not taking into account all the prior information available immediately after deriving the result : but this number [ the probability of the sun coming up tomorrow ] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at present moment can arrest the course of it. e. t. jaynes noted that laplace's warning had gone unheeded by workers in the field. a reference class problem arises : the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth. a consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement. in bayesianism, any probability is a conditional probability given what one knows. that varies from one person to another. = = see also = = rule of succession problem of induction doomsday argument : a similar problem that raises intense philosophical debate newcomb's paradox unsolved problems in statistics additive smoothing ( also called laplace smoothing )
Answer:
|
late
| null |
Sunrises in January are
0. late
1. green
2. old
3. early
in phenology, season creep refers to observed changes in the timing of the seasons, such as earlier indications of spring widely observed in temperate areas across the northern hemisphere. phenological records analyzed by climate scientists have shown significant temporal trends in the observed time of seasonal events, from the end of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century. in europe, season creep has been associated with the arrival of spring moving up by approximately one week in a recent 30 - year period. other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2 β 3 days per decade advancement in spring, and 0. 3 β 1. 6 days per decade delay in autumn, over the past 30 β 80 years. observable changes in nature related to season creep include birds laying their eggs earlier and buds appearing on some trees in late winter. in addition to advanced budding, flowering trees have been blooming earlier, for example the culturally - important cherry blossoms in japan, and washington, d. c. northern hardwood forests have been trending toward leafing out sooner, and retaining their green canopies longer. the agricultural growing season has also expanded by 10 β 20 days over the last few decades. the effects of season creep have been noted by non - scientists as well, including gardeners who have advanced their spring planting times, and experimented with plantings of less hardy warmer climate varieties of non - native plants. while summer growing seasons are expanding, winters are getting warmer and shorter, resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water, earlier ice - out, earlier melt water flows, and earlier spring lake level peaks. some spring events, or " phenophases ", have become intermittent or unobservable ; for example, bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently, and formerly migratory birds are now seen year - round in some areas. = = relationship to global warming = = the full impact of global warming is forecast to happen in the future, but climate scientists have cited season creep as an easily observable effect of climate change that has already occurred and continues to occur. a large systematic phenological examination of data on 542 plant species in 21 european countries from 1971 β 2000 showed that 78 % of all leafing, flowering, and fruiting records advanced while only 3 % were significantly delayed, and these observations were consistent with measurements of observed warming. similar changes in the phenology of plants and animals are occurring across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial groups studied
the sunrise problem can be expressed as follows : " what is the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow? " the sunrise problem illustrates the difficulty of using probability theory when evaluating the plausibility of statements or beliefs. according to the bayesian interpretation of probability, probability theory can be used to evaluate the plausibility of the statement, " the sun will rise tomorrow. " the sunrise problem was first introduced publicly in 1763 by richard price in his famous coverage of thomas bayes'foundational work in bayesianism. = = laplace's approach = = pierre - simon laplace, who treated it by means of his rule of succession. let p be the long - run frequency of sunrises, i. e., the sun rises on 100 Γ p % of days. prior to knowing of any sunrises, one is completely ignorant of the value of p. laplace represented this prior ignorance by means of a uniform probability distribution on p. for instance, the probability that p is between 20 % and 50 % is just 30 %. this must not be interpreted to mean that in 30 % of all cases, p is between 20 % and 50 %. rather, it means that one's state of knowledge ( or ignorance ) justifies one in being 30 % sure that the sun rises between 20 % of the time and 50 % of the time. given the value of p, and no other information relevant to the question of whether the sun will rise tomorrow, the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow is p. but we are not " given the value of p ". what we are given is the observed data : the sun has risen every day on record. laplace inferred the number of days by saying that the universe was created about 6000 years ago, based on a young - earth creationist reading of the bible. to find the conditional probability distribution of p given the data, one uses bayes'theorem, which some call the bayes β laplace rule. having found the conditional probability distribution of p given the data, one may then calculate the conditional probability, given the data, that the sun will rise tomorrow. that conditional probability is given by the rule of succession. the plausibility that the sun will rise tomorrow increases with the number of days on which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p,
in meteorology, a singularity is a weather phenomenon likely to occur with reasonable regularity around a specific approximate calendar date, outside of more general seasonal weather patterns ( e. g., that may day is usually warmer than new year's day in northern locales ). the existence of singularities is disputed, some considering them due to seeing patterns in noise and statistical artifacts from small samples. in north america, the most significant purported singularities are january thaw ( warmer weather around january 25 ) and indian summer ( warmer weather in mid - autumn ). more fanciful ones include the british tradition that rain on st. swithun's day ( 15 july ) will be followed by forty days and nights of rain, and similar folk beliefs around groundhog day. = = studies = = although folk tales such as st swithun's day generally have little credibility, some of these events have a more solid basis. early scientific investigation involved the creation of calendars of singularities based on temperature and rainfall anomalies. later and more successful work by hubert lamb of the climatic research unit was based on air circulation patterns. lamb's work analysed the daily frequency of airflow categories between 1898 and 1947. similar work was carried out by flohn and hess in central europe based on analysis of air flows from 1881 to 1947. a 1955 study by liverpool observatory and tidal institute analysed maximum daily temperatures at a single location from 1900 to 1953. this found problems when attempting to demonstrate the statistical significance of apparent temperature anomalies. in the 1950s, e. g. bowen suggested that some rainfall calendar cities might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory received support from a number of sources. however, such work has now fallen out of favour due to modern dynamic modelling techniques, although articles are still being written reflecting an interest in the topic. = = references = = = = external links = = singularities developed for the british isles " calendar of uk weather singularities ". metcheck. com.
seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum daylight ( i. e. the summer solstice ). this also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after the date of minimum insolation. cultural seasons are often aligned with annual temperature cycles, especially in the agrarian context. peak agricultural growth often depends on both insolation levels and soil / air temperature. rainfall patterns are also tied to temperature cycles, with warmer air able to hold more water vapor than cold air. in most northern hemisphere regions, the month of february is usually colder than the month of november despite february having significantly later sunsets and more daylight overall. conversely, the month of august is usually hotter than the month of may despite august having later sunrises, increasingly earlier sunsets, and less daylight overall. the fall equinox ( september 21 β 23 ) is typically much warmer than the spring equinox ( march 19 β 21 ), despite the two receiving identical amounts of sunlight. in all cases, the change in average air temperature lags behind the more consistent change in daylight patterns β delaying the perceived start of the next season for a month or so. an analogous temperature lag phenomenon occurs in diurnal temperature variation, where maximum daily temperature occurs several hours after noon ( maximum insolation ), and minimum temperature usually occurs just before dawn β well past midnight. both effects are manifestations of the general physical phenomenon of thermal inertia. = = on earth = = earth's seasonal lag is largely caused by the presence of large amounts of water, which has a high latent heat of freezing and of condensation. the length of seasonal lag varies between different climates. extremes range from as little as 15 β 20 days for polar regions in summer, as well as continental interiors, for example fairbanks, alaska, where annual average warmest temperatures occur in early july, and august is notably cooler than june, to 2 β 3 months in oceanic locales, whether in low latitudes, as in miami, florida or higher latitudes as in the kuril islands ( where at simushir annual average temperatures peak in late august ), and at cape sable island in nova scotia, canada, where ( by a slight margin ) september is actually the year's warmest month on average. in mid - latitude continental climates, it is approximately 20 β 25 days in winter and 25 β 35 days in summer. august
which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p, the desired conditional probability is : pr ( sun rises tomorrow it has risen k times previously ) = 0 1 p k + 1 d p 0 1 p k d p = k + 1 k + 2. { \ displaystyle \ pr ( { \ text { sun rises tomorrow } } \ mid { \ text { it has risen } } k { \ text { times previously } } ) = { \ frac { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k + 1 } \, dp } { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k } \, dp } } = { \ frac { k + 1 } { k + 2 } }. } by this formula, if one has observed the sun rising 10000 times previously, the probability it rises the next day is 10001 / 10002 β 0. 99990002 { \ displaystyle 10001 / 10002 \ approx 0. 99990002 }. expressed as a percentage, this is approximately a 99. 990002 % { \ displaystyle 99. 990002 \ % } chance. however, laplace recognized this to be a misapplication of the rule of succession through not taking into account all the prior information available immediately after deriving the result : but this number [ the probability of the sun coming up tomorrow ] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at present moment can arrest the course of it. e. t. jaynes noted that laplace's warning had gone unheeded by workers in the field. a reference class problem arises : the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth. a consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement. in bayesianism, any probability is a conditional probability given what one knows. that varies from one person to another. = = see also = = rule of succession problem of induction doomsday argument : a similar problem that raises intense philosophical debate newcomb's paradox unsolved problems in statistics additive smoothing ( also called laplace smoothing )
Answer:
|
green
| 0.3 |
There's more time to go for walks when
0. it's winter
1. owls are hunting
2. it's summer
3. there's an evacuation
a desire path, also known as desire line in transportation planning and many other names, is an unplanned small trail formed by erosion caused by human or animal traffic. the path usually represents the shortest or the most easily navigated route between an origin and destination, and the width and severity of its surface erosion are often indicators of the traffic level it receives. an early documented example is broadway in new york city, which follows the wecquaesgeek trail which predates american colonization. desire paths typically emerge as convenient shortcuts where more deliberately constructed paths take a longer or more circuitous route, have gaps, or are non - existent. once a path has been trodden out through the natural vegetation, subsequent traffic tends to follow that visibly existing route ( as it is more convenient than carving out a new path by oneself ), and the repeated trampling will further erode away both the remaining groundcover and the soil quality that allows easy revegetation. eventually, a clearly visible and easily passable path emerges that humans and animals alike tend to prefer. = = parks and nature areas = = desire paths sometimes cut through sensitive habitats and exclusion zones, threatening wildlife and park security. however, they also provide park management with an indicator of activity concentration. in yosemite national park, the national park service uses these indicators to help guide its management plan. trampling studies have consistently documented that impacts on soil and vegetation occur rapidly with initial use of desire paths. as few as 15 passages over a site can be enough to create a distinct trail, the existence of which then attracts further use. : 27 this finding contributed to the creation of the leave no trace education program, which instructs travelers in nature areas to either stay on designated trails or, when off trail, distribute their travel lines so as to not inadvertently create new trails in unsustainable locations. land managers have devised a variety of techniques to block the creation of desire paths, including fences, dense vegetation, and signage, though none are foolproof. modern trail design attempts to avoid the need for barriers and restrictions, by aligning trail layout and user desire through physical design and persuasive outreach. : 16 = = = accommodation = = = landscapers sometimes accommodate desire paths by paving them, thereby integrating them into the official path network rather than blocking them. sometimes, land planners have deliberately left land fully or partially unpathed, waiting to see what desire paths are created, and then paving those. in finland, planners are known to visit
, jonathan banks, policy director for clear the air, introduced the term as follows : while to some, an early arrival of spring may sound good, an imbalance in the ecosystem can wreak havoc. natural processes like flowers blooming, birds nesting, insects emerging, and ice melting are triggered in large part by temperature. as temperatures increase globally, the delicately balanced system begins to fall into ecological disarray. we call this season creep. = = see also = = orbital forcing climate change and birds phenological mismatch = = other uses = = the term " season creep " has been applied in other contexts as well : in professional sports, season creep refers to lengthening of the playing season, especially the extension of the mlb season to 162 games. in college athletics, season creep refers to longer periods athletes spend training in their sport. in american politics, campaign season creep refers to the need for candidates to start fund raising activities sooner. a related concept, the permanent campaign, refers to the blurring boundaries between " campaign season " and the normal time spent governing. in retailing, holiday season creep, also known as christmas creep refers to the earlier appearance of christmas - themed merchandising, extending the holiday shopping season. = = references = =
trips in arctic foxes last less than 3 days and occur between 0 β 2. 9 times a month. nomadism is found in 3. 4 % of the foxes, and loop migrations ( where the fox travels to a new range, then returns to its home range ) are the least common at 1. 1 %. arctic foxes in canada that undergo nomadism and migrations voyage from the canadian archipelago to greenland and northwestern canada. the duration and distance traveled between males and females is not significantly different. arctic foxes closer to goose colonies ( located at the coasts ) are less likely to migrate. meanwhile, foxes experiencing low - density lemming populations are more likely to make sea ice trips. residency is common in the arctic fox population so that they can maintain their territories. migratory foxes have a mortality rate > 3 times higher than resident foxes. nomadic behavior becomes more common as the foxes age. in july 2019, the norwegian polar institute reported the story of a yearling female which was fitted with a gps tracking device and then released by their researchers on the east coast of spitsbergen in the svalbard group of islands. the young fox crossed the polar ice from the islands to greenland in 21 days, a distance of 1, 512 km ( 940 mi ). she then moved on to ellesmere island in northern canada, covering a total recorded distance of 3, 506 km ( 2, 179 mi ) in 76 days, before her gps tracker stopped working. she averaged just over 46 km ( 29 mi ) a day, and managed as much as 155 km ( 96 mi ) in a single day. = = conservation status = = the arctic fox has been assessed as least concern on the iucn red list since 2004. however, the scandinavian mainland population is acutely endangered, despite being legally protected from hunting and persecution for several decades. the estimate of the adult population in all of norway, sweden, and finland is fewer than 200 individuals. of these, especially in finland, the arctic fox is even classified as critically endangered, because even though the animal was declared a protected species in finland in 1940, the population has not recovered despite that. as a result, the populations of arctic fox have been carefully studied and inventoried in places such as the vindelfjallens nature reserve ( sweden ), which has the arctic fox as its symbol. the abundance of the arctic fox tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings and voles ( a 3 - to 4 - year cycle ). the
types ( in botswana, south africa ) over a span of two years. the results of the study indicated that elephants tended to move through unprotected areas more quickly, spending less time in those areas. using vehicular traffic as a measure of human activity, the study indicated that elephant presence was higher during times when human activity was at a minimum. it was determined that β formal protection and designation of urban corridors by the relevant governing bodies would facilitate coexistence between people and wildlife at small spatial scales. β however, the only way this co - existence could be feasible is by creating structural connectivity ( and thus promoting functional connectivity ) by implementing proper wildlife corridors that facilitate easy movement between habitat patches. the usage of green infrastructure that is connected to natural habitats has been shown to reap greater biodiversity benefits than gi implemented in areas far from natural habitats. gi close to natural areas may also increase functional connectivity in natural environments. roadkill mitigation in the united states, roadkill takes the lives of hundreds of thousands to hundreds of millions of mammals, birds and amphibians each year. roadkill mortality has detrimental effects on the persistence probability, abundance and genetic diversity of wildlife populations ( more so than reduced movement through habitat patches ). roadkill also has an effect on driver safety. if green areas cannot be reserved, the presence of wildlife habitats in close proximity to urban roads must be addressed. the optimal situation would be to avoid constructing roads next to these natural habitats, but other preventative measures can be pursued to reduce animal mortality. one way these effects could be mitigated is through implementation of wildlife fencing in prioritized areas. many countries utilize underpasses and overpasses combined with wildlife fencing to reduce roadkill mortality in an attempt to restore habitat connectivity. it is unrealistic to try to fence entire road networks because of financial constraints. therefore, areas in which the highest rates of mortality occur should be focused on. = = = indigenous knowledge = = = urban sprawl is one of many ways that indigenous people's land is taken and developed in cities of the global north, thus the intimate knowledge of the native area ( ecology ) is often lost due to the effects of colonization or because the land has been majorly altered. urban development occurs around areas where indigenous peoples lived as these areas are easy for transport and the natural environmental is fruitful. when developing areas of urban land, consideration should go towards the intimate levels of knowledge held by indigenous peoples and the biocultural and linguistic diversity of the place. urban ecology follows
required the feathers of approximately 70, 000 adult mamo birds, illustrating a staggering scale of resource extraction that ultimately contributed to its extinction. this instance underscores how cultural traditions and their associated demands can sometimes precipitate the overexploitation of a species to the brink of extinction. similarly, the story of the dodo bird from mauritius provides another clear example of overexploitation. the dodo, a flightless bird, exhibited a lack of fear toward predators, including humans, making it exceptionally vulnerable to hunting. the dodo's naivety and the absence of natural defenses against human hunters and introduced species led to its rapid extinction. this case offers insight into how certain species, particularly those isolated on islands, can be disproportionately affected by human activities due to their evolutionary adaptations. hunting has long been a vital human activity for survival, providing food, clothing, and tools. however, the history of hunting also includes episodes of overexploitation, particularly in the form of overhunting. the overkill hypothesis, which addresses the quaternary extinction events, explains the relatively rapid extinction of megafauna. this hypothesis suggests that these extinctions were closely linked to human migration and population growth. one of the most compelling pieces of evidence supporting this theory is that approximately 80 % of north american large mammal species disappeared within just approximately a thousand years of humans arriving in the western hemisphere. this rapid disappearance indicates a significant impact of human activity on these species, underscoring the profound influence humans have had on their environment throughout history. the fastest - ever recorded extinction of megafauna occurred in new zealand. by 1500 ad, a mere 200 years after the first human settlements, ten species of the giant moa birds were driven to extinction by the maori. this rapid extinction underscores the significant impact humans can have on native wildlife, especially in isolated ecosystems like new zealand. the maori, relying on the moa as a primary food source and for resources such as feathers and bones, hunted these birds extensively. the moa's inability to fly and their size, which made them easier targets, contributed to their rapid decline. this event serves as a cautionary tale about the delicate balance between human activity and biodiversity and highlights the potential consequences of over - hunting and habitat destruction. a second wave of extinctions occurred later with european settlement. this period marked significant ecological disruption, largely due to the introduction of new species and land - use changes. european settlers brought with them animals such as rats, cats
Answer:
|
it's summer
| null |
There's more time to go for walks when
0. it's winter
1. owls are hunting
2. it's summer
3. there's an evacuation
a desire path, also known as desire line in transportation planning and many other names, is an unplanned small trail formed by erosion caused by human or animal traffic. the path usually represents the shortest or the most easily navigated route between an origin and destination, and the width and severity of its surface erosion are often indicators of the traffic level it receives. an early documented example is broadway in new york city, which follows the wecquaesgeek trail which predates american colonization. desire paths typically emerge as convenient shortcuts where more deliberately constructed paths take a longer or more circuitous route, have gaps, or are non - existent. once a path has been trodden out through the natural vegetation, subsequent traffic tends to follow that visibly existing route ( as it is more convenient than carving out a new path by oneself ), and the repeated trampling will further erode away both the remaining groundcover and the soil quality that allows easy revegetation. eventually, a clearly visible and easily passable path emerges that humans and animals alike tend to prefer. = = parks and nature areas = = desire paths sometimes cut through sensitive habitats and exclusion zones, threatening wildlife and park security. however, they also provide park management with an indicator of activity concentration. in yosemite national park, the national park service uses these indicators to help guide its management plan. trampling studies have consistently documented that impacts on soil and vegetation occur rapidly with initial use of desire paths. as few as 15 passages over a site can be enough to create a distinct trail, the existence of which then attracts further use. : 27 this finding contributed to the creation of the leave no trace education program, which instructs travelers in nature areas to either stay on designated trails or, when off trail, distribute their travel lines so as to not inadvertently create new trails in unsustainable locations. land managers have devised a variety of techniques to block the creation of desire paths, including fences, dense vegetation, and signage, though none are foolproof. modern trail design attempts to avoid the need for barriers and restrictions, by aligning trail layout and user desire through physical design and persuasive outreach. : 16 = = = accommodation = = = landscapers sometimes accommodate desire paths by paving them, thereby integrating them into the official path network rather than blocking them. sometimes, land planners have deliberately left land fully or partially unpathed, waiting to see what desire paths are created, and then paving those. in finland, planners are known to visit
, jonathan banks, policy director for clear the air, introduced the term as follows : while to some, an early arrival of spring may sound good, an imbalance in the ecosystem can wreak havoc. natural processes like flowers blooming, birds nesting, insects emerging, and ice melting are triggered in large part by temperature. as temperatures increase globally, the delicately balanced system begins to fall into ecological disarray. we call this season creep. = = see also = = orbital forcing climate change and birds phenological mismatch = = other uses = = the term " season creep " has been applied in other contexts as well : in professional sports, season creep refers to lengthening of the playing season, especially the extension of the mlb season to 162 games. in college athletics, season creep refers to longer periods athletes spend training in their sport. in american politics, campaign season creep refers to the need for candidates to start fund raising activities sooner. a related concept, the permanent campaign, refers to the blurring boundaries between " campaign season " and the normal time spent governing. in retailing, holiday season creep, also known as christmas creep refers to the earlier appearance of christmas - themed merchandising, extending the holiday shopping season. = = references = =
trips in arctic foxes last less than 3 days and occur between 0 β 2. 9 times a month. nomadism is found in 3. 4 % of the foxes, and loop migrations ( where the fox travels to a new range, then returns to its home range ) are the least common at 1. 1 %. arctic foxes in canada that undergo nomadism and migrations voyage from the canadian archipelago to greenland and northwestern canada. the duration and distance traveled between males and females is not significantly different. arctic foxes closer to goose colonies ( located at the coasts ) are less likely to migrate. meanwhile, foxes experiencing low - density lemming populations are more likely to make sea ice trips. residency is common in the arctic fox population so that they can maintain their territories. migratory foxes have a mortality rate > 3 times higher than resident foxes. nomadic behavior becomes more common as the foxes age. in july 2019, the norwegian polar institute reported the story of a yearling female which was fitted with a gps tracking device and then released by their researchers on the east coast of spitsbergen in the svalbard group of islands. the young fox crossed the polar ice from the islands to greenland in 21 days, a distance of 1, 512 km ( 940 mi ). she then moved on to ellesmere island in northern canada, covering a total recorded distance of 3, 506 km ( 2, 179 mi ) in 76 days, before her gps tracker stopped working. she averaged just over 46 km ( 29 mi ) a day, and managed as much as 155 km ( 96 mi ) in a single day. = = conservation status = = the arctic fox has been assessed as least concern on the iucn red list since 2004. however, the scandinavian mainland population is acutely endangered, despite being legally protected from hunting and persecution for several decades. the estimate of the adult population in all of norway, sweden, and finland is fewer than 200 individuals. of these, especially in finland, the arctic fox is even classified as critically endangered, because even though the animal was declared a protected species in finland in 1940, the population has not recovered despite that. as a result, the populations of arctic fox have been carefully studied and inventoried in places such as the vindelfjallens nature reserve ( sweden ), which has the arctic fox as its symbol. the abundance of the arctic fox tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings and voles ( a 3 - to 4 - year cycle ). the
types ( in botswana, south africa ) over a span of two years. the results of the study indicated that elephants tended to move through unprotected areas more quickly, spending less time in those areas. using vehicular traffic as a measure of human activity, the study indicated that elephant presence was higher during times when human activity was at a minimum. it was determined that β formal protection and designation of urban corridors by the relevant governing bodies would facilitate coexistence between people and wildlife at small spatial scales. β however, the only way this co - existence could be feasible is by creating structural connectivity ( and thus promoting functional connectivity ) by implementing proper wildlife corridors that facilitate easy movement between habitat patches. the usage of green infrastructure that is connected to natural habitats has been shown to reap greater biodiversity benefits than gi implemented in areas far from natural habitats. gi close to natural areas may also increase functional connectivity in natural environments. roadkill mitigation in the united states, roadkill takes the lives of hundreds of thousands to hundreds of millions of mammals, birds and amphibians each year. roadkill mortality has detrimental effects on the persistence probability, abundance and genetic diversity of wildlife populations ( more so than reduced movement through habitat patches ). roadkill also has an effect on driver safety. if green areas cannot be reserved, the presence of wildlife habitats in close proximity to urban roads must be addressed. the optimal situation would be to avoid constructing roads next to these natural habitats, but other preventative measures can be pursued to reduce animal mortality. one way these effects could be mitigated is through implementation of wildlife fencing in prioritized areas. many countries utilize underpasses and overpasses combined with wildlife fencing to reduce roadkill mortality in an attempt to restore habitat connectivity. it is unrealistic to try to fence entire road networks because of financial constraints. therefore, areas in which the highest rates of mortality occur should be focused on. = = = indigenous knowledge = = = urban sprawl is one of many ways that indigenous people's land is taken and developed in cities of the global north, thus the intimate knowledge of the native area ( ecology ) is often lost due to the effects of colonization or because the land has been majorly altered. urban development occurs around areas where indigenous peoples lived as these areas are easy for transport and the natural environmental is fruitful. when developing areas of urban land, consideration should go towards the intimate levels of knowledge held by indigenous peoples and the biocultural and linguistic diversity of the place. urban ecology follows
required the feathers of approximately 70, 000 adult mamo birds, illustrating a staggering scale of resource extraction that ultimately contributed to its extinction. this instance underscores how cultural traditions and their associated demands can sometimes precipitate the overexploitation of a species to the brink of extinction. similarly, the story of the dodo bird from mauritius provides another clear example of overexploitation. the dodo, a flightless bird, exhibited a lack of fear toward predators, including humans, making it exceptionally vulnerable to hunting. the dodo's naivety and the absence of natural defenses against human hunters and introduced species led to its rapid extinction. this case offers insight into how certain species, particularly those isolated on islands, can be disproportionately affected by human activities due to their evolutionary adaptations. hunting has long been a vital human activity for survival, providing food, clothing, and tools. however, the history of hunting also includes episodes of overexploitation, particularly in the form of overhunting. the overkill hypothesis, which addresses the quaternary extinction events, explains the relatively rapid extinction of megafauna. this hypothesis suggests that these extinctions were closely linked to human migration and population growth. one of the most compelling pieces of evidence supporting this theory is that approximately 80 % of north american large mammal species disappeared within just approximately a thousand years of humans arriving in the western hemisphere. this rapid disappearance indicates a significant impact of human activity on these species, underscoring the profound influence humans have had on their environment throughout history. the fastest - ever recorded extinction of megafauna occurred in new zealand. by 1500 ad, a mere 200 years after the first human settlements, ten species of the giant moa birds were driven to extinction by the maori. this rapid extinction underscores the significant impact humans can have on native wildlife, especially in isolated ecosystems like new zealand. the maori, relying on the moa as a primary food source and for resources such as feathers and bones, hunted these birds extensively. the moa's inability to fly and their size, which made them easier targets, contributed to their rapid decline. this event serves as a cautionary tale about the delicate balance between human activity and biodiversity and highlights the potential consequences of over - hunting and habitat destruction. a second wave of extinctions occurred later with european settlement. this period marked significant ecological disruption, largely due to the introduction of new species and land - use changes. european settlers brought with them animals such as rats, cats
Answer:
|
it's winter
| 0.3 |
What lives in their habitat?
0. dahlias
1. rocks
2. lakes
3. shoes
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
besides the common frog, which congregates seasonally at the fountain pond. the palmate newt, smooth newt and common toad have been seen here also. = = = bryophytes = = = 202 liverworts and mosses have been recorded here, and harrogate and district naturalists'society ( hdns ) recorded 24 bryophytes in march 2017, including pseudotaxiphyllum elegans, orthotrichum pulchellum, thamnobryum alopecurum, mnium hornum, eurhynchium striatum and orthotrichum affine. = = = other biota = = = various butterflies are present, including speckled wood, orange tip and peacock. also recorded here are the " locally rare " beetle ( platycis minutus ) and the lemon slug. the lemon slug is a creature of ancient woodland which eats fungi ; it has become rare as a result of loss of habitat. = = maintenance = = the main principles of maintenance in this case are to make sure that the woodland is appropriate for the site's history, geology and geography, that it can continue to regenerate following the clearcutting of the 1930s, and that the protected habitat and biota can be supported. this means that there should be old and young trees, and some mature trees with a thick understorey. dead wood is good for fungi and invertebrates, but this wood constitutes a public area, so dying trees must be made safe especially in popular places. invertebrates and butterflies will benefit from occasional lighter man - made clearings ; this may require cutting, coppicing or even felling trees. between august and february ( to avoid the breeding season ), non - indigenous trees and shrubs may be cleared, and in some areas thinning may take place to maintain variety of woodland structure. stump re - growth and natural seed regeneration is preferable to planting, because such natural processes contribute to all woodland life. light grazing by deer, cattle and rabbits is conducive to species diversity, but sometimes the woodland will need protection from these if they over - graze. himalayan balsam and rhododendron should be controlled to protect the integrity of the natural woodland. some areas of the wood should be left completely unmanaged, with fallen trees permitted to pile up, providing habitat and insect food for a variety of wildlife. around the calcareous tufa springs, there is specialised plant life. this plant life depends on
stygofauna are any fauna that live in groundwater systems or aquifers, such as caves, fissures and vugs. stygofauna and troglofauna are the two types of subterranean fauna ( based on life - history ). both are associated with subterranean environments β stygofauna are associated with water, and troglofauna with caves and spaces above the water table. stygofauna can live within freshwater aquifers and within the pore spaces of limestone, calcrete or laterite, whilst larger animals can be found in cave waters and wells. stygofaunal animals, like troglofauna, are divided into three groups based on their life history - stygophiles, stygoxenes, and stygobites. stygophiles inhabit both surface and subterranean aquatic environments, but are not necessarily restricted to either. stygoxenes are like stygophiles, except they are defined as accidental or occasional presence in subterranean waters. stygophiles and stygoxenes may live for part of their lives in caves, but don't complete their life cycle in them. stygobites are obligate, or strictly subterranean, aquatic animals and complete their entire life in this environment. extensive research of stygofauna has been undertaken in countries with ready access to caves and wells such as france, slovenia, the us and, more recently, australia. many species of stygofauna, particularly obligate stygobites, are endemic to specific regions or even individual caves. this makes them an important focus for the conservation of groundwater systems. = = diet and lifecycle = = stygofauna have adapted to the limited food supply and are extremely energy efficient. stygofauna feed on plankton, bacteria, and plants found in streams. to survive in an environment where food is scarce and oxygen levels are low, stygofauna often have very low metabolism. as a result, stygofauna may live longer than other terrestrial species. for example, the crayfish orconectes australis from shelta cave in alabama has been estimated to reproduce at 100 years and live to 175 although more recent research suggests their lifespan is closer to 22 years. = = distribution and species = = stygofauna are found all over the world and include turbellarians, gastropod
snakehead goby = = = crustacean = = = crayfish freshwater prawn = = = snails = = = river snail small aquatic snails are usually found in ponds that contain plants. some people purchase apple snails to keep in their water garden. " melantho snails " of the genus lymnaea are also used. = = = herpetofauna = = = ponds located in suburban and rural areas often attract amphibians such as common frogs and fire salamanders and reptiles such as turtles, lizards, and snakes. = = = bird = = = wild duck domestic duck = = = predators = = = garden ponds can attract attention from predators such as ( in north america ) raccoons, herons, snakes, and domestic cats. these predators can be a danger to fish. owners of koi are often particularly careful to create protected areas as some varieties are very expensive. = = see also = = list of garden types landscape architecture aquascaping, arranging plants in an aquarium rain garden biochemical oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand wastewater quality indicators biotope aquaponics = = = index categories = = = category : natural pools = = references = = = = external links = = dugout pond aeration flash animation north american water garden society pond conservation : advice on garden ponds for wildlife
Answer:
|
dahlias
| null |
What lives in their habitat?
0. dahlias
1. rocks
2. lakes
3. shoes
##ming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. the introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife β through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. = = definition and etymology = = the word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the latin habitare, to inhabit, from habere, to have or to hold. habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. it is similar in meaning to a biotope ; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals. = = environmental factors = = the chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities. some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. the small white butterfly pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from antarctica. its larvae feed on a wide range of brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. the large blue butterfly phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which myrmica ants live. disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
besides the common frog, which congregates seasonally at the fountain pond. the palmate newt, smooth newt and common toad have been seen here also. = = = bryophytes = = = 202 liverworts and mosses have been recorded here, and harrogate and district naturalists'society ( hdns ) recorded 24 bryophytes in march 2017, including pseudotaxiphyllum elegans, orthotrichum pulchellum, thamnobryum alopecurum, mnium hornum, eurhynchium striatum and orthotrichum affine. = = = other biota = = = various butterflies are present, including speckled wood, orange tip and peacock. also recorded here are the " locally rare " beetle ( platycis minutus ) and the lemon slug. the lemon slug is a creature of ancient woodland which eats fungi ; it has become rare as a result of loss of habitat. = = maintenance = = the main principles of maintenance in this case are to make sure that the woodland is appropriate for the site's history, geology and geography, that it can continue to regenerate following the clearcutting of the 1930s, and that the protected habitat and biota can be supported. this means that there should be old and young trees, and some mature trees with a thick understorey. dead wood is good for fungi and invertebrates, but this wood constitutes a public area, so dying trees must be made safe especially in popular places. invertebrates and butterflies will benefit from occasional lighter man - made clearings ; this may require cutting, coppicing or even felling trees. between august and february ( to avoid the breeding season ), non - indigenous trees and shrubs may be cleared, and in some areas thinning may take place to maintain variety of woodland structure. stump re - growth and natural seed regeneration is preferable to planting, because such natural processes contribute to all woodland life. light grazing by deer, cattle and rabbits is conducive to species diversity, but sometimes the woodland will need protection from these if they over - graze. himalayan balsam and rhododendron should be controlled to protect the integrity of the natural woodland. some areas of the wood should be left completely unmanaged, with fallen trees permitted to pile up, providing habitat and insect food for a variety of wildlife. around the calcareous tufa springs, there is specialised plant life. this plant life depends on
stygofauna are any fauna that live in groundwater systems or aquifers, such as caves, fissures and vugs. stygofauna and troglofauna are the two types of subterranean fauna ( based on life - history ). both are associated with subterranean environments β stygofauna are associated with water, and troglofauna with caves and spaces above the water table. stygofauna can live within freshwater aquifers and within the pore spaces of limestone, calcrete or laterite, whilst larger animals can be found in cave waters and wells. stygofaunal animals, like troglofauna, are divided into three groups based on their life history - stygophiles, stygoxenes, and stygobites. stygophiles inhabit both surface and subterranean aquatic environments, but are not necessarily restricted to either. stygoxenes are like stygophiles, except they are defined as accidental or occasional presence in subterranean waters. stygophiles and stygoxenes may live for part of their lives in caves, but don't complete their life cycle in them. stygobites are obligate, or strictly subterranean, aquatic animals and complete their entire life in this environment. extensive research of stygofauna has been undertaken in countries with ready access to caves and wells such as france, slovenia, the us and, more recently, australia. many species of stygofauna, particularly obligate stygobites, are endemic to specific regions or even individual caves. this makes them an important focus for the conservation of groundwater systems. = = diet and lifecycle = = stygofauna have adapted to the limited food supply and are extremely energy efficient. stygofauna feed on plankton, bacteria, and plants found in streams. to survive in an environment where food is scarce and oxygen levels are low, stygofauna often have very low metabolism. as a result, stygofauna may live longer than other terrestrial species. for example, the crayfish orconectes australis from shelta cave in alabama has been estimated to reproduce at 100 years and live to 175 although more recent research suggests their lifespan is closer to 22 years. = = distribution and species = = stygofauna are found all over the world and include turbellarians, gastropod
snakehead goby = = = crustacean = = = crayfish freshwater prawn = = = snails = = = river snail small aquatic snails are usually found in ponds that contain plants. some people purchase apple snails to keep in their water garden. " melantho snails " of the genus lymnaea are also used. = = = herpetofauna = = = ponds located in suburban and rural areas often attract amphibians such as common frogs and fire salamanders and reptiles such as turtles, lizards, and snakes. = = = bird = = = wild duck domestic duck = = = predators = = = garden ponds can attract attention from predators such as ( in north america ) raccoons, herons, snakes, and domestic cats. these predators can be a danger to fish. owners of koi are often particularly careful to create protected areas as some varieties are very expensive. = = see also = = list of garden types landscape architecture aquascaping, arranging plants in an aquarium rain garden biochemical oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand wastewater quality indicators biotope aquaponics = = = index categories = = = category : natural pools = = references = = = = external links = = dugout pond aeration flash animation north american water garden society pond conservation : advice on garden ponds for wildlife
Answer:
|
shoes
| 0.3 |
All living things do what?
0. swim
1. develop
2. fly
3. shrink
fundamental reproductive unit of life is not a nucleic acid molecule, but the remarkably versatile, intact, living cell. " the study of structural inheritance is part of the extended evolutionary synthesis. = = in popular culture = = an article in newsweek mentions research that shows that " some water fleas sport a spiny helmet that deters predators ; others, with identical dna sequences, have bare heads. what differs between the two is not their genes but their mothers'experiences. if mom had a run - in with predators, her offspring have helmets, an effect one wag called " bite the mother, fight the daughter. " if mom lived her life unthreatened, her offspring have no helmets. same dna, different traits. somehow, the experience of the mother, not only her dna sequences, has been transmitted to her offspring. " various additional examples of structural inheritance are presented in the recent book origination of organismal form. = = references = = = = further reading = =
manages to survive and reproduce more, the causation of the higher fitness of this gazelle can be fully accounted for if one looks at how individual gazelles fare under predation. the speed of the faster gazelle could be caused by a single gene, be polygenic, or be fully environmentally determined, but the unit of selection in this case is the individual since speed is a property of each individual gazelle. when speaking about individual organism evolution an extended phenotype and superorganism must be also mentioned. = = = group = = = if a group of organisms, owing to their interactions or division of labor, provides superior fitness compared to other groups, where the fitness of the group is higher or lower than the mean fitness of the constituent individuals, group selection can be declared to occur. specific syndromes of selective factors can create situations in which groups are selected because they display group properties which are selected - for. many common examples of group traits are reducible to individual traits, however. selection of these traits is thus more simply explained as selection of individual traits. some mosquito - transmitted rabbit viruses are only transmitted to uninfected rabbits from infected rabbits which are still alive. this creates a selective pressure on every group of viruses already infecting a rabbit not to become too virulent and kill their host rabbit before enough mosquitoes have bitten it, since otherwise all the viruses inside the dead rabbit would rot with it. and indeed in natural systems such viruses display much lower virulence levels than do mutants of the same viruses that in laboratory culture readily outcompete non - virulent variants ( or than do tick - transmitted viruses since ticks do bite dead rabbits ). in the previous passage, the group is assumed to have " lower virulence ", i. e., " virulence " is presented as a group trait. one could argue then that the selection is in fact against individual viruses that are too virulent. in this case, however, the fitness of all viruses within a rabbit is affected by what the group does to the rabbit. indeed, the proper, directly selected group property is that of " not killing the rabbit too early " rather than individual virulence. in situations such as these, we would expect there to be selection for cooperation amongst the viruses in a group in such a way that the group will not " kill the rabbit too early ". it is of course true that any group behavior is the result of individual traits, such as individual viruses suppressing the vi
developmental homeostasis is a process in which animals develop more or less normally, despite defective genes and deficient environments. it is an organism's ability to overcome certain circumstances in order to develop normally. this can be a circumstance that interferes with either a physical or mental trait. many species have a specific norm, where those who fit that norm prosper while those who don't, don't survive or find it difficult to thrive. it is important that the animal be able to interact with the other group members effectively. animals must learn their species'norms while they're young to live a normal, successful life for that species. developmental homeostasis determines how a species adapts to live a normal life. therefore, it has been the focus of many experiments. these experiments are geared and designed to test the threshold for certain species to overcome and prosper despite certain circumstances. due to the fact that survival of the species is based on the ability to interact with their own kind in a normal manner, these experiments β which usually interfere with that β walk a fine line for animal rights and what is acceptable. one experiment that researches mental development homeostasis used rhesus monkeys. these experiments showed how young monkeys need physical contact with other monkeys to learn the social behaviors and interact with each other effectively. one way physical developmental homeostasis was tested was in the facial symmetry experiment where people were asked to rate which of the faces they saw as better looking. this experiment resulted in the pictures with more symmetrical faces being called better looking. this is not just found in humans but other experiments such as the brush - legged wolf spider and the barn swallow birds. favored traits give the bearer an advantage in attracting high quality mates. in species that value developmental homeostasis, both physically and mentally, the ability of one to adapt to social norms seems to increase the likelihood of having a reproductive advantage at being able to attract mates and leave offspring. = = developmental homeostasis : isolation of monkeys = = developmental homeostasis attributes to the way many animals develop. this contains the way they develop normally or abnormally despite faulty genes and an insufficient environment. this property of development reduces the variation around a mean value for a phenotype, and reflects the ability of developmental processes to suppress some outcomes in order to generate an adaptive phenotype more reliably. = = = effects of social isolation in rhesus monkeys = = = the effects of developmental homeostasis were demonstrated in an experiment conducted in 1966 by margaret and harry harlow. they
" ( joule expansion ), i. e. there can be no atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder and no weight lifted. = = complex systems = = the difference between reversible and irreversible events has particular explanatory value in complex systems ( such as living organisms, or ecosystems ). according to the biologists humberto maturana and francisco varela, living organisms are characterized by autopoiesis, which enables their continued existence. more primitive forms of self - organizing systems have been described by the physicist and chemist ilya prigogine. in the context of complex systems, events which lead to the end of certain self - organising processes, like death, extinction of a species or the collapse of a meteorological system can be considered as irreversible. even if a clone with the same organizational principle ( e. g. identical dna - structure ) could be developed, this would not mean that the former distinct system comes back into being. events to which the self - organizing capacities of organisms, species or other complex systems can adapt, like minor injuries or changes in the physical environment are reversible. however, adaptation depends on import of negentropy into the organism, thereby increasing irreversible processes in its environment. ecological principles, like those of sustainability and the precautionary principle can be defined with reference to the concept of reversibility. = = see also = = = = references = =
bajau, also known as the sea gypsies or sea nomads, developed under selection pressures associated with subsisting on free - diving over the past thousand years or so. as maritime hunter - gatherers, the ability to dive for long periods of times plays a crucial role in their survival. due to the mammalian dive reflex, the spleen contracts when the mammal dives and releases oxygen - carrying red blood cells. over time, individuals with larger spleens were more likely to survive the lengthy free - dives, and thus reproduce. by contrast, communities centered around farming show no signs of evolving to have larger spleens. because the sama - bajau show no interest in abandoning this lifestyle, there is no reason to believe further adaptation will not occur. advances in the biology of genomes have enabled geneticists to investigate the course of human evolution within centuries. jonathan pritchard and a postdoctoral fellow, yair field, counted the singletons, or changes of single dna bases, which are likely to be recent because they are rare and have not spread throughout the population. since alleles bring neighboring dna regions with them as they move around the genome, the number of singletons can be used to roughly estimate how quickly the allele has changed its frequency. this approach can unveil evolution within the last 2, 000 years or a hundred human generations. armed with this technique and data from the uk10k project, pritchard and his team found that alleles for lactase persistence, blond hair, and blue eyes have spread rapidly among britons within the last two millennia or so. britain's cloudy skies may have played a role in that the genes for light hair could also cause light skin, reducing the chances of vitamin d deficiency. sexual selection could also favor blond hair. the technique also enabled them to track the selection of polygenic traits β those affected by a multitude of genes, rather than just one β such as height, infant head circumferences, and female hip sizes ( crucial for giving birth ). they found that natural selection has been favoring increased height and larger head and female hip sizes among britons. moreover, lactase persistence showed signs of active selection during the same period. however, evidence for the selection of polygenic traits is weaker than those affected only by one gene. a 2012 paper studied the dna sequence of around 6, 500 americans of european and african descent and confirmed earlier work indicating that the majority of changes to a single letter in the sequence ( single nucle
Answer:
|
develop
| null |
All living things do what?
0. swim
1. develop
2. fly
3. shrink
fundamental reproductive unit of life is not a nucleic acid molecule, but the remarkably versatile, intact, living cell. " the study of structural inheritance is part of the extended evolutionary synthesis. = = in popular culture = = an article in newsweek mentions research that shows that " some water fleas sport a spiny helmet that deters predators ; others, with identical dna sequences, have bare heads. what differs between the two is not their genes but their mothers'experiences. if mom had a run - in with predators, her offspring have helmets, an effect one wag called " bite the mother, fight the daughter. " if mom lived her life unthreatened, her offspring have no helmets. same dna, different traits. somehow, the experience of the mother, not only her dna sequences, has been transmitted to her offspring. " various additional examples of structural inheritance are presented in the recent book origination of organismal form. = = references = = = = further reading = =
manages to survive and reproduce more, the causation of the higher fitness of this gazelle can be fully accounted for if one looks at how individual gazelles fare under predation. the speed of the faster gazelle could be caused by a single gene, be polygenic, or be fully environmentally determined, but the unit of selection in this case is the individual since speed is a property of each individual gazelle. when speaking about individual organism evolution an extended phenotype and superorganism must be also mentioned. = = = group = = = if a group of organisms, owing to their interactions or division of labor, provides superior fitness compared to other groups, where the fitness of the group is higher or lower than the mean fitness of the constituent individuals, group selection can be declared to occur. specific syndromes of selective factors can create situations in which groups are selected because they display group properties which are selected - for. many common examples of group traits are reducible to individual traits, however. selection of these traits is thus more simply explained as selection of individual traits. some mosquito - transmitted rabbit viruses are only transmitted to uninfected rabbits from infected rabbits which are still alive. this creates a selective pressure on every group of viruses already infecting a rabbit not to become too virulent and kill their host rabbit before enough mosquitoes have bitten it, since otherwise all the viruses inside the dead rabbit would rot with it. and indeed in natural systems such viruses display much lower virulence levels than do mutants of the same viruses that in laboratory culture readily outcompete non - virulent variants ( or than do tick - transmitted viruses since ticks do bite dead rabbits ). in the previous passage, the group is assumed to have " lower virulence ", i. e., " virulence " is presented as a group trait. one could argue then that the selection is in fact against individual viruses that are too virulent. in this case, however, the fitness of all viruses within a rabbit is affected by what the group does to the rabbit. indeed, the proper, directly selected group property is that of " not killing the rabbit too early " rather than individual virulence. in situations such as these, we would expect there to be selection for cooperation amongst the viruses in a group in such a way that the group will not " kill the rabbit too early ". it is of course true that any group behavior is the result of individual traits, such as individual viruses suppressing the vi
developmental homeostasis is a process in which animals develop more or less normally, despite defective genes and deficient environments. it is an organism's ability to overcome certain circumstances in order to develop normally. this can be a circumstance that interferes with either a physical or mental trait. many species have a specific norm, where those who fit that norm prosper while those who don't, don't survive or find it difficult to thrive. it is important that the animal be able to interact with the other group members effectively. animals must learn their species'norms while they're young to live a normal, successful life for that species. developmental homeostasis determines how a species adapts to live a normal life. therefore, it has been the focus of many experiments. these experiments are geared and designed to test the threshold for certain species to overcome and prosper despite certain circumstances. due to the fact that survival of the species is based on the ability to interact with their own kind in a normal manner, these experiments β which usually interfere with that β walk a fine line for animal rights and what is acceptable. one experiment that researches mental development homeostasis used rhesus monkeys. these experiments showed how young monkeys need physical contact with other monkeys to learn the social behaviors and interact with each other effectively. one way physical developmental homeostasis was tested was in the facial symmetry experiment where people were asked to rate which of the faces they saw as better looking. this experiment resulted in the pictures with more symmetrical faces being called better looking. this is not just found in humans but other experiments such as the brush - legged wolf spider and the barn swallow birds. favored traits give the bearer an advantage in attracting high quality mates. in species that value developmental homeostasis, both physically and mentally, the ability of one to adapt to social norms seems to increase the likelihood of having a reproductive advantage at being able to attract mates and leave offspring. = = developmental homeostasis : isolation of monkeys = = developmental homeostasis attributes to the way many animals develop. this contains the way they develop normally or abnormally despite faulty genes and an insufficient environment. this property of development reduces the variation around a mean value for a phenotype, and reflects the ability of developmental processes to suppress some outcomes in order to generate an adaptive phenotype more reliably. = = = effects of social isolation in rhesus monkeys = = = the effects of developmental homeostasis were demonstrated in an experiment conducted in 1966 by margaret and harry harlow. they
" ( joule expansion ), i. e. there can be no atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder and no weight lifted. = = complex systems = = the difference between reversible and irreversible events has particular explanatory value in complex systems ( such as living organisms, or ecosystems ). according to the biologists humberto maturana and francisco varela, living organisms are characterized by autopoiesis, which enables their continued existence. more primitive forms of self - organizing systems have been described by the physicist and chemist ilya prigogine. in the context of complex systems, events which lead to the end of certain self - organising processes, like death, extinction of a species or the collapse of a meteorological system can be considered as irreversible. even if a clone with the same organizational principle ( e. g. identical dna - structure ) could be developed, this would not mean that the former distinct system comes back into being. events to which the self - organizing capacities of organisms, species or other complex systems can adapt, like minor injuries or changes in the physical environment are reversible. however, adaptation depends on import of negentropy into the organism, thereby increasing irreversible processes in its environment. ecological principles, like those of sustainability and the precautionary principle can be defined with reference to the concept of reversibility. = = see also = = = = references = =
bajau, also known as the sea gypsies or sea nomads, developed under selection pressures associated with subsisting on free - diving over the past thousand years or so. as maritime hunter - gatherers, the ability to dive for long periods of times plays a crucial role in their survival. due to the mammalian dive reflex, the spleen contracts when the mammal dives and releases oxygen - carrying red blood cells. over time, individuals with larger spleens were more likely to survive the lengthy free - dives, and thus reproduce. by contrast, communities centered around farming show no signs of evolving to have larger spleens. because the sama - bajau show no interest in abandoning this lifestyle, there is no reason to believe further adaptation will not occur. advances in the biology of genomes have enabled geneticists to investigate the course of human evolution within centuries. jonathan pritchard and a postdoctoral fellow, yair field, counted the singletons, or changes of single dna bases, which are likely to be recent because they are rare and have not spread throughout the population. since alleles bring neighboring dna regions with them as they move around the genome, the number of singletons can be used to roughly estimate how quickly the allele has changed its frequency. this approach can unveil evolution within the last 2, 000 years or a hundred human generations. armed with this technique and data from the uk10k project, pritchard and his team found that alleles for lactase persistence, blond hair, and blue eyes have spread rapidly among britons within the last two millennia or so. britain's cloudy skies may have played a role in that the genes for light hair could also cause light skin, reducing the chances of vitamin d deficiency. sexual selection could also favor blond hair. the technique also enabled them to track the selection of polygenic traits β those affected by a multitude of genes, rather than just one β such as height, infant head circumferences, and female hip sizes ( crucial for giving birth ). they found that natural selection has been favoring increased height and larger head and female hip sizes among britons. moreover, lactase persistence showed signs of active selection during the same period. however, evidence for the selection of polygenic traits is weaker than those affected only by one gene. a 2012 paper studied the dna sequence of around 6, 500 americans of european and african descent and confirmed earlier work indicating that the majority of changes to a single letter in the sequence ( single nucle
Answer:
|
swim
| 0.3 |
A skunk produces a bad what?
0. heat
1. smeller perception
2. cold
3. color
. there is some evidence to suggest that humans are capable of detecting visual and olfactory sickness cues before overt cues for the disgust response are produced. = = = cues = = = pathogens are typically too small to be directly observed and so require the presence of observable cues that tend to co - occur with them. these inputs take the form of recognizable cues. hygiene : the detection of displays of or physical evidence of unhygienic behavior. animals or insect : typically, animal or insect disease vectors such as mice or mosquitoes. sex : behavior related to promiscuity of sexual activities atypical appearance : infection cues in other individuals such as abnormal body shape, deformity, auditory cues such as coughing and contextual cues related to circumstances of increased risk of infection such as homelessness. lesions : stimuli related to signs of infection on the surface of the body such as blisters, boils or pus. food : food items with visible or olfactory signs of spoilage. = = = computational structure model = = = tybur proposed a model of how an information processing system might be structured. in this model, perceptual systems ( vision, olfaction, etc. ) monitor the environment for cues to pathogens. then, a mechanism integrates cues from the different perceptual systems and estimates a pathogen index, an internal estimation of the probability that pathogens are present based on reliability and detection of cues. finally context - dependent avoidance can only occur if additional information is taken as input - if other mechanisms exist that function to trade off pathogen presence against other fitness - impacting dimensions across various contexts. the expected value of contact is a downstream index that integrates other indices relevant to the costs and benefits of contact which then regulates the approach versus avoidance in an adaptive manner. this model is consistent with several empirical findings of how additional variables such as sexual value, nutrient status, kinship status, hormonal status and immune function also influence responses to pathogen cues. = = = imperfections in pathogen detection = = = signaling detection errors are prevalent in the pathogen avoidance system ; there are two types of errors : a false alarm, where a pathogen avoidance response is deployed needlessly or a miss, where a pathogen avoidance was not deployed in the presence of infection risk, they depend on whether pathogens are present or not. the costs for not mounting an avoidance response in the presence of infection risk is assumed to be greater, suggesting that selection may be favoring a greater sensitivity to cue pathogens
. in the seri language, olfactory metaphor and metonymy are salient features. one example is the expression hiisax cheemt iha ( " i am angry " ), literally'my. spirit stinks ( declarative ) '. = = variation within languages = = different populations speaking the same language and sharing cultural traditions may still display varied perceptions of an odour, based on its prevalence and most common source in each location. for example, one study showed that french speakers in quebec find the scent of wintergreen more pleasant and edible than speakers in france. this is because the odour is commonly used in candies and sodas in north america, while in europe it is used mainly in medicinal products. however, providing concrete names of the source of the odours caused cultural differences in responses to decrease or disappear, suggesting that providing more linguistic information about an odour tends to make its perception more salient in the mind of the smeller. = = clinical applications = = in a clinical setting, patients may undergo olfactory tests to aid in the diagnosis of mental disorders. a common test involves the use of " sniffin'sticks ", a set of marker pens imbued with different scents at varying dilutions. sniffin'sticks are used both for diagnosis and for research into olfaction, including olfactory language. due to linguistic variation across speech communities, the sniffin'sticks test must be validated for each country in which medical professionals wish to use it for diagnosis. rather than using a literal translation of scent descriptors, researchers validating the test in a new country may need to change the translated descriptors to more culturally - appropriate terms for the speech community in question. for example, researchers validating the sniffin'sticks test for the portuguese population changed the original translation of the grapefruit scent descriptor, toranja, to the portuguese word for orange, laranja. this is because grapefruit are not commonly eaten in portugal, which resulted in participant familiarity falling below the benchmark of 75 %. altering lesser known descriptors such as " grapefruit " to less literal but more culturally - relevant translations increased familiarity to within the range expected for healthy populations. this validated the sniffin'sticks test for the portuguese population without requiring the scents themselves to be altered. = = see also = = olfactory memory sociolinguistics = = references = =
olfactory language refers to language associated with the sense of smell. it involves the naming and categorisation of odours by humans according to each odour's perceived source or attributes. the study of olfactory language is part of the field of linguistics and is distinct from the study of semiochemical communication, which involves communication between organisms using chemical substances detected through olfaction. = = cross - linguistic variation = = = = = olfactory perception and identification = = = different speech communities tend to display differences in both the perception and linguistic categorisation of odours. in general, europeans find it harder to identify odours than hunter - gatherer communities. the ease with which odours are identified by speakers is related to the primary type of olfactory vocabulary used in their speech community. some speech communities, including jahai - and thai - speaking hunter - gatherers, mostly use dedicated abstract vocabulary for referring to odour qualities, while others, such as dutch and english speakers, mostly use concrete terms that identify the source itself. when presented with common odours and asked to name them, jahai speakers are likely to use the same abstract descriptor and answer more quickly, while english and dutch speakers tend to take longer to answer and use a more diverse range of mostly concrete descriptors, suggesting that abstract and concrete odour names are encoded differently. the nature of odour - colour associations also differs between speech communities based on their vocabulary. dutch speakers who use concrete terms associate a particular odour with the colour of its source ( e. g., banana odour associated with the colour yellow ), while maniq and thai speakers who use abstract terminology do not show consistent odour - colour associations. = = = olfactory metaphor = = = cross - linguistically, olfactory metaphor is traditionally thought to be the least important of all the senses, especially when compared to visual or auditory metaphors, although emerging research suggests the phenomenon is more common than previously thought. in english, olfactory metaphors with negative connotations are often used to describe bad character ( " he's a stinker " ) or the detection of bad qualities ( " i smell something fishy about this deal " ). in the seri language, olfactory metaphor and metonymy are salient features. one example is the expression hiisax cheemt iha ( " i am angry " ), literally'my. spirit stinks ( declar
through smells. as noticed by a human character in the story, " the vinegary smell deepened. it was a sign of polite cogitation in a t β worlie, like a human being β s hmmm " similar to this method of communication is one employed the alien species in cabin boy ( see far out ( book ) ) by damon knight. in this story, two humans attempt to communicate with the alien that uses scent, although this proves rather difficult : "... there had been a series of separate odors, all unfamiliar and all overpoweringly strong. at least a dozen of them, roget thought ; they had gone past too quickly to count. " as meyers points out, however, the challenge in "... using air - borne scents for communication is that even a casual breeze becomes " noise " in the system, blending odors and distorting their original sequence. ". then again, colin kapp overcomes this problem in his work the old king β s answers, in which the one character describes the aliens as having : "... scent glands in the pads of their feet β¦ they β ve settled on the flat faces of the crystal rocks when they really want to leave a message for the world. " the character further goes on to explain : " using chromatography, i β ve managed to identify three individual scent products, all of them remarkably persistent. they are combined together on the crystal faces in an amazing spectrum of complexity. in their scent - writing they have the capacity - though i β m not sure how much of it they utilize - to compress more bits of information in a given space than we humans can in our optical writing. " this medium of smell was also utilised by john norman in his work priest - kings of gor ( book 3 of gor ), in which the medium is not only described but the advantages and disadvantages of it is also discussed. in the story, the narrator describes the medium, saying : " what in the passageways i had taken to be the scent of priest - kings had actually been the residue of odor - signals which priest - kings, like certain social insects of our world, use in communicating with one another. " the narrator then goes on to discuss in length the advantageous and disadvantageous of such a medium : " communication by odor - signals can in certain circumstances be extremely efficient, though it can be disadvantageous in others. for example, an odor can carry β¦ much farther than can the shout
to behave preferentially towards nearby kin, whether or not this behaviour is the result of kin recognition per se " ( tang - martinez 2001, 25 ) = = experimental evidence = = kin recognition has been documented in many species of vertebrates and invertebrates. recent studies have shown that kin recognition can result from a multitude of sensory input. jill mateo notes that there are three components prominent in kin recognition. first, " production of unique phenotypic cues or labels ". second, " perception of these labels and the degree of correspondence of these labels with a'recognition template'", and finally the recognition of the phenotypes should lead to " action taken by the animal as a function of the perceived similarity between its template and an encountered phenotype ". the three components allow for several possible mechanisms of kin recognition. sensory information gathered from visual, olfactory and auditory stimuli are the most prevalent. the belding's ground squirrel kin produce similar odors in comparison to non - kin. mateo notes that the squirrels spent longer investigating non - kin scents suggesting recognition of kin odor. it's also noted that belding's ground squirrels produce at least two scents arising from dorsal and oral secretions, giving two opportunities for kin recognition. in addition, the black rock skink is also able to use olfactory stimuli as a mechanism of kin recognition. egernia saxatilis have been found to discriminate kin from non - kin based on scent. egernia striolata also use some form of scent, most likely through skin secretions. however, black rock skinks discriminate based on familiarity rather than genotypic similarity. juvenile e. saxatilis can recognize the difference between the scent of adults from their own family group and unrelated adults. black rock skink recognize their family groups based on prior association and not how genetically related the other lizards are to themselves. auditory distinctions have been noted among avian species. long - tailed tits ( aegithalos caudatus ) are capable of discriminating kin and non - kin based on contact calls. distinguishing calls are often learned from adults during the nestling period. studies suggest that the bald - faced hornet, dolichovespula maculata, can recognize nest mates by their cuticular hydrocarbon profile, which produces a distinct smell. some animals can recognize kin by " self - referencing : " comparing the phenotypes of others to themselves. for example, belding's ground squirrels identify relatives by comparing their own odor
Answer:
|
smeller perception
| null |
A skunk produces a bad what?
0. heat
1. smeller perception
2. cold
3. color
. there is some evidence to suggest that humans are capable of detecting visual and olfactory sickness cues before overt cues for the disgust response are produced. = = = cues = = = pathogens are typically too small to be directly observed and so require the presence of observable cues that tend to co - occur with them. these inputs take the form of recognizable cues. hygiene : the detection of displays of or physical evidence of unhygienic behavior. animals or insect : typically, animal or insect disease vectors such as mice or mosquitoes. sex : behavior related to promiscuity of sexual activities atypical appearance : infection cues in other individuals such as abnormal body shape, deformity, auditory cues such as coughing and contextual cues related to circumstances of increased risk of infection such as homelessness. lesions : stimuli related to signs of infection on the surface of the body such as blisters, boils or pus. food : food items with visible or olfactory signs of spoilage. = = = computational structure model = = = tybur proposed a model of how an information processing system might be structured. in this model, perceptual systems ( vision, olfaction, etc. ) monitor the environment for cues to pathogens. then, a mechanism integrates cues from the different perceptual systems and estimates a pathogen index, an internal estimation of the probability that pathogens are present based on reliability and detection of cues. finally context - dependent avoidance can only occur if additional information is taken as input - if other mechanisms exist that function to trade off pathogen presence against other fitness - impacting dimensions across various contexts. the expected value of contact is a downstream index that integrates other indices relevant to the costs and benefits of contact which then regulates the approach versus avoidance in an adaptive manner. this model is consistent with several empirical findings of how additional variables such as sexual value, nutrient status, kinship status, hormonal status and immune function also influence responses to pathogen cues. = = = imperfections in pathogen detection = = = signaling detection errors are prevalent in the pathogen avoidance system ; there are two types of errors : a false alarm, where a pathogen avoidance response is deployed needlessly or a miss, where a pathogen avoidance was not deployed in the presence of infection risk, they depend on whether pathogens are present or not. the costs for not mounting an avoidance response in the presence of infection risk is assumed to be greater, suggesting that selection may be favoring a greater sensitivity to cue pathogens
. in the seri language, olfactory metaphor and metonymy are salient features. one example is the expression hiisax cheemt iha ( " i am angry " ), literally'my. spirit stinks ( declarative ) '. = = variation within languages = = different populations speaking the same language and sharing cultural traditions may still display varied perceptions of an odour, based on its prevalence and most common source in each location. for example, one study showed that french speakers in quebec find the scent of wintergreen more pleasant and edible than speakers in france. this is because the odour is commonly used in candies and sodas in north america, while in europe it is used mainly in medicinal products. however, providing concrete names of the source of the odours caused cultural differences in responses to decrease or disappear, suggesting that providing more linguistic information about an odour tends to make its perception more salient in the mind of the smeller. = = clinical applications = = in a clinical setting, patients may undergo olfactory tests to aid in the diagnosis of mental disorders. a common test involves the use of " sniffin'sticks ", a set of marker pens imbued with different scents at varying dilutions. sniffin'sticks are used both for diagnosis and for research into olfaction, including olfactory language. due to linguistic variation across speech communities, the sniffin'sticks test must be validated for each country in which medical professionals wish to use it for diagnosis. rather than using a literal translation of scent descriptors, researchers validating the test in a new country may need to change the translated descriptors to more culturally - appropriate terms for the speech community in question. for example, researchers validating the sniffin'sticks test for the portuguese population changed the original translation of the grapefruit scent descriptor, toranja, to the portuguese word for orange, laranja. this is because grapefruit are not commonly eaten in portugal, which resulted in participant familiarity falling below the benchmark of 75 %. altering lesser known descriptors such as " grapefruit " to less literal but more culturally - relevant translations increased familiarity to within the range expected for healthy populations. this validated the sniffin'sticks test for the portuguese population without requiring the scents themselves to be altered. = = see also = = olfactory memory sociolinguistics = = references = =
olfactory language refers to language associated with the sense of smell. it involves the naming and categorisation of odours by humans according to each odour's perceived source or attributes. the study of olfactory language is part of the field of linguistics and is distinct from the study of semiochemical communication, which involves communication between organisms using chemical substances detected through olfaction. = = cross - linguistic variation = = = = = olfactory perception and identification = = = different speech communities tend to display differences in both the perception and linguistic categorisation of odours. in general, europeans find it harder to identify odours than hunter - gatherer communities. the ease with which odours are identified by speakers is related to the primary type of olfactory vocabulary used in their speech community. some speech communities, including jahai - and thai - speaking hunter - gatherers, mostly use dedicated abstract vocabulary for referring to odour qualities, while others, such as dutch and english speakers, mostly use concrete terms that identify the source itself. when presented with common odours and asked to name them, jahai speakers are likely to use the same abstract descriptor and answer more quickly, while english and dutch speakers tend to take longer to answer and use a more diverse range of mostly concrete descriptors, suggesting that abstract and concrete odour names are encoded differently. the nature of odour - colour associations also differs between speech communities based on their vocabulary. dutch speakers who use concrete terms associate a particular odour with the colour of its source ( e. g., banana odour associated with the colour yellow ), while maniq and thai speakers who use abstract terminology do not show consistent odour - colour associations. = = = olfactory metaphor = = = cross - linguistically, olfactory metaphor is traditionally thought to be the least important of all the senses, especially when compared to visual or auditory metaphors, although emerging research suggests the phenomenon is more common than previously thought. in english, olfactory metaphors with negative connotations are often used to describe bad character ( " he's a stinker " ) or the detection of bad qualities ( " i smell something fishy about this deal " ). in the seri language, olfactory metaphor and metonymy are salient features. one example is the expression hiisax cheemt iha ( " i am angry " ), literally'my. spirit stinks ( declar
through smells. as noticed by a human character in the story, " the vinegary smell deepened. it was a sign of polite cogitation in a t β worlie, like a human being β s hmmm " similar to this method of communication is one employed the alien species in cabin boy ( see far out ( book ) ) by damon knight. in this story, two humans attempt to communicate with the alien that uses scent, although this proves rather difficult : "... there had been a series of separate odors, all unfamiliar and all overpoweringly strong. at least a dozen of them, roget thought ; they had gone past too quickly to count. " as meyers points out, however, the challenge in "... using air - borne scents for communication is that even a casual breeze becomes " noise " in the system, blending odors and distorting their original sequence. ". then again, colin kapp overcomes this problem in his work the old king β s answers, in which the one character describes the aliens as having : "... scent glands in the pads of their feet β¦ they β ve settled on the flat faces of the crystal rocks when they really want to leave a message for the world. " the character further goes on to explain : " using chromatography, i β ve managed to identify three individual scent products, all of them remarkably persistent. they are combined together on the crystal faces in an amazing spectrum of complexity. in their scent - writing they have the capacity - though i β m not sure how much of it they utilize - to compress more bits of information in a given space than we humans can in our optical writing. " this medium of smell was also utilised by john norman in his work priest - kings of gor ( book 3 of gor ), in which the medium is not only described but the advantages and disadvantages of it is also discussed. in the story, the narrator describes the medium, saying : " what in the passageways i had taken to be the scent of priest - kings had actually been the residue of odor - signals which priest - kings, like certain social insects of our world, use in communicating with one another. " the narrator then goes on to discuss in length the advantageous and disadvantageous of such a medium : " communication by odor - signals can in certain circumstances be extremely efficient, though it can be disadvantageous in others. for example, an odor can carry β¦ much farther than can the shout
to behave preferentially towards nearby kin, whether or not this behaviour is the result of kin recognition per se " ( tang - martinez 2001, 25 ) = = experimental evidence = = kin recognition has been documented in many species of vertebrates and invertebrates. recent studies have shown that kin recognition can result from a multitude of sensory input. jill mateo notes that there are three components prominent in kin recognition. first, " production of unique phenotypic cues or labels ". second, " perception of these labels and the degree of correspondence of these labels with a'recognition template'", and finally the recognition of the phenotypes should lead to " action taken by the animal as a function of the perceived similarity between its template and an encountered phenotype ". the three components allow for several possible mechanisms of kin recognition. sensory information gathered from visual, olfactory and auditory stimuli are the most prevalent. the belding's ground squirrel kin produce similar odors in comparison to non - kin. mateo notes that the squirrels spent longer investigating non - kin scents suggesting recognition of kin odor. it's also noted that belding's ground squirrels produce at least two scents arising from dorsal and oral secretions, giving two opportunities for kin recognition. in addition, the black rock skink is also able to use olfactory stimuli as a mechanism of kin recognition. egernia saxatilis have been found to discriminate kin from non - kin based on scent. egernia striolata also use some form of scent, most likely through skin secretions. however, black rock skinks discriminate based on familiarity rather than genotypic similarity. juvenile e. saxatilis can recognize the difference between the scent of adults from their own family group and unrelated adults. black rock skink recognize their family groups based on prior association and not how genetically related the other lizards are to themselves. auditory distinctions have been noted among avian species. long - tailed tits ( aegithalos caudatus ) are capable of discriminating kin and non - kin based on contact calls. distinguishing calls are often learned from adults during the nestling period. studies suggest that the bald - faced hornet, dolichovespula maculata, can recognize nest mates by their cuticular hydrocarbon profile, which produces a distinct smell. some animals can recognize kin by " self - referencing : " comparing the phenotypes of others to themselves. for example, belding's ground squirrels identify relatives by comparing their own odor
Answer:
|
color
| 0.3 |
Food is a source of energy for what?
0. anteaters
1. sand
2. water
3. plastic
- to high - quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy ( i. e. highest quality ) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90 %. in contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25 % ( cars ) to 50 percent ( modern power plants ). the chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality. = = m = = magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the earth ( or any other terrestrial planet ) that often collects in a magma chamber and is ejected by volcano's. manure - organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. market benefits - benefits of a climate policy that can be measured in terms of avoided market impacts such as changes in resource productivity ( e. g., lower agricultural yields, scarcer water resources ) and damages to human - built environment ( e. g., coastal flooding due to sea - level rise ). material flow β the cycling of materials, which is driven by the flow of energy. material identification - words, numbers or symbols used to designate composition of components of a product or packaging. note : a material identification symbol does not indicate whether an item can be recycled. materials recovery facility ( mrf ) - a centre for the reception and transfer of materials recovered from the waste stream. at a mrf, materials are also sorted by type and treated ( e. g. cleaned, compressed ) mauna loa record - the record of measurement of atmospheric co2 concentrations taken at mauna loa observatory, mauna loa, hawaii, since march 1958. this record shows the continuing increase in average annual atmospheric co2 concentrations. maximum soil water deficit β amount of water stored in the soil that is readily available to plants megadiverse countries β the 17 countries that are home to the largest fraction of wild species ( australia is one such ) microorganism β an organism visible only through a microscope. middle east β 15 countries - bahrain, islamic rep. iran, iraq, israel, jordan, kuwait, lebanon, oman, qatar, saudi arabia, syria, united arab emirates, yemen. mitigation hierarchy - a tool that aims to help management of biodiversity risk and is commonly applied in environmental impact assessments. it includes a hierarchy of steps ( but is not limited to ) : avoidance, minimisation, rehabilitation, restoration, and offset. mobile garbage bin - a wheeled kerbside container for the collection of
material for a good life, freedom and choice, health, good social relations, and security. wetlands - areas of permanent or intermittent inundation, whether natural or artificial, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water not exceeding 6 m at low tide. ( adapted from definition of the ramsar convention on wetlands of international importance ). engineered wetlands are becoming more frequent and are sometimes called constructed wetlands. in urban areas wetlands are sometimes referred to as the kidney of a city. whitegoods - household electrical appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, clothes dryers, and dishwashers. wind energy - the kinetic energy present in the motion of the wind. wind energy can be converted to mechanical or electrical energy. a traditional mechanical windmill can be used for pumping water or grinding grain. a modern electrical wind turbine converts the force of the wind to electrical energy for consumption on - site and / or export to the electricity grid. wind turbines β see wind energy. work β physical or mental effort ; a force exerted for a distance ; an energy transformation process which results in a change of concentration or form of energy. = = z = = zero waste β turning waste into resource ; the redesign of resource - use so that waste can ultimately be reduced to zero ; ensuring that by - products are used elsewhere and goods are recycled, in emulation of the cycling of wastes in nature. = = see also = = environmental science climate change acronyms glossary of climate change list of environmental issues list of sustainability topics = = references = = = = external links = = environmental terminology discovery service β eea ( multilingual environmental glossary in 28 languages : ar, bg, cs, da, de, el, en, es, et, eu, fi, fr, hu, is, it, lt, lv, mt, nl, no, pl, pt, ro, ru, sk, sl, sv, tr )
##ed organic matter. abiotic : resources that originate from non - living and inorganic material. these include land, water, air, rare - earth elements, and heavy metals including ores, such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. = = = stage of development = = = potential resources : resources that are known to exist, but have not been utilized yet. these may be used in the future. for example, petroleum in sedimentary rocks that, until extracted and put to use, remains a potential resource. actual resources : resources that have been surveyed, quantified and qualified, and are currently used in development. these are typically dependent on technology and the level of their feasibility, wood processing for example. reserves : the part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the future. stocks : resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to lack of technology, hydrogen vehicles for example. = = = renewability / exhaustibility = = = renewable resources : these resources can be replenished naturally. some of these resources, like solar energy, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are not noticeably affected by human consumption. though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over - use. resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of replenishment / recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. they replenish easily compared to non - renewable resources. non - renewable resources : these resources are formed over a long geological time period in the environment and cannot be renewed easily. minerals are the most common resource included in this category. from the human perspective, resources are non - renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment / recovery ; a good example of this is fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow ( potentially millions of years ), meaning they are considered non - renewable. some resources naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio - active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. of these, the metallic minerals can be re - used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. = = = ownership = = = individual resources : resources owned privately by individuals. these include plots, houses, plantations, pastures, ponds, etc. community resources : resources which are accessible to all the members of a community. e. g. : cemeteries
##ynthesis β the transformation of radiant energy to chemical energy by plants ; the manufacture by plants of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. the reaction is driven by energy from sunlight, catalysed by chlorophyll and releases oxygen as a byproduct. the capture of the sun's energy ( primary production ) to power all life on earth ( consumption ). photovoltaic - the direct conversion of light into electricity phytoplankton β plant plankton cf. plankton. plankton β mostly microscopic animal and plant life suspended in water and a valuable food source for animals cf. phytoplankton. plant quality - a standard of plant appearance or yield. plastic - one of many high - polymeric substances, including both natural and synthetic products, but excluding rubbers. at some stage in its manufacture every plastic is capable of flowing, under heat and pressure, if necessary, into the desired final shape. polluter pays principle ( ppp ) - the principle that producers of pollution should in some way compensate others for the effects of their pollution. polyethylene terephthalate ( pet ) β a clear, tough, light and shatterproof type of plastic, used to make products such as soft drink bottles, film packaging and fabrics. polypropylene ( pp ) - a member of the polyelofin family of plastics. pp is light, rigid and glossy and is used to make products such as washing machine agitators, clear film packaging, carpet fibres and housewares. polystyrene ( ps ) - a member of the styrene family of plastics. ps is easy to mould and is used to make refrigerator and washing machine components. it can be foamed to make single use packaging, such as cups, meat and produce trays. polyvinyl chloride ( pvc ) - a member of the vinyl family of plastics. pvc can be clear, flexible or rigid and is used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. postconsumer material or waste - material or product that has served its intended purpose and has been discarded for disposal or recovery. this includes returns of material from the distribution chain ; waste that is collected and sorted after use ; kerbside waste cf. pre - consumer waste. potable β safe to drink. power - the rate at which work is done ; electrically, power = current x voltage ( p = i v ) precautionary principle
energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. all living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. in order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. the arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow ; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way. the unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy ( originating externally from the sun via solar radiation ) to and among organisms. = = energetics and the carbon cycle = = the first step in energetics is photosynthesis, where in water and carbon dioxide from the air are taken in with energy from the sun, and are converted into oxygen and glucose. cellular respiration is the reverse reaction, wherein oxygen and sugar are taken in and release energy as they are converted back into carbon dioxide and water. the carbon dioxide and water produced by respiration can be recycled back into plants. energy loss can be measured either by efficiency ( how much energy makes it to the next level ), or by biomass ( how much living material exists at those levels at one point in time, measured by standing crop ). of all the net primary productivity at the producer trophic level, in general only 10 % goes to the next level, the primary consumers, then only 10 % of that 10 % goes on to the next trophic level, and so on up the food pyramid. ecological efficiency may be anywhere from 5 % to 20 % depending on how efficient or inefficient that ecosystem is. this decrease in efficiency occurs because organisms need to perform cellular respiration to survive, and energy is lost as heat when cellular respiration is performed. that is also why there are fewer tertiary consumers than there are producers. = = primary production = = a producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. producers are important because they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose, as
Answer:
|
anteaters
| null |
Food is a source of energy for what?
0. anteaters
1. sand
2. water
3. plastic
- to high - quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy ( i. e. highest quality ) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90 %. in contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25 % ( cars ) to 50 percent ( modern power plants ). the chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality. = = m = = magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the earth ( or any other terrestrial planet ) that often collects in a magma chamber and is ejected by volcano's. manure - organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. market benefits - benefits of a climate policy that can be measured in terms of avoided market impacts such as changes in resource productivity ( e. g., lower agricultural yields, scarcer water resources ) and damages to human - built environment ( e. g., coastal flooding due to sea - level rise ). material flow β the cycling of materials, which is driven by the flow of energy. material identification - words, numbers or symbols used to designate composition of components of a product or packaging. note : a material identification symbol does not indicate whether an item can be recycled. materials recovery facility ( mrf ) - a centre for the reception and transfer of materials recovered from the waste stream. at a mrf, materials are also sorted by type and treated ( e. g. cleaned, compressed ) mauna loa record - the record of measurement of atmospheric co2 concentrations taken at mauna loa observatory, mauna loa, hawaii, since march 1958. this record shows the continuing increase in average annual atmospheric co2 concentrations. maximum soil water deficit β amount of water stored in the soil that is readily available to plants megadiverse countries β the 17 countries that are home to the largest fraction of wild species ( australia is one such ) microorganism β an organism visible only through a microscope. middle east β 15 countries - bahrain, islamic rep. iran, iraq, israel, jordan, kuwait, lebanon, oman, qatar, saudi arabia, syria, united arab emirates, yemen. mitigation hierarchy - a tool that aims to help management of biodiversity risk and is commonly applied in environmental impact assessments. it includes a hierarchy of steps ( but is not limited to ) : avoidance, minimisation, rehabilitation, restoration, and offset. mobile garbage bin - a wheeled kerbside container for the collection of
material for a good life, freedom and choice, health, good social relations, and security. wetlands - areas of permanent or intermittent inundation, whether natural or artificial, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water not exceeding 6 m at low tide. ( adapted from definition of the ramsar convention on wetlands of international importance ). engineered wetlands are becoming more frequent and are sometimes called constructed wetlands. in urban areas wetlands are sometimes referred to as the kidney of a city. whitegoods - household electrical appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, clothes dryers, and dishwashers. wind energy - the kinetic energy present in the motion of the wind. wind energy can be converted to mechanical or electrical energy. a traditional mechanical windmill can be used for pumping water or grinding grain. a modern electrical wind turbine converts the force of the wind to electrical energy for consumption on - site and / or export to the electricity grid. wind turbines β see wind energy. work β physical or mental effort ; a force exerted for a distance ; an energy transformation process which results in a change of concentration or form of energy. = = z = = zero waste β turning waste into resource ; the redesign of resource - use so that waste can ultimately be reduced to zero ; ensuring that by - products are used elsewhere and goods are recycled, in emulation of the cycling of wastes in nature. = = see also = = environmental science climate change acronyms glossary of climate change list of environmental issues list of sustainability topics = = references = = = = external links = = environmental terminology discovery service β eea ( multilingual environmental glossary in 28 languages : ar, bg, cs, da, de, el, en, es, et, eu, fi, fr, hu, is, it, lt, lv, mt, nl, no, pl, pt, ro, ru, sk, sl, sv, tr )
##ed organic matter. abiotic : resources that originate from non - living and inorganic material. these include land, water, air, rare - earth elements, and heavy metals including ores, such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. = = = stage of development = = = potential resources : resources that are known to exist, but have not been utilized yet. these may be used in the future. for example, petroleum in sedimentary rocks that, until extracted and put to use, remains a potential resource. actual resources : resources that have been surveyed, quantified and qualified, and are currently used in development. these are typically dependent on technology and the level of their feasibility, wood processing for example. reserves : the part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the future. stocks : resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to lack of technology, hydrogen vehicles for example. = = = renewability / exhaustibility = = = renewable resources : these resources can be replenished naturally. some of these resources, like solar energy, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are not noticeably affected by human consumption. though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over - use. resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of replenishment / recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. they replenish easily compared to non - renewable resources. non - renewable resources : these resources are formed over a long geological time period in the environment and cannot be renewed easily. minerals are the most common resource included in this category. from the human perspective, resources are non - renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment / recovery ; a good example of this is fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow ( potentially millions of years ), meaning they are considered non - renewable. some resources naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio - active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. of these, the metallic minerals can be re - used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. = = = ownership = = = individual resources : resources owned privately by individuals. these include plots, houses, plantations, pastures, ponds, etc. community resources : resources which are accessible to all the members of a community. e. g. : cemeteries
##ynthesis β the transformation of radiant energy to chemical energy by plants ; the manufacture by plants of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. the reaction is driven by energy from sunlight, catalysed by chlorophyll and releases oxygen as a byproduct. the capture of the sun's energy ( primary production ) to power all life on earth ( consumption ). photovoltaic - the direct conversion of light into electricity phytoplankton β plant plankton cf. plankton. plankton β mostly microscopic animal and plant life suspended in water and a valuable food source for animals cf. phytoplankton. plant quality - a standard of plant appearance or yield. plastic - one of many high - polymeric substances, including both natural and synthetic products, but excluding rubbers. at some stage in its manufacture every plastic is capable of flowing, under heat and pressure, if necessary, into the desired final shape. polluter pays principle ( ppp ) - the principle that producers of pollution should in some way compensate others for the effects of their pollution. polyethylene terephthalate ( pet ) β a clear, tough, light and shatterproof type of plastic, used to make products such as soft drink bottles, film packaging and fabrics. polypropylene ( pp ) - a member of the polyelofin family of plastics. pp is light, rigid and glossy and is used to make products such as washing machine agitators, clear film packaging, carpet fibres and housewares. polystyrene ( ps ) - a member of the styrene family of plastics. ps is easy to mould and is used to make refrigerator and washing machine components. it can be foamed to make single use packaging, such as cups, meat and produce trays. polyvinyl chloride ( pvc ) - a member of the vinyl family of plastics. pvc can be clear, flexible or rigid and is used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. postconsumer material or waste - material or product that has served its intended purpose and has been discarded for disposal or recovery. this includes returns of material from the distribution chain ; waste that is collected and sorted after use ; kerbside waste cf. pre - consumer waste. potable β safe to drink. power - the rate at which work is done ; electrically, power = current x voltage ( p = i v ) precautionary principle
energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. all living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. in order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. the arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow ; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way. the unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy ( originating externally from the sun via solar radiation ) to and among organisms. = = energetics and the carbon cycle = = the first step in energetics is photosynthesis, where in water and carbon dioxide from the air are taken in with energy from the sun, and are converted into oxygen and glucose. cellular respiration is the reverse reaction, wherein oxygen and sugar are taken in and release energy as they are converted back into carbon dioxide and water. the carbon dioxide and water produced by respiration can be recycled back into plants. energy loss can be measured either by efficiency ( how much energy makes it to the next level ), or by biomass ( how much living material exists at those levels at one point in time, measured by standing crop ). of all the net primary productivity at the producer trophic level, in general only 10 % goes to the next level, the primary consumers, then only 10 % of that 10 % goes on to the next trophic level, and so on up the food pyramid. ecological efficiency may be anywhere from 5 % to 20 % depending on how efficient or inefficient that ecosystem is. this decrease in efficiency occurs because organisms need to perform cellular respiration to survive, and energy is lost as heat when cellular respiration is performed. that is also why there are fewer tertiary consumers than there are producers. = = primary production = = a producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. producers are important because they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose, as
Answer:
|
water
| 0.3 |
food is a source of energy for what?
0. waterfalls
1. fires
2. grass snakes
3. mountains
energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. all living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. in order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. the arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow ; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way. the unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy ( originating externally from the sun via solar radiation ) to and among organisms. = = energetics and the carbon cycle = = the first step in energetics is photosynthesis, where in water and carbon dioxide from the air are taken in with energy from the sun, and are converted into oxygen and glucose. cellular respiration is the reverse reaction, wherein oxygen and sugar are taken in and release energy as they are converted back into carbon dioxide and water. the carbon dioxide and water produced by respiration can be recycled back into plants. energy loss can be measured either by efficiency ( how much energy makes it to the next level ), or by biomass ( how much living material exists at those levels at one point in time, measured by standing crop ). of all the net primary productivity at the producer trophic level, in general only 10 % goes to the next level, the primary consumers, then only 10 % of that 10 % goes on to the next trophic level, and so on up the food pyramid. ecological efficiency may be anywhere from 5 % to 20 % depending on how efficient or inefficient that ecosystem is. this decrease in efficiency occurs because organisms need to perform cellular respiration to survive, and energy is lost as heat when cellular respiration is performed. that is also why there are fewer tertiary consumers than there are producers. = = primary production = = a producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. producers are important because they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose, as
energy to higher trophic levels vary across ecosystems. among aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, patterns have been identified that can account for this variation and have been divided into two main pathways of control : top - down and bottom - up. the acting mechanisms within each pathway ultimately regulate community and trophic level structure within an ecosystem to varying degrees. bottom - up controls involve mechanisms that are based on resource quality and availability, which control primary productivity and the subsequent flow of energy and biomass to higher trophic levels. top - down controls involve mechanisms that are based on consumption by consumers. these mechanisms control the rate of energy transfer from one trophic level to another as herbivores or predators feed on lower trophic levels. = = = aquatic vs terrestrial ecosystems = = = much variation in the flow of energy is found within each type of ecosystem, creating a challenge in identifying variation between ecosystem types. in a general sense, the flow of energy is a function of primary productivity with temperature, water availability, and light availability. for example, among aquatic ecosystems, higher rates of production are usually found in large rivers and shallow lakes than in deep lakes and clear headwater streams. among terrestrial ecosystems, marshes, swamps, and tropical rainforests have the highest primary production rates, whereas tundra and alpine ecosystems have the lowest. the relationships between primary production and environmental conditions have helped account for variation within ecosystem types, allowing ecologists to demonstrate that energy flows more efficiently through aquatic ecosystems than terrestrial ecosystems due to the various bottom - up and top - down controls in play. = = = = bottom - up = = = = the strength of bottom - up controls on energy flow are determined by the nutritional quality, size, and growth rates of primary producers in an ecosystem. photosynthetic material is typically rich in nitrogen ( n ) and phosphorus ( p ) and supplements the high herbivore demand for n and p across all ecosystems. aquatic primary production is dominated by small, single - celled phytoplankton that are mostly composed of photosynthetic material, providing an efficient source of these nutrients for herbivores. in contrast, multi - cellular terrestrial plants contain many large supporting cellulose structures of high carbon but low nutrient value. because of this structural difference, aquatic primary producers have less biomass per photosynthetic tissue stored within the aquatic ecosystem than in the forests and grasslands of terrestrial ecosystems. this low biomass relative to photosynthetic material in aquatic ecosystems allows for a more efficient turnover rate compared to terrestrial ecosystems. as ph
by the local primary production. energy usually enters ecosystems from the sun. the primary producers at the base of the pyramid use solar radiation to power photosynthesis which produces food. however most wavelengths in solar radiation cannot be used for photosynthesis, so they are reflected back into space or absorbed elsewhere and converted to heat. only 1 to 2 percent of the energy from the sun is absorbed by photosynthetic processes and converted into food. when energy is transferred to higher trophic levels, on average only about 10 % is used at each level to build biomass, becoming stored energy. the rest goes to metabolic processes such as growth, respiration, and reproduction. advantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation : it takes account of the rate of production over a period of time. two species of comparable biomass may have very different life spans. thus, a direct comparison of their total biomasses is misleading, but their productivity is directly comparable. the relative energy chain within an ecosystem can be compared using pyramids of energy ; also different ecosystems can be compared. there are no inverted pyramids. the input of solar energy can be added. disadvantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation : the rate of biomass production of an organism is required, which involves measuring growth and reproduction through time. there is still the difficulty of assigning the organisms to a specific trophic level. as well as the organisms in the food chains there is the problem of assigning the decomposers and detritivores to a particular level. = = pyramid of biomass = = a pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an ecological community at a particular time. it is a graphical representation of biomass ( total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem ) present in unit area in different trophic levels. typical units are grams per square meter, or calories per square meter. the pyramid of biomass may be " inverted ". for example, in a pond ecosystem, the standing crop of phytoplankton, the major producers, at any given point will be lower than the mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and insects. this is explained as the phytoplankton reproduce very quickly, but have much shorter individual lives. = = pyramid of numbers = = a pyramid of numbers graphically shows the population, or abundance, in terms of the number of individual organisms involved at each level in a food chain.
- to high - quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy ( i. e. highest quality ) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90 %. in contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25 % ( cars ) to 50 percent ( modern power plants ). the chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality. = = m = = magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the earth ( or any other terrestrial planet ) that often collects in a magma chamber and is ejected by volcano's. manure - organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. market benefits - benefits of a climate policy that can be measured in terms of avoided market impacts such as changes in resource productivity ( e. g., lower agricultural yields, scarcer water resources ) and damages to human - built environment ( e. g., coastal flooding due to sea - level rise ). material flow β the cycling of materials, which is driven by the flow of energy. material identification - words, numbers or symbols used to designate composition of components of a product or packaging. note : a material identification symbol does not indicate whether an item can be recycled. materials recovery facility ( mrf ) - a centre for the reception and transfer of materials recovered from the waste stream. at a mrf, materials are also sorted by type and treated ( e. g. cleaned, compressed ) mauna loa record - the record of measurement of atmospheric co2 concentrations taken at mauna loa observatory, mauna loa, hawaii, since march 1958. this record shows the continuing increase in average annual atmospheric co2 concentrations. maximum soil water deficit β amount of water stored in the soil that is readily available to plants megadiverse countries β the 17 countries that are home to the largest fraction of wild species ( australia is one such ) microorganism β an organism visible only through a microscope. middle east β 15 countries - bahrain, islamic rep. iran, iraq, israel, jordan, kuwait, lebanon, oman, qatar, saudi arabia, syria, united arab emirates, yemen. mitigation hierarchy - a tool that aims to help management of biodiversity risk and is commonly applied in environmental impact assessments. it includes a hierarchy of steps ( but is not limited to ) : avoidance, minimisation, rehabilitation, restoration, and offset. mobile garbage bin - a wheeled kerbside container for the collection of
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. ΓΈvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
Answer:
|
grass snakes
| null |
food is a source of energy for what?
0. waterfalls
1. fires
2. grass snakes
3. mountains
energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. all living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. in order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. the arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow ; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way. the unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy ( originating externally from the sun via solar radiation ) to and among organisms. = = energetics and the carbon cycle = = the first step in energetics is photosynthesis, where in water and carbon dioxide from the air are taken in with energy from the sun, and are converted into oxygen and glucose. cellular respiration is the reverse reaction, wherein oxygen and sugar are taken in and release energy as they are converted back into carbon dioxide and water. the carbon dioxide and water produced by respiration can be recycled back into plants. energy loss can be measured either by efficiency ( how much energy makes it to the next level ), or by biomass ( how much living material exists at those levels at one point in time, measured by standing crop ). of all the net primary productivity at the producer trophic level, in general only 10 % goes to the next level, the primary consumers, then only 10 % of that 10 % goes on to the next trophic level, and so on up the food pyramid. ecological efficiency may be anywhere from 5 % to 20 % depending on how efficient or inefficient that ecosystem is. this decrease in efficiency occurs because organisms need to perform cellular respiration to survive, and energy is lost as heat when cellular respiration is performed. that is also why there are fewer tertiary consumers than there are producers. = = primary production = = a producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. producers are important because they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose, as
energy to higher trophic levels vary across ecosystems. among aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, patterns have been identified that can account for this variation and have been divided into two main pathways of control : top - down and bottom - up. the acting mechanisms within each pathway ultimately regulate community and trophic level structure within an ecosystem to varying degrees. bottom - up controls involve mechanisms that are based on resource quality and availability, which control primary productivity and the subsequent flow of energy and biomass to higher trophic levels. top - down controls involve mechanisms that are based on consumption by consumers. these mechanisms control the rate of energy transfer from one trophic level to another as herbivores or predators feed on lower trophic levels. = = = aquatic vs terrestrial ecosystems = = = much variation in the flow of energy is found within each type of ecosystem, creating a challenge in identifying variation between ecosystem types. in a general sense, the flow of energy is a function of primary productivity with temperature, water availability, and light availability. for example, among aquatic ecosystems, higher rates of production are usually found in large rivers and shallow lakes than in deep lakes and clear headwater streams. among terrestrial ecosystems, marshes, swamps, and tropical rainforests have the highest primary production rates, whereas tundra and alpine ecosystems have the lowest. the relationships between primary production and environmental conditions have helped account for variation within ecosystem types, allowing ecologists to demonstrate that energy flows more efficiently through aquatic ecosystems than terrestrial ecosystems due to the various bottom - up and top - down controls in play. = = = = bottom - up = = = = the strength of bottom - up controls on energy flow are determined by the nutritional quality, size, and growth rates of primary producers in an ecosystem. photosynthetic material is typically rich in nitrogen ( n ) and phosphorus ( p ) and supplements the high herbivore demand for n and p across all ecosystems. aquatic primary production is dominated by small, single - celled phytoplankton that are mostly composed of photosynthetic material, providing an efficient source of these nutrients for herbivores. in contrast, multi - cellular terrestrial plants contain many large supporting cellulose structures of high carbon but low nutrient value. because of this structural difference, aquatic primary producers have less biomass per photosynthetic tissue stored within the aquatic ecosystem than in the forests and grasslands of terrestrial ecosystems. this low biomass relative to photosynthetic material in aquatic ecosystems allows for a more efficient turnover rate compared to terrestrial ecosystems. as ph
by the local primary production. energy usually enters ecosystems from the sun. the primary producers at the base of the pyramid use solar radiation to power photosynthesis which produces food. however most wavelengths in solar radiation cannot be used for photosynthesis, so they are reflected back into space or absorbed elsewhere and converted to heat. only 1 to 2 percent of the energy from the sun is absorbed by photosynthetic processes and converted into food. when energy is transferred to higher trophic levels, on average only about 10 % is used at each level to build biomass, becoming stored energy. the rest goes to metabolic processes such as growth, respiration, and reproduction. advantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation : it takes account of the rate of production over a period of time. two species of comparable biomass may have very different life spans. thus, a direct comparison of their total biomasses is misleading, but their productivity is directly comparable. the relative energy chain within an ecosystem can be compared using pyramids of energy ; also different ecosystems can be compared. there are no inverted pyramids. the input of solar energy can be added. disadvantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation : the rate of biomass production of an organism is required, which involves measuring growth and reproduction through time. there is still the difficulty of assigning the organisms to a specific trophic level. as well as the organisms in the food chains there is the problem of assigning the decomposers and detritivores to a particular level. = = pyramid of biomass = = a pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an ecological community at a particular time. it is a graphical representation of biomass ( total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem ) present in unit area in different trophic levels. typical units are grams per square meter, or calories per square meter. the pyramid of biomass may be " inverted ". for example, in a pond ecosystem, the standing crop of phytoplankton, the major producers, at any given point will be lower than the mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and insects. this is explained as the phytoplankton reproduce very quickly, but have much shorter individual lives. = = pyramid of numbers = = a pyramid of numbers graphically shows the population, or abundance, in terms of the number of individual organisms involved at each level in a food chain.
- to high - quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy ( i. e. highest quality ) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90 %. in contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25 % ( cars ) to 50 percent ( modern power plants ). the chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality. = = m = = magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the earth ( or any other terrestrial planet ) that often collects in a magma chamber and is ejected by volcano's. manure - organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. market benefits - benefits of a climate policy that can be measured in terms of avoided market impacts such as changes in resource productivity ( e. g., lower agricultural yields, scarcer water resources ) and damages to human - built environment ( e. g., coastal flooding due to sea - level rise ). material flow β the cycling of materials, which is driven by the flow of energy. material identification - words, numbers or symbols used to designate composition of components of a product or packaging. note : a material identification symbol does not indicate whether an item can be recycled. materials recovery facility ( mrf ) - a centre for the reception and transfer of materials recovered from the waste stream. at a mrf, materials are also sorted by type and treated ( e. g. cleaned, compressed ) mauna loa record - the record of measurement of atmospheric co2 concentrations taken at mauna loa observatory, mauna loa, hawaii, since march 1958. this record shows the continuing increase in average annual atmospheric co2 concentrations. maximum soil water deficit β amount of water stored in the soil that is readily available to plants megadiverse countries β the 17 countries that are home to the largest fraction of wild species ( australia is one such ) microorganism β an organism visible only through a microscope. middle east β 15 countries - bahrain, islamic rep. iran, iraq, israel, jordan, kuwait, lebanon, oman, qatar, saudi arabia, syria, united arab emirates, yemen. mitigation hierarchy - a tool that aims to help management of biodiversity risk and is commonly applied in environmental impact assessments. it includes a hierarchy of steps ( but is not limited to ) : avoidance, minimisation, rehabilitation, restoration, and offset. mobile garbage bin - a wheeled kerbside container for the collection of
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. ΓΈvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
Answer:
|
mountains
| 0.3 |
Heavy atmospheric movement is desirable if you have
0. paper plates
1. perfect hair
2. a wind turbine
3. a badminton match
journal of aeronautical sciences 15 : 232 β 6 dowell, e. h., a modern course on aeroelasticity. isbn 90 - 286 - 0057 - 4. fung, y. c., an introduction to the theory of aeroelasticity. dover, 1994, isbn 978 - 0 - 486 - 67871 - 9. hodges, d. h. and pierce, a., introduction to structural dynamics and aeroelasticity, cambridge, 2002, isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 80698 - 5. wright, j. r. and cooper, j. e., introduction to aircraft aeroelasticity and loads, wiley 2007, isbn 978 - 0 - 470 - 85840 - 0. hoque, m. e., " active flutter control ", lap lambert academic publishing, germany, 2010, isbn 978 - 3 - 8383 - 6851 - 1. collar, a. r., " the first fifty years of aeroelasticity ", aerospace, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 12 β 20, 1978. garrick, i. e. and reed w. h., " historical development of aircraft flutter ", journal of aircraft, vol. 18, pp. 897 β 912, nov. 1981. patrick r. veillette ( aug 23, 2018 ). " low - speed buffet : high - altitude, transonic training weakness continues ". business & commercial aviation. aviation week network. = = external links = = aeroelasticity branch β nasa langley research center dlr institute of aeroelasticity national aerospace laboratory the aeroelasticity group β texas a & m university naca technical reports β nasa langley research center nasa aeroelasticity handbook
wind engineering is a subset of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics that analyzes the effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. in the field of engineering it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. in the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production and dispersion of contaminants. wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems, and a number of specialist engineering disciplines, including aerodynamics and structural dynamics. the tools used include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and computational fluid dynamics models. wind engineering involves, among other topics : wind impact on structures ( buildings, bridges, towers ) wind comfort near buildings effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building wind climate for wind energy air pollution near buildings wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and explosion protection. some sports stadiums such as candlestick park and arthur ashe stadium are known for their strong, sometimes swirly winds, which affect the playing conditions. = = history = = wind engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the uk in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held at the national physical laboratory, the building research establishment, and elsewhere. the term " wind engineering " was first coined in 1970. alan garnett davenport was one of the most prominent contributors to the development of wind engineering. he is well known for developing the alan davenport wind - loading chain or in short " wind - loading chain " that describes how different components contribute to the final load calculated on the structure. = = wind loads on buildings = = the design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind shear. for engineering purposes, a power law wind - speed profile may be defined as : v z = v g β
( z z g ) 1 Ξ±, 0 < z < z g { \ displaystyle \ v _ { z } = v _ { g } \ cdot \ left ( { \ frac { z } { z _ { g } } } \ right ) ^ { \ frac { 1 } { \ alpha } }, 0 < z < z _ { g } } where : v z { \ displaystyle \ v _ { z } } =
surfaces at serviceability wind speeds water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few, well - scattered obstructions having heights generally from 1. 5 to 10 m terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3 to 5 m high, such as areas of suburban housing terrain with numerous large, high ( 10 to 30 m high ) and closely spaced obstructions, such as large city centres and well - developed industrial complexes = = wind turbines = = wind turbines are affected by wind shear. vertical wind - speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this, in turn, affects the turbine operation. the wind gradient can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical. the reduced wind gradient over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas. for wind turbine engineering, wind speed variation with height is often approximated using a power law : v w ( h ) = v r e f β
( h h r e f ) a { \ displaystyle \ v _ { w } ( h ) = v _ { ref } \ cdot \ left ( { \ frac { h } { h _ { ref } } } \ right ) ^ { a } } where : v w ( h ) { \ displaystyle \ v _ { w } ( h ) } = velocity of the wind at height h { \ displaystyle h } [ m / s ] v r e f { \ displaystyle \ v _ { ref } } = velocity of the wind at some reference height h r e f { \ displaystyle h _ { ref } } [ m / s ] a { \ displaystyle \ a } = hellman exponent ( aka power law exponent or shear exponent ) ( ~ = 1 / 7 in neutral flow, but can be > 1 ) = = significance = = the knowledge of wind engineering is used to analyze and design all high - rise buildings, cable - suspension bridges and cable - stayed bridges, electricity transmission towers and telecommunication towers and all other types of towers and chimneys. the wind load is the dominant load in the analysis of many tall buildings, so wind engineering is essential for their analysis and design. again, wind load is a dominant load in the analysis and design of all long - span cable bridges. = = see also = = hurricane engineering john twidell vibration control wind tunnel testing world wind energy association damping alan g. davenport = = references = =
aeroelasticity is the branch of physics and engineering studying the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces occurring while an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. the study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields : static aeroelasticity dealing with the static or steady state response of an elastic body to a fluid flow, and dynamic aeroelasticity dealing with the body's dynamic ( typically vibrational ) response. aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight while enduring large aerodynamic loads. aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems : divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the twist of a wing which further increases forces ; control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic moment that reduces, or in extreme cases reverses, the control effectiveness ; and flutter which is uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an aircraft. aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration tests and flight flutter trials. flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful placement of mass balances. the synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity. = = history = = the second failure of samuel langley's prototype plane on the potomac was attributed to aeroelastic effects ( specifically, torsional divergence ). an early scientific work on the subject was george bryan's theory of the stability of a rigid aeroplane published in 1906. problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the first world war and were solved largely by trial - and - error and ad hoc stiffening of the wing. the first recorded and documented case of flutter in an aircraft was that which occurred to a handley page o / 400 bomber during a flight in 1916, when it suffered a violent tail oscillation, which caused extreme distortion of the rear fuselage and the elevators to move asymmetrically. although the aircraft landed safely, in the subsequent investigation f. w. lanchester was consulted. one of his recommendations was that left and right elevators should be rigidly connected by a stiff shaft, which was to subsequently become a design requirement. in addition, the national physical laboratory ( npl ) was asked to investigate the phenomenon theoretically, which was subsequently carried out by leonard bairstow and arthur fa
) ventilation shaft solar chimney solar updraft tower draft ( boiler ) inco superstack ekibastuz gres - 2 power station windcatcher cross ventilation = = references = = = = external links = = stack effect : when buildings act like chimneys - - green building advisor national research council canada - cbd - 104 stack effects in buildings stack effect simulation on youtube
Answer:
|
a wind turbine
| null |
Heavy atmospheric movement is desirable if you have
0. paper plates
1. perfect hair
2. a wind turbine
3. a badminton match
journal of aeronautical sciences 15 : 232 β 6 dowell, e. h., a modern course on aeroelasticity. isbn 90 - 286 - 0057 - 4. fung, y. c., an introduction to the theory of aeroelasticity. dover, 1994, isbn 978 - 0 - 486 - 67871 - 9. hodges, d. h. and pierce, a., introduction to structural dynamics and aeroelasticity, cambridge, 2002, isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 80698 - 5. wright, j. r. and cooper, j. e., introduction to aircraft aeroelasticity and loads, wiley 2007, isbn 978 - 0 - 470 - 85840 - 0. hoque, m. e., " active flutter control ", lap lambert academic publishing, germany, 2010, isbn 978 - 3 - 8383 - 6851 - 1. collar, a. r., " the first fifty years of aeroelasticity ", aerospace, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 12 β 20, 1978. garrick, i. e. and reed w. h., " historical development of aircraft flutter ", journal of aircraft, vol. 18, pp. 897 β 912, nov. 1981. patrick r. veillette ( aug 23, 2018 ). " low - speed buffet : high - altitude, transonic training weakness continues ". business & commercial aviation. aviation week network. = = external links = = aeroelasticity branch β nasa langley research center dlr institute of aeroelasticity national aerospace laboratory the aeroelasticity group β texas a & m university naca technical reports β nasa langley research center nasa aeroelasticity handbook
wind engineering is a subset of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics that analyzes the effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. in the field of engineering it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. in the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production and dispersion of contaminants. wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems, and a number of specialist engineering disciplines, including aerodynamics and structural dynamics. the tools used include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and computational fluid dynamics models. wind engineering involves, among other topics : wind impact on structures ( buildings, bridges, towers ) wind comfort near buildings effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building wind climate for wind energy air pollution near buildings wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and explosion protection. some sports stadiums such as candlestick park and arthur ashe stadium are known for their strong, sometimes swirly winds, which affect the playing conditions. = = history = = wind engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the uk in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held at the national physical laboratory, the building research establishment, and elsewhere. the term " wind engineering " was first coined in 1970. alan garnett davenport was one of the most prominent contributors to the development of wind engineering. he is well known for developing the alan davenport wind - loading chain or in short " wind - loading chain " that describes how different components contribute to the final load calculated on the structure. = = wind loads on buildings = = the design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind shear. for engineering purposes, a power law wind - speed profile may be defined as : v z = v g β
( z z g ) 1 Ξ±, 0 < z < z g { \ displaystyle \ v _ { z } = v _ { g } \ cdot \ left ( { \ frac { z } { z _ { g } } } \ right ) ^ { \ frac { 1 } { \ alpha } }, 0 < z < z _ { g } } where : v z { \ displaystyle \ v _ { z } } =
surfaces at serviceability wind speeds water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few, well - scattered obstructions having heights generally from 1. 5 to 10 m terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3 to 5 m high, such as areas of suburban housing terrain with numerous large, high ( 10 to 30 m high ) and closely spaced obstructions, such as large city centres and well - developed industrial complexes = = wind turbines = = wind turbines are affected by wind shear. vertical wind - speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this, in turn, affects the turbine operation. the wind gradient can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical. the reduced wind gradient over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas. for wind turbine engineering, wind speed variation with height is often approximated using a power law : v w ( h ) = v r e f β
( h h r e f ) a { \ displaystyle \ v _ { w } ( h ) = v _ { ref } \ cdot \ left ( { \ frac { h } { h _ { ref } } } \ right ) ^ { a } } where : v w ( h ) { \ displaystyle \ v _ { w } ( h ) } = velocity of the wind at height h { \ displaystyle h } [ m / s ] v r e f { \ displaystyle \ v _ { ref } } = velocity of the wind at some reference height h r e f { \ displaystyle h _ { ref } } [ m / s ] a { \ displaystyle \ a } = hellman exponent ( aka power law exponent or shear exponent ) ( ~ = 1 / 7 in neutral flow, but can be > 1 ) = = significance = = the knowledge of wind engineering is used to analyze and design all high - rise buildings, cable - suspension bridges and cable - stayed bridges, electricity transmission towers and telecommunication towers and all other types of towers and chimneys. the wind load is the dominant load in the analysis of many tall buildings, so wind engineering is essential for their analysis and design. again, wind load is a dominant load in the analysis and design of all long - span cable bridges. = = see also = = hurricane engineering john twidell vibration control wind tunnel testing world wind energy association damping alan g. davenport = = references = =
aeroelasticity is the branch of physics and engineering studying the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces occurring while an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. the study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields : static aeroelasticity dealing with the static or steady state response of an elastic body to a fluid flow, and dynamic aeroelasticity dealing with the body's dynamic ( typically vibrational ) response. aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight while enduring large aerodynamic loads. aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems : divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the twist of a wing which further increases forces ; control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic moment that reduces, or in extreme cases reverses, the control effectiveness ; and flutter which is uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an aircraft. aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration tests and flight flutter trials. flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful placement of mass balances. the synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity. = = history = = the second failure of samuel langley's prototype plane on the potomac was attributed to aeroelastic effects ( specifically, torsional divergence ). an early scientific work on the subject was george bryan's theory of the stability of a rigid aeroplane published in 1906. problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the first world war and were solved largely by trial - and - error and ad hoc stiffening of the wing. the first recorded and documented case of flutter in an aircraft was that which occurred to a handley page o / 400 bomber during a flight in 1916, when it suffered a violent tail oscillation, which caused extreme distortion of the rear fuselage and the elevators to move asymmetrically. although the aircraft landed safely, in the subsequent investigation f. w. lanchester was consulted. one of his recommendations was that left and right elevators should be rigidly connected by a stiff shaft, which was to subsequently become a design requirement. in addition, the national physical laboratory ( npl ) was asked to investigate the phenomenon theoretically, which was subsequently carried out by leonard bairstow and arthur fa
) ventilation shaft solar chimney solar updraft tower draft ( boiler ) inco superstack ekibastuz gres - 2 power station windcatcher cross ventilation = = references = = = = external links = = stack effect : when buildings act like chimneys - - green building advisor national research council canada - cbd - 104 stack effects in buildings stack effect simulation on youtube
Answer:
|
a badminton match
| 0.3 |
Which of the following is likely to change an egg's shape and mass?
0. Placing it on a pillow
1. Dropping it from a building
2. Leaving it in a carton
3. Holding it in your hand
. we make a few assumptions : an egg that survives a fall can be used again. a broken egg must be discarded. the effect of a fall is the same for all eggs. if an egg breaks when dropped, then it would break if dropped from a higher window. if an egg survives a fall, then it would survive a shorter fall. it is not ruled out that the first - floor windows break eggs, nor is it ruled out that eggs can survive the 36th - floor windows. if only one egg is available and we wish to be sure of obtaining the right result, the experiment can be carried out in only one way. drop the egg from the first - floor window ; if it survives, drop it from the second - floor window. continue upward until it breaks. in the worst case, this method may require 36 droppings. suppose 2 eggs are available. what is the lowest number of egg - droppings that is guaranteed to work in all cases? to derive a dynamic programming functional equation for this puzzle, let the state of the dynamic programming model be a pair s = ( n, k ), where n = number of test eggs available, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n β 1. k = number of ( consecutive ) floors yet to be tested, k = 0, 1, 2,..., h β 1. for instance, s = ( 2, 6 ) indicates that two test eggs are available and 6 ( consecutive ) floors are yet to be tested. the initial state of the process is s = ( n, h ) where n denotes the number of test eggs available at the commencement of the experiment. the process terminates either when there are no more test eggs ( n = 0 ) or when k = 0, whichever occurs first. if termination occurs at state s = ( 0, k ) and k > 0, then the test failed. now, let w ( n, k ) = minimum number of trials required to identify the value of the critical floor under the worst - case scenario given that the process is in state s = ( n, k ). then it can be shown that w ( n, k ) = 1 + min { max ( w ( n β 1, x β 1 ), w ( n, k β x ) ) : x = 1, 2,..., k } with w ( n, 0 ) = 0 for all n > 0 and w ( 1, k ) = k for all k. it
the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row. children demonstrated conservation of weight and length through a similar task. in this one, children were shown two balls of playdoh that were equal in size. when asked whether they were the same or not, all children answered that yes, they were. afterwards, piaget rolled one of the balls into a longer string and asked the same question : β which one is bigger? β. children who experienced centration focused on the length of the newly shaped playdoh, or the width of the old playdoh, and often said that one or the other was bigger. those children who were able to focus on both dimensions, both length and width, were able to say that both clumps of playdoh were still the same size. = = egocentrism = = piaget believed that in each period of development, a deficit in cognitive thinking could be attributed to the concept of egocentrism. egocentrism, then, refers to the inability to distinguish one's own perspective from that of others, but does not necessarily imply selfishness or conceit. in speech, children are egocentric when they consider matters only from their own perspective. for example, a young egocentric boy might want to buy his mother a toy car for her birthday. this would not be a selfish act, as he would be getting her a present, but it would be an action that did not take into account the fact that the mother might not like the car. the child would assume that his mother would be thinking the same thing as himself, and would therefore love to receive a toy car as a gift. animism β the attribution of life to physical objects β also stems from egocentrism ; children assumed that everything functions just as they do. as long as children are egocentric, they fail to realize the extent to which each person has private, subjective experiences. in terms of moral reasoning, young children regard rules from one perspective, as absolutes handed down from adults or authority figures. just as the egocentric child views things from a single perspective, the child who fails to conserves focuses on only one aspect of the problem. for example, when water is poured from one glass into a
of 9 or 10 when weight is concerned, and around 11 or 12 years old when the invariant is volume. a 7 - year - old child understands that when one of two equivalent balls of clay is transformed into a sausage - shape, the two lumps still consist of equal amounts of clay. the child, however, fails to correctly comprehend that the differently shaped clumps of clay weigh the same. both tasks are similar, but the child is clearly unable to apply his understanding about the first situation to the second situation. a comparable phenomenon can be seen in a child's increasing ability to perform seriation tasks, which consists of ordering objects according to increasing or decreasing size. the ability to arrange rods in order of decreasing / increasing size is always acquired prior to the capacity to seriate according to weight. a commonly cited example of vertical decalage " can be observed between the constitution of practical or sensorimotor space and that of representative space " for example, at the age of 2, a child can navigate around a familiar environment, such as their home. it is not until years later that they can represent this knowledge symbolically by drawing a map. there is vertical decalage between a problem that a child can physically master and their ability to solve it in an abstract manner. = = neurobiological perspective = = some psychologists take a neural network model approach to the idea of horizontal and vertical decalage. according to these psychologists, horizontal and vertical decalage are the product of the development of the prefrontal cortex in children, which " contributes to age - related advances in flexible behavior ". certain tests and studies have been conducted to show how horizontal and vertical decalage are related to neural functioning. for example, scientists presented children with two identical balls of clay and then rolled one into a cylinder, changing its shape. when scientists then asked children which clump of clay contained more clay ( conservation of mass ), children were able to answer correctly that both clumps had equal amounts of clay. children of the same age, however, were unable to answer which clump of clay weighed more ( conservation of weight ). this is an example of horizontal decalage because children were able to solve certain conservation tasks but not others despite their similarities. according to the neural network approach, as a child's prefrontal cortex develops, he or she is better able to maintain their knowledge " rules " and apply problem solving techniques across different situations. the development of the prefrontal cortex comes from the strengthening of neural
decreases with ( maximum ) body size between species because large bodied species have relatively more reserve. many other life history parameters directly or indirectly relate to respiration. the observed respiration patterns, which reflect the use of energy. freshly laid eggs hardly respire, but their respiratory rates increase during development while egg weight decreases. after hatching, however, the respiration rate further increases, while the weight now also increases all mass fluxes are linear combinations of assimilation, dissipation and growth. if reserves are omitted, there is not enough flexibility to capture product formation and explain indirect calorimetry. = = references = =
eggs warm. use of incubators revolutionized food production, as it allowed chicks to hatch from eggs without requiring that a hen sit on them, thus freeing the hens to lay more eggs in a shorter period of time. both early egyptian and chinese incubators were essentially large rooms that were heated by fires, where attendants turned the eggs at regular intervals to ensure even heat distribution. = = = in the 16th and 17th century = = = the incubator received an update in the 16th century when jean baptiste porta drew on ancient egyptian design to create a more modern egg incubator. while he eventually had to discontinue his work due to the spanish inquisition, rene - antoine ferchault de reaumur took up the challenge in the middle of the 17th century. reaumur warmed his incubator with a wood stove and monitored its temperature using the reaumur thermometer, another of his inventions. = = = in the 19th century = = = in the 19th century, researchers finally began to recognize that the use of incubators could contribute to medical advancements. they began to experiment to find the ideal environment for maintaining cell culture stocks. these early incubators were simply made up of bell jars that contained a single lit candle. cultures were placed near the flame on the underside of the jar's lid, and the entire jar was placed in a dry, heated oven. in the late 19th century, doctors realized another practical use for incubators : keeping premature or weak infants alive. the first infant incubator, used at a women's hospital in paris, was heated by kerosene lamps. fifty years later, julius h. hess, an american physician often considered to be the father of neonatology, designed an electric infant incubator that closely resembles the infant incubators in use today. = = = in the 20th century = = = the next innovation in incubator technology came in the 1960s, when the co2 incubator was introduced to the market. demand came when doctors realized that they could use co2 incubators to identify and study pathogens found in patients'bodily fluids. to do this, a sample was harvested and placed onto a sterile dish and into the incubator. the air in the incubator was kept at 37 degrees celsius, the same temperature as the human body, and the incubator maintained the atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels necessary to promote cell growth. at this time, incubators also
Answer:
|
Dropping it from a building
| null |
Which of the following is likely to change an egg's shape and mass?
0. Placing it on a pillow
1. Dropping it from a building
2. Leaving it in a carton
3. Holding it in your hand
. we make a few assumptions : an egg that survives a fall can be used again. a broken egg must be discarded. the effect of a fall is the same for all eggs. if an egg breaks when dropped, then it would break if dropped from a higher window. if an egg survives a fall, then it would survive a shorter fall. it is not ruled out that the first - floor windows break eggs, nor is it ruled out that eggs can survive the 36th - floor windows. if only one egg is available and we wish to be sure of obtaining the right result, the experiment can be carried out in only one way. drop the egg from the first - floor window ; if it survives, drop it from the second - floor window. continue upward until it breaks. in the worst case, this method may require 36 droppings. suppose 2 eggs are available. what is the lowest number of egg - droppings that is guaranteed to work in all cases? to derive a dynamic programming functional equation for this puzzle, let the state of the dynamic programming model be a pair s = ( n, k ), where n = number of test eggs available, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n β 1. k = number of ( consecutive ) floors yet to be tested, k = 0, 1, 2,..., h β 1. for instance, s = ( 2, 6 ) indicates that two test eggs are available and 6 ( consecutive ) floors are yet to be tested. the initial state of the process is s = ( n, h ) where n denotes the number of test eggs available at the commencement of the experiment. the process terminates either when there are no more test eggs ( n = 0 ) or when k = 0, whichever occurs first. if termination occurs at state s = ( 0, k ) and k > 0, then the test failed. now, let w ( n, k ) = minimum number of trials required to identify the value of the critical floor under the worst - case scenario given that the process is in state s = ( n, k ). then it can be shown that w ( n, k ) = 1 + min { max ( w ( n β 1, x β 1 ), w ( n, k β x ) ) : x = 1, 2,..., k } with w ( n, 0 ) = 0 for all n > 0 and w ( 1, k ) = k for all k. it
the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row. children demonstrated conservation of weight and length through a similar task. in this one, children were shown two balls of playdoh that were equal in size. when asked whether they were the same or not, all children answered that yes, they were. afterwards, piaget rolled one of the balls into a longer string and asked the same question : β which one is bigger? β. children who experienced centration focused on the length of the newly shaped playdoh, or the width of the old playdoh, and often said that one or the other was bigger. those children who were able to focus on both dimensions, both length and width, were able to say that both clumps of playdoh were still the same size. = = egocentrism = = piaget believed that in each period of development, a deficit in cognitive thinking could be attributed to the concept of egocentrism. egocentrism, then, refers to the inability to distinguish one's own perspective from that of others, but does not necessarily imply selfishness or conceit. in speech, children are egocentric when they consider matters only from their own perspective. for example, a young egocentric boy might want to buy his mother a toy car for her birthday. this would not be a selfish act, as he would be getting her a present, but it would be an action that did not take into account the fact that the mother might not like the car. the child would assume that his mother would be thinking the same thing as himself, and would therefore love to receive a toy car as a gift. animism β the attribution of life to physical objects β also stems from egocentrism ; children assumed that everything functions just as they do. as long as children are egocentric, they fail to realize the extent to which each person has private, subjective experiences. in terms of moral reasoning, young children regard rules from one perspective, as absolutes handed down from adults or authority figures. just as the egocentric child views things from a single perspective, the child who fails to conserves focuses on only one aspect of the problem. for example, when water is poured from one glass into a
of 9 or 10 when weight is concerned, and around 11 or 12 years old when the invariant is volume. a 7 - year - old child understands that when one of two equivalent balls of clay is transformed into a sausage - shape, the two lumps still consist of equal amounts of clay. the child, however, fails to correctly comprehend that the differently shaped clumps of clay weigh the same. both tasks are similar, but the child is clearly unable to apply his understanding about the first situation to the second situation. a comparable phenomenon can be seen in a child's increasing ability to perform seriation tasks, which consists of ordering objects according to increasing or decreasing size. the ability to arrange rods in order of decreasing / increasing size is always acquired prior to the capacity to seriate according to weight. a commonly cited example of vertical decalage " can be observed between the constitution of practical or sensorimotor space and that of representative space " for example, at the age of 2, a child can navigate around a familiar environment, such as their home. it is not until years later that they can represent this knowledge symbolically by drawing a map. there is vertical decalage between a problem that a child can physically master and their ability to solve it in an abstract manner. = = neurobiological perspective = = some psychologists take a neural network model approach to the idea of horizontal and vertical decalage. according to these psychologists, horizontal and vertical decalage are the product of the development of the prefrontal cortex in children, which " contributes to age - related advances in flexible behavior ". certain tests and studies have been conducted to show how horizontal and vertical decalage are related to neural functioning. for example, scientists presented children with two identical balls of clay and then rolled one into a cylinder, changing its shape. when scientists then asked children which clump of clay contained more clay ( conservation of mass ), children were able to answer correctly that both clumps had equal amounts of clay. children of the same age, however, were unable to answer which clump of clay weighed more ( conservation of weight ). this is an example of horizontal decalage because children were able to solve certain conservation tasks but not others despite their similarities. according to the neural network approach, as a child's prefrontal cortex develops, he or she is better able to maintain their knowledge " rules " and apply problem solving techniques across different situations. the development of the prefrontal cortex comes from the strengthening of neural
decreases with ( maximum ) body size between species because large bodied species have relatively more reserve. many other life history parameters directly or indirectly relate to respiration. the observed respiration patterns, which reflect the use of energy. freshly laid eggs hardly respire, but their respiratory rates increase during development while egg weight decreases. after hatching, however, the respiration rate further increases, while the weight now also increases all mass fluxes are linear combinations of assimilation, dissipation and growth. if reserves are omitted, there is not enough flexibility to capture product formation and explain indirect calorimetry. = = references = =
eggs warm. use of incubators revolutionized food production, as it allowed chicks to hatch from eggs without requiring that a hen sit on them, thus freeing the hens to lay more eggs in a shorter period of time. both early egyptian and chinese incubators were essentially large rooms that were heated by fires, where attendants turned the eggs at regular intervals to ensure even heat distribution. = = = in the 16th and 17th century = = = the incubator received an update in the 16th century when jean baptiste porta drew on ancient egyptian design to create a more modern egg incubator. while he eventually had to discontinue his work due to the spanish inquisition, rene - antoine ferchault de reaumur took up the challenge in the middle of the 17th century. reaumur warmed his incubator with a wood stove and monitored its temperature using the reaumur thermometer, another of his inventions. = = = in the 19th century = = = in the 19th century, researchers finally began to recognize that the use of incubators could contribute to medical advancements. they began to experiment to find the ideal environment for maintaining cell culture stocks. these early incubators were simply made up of bell jars that contained a single lit candle. cultures were placed near the flame on the underside of the jar's lid, and the entire jar was placed in a dry, heated oven. in the late 19th century, doctors realized another practical use for incubators : keeping premature or weak infants alive. the first infant incubator, used at a women's hospital in paris, was heated by kerosene lamps. fifty years later, julius h. hess, an american physician often considered to be the father of neonatology, designed an electric infant incubator that closely resembles the infant incubators in use today. = = = in the 20th century = = = the next innovation in incubator technology came in the 1960s, when the co2 incubator was introduced to the market. demand came when doctors realized that they could use co2 incubators to identify and study pathogens found in patients'bodily fluids. to do this, a sample was harvested and placed onto a sterile dish and into the incubator. the air in the incubator was kept at 37 degrees celsius, the same temperature as the human body, and the incubator maintained the atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels necessary to promote cell growth. at this time, incubators also
Answer:
|
Placing it on a pillow
| 0.3 |
A bulldozer alters the area of
0. skyscrapers
1. the stock market
2. air
3. water
he is named after ". = = bull market = = prices in financial markets rise and fall. a bull market is a market condition in which prices are rising. this is the opposite of a bear market in which prices are declining. in the case of the stock market, a bull market occurs when major stock indices such as the s & p 500 and the dow rise at least 20 % and continue to rise. a bull market can last for months or even years. some common features of bull markets : investors are optimistic, or optimistic about stock prices. stocks go up even when there is negative news about the economy or a particular stock. growth is broad - based, and most stocks go up even if the company is doing poorly. the company's revenues are generally on the rise. the economy is thriving. measures for this include quarterly growth in gross domestic product ( gdp ) and falling unemployment. interest rates are not rising in a way that is seen as a threat to the market rally. = = sculptures of stock - market bulls = = several bronze statues of bulls representing positive investor sentiment exist near the locations of several stock markets or brokerage houses, for example : charging bull, a bronze statue by arturo di modica at bowling green, manhattan, new york city " bulle und bar sculptures by norbert marten in viersen, germany sofia stock exchange, bulgaria frankfurt stock exchange, germany islamabad stock exchange, pakistan bombay stock exchange, india amsterdam stock exchange ( beursplein 5 ), netherlands = = sources = = mortimer, thomas, every man his own broker, or, a guide to exchange - alley, 7th edition, london, 1879 stock market, bull stock market, " every stock is lower ", 9th edition, banglore, india, 2022 = = references = =
other buildings, such as the petronas towers, use double - deck elevators, allowing more people to fit in a single elevator, and reaching two floors at every stop. it is possible to use even more than two levels on an elevator, although this has never been done. the main problem with double - deck elevators is that they cause everyone in the elevator to stop when only person on one level needs to get off at a given floor. buildings with sky lobbies include the world trade center, petronas twin towers, willis tower and taipei 101. the 44th - floor sky lobby of the john hancock center also featured the first high - rise indoor swimming pool, which remains the highest in the united states. = = economic rationale = = skyscrapers are usually situated in city centres where the price of land is high. constructing a skyscraper becomes justified if the price of land is so high that it makes economic sense to build upward as to minimize the cost of the land per the total floor area of a building. thus the construction of skyscrapers is dictated by economics and results in skyscrapers in a certain part of a large city unless a building code restricts the height of buildings. skyscrapers are rarely seen in small cities and they are characteristic of large cities, because of the critical importance of high land prices for the construction of skyscrapers. usually only office, commercial and hotel users can afford the rents in the city center and thus most tenants of skyscrapers are of these classes. today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in the centres of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land. another disadvantage of very high skyscrapers is the loss of usable floorspace, as many elevator shafts are needed to enable performant vertical travelling. this led to the introduction of express lifts and sky lobbies where transfer to slower distribution lifts can be done. = = environmental impact = = constructing a single skyscraper requires large quantities of materials like steel, concrete, and glass, and these materials represent significant embodied energy. skyscrapers are thus material and energy intensive buildings. skyscrapers have considerable mass, requiring a stronger foundation than a shorter, lighter building. in construction, building materials must be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. furthermore, a skyscraper consumes much electricity because potable and non - potable water have to be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated
growth in volatile times, stuttgarter strategieforum velthius, carol ( 2010 ) : surfing the long summer : how market leaders grow faster than their markets, infinite ideas zook, chris ( 2007 ) : unstoppable : finding hidden assets to renew the core and fuel profitable growth ; mcgraw - hill professional zook, chris ; allen, james ( 2010 ) : profit from the core : a return to growth in turbulent times ; harvard business press
that i did not meet one or more houses shifting their quarters. one day i met nine. going out great madison street in the horse cars we had to stop twice to let houses get across. β the function for which such a building had been constructed would often be maintained during the move, with people dining, shopping and working in these buildings as they were rollered down the street. brick buildings also were moved from one location to another, and in 1866, the first of these β a brick building of two and a half stories β made the short move from madison street out to monroe street. later, many other much larger brick buildings were rolled much greater distances across chicago. = = see also = = wacker drive regrading in seattle seattle underground underground atlanta = = references = = = = external links = = the lifting of chicago : source documents primary document sources. raising chicago : an illustrated history
in finance, a bull is a speculator in a stock market who buys a holding in a stock in the expectation that, in the very short - term, it will rise in value, whereupon they will sell the stock to make a quick profit on the transaction. strictly speaking, the term applies to speculators who borrow money to fund such a purchase, and are thus under great pressure to complete the transaction before the loan is repayable or the seller of the stock demands payment on settlement day for delivery of the bargain. if the value of the stock falls contrary to their expectation, a bull suffers a loss, frequently very large if they are trading on margin. a bull has a great incentive to " talk - up " the value of their stock or to manipulate the market of their stock, for example by spreading false rumors, to procure a buyer or to cause a temporary price increase which will provide them with the selling opportunity and profit they require. a bull must be contrasted with an investor, who purchases a stock in expectation of a medium - term ( 5 years ) or long - term increase in value due to the underlying performance of the company and its assets. the speculator who takes a directly opposite view to the bull is the bear, who speculates on a stock decreasing in value, having sold short. a bull market is a period during which stock market prices rise over a sustained period, therefore to the advantage of bulls. = = history of the term = = an early mention of the terms bull and bear appears in the 1769 edition of thomas mortimer's book every man his own broker, published in london, as follows, relating to speculators operating in jonathan's coffee - house in exchange alley ( the original london proto - stock exchange ) : " a bull is the name by which the gentlemen of'change alley choose to call all persons who contract to buy any quantity of government securities, without an intention or ability to pay for it, and who consequently are obliged to sell it again, either at a profit or a loss, before the time comes when they have contracted to take it ". this refers to the former practice of stock - brokers, abolished circa 1980's in london, allowing their clients to trade on credit during a period of about two weeks, known as an account, on the completion of which all purchases and sales made during the account period had to be paid for on the settlement date. a net trading loss would result in the client having to make a cash payment to the broker. = = quasi
Answer:
|
skyscrapers
| null |
A bulldozer alters the area of
0. skyscrapers
1. the stock market
2. air
3. water
he is named after ". = = bull market = = prices in financial markets rise and fall. a bull market is a market condition in which prices are rising. this is the opposite of a bear market in which prices are declining. in the case of the stock market, a bull market occurs when major stock indices such as the s & p 500 and the dow rise at least 20 % and continue to rise. a bull market can last for months or even years. some common features of bull markets : investors are optimistic, or optimistic about stock prices. stocks go up even when there is negative news about the economy or a particular stock. growth is broad - based, and most stocks go up even if the company is doing poorly. the company's revenues are generally on the rise. the economy is thriving. measures for this include quarterly growth in gross domestic product ( gdp ) and falling unemployment. interest rates are not rising in a way that is seen as a threat to the market rally. = = sculptures of stock - market bulls = = several bronze statues of bulls representing positive investor sentiment exist near the locations of several stock markets or brokerage houses, for example : charging bull, a bronze statue by arturo di modica at bowling green, manhattan, new york city " bulle und bar sculptures by norbert marten in viersen, germany sofia stock exchange, bulgaria frankfurt stock exchange, germany islamabad stock exchange, pakistan bombay stock exchange, india amsterdam stock exchange ( beursplein 5 ), netherlands = = sources = = mortimer, thomas, every man his own broker, or, a guide to exchange - alley, 7th edition, london, 1879 stock market, bull stock market, " every stock is lower ", 9th edition, banglore, india, 2022 = = references = =
other buildings, such as the petronas towers, use double - deck elevators, allowing more people to fit in a single elevator, and reaching two floors at every stop. it is possible to use even more than two levels on an elevator, although this has never been done. the main problem with double - deck elevators is that they cause everyone in the elevator to stop when only person on one level needs to get off at a given floor. buildings with sky lobbies include the world trade center, petronas twin towers, willis tower and taipei 101. the 44th - floor sky lobby of the john hancock center also featured the first high - rise indoor swimming pool, which remains the highest in the united states. = = economic rationale = = skyscrapers are usually situated in city centres where the price of land is high. constructing a skyscraper becomes justified if the price of land is so high that it makes economic sense to build upward as to minimize the cost of the land per the total floor area of a building. thus the construction of skyscrapers is dictated by economics and results in skyscrapers in a certain part of a large city unless a building code restricts the height of buildings. skyscrapers are rarely seen in small cities and they are characteristic of large cities, because of the critical importance of high land prices for the construction of skyscrapers. usually only office, commercial and hotel users can afford the rents in the city center and thus most tenants of skyscrapers are of these classes. today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in the centres of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land. another disadvantage of very high skyscrapers is the loss of usable floorspace, as many elevator shafts are needed to enable performant vertical travelling. this led to the introduction of express lifts and sky lobbies where transfer to slower distribution lifts can be done. = = environmental impact = = constructing a single skyscraper requires large quantities of materials like steel, concrete, and glass, and these materials represent significant embodied energy. skyscrapers are thus material and energy intensive buildings. skyscrapers have considerable mass, requiring a stronger foundation than a shorter, lighter building. in construction, building materials must be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. furthermore, a skyscraper consumes much electricity because potable and non - potable water have to be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated
growth in volatile times, stuttgarter strategieforum velthius, carol ( 2010 ) : surfing the long summer : how market leaders grow faster than their markets, infinite ideas zook, chris ( 2007 ) : unstoppable : finding hidden assets to renew the core and fuel profitable growth ; mcgraw - hill professional zook, chris ; allen, james ( 2010 ) : profit from the core : a return to growth in turbulent times ; harvard business press
that i did not meet one or more houses shifting their quarters. one day i met nine. going out great madison street in the horse cars we had to stop twice to let houses get across. β the function for which such a building had been constructed would often be maintained during the move, with people dining, shopping and working in these buildings as they were rollered down the street. brick buildings also were moved from one location to another, and in 1866, the first of these β a brick building of two and a half stories β made the short move from madison street out to monroe street. later, many other much larger brick buildings were rolled much greater distances across chicago. = = see also = = wacker drive regrading in seattle seattle underground underground atlanta = = references = = = = external links = = the lifting of chicago : source documents primary document sources. raising chicago : an illustrated history
in finance, a bull is a speculator in a stock market who buys a holding in a stock in the expectation that, in the very short - term, it will rise in value, whereupon they will sell the stock to make a quick profit on the transaction. strictly speaking, the term applies to speculators who borrow money to fund such a purchase, and are thus under great pressure to complete the transaction before the loan is repayable or the seller of the stock demands payment on settlement day for delivery of the bargain. if the value of the stock falls contrary to their expectation, a bull suffers a loss, frequently very large if they are trading on margin. a bull has a great incentive to " talk - up " the value of their stock or to manipulate the market of their stock, for example by spreading false rumors, to procure a buyer or to cause a temporary price increase which will provide them with the selling opportunity and profit they require. a bull must be contrasted with an investor, who purchases a stock in expectation of a medium - term ( 5 years ) or long - term increase in value due to the underlying performance of the company and its assets. the speculator who takes a directly opposite view to the bull is the bear, who speculates on a stock decreasing in value, having sold short. a bull market is a period during which stock market prices rise over a sustained period, therefore to the advantage of bulls. = = history of the term = = an early mention of the terms bull and bear appears in the 1769 edition of thomas mortimer's book every man his own broker, published in london, as follows, relating to speculators operating in jonathan's coffee - house in exchange alley ( the original london proto - stock exchange ) : " a bull is the name by which the gentlemen of'change alley choose to call all persons who contract to buy any quantity of government securities, without an intention or ability to pay for it, and who consequently are obliged to sell it again, either at a profit or a loss, before the time comes when they have contracted to take it ". this refers to the former practice of stock - brokers, abolished circa 1980's in london, allowing their clients to trade on credit during a period of about two weeks, known as an account, on the completion of which all purchases and sales made during the account period had to be paid for on the settlement date. a net trading loss would result in the client having to make a cash payment to the broker. = = quasi
Answer:
|
the stock market
| 0.3 |
An organism that can survive without the help of other cells is
0. Brewer's yeast
1. air
2. sand
3. sugar
damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy. = = = = protists = = = = of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. this is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. the number of species of protists is unknown since only a small proportion has been identified. protist diversity is high in oceans, deep sea - vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered. = = = = fungi = = = = the fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast ( saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast ( schizosaccharomyces pombe ). some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. = = = = plants = = = = the green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. the green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. in the charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism. there are about 6000 species of green algae. = = ecology = = microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including hostile environments such as the north and south poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks. they also include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep sea. some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies ; these organisms are known as extremophiles. extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the earth's surface, and it has been suggested
to simple and stable environments with a constant substrate. this often favors specialization adaptations in domesticated microbes, associated with relaxed selection for non - useful genes in alternative metabolic strategies or pathogenicity. domestication might be partially responsible for the traits that promote aerobic fermentation in industrial species. introgression and hgt is common in saccharomyces domesticated strains. many commercial wine strains have significant portions of their dna derived from hgt of non - saccharomyces species. hgt and introgression are less common in nature than is seen during domestication pressures. for example, the important industrial yeast strain saccharomyces pastorianus is an interspecies hybrid of s. cerevisiae and the cold tolerant s. eubayanus. this hybrid is commonly used in lager - brewing, which requires slow, low temperature fermentation. = = aerobic fermentation in acetic acid bacteria = = acetic acid bacteria ( aab ) incompletely oxidize sugars and alcohols, usually glucose and ethanol, to acetic acid, in a process called aab oxidative fermentation ( aof ). after glycolysis, the produced pyruvate is broken down to acetaldehyde by pyruvate decarboxylase, which in turn is oxidized to acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. ethanol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase, which is then converted to acetic acid. both of these processes either generate nad ( p ) h, or shuttle electrons into the electron transport chain via ubiquinol. this process is exploited in the use of acetic acid bacteria to produce vinegar. = = tumor cells = = one of the hallmarks of cancer is altered metabolism or deregulating cellular energetics. cancers cells often have reprogrammed their glucose metabolism to perform lactic acid fermentation, in the presence of oxygen, rather than send the pyruvate made through glycolysis to the mitochondria. this is referred to as the warburg effect and is associated with high consumption of glucose and a high rate of glycolysis. atp production in these cancer cells is often only through the process of glycolysis and pyruvate is broken down by the fermentation process in the cell's cytoplasm. this phenomenon is often seen as counterintuitive,
of " co - actions ", which was later adopted by biologists as " interactions ". = = types = = = = = obligate versus facultative = = = relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. for example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own. the algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their part of the relationship is therefore described as facultative ( optional ), or non - obligate. when one of the participants in a symbiotic relationship is capable of photosynthesis, as with lichens, it is called photosymbiosis. = = = ectosymbiosis versus endosymbiosis = = = ectosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice ; commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles, which attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales ; and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish. contrastingly, endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. examples include diverse microbiomes : rhizobia, nitrogen - fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots ; actinomycetes, nitrogen - fixing bacteria such as frankia, which live in alder root nodules ; single - celled algae inside reef - building corals ; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % β 15 % of insects. in endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. as a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. these cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission ( heredity )
( humans have lost parts of the uric acid catabolic pathway during their evolution ). this problem can be remediated, however. one common method consists in a heat treatment which kills the cells, inactivates proteases and allows endogenous rnases to hydrolyse rna with release of nucleotides from cell to culture broth. similar to plant cells, the cell wall of some microorganisms such as algae and yeast contains indigestible components, such as cellulose. the cells of some kind of scp should be broken up in order to liberate the cell interior and allow complete digestion. some kind of scp exhibits unpleasant color and flavors. depending on the kind of scp and the cultivation conditions, care must be taken to prevent and control contamination by other microorganisms because contaminants may produce toxins such as mycotoxins or cyanotoxins. an interesting approach to address this problem was proposed with the fungus scytalidium acidophilum which grows at a ph as low as 1, outside the tolerance of most microorganisms. this allows it to grow on acid - hydrolysed paper waste at low - cost. some yeast and fungal proteins are deficient in methionine. = = see also = = solein : a single cell protein made by solar foods ltd. finland - based. kiverdi, inc and subsidiary air protein by lisa dyson. california - based. avecom - belgium - based unibio - denmark - based calysta - california - based circe biotechnologie - austria - based superbrewed food ( formerly white dog labs ). delaware - based deep branch - uk - based lanzatech nature's fynd - chicago - based kyanos novonutrients deep branch biotechnology fermentative hydrogen production hydrogenotrophs alternative foods microbial food cultures = = references = = = = external links = = media related to single - cell protein at wikimedia commons
a microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single - celled form or as a colony of cells. the possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from antiquity, with an early attestation in jain literature authored in 6th - century bc india. the scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by anton van leeuwenhoek. in the 1850s, louis pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. in the 1880s, robert koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax. microorganisms are extremely diverse, representing most unicellular organisms in all three domains of life : two of the three domains, archaea and bacteria, only contain microorganisms. the third domain, eukaryota, includes all multicellular organisms as well as many unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes. some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. many multicellular organisms are also microscopic, namely micro - animals, some fungi, and some algae. microorganisms can have very different habitats, and live everywhere from the poles to the equator, in deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure, and a few, such as deinococcus radiodurans, to high radiation environments. microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. there is evidence that 3. 45 - billion - year - old australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on earth. microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds. microbes are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. microbes are a vital component of fertile soil. in the human body, microorganisms make up the human microbiota, including the essential gut flora. the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures. = = discovery = = = = = ancient precursors = = =
Answer:
|
Brewer's yeast
| null |
An organism that can survive without the help of other cells is
0. Brewer's yeast
1. air
2. sand
3. sugar
damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy. = = = = protists = = = = of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. this is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. the number of species of protists is unknown since only a small proportion has been identified. protist diversity is high in oceans, deep sea - vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered. = = = = fungi = = = = the fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast ( saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast ( schizosaccharomyces pombe ). some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. = = = = plants = = = = the green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. the green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. in the charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism. there are about 6000 species of green algae. = = ecology = = microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including hostile environments such as the north and south poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks. they also include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep sea. some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies ; these organisms are known as extremophiles. extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the earth's surface, and it has been suggested
to simple and stable environments with a constant substrate. this often favors specialization adaptations in domesticated microbes, associated with relaxed selection for non - useful genes in alternative metabolic strategies or pathogenicity. domestication might be partially responsible for the traits that promote aerobic fermentation in industrial species. introgression and hgt is common in saccharomyces domesticated strains. many commercial wine strains have significant portions of their dna derived from hgt of non - saccharomyces species. hgt and introgression are less common in nature than is seen during domestication pressures. for example, the important industrial yeast strain saccharomyces pastorianus is an interspecies hybrid of s. cerevisiae and the cold tolerant s. eubayanus. this hybrid is commonly used in lager - brewing, which requires slow, low temperature fermentation. = = aerobic fermentation in acetic acid bacteria = = acetic acid bacteria ( aab ) incompletely oxidize sugars and alcohols, usually glucose and ethanol, to acetic acid, in a process called aab oxidative fermentation ( aof ). after glycolysis, the produced pyruvate is broken down to acetaldehyde by pyruvate decarboxylase, which in turn is oxidized to acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. ethanol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase, which is then converted to acetic acid. both of these processes either generate nad ( p ) h, or shuttle electrons into the electron transport chain via ubiquinol. this process is exploited in the use of acetic acid bacteria to produce vinegar. = = tumor cells = = one of the hallmarks of cancer is altered metabolism or deregulating cellular energetics. cancers cells often have reprogrammed their glucose metabolism to perform lactic acid fermentation, in the presence of oxygen, rather than send the pyruvate made through glycolysis to the mitochondria. this is referred to as the warburg effect and is associated with high consumption of glucose and a high rate of glycolysis. atp production in these cancer cells is often only through the process of glycolysis and pyruvate is broken down by the fermentation process in the cell's cytoplasm. this phenomenon is often seen as counterintuitive,
of " co - actions ", which was later adopted by biologists as " interactions ". = = types = = = = = obligate versus facultative = = = relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. for example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own. the algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their part of the relationship is therefore described as facultative ( optional ), or non - obligate. when one of the participants in a symbiotic relationship is capable of photosynthesis, as with lichens, it is called photosymbiosis. = = = ectosymbiosis versus endosymbiosis = = = ectosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice ; commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles, which attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales ; and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish. contrastingly, endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. examples include diverse microbiomes : rhizobia, nitrogen - fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots ; actinomycetes, nitrogen - fixing bacteria such as frankia, which live in alder root nodules ; single - celled algae inside reef - building corals ; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % β 15 % of insects. in endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. as a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. these cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission ( heredity )
( humans have lost parts of the uric acid catabolic pathway during their evolution ). this problem can be remediated, however. one common method consists in a heat treatment which kills the cells, inactivates proteases and allows endogenous rnases to hydrolyse rna with release of nucleotides from cell to culture broth. similar to plant cells, the cell wall of some microorganisms such as algae and yeast contains indigestible components, such as cellulose. the cells of some kind of scp should be broken up in order to liberate the cell interior and allow complete digestion. some kind of scp exhibits unpleasant color and flavors. depending on the kind of scp and the cultivation conditions, care must be taken to prevent and control contamination by other microorganisms because contaminants may produce toxins such as mycotoxins or cyanotoxins. an interesting approach to address this problem was proposed with the fungus scytalidium acidophilum which grows at a ph as low as 1, outside the tolerance of most microorganisms. this allows it to grow on acid - hydrolysed paper waste at low - cost. some yeast and fungal proteins are deficient in methionine. = = see also = = solein : a single cell protein made by solar foods ltd. finland - based. kiverdi, inc and subsidiary air protein by lisa dyson. california - based. avecom - belgium - based unibio - denmark - based calysta - california - based circe biotechnologie - austria - based superbrewed food ( formerly white dog labs ). delaware - based deep branch - uk - based lanzatech nature's fynd - chicago - based kyanos novonutrients deep branch biotechnology fermentative hydrogen production hydrogenotrophs alternative foods microbial food cultures = = references = = = = external links = = media related to single - cell protein at wikimedia commons
a microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single - celled form or as a colony of cells. the possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from antiquity, with an early attestation in jain literature authored in 6th - century bc india. the scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by anton van leeuwenhoek. in the 1850s, louis pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. in the 1880s, robert koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax. microorganisms are extremely diverse, representing most unicellular organisms in all three domains of life : two of the three domains, archaea and bacteria, only contain microorganisms. the third domain, eukaryota, includes all multicellular organisms as well as many unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes. some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. many multicellular organisms are also microscopic, namely micro - animals, some fungi, and some algae. microorganisms can have very different habitats, and live everywhere from the poles to the equator, in deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure, and a few, such as deinococcus radiodurans, to high radiation environments. microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. there is evidence that 3. 45 - billion - year - old australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on earth. microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds. microbes are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. microbes are a vital component of fertile soil. in the human body, microorganisms make up the human microbiota, including the essential gut flora. the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures. = = discovery = = = = = ancient precursors = = =
Answer:
|
sand
| 0.3 |
The nimbleness of this animal is a key adaption that allows it to escape attacks from predators:
0. the praying mantis
1. the antelope
2. the butterfly
3. the sloth
, are extremely important in ecology and evolution. these are short - lived in terms of the duration of a single interaction : a predator kills and eats a prey ; a pollinator transfers pollen from one flower to another ; but they are extremely durable in terms of their influence on the evolution of both partners. as a result, the partners coevolve. = = = = predation = = = = in predation, one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or smell. many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency. predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, causing them to develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage and defensive spines and chemicals. predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least the cambrian period. = = = = pollination = = = = in pollination, pollinators including insects ( entomophily ), some birds ( ornithophily ), and some bats, transfer pollen from a male flower part to a female flower part, enabling fertilisation, in return for a reward of pollen or nectar. the partners have coevolved through geological time ; in the case of insects and flowering plants, the coevolution has continued for over 100 million years. insect - pollinated flowers are adapted with shaped structures, bright colours, patterns, scent, nectar, and sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and deposit pollen, and reward them for the service. pollinator insects like bees are adapted to detect flowers by colour, pattern, and scent, to collect and transport pollen ( such as with bristles shaped to form pollen baskets on their hind legs ), and to collect and process nectar ( in the case of honey bees, making and storing honey ). the adaptations on each side of the interaction match the adaptations on the other side, and have been shaped by natural selection on their effectiveness of pollination. = = = = seed dispersal = = = = seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living
several different geographic locations and it was found that the length of the fly's proboscis caused strong selective pressures on the length of the corolla of the flower. an increase in proboscis length was selected for, when flowers were longer because it is their primary food source. = = = coevolutionary arms races = = = antagonistic interactions ( e. g. host - parasite and predator - prey relationships ) can often result in coevolutionary trait escalation ( i. e. arms races ). for example, prey and predator may both evolve faster running speed in order to maximize their fitness. the plant species camellia japonica ( the japanese camellia ) and its seed predator curculio camelliae ( the camellia weevil ) are an example of a coevolutionary arms race. the length of the weevil's rostrum and the thickness of the fruit's pericarp are correlated, meaning that a change in one character prompts a change in the other. the weevil will use its rostrum to burrow into the center of the camellia fruit seeking a place to lay eggs, as the weevil larva feed exclusively on the camellia seeds. this is a main cause of seed damage in the japanese camellia and, in order to better protect its seeds, the plant will evolve to grow a thicker pericarp. in some areas, the pericarp of these fruits was found to be remarkably woody. the pericarp thickness of the camellia fruit was observed to be thicker in more southern locations than in the north. the areas of hanyama and yahazu, japan are just under nine miles away from each other, but there was an 8 mm difference in pericarp thickness in the camellia populations sampled there. the length of the weevil's rostrum was found to be 5mm longer in the area with thicker fruit. this shows that the survival of the japanese camellia seeds in the south is dependent upon the thick pericarp as a form of protection. however, northern areas were found to have fruit with infested seeds regardless of thickness of the pericarp. this suggests that the plants in the north were more susceptible to weevil attacks and the two traits are not as strongly correlated as they were in southern areas. = = references = =
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
mandibles, salivary glands and various touch and taste receptors. the body is divided into a thorax of three segments and a ten - segmented abdomen. the external surface has a tough exoskeleton which contains calcium carbonate ; this protects the inner organs and provides attachment to muscles. this external exoskeleton is coated with wax to repel water. the wings are attached to the second and third thoracic segments. the tegmina, or first pair of wings, are tough and protective ; these lay as a shield on top of the membranous hind wings, which are used in flight. all four wings have branching longitudinal veins, as well as multiple cross - veins. the three pairs of legs are sturdy, with large coxae and five claws each. they are attached to each of the three thoracic segments. of these, the front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest, providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs. the spines on the legs were earlier considered to be sensory, but observations of the insect's gait on sand and wire meshes have demonstrated that they help in locomotion on difficult terrain. the structures have been used as inspiration for robotic legs. the abdomen has ten segments, each having a pair of spiracles for respiration. in addition to the spiracles, the final segment consists of a pair of cerci, a pair of anal styles, the anus and the external genitalia. males have an aedeagus through which they secrete sperm during copulation, while females have spermatheca for storing sperm and an ovipositor through which the oothecae are laid. = = distribution and habitat = = cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of environments, especially in the tropics and subtropics. in north america, 50 species separated into five families are found throughout the continent. 450 species are found in australia. only about four widespread species are commonly regarded as pests. cockroaches occupy a wide range of habitats. many live in leaf litter, among the stems of matted vegetation, in rotting wood, in holes in stumps, in cavities under bark, under log piles and among debris. some live in arid regions and have developed mechanisms to survive without access to water sources. others are aquatic, living near the surface of water bodies, including bromeliad phytotelmata, and diving to for
. this difference, in theory, should lead to each sex evolving adaptations that bias the outcome of reproduction towards its own interests. this sexual competition leads to sexually antagonistic coevolution between males and females, resulting in what has been described as an evolutionary arms race between males and females. = = = conflict over mating = = = males'reproductive successes are often limited by access to mates, whereas females'reproductive successes are more often limited by access to resources. thus, for a given sexual encounter, it benefits the male to mate, but benefits the female to be choosy and resist. for example, male small tortoiseshell butterfly compete to gain the best territory to mate. another example of this conflict can be found in the eastern carpenter bee, xylocopa virginica. males of this species are limited in reproduction primarily by access to mates, so they claim a territory and wait for a female to pass through. big males are, therefore, more successful in mating because they claim territories near the female nesting sites that are more sought after. smaller males, on the other hand, monopolize less competitive sites in foraging areas so that they may mate with reduced conflict. another example of this is sepsis cynipsea, where males of the species mount females to guard them from other males and remain on the female, attempting to copulate, until the female either shakes them off or consents to mating. similarly the neriid fly derocephalus angusticollis demonstrates mate guarding by using their long limbs to hold onto the female as well as push other males away during copulation. extreme manifestations of this conflict are seen throughout nature. for example, the male panorpa scorpionflies attempt to force copulation. male scorpionflies usually acquire mates by presenting them with edible nuptial gifts in the forms of salivary secretions or dead insects. however, some males attempt to force copulation by grabbing females with a specialized abdominal organ without offering a gift. forced copulation is costly to the female as she does not receive the food from the male and has to search for food herself ( costing time and energy ), while it is beneficial for the male as he does not need to find a nuptial gift. in other cases, however, it pays for the female to gain more matings and her social mate to prevent these so as to guard paternity. for example, in many socially monogamous birds, males follow females closely during their fertile periods and attempt to chase away any other
Answer:
|
the antelope
| null |
The nimbleness of this animal is a key adaption that allows it to escape attacks from predators:
0. the praying mantis
1. the antelope
2. the butterfly
3. the sloth
, are extremely important in ecology and evolution. these are short - lived in terms of the duration of a single interaction : a predator kills and eats a prey ; a pollinator transfers pollen from one flower to another ; but they are extremely durable in terms of their influence on the evolution of both partners. as a result, the partners coevolve. = = = = predation = = = = in predation, one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or smell. many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency. predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, causing them to develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage and defensive spines and chemicals. predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least the cambrian period. = = = = pollination = = = = in pollination, pollinators including insects ( entomophily ), some birds ( ornithophily ), and some bats, transfer pollen from a male flower part to a female flower part, enabling fertilisation, in return for a reward of pollen or nectar. the partners have coevolved through geological time ; in the case of insects and flowering plants, the coevolution has continued for over 100 million years. insect - pollinated flowers are adapted with shaped structures, bright colours, patterns, scent, nectar, and sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and deposit pollen, and reward them for the service. pollinator insects like bees are adapted to detect flowers by colour, pattern, and scent, to collect and transport pollen ( such as with bristles shaped to form pollen baskets on their hind legs ), and to collect and process nectar ( in the case of honey bees, making and storing honey ). the adaptations on each side of the interaction match the adaptations on the other side, and have been shaped by natural selection on their effectiveness of pollination. = = = = seed dispersal = = = = seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living
several different geographic locations and it was found that the length of the fly's proboscis caused strong selective pressures on the length of the corolla of the flower. an increase in proboscis length was selected for, when flowers were longer because it is their primary food source. = = = coevolutionary arms races = = = antagonistic interactions ( e. g. host - parasite and predator - prey relationships ) can often result in coevolutionary trait escalation ( i. e. arms races ). for example, prey and predator may both evolve faster running speed in order to maximize their fitness. the plant species camellia japonica ( the japanese camellia ) and its seed predator curculio camelliae ( the camellia weevil ) are an example of a coevolutionary arms race. the length of the weevil's rostrum and the thickness of the fruit's pericarp are correlated, meaning that a change in one character prompts a change in the other. the weevil will use its rostrum to burrow into the center of the camellia fruit seeking a place to lay eggs, as the weevil larva feed exclusively on the camellia seeds. this is a main cause of seed damage in the japanese camellia and, in order to better protect its seeds, the plant will evolve to grow a thicker pericarp. in some areas, the pericarp of these fruits was found to be remarkably woody. the pericarp thickness of the camellia fruit was observed to be thicker in more southern locations than in the north. the areas of hanyama and yahazu, japan are just under nine miles away from each other, but there was an 8 mm difference in pericarp thickness in the camellia populations sampled there. the length of the weevil's rostrum was found to be 5mm longer in the area with thicker fruit. this shows that the survival of the japanese camellia seeds in the south is dependent upon the thick pericarp as a form of protection. however, northern areas were found to have fruit with infested seeds regardless of thickness of the pericarp. this suggests that the plants in the north were more susceptible to weevil attacks and the two traits are not as strongly correlated as they were in southern areas. = = references = =
more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. the predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. however, when the prey is capable of killing the predator ( as can a coral snake with its venom ), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter - adaptations. in western north america, the common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough - skinned newt. = = role in ecosystems = = predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. this may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares. = = = trophic level = = = one way of classifying predators is by trophic level. carnivores that feed on herbivores are secondary consumers ; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. at the top of this food chain are apex predators such as lions. many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain ; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. this means that many predators must contend with intraguild predation, where other predators kill and eat them. for example, coyotes compete with and sometimes kill gray foxes and bobcats. trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is passed up to higher trophic levels by predation. each transfer decreases the available energy due to heat, waste, and the natural metabolic processes that occur as predators consume their prey. the result is that only about 10 % of the energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next level. this limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting. = = = biodiversity maintained by apex predation = = = predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the
mandibles, salivary glands and various touch and taste receptors. the body is divided into a thorax of three segments and a ten - segmented abdomen. the external surface has a tough exoskeleton which contains calcium carbonate ; this protects the inner organs and provides attachment to muscles. this external exoskeleton is coated with wax to repel water. the wings are attached to the second and third thoracic segments. the tegmina, or first pair of wings, are tough and protective ; these lay as a shield on top of the membranous hind wings, which are used in flight. all four wings have branching longitudinal veins, as well as multiple cross - veins. the three pairs of legs are sturdy, with large coxae and five claws each. they are attached to each of the three thoracic segments. of these, the front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest, providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs. the spines on the legs were earlier considered to be sensory, but observations of the insect's gait on sand and wire meshes have demonstrated that they help in locomotion on difficult terrain. the structures have been used as inspiration for robotic legs. the abdomen has ten segments, each having a pair of spiracles for respiration. in addition to the spiracles, the final segment consists of a pair of cerci, a pair of anal styles, the anus and the external genitalia. males have an aedeagus through which they secrete sperm during copulation, while females have spermatheca for storing sperm and an ovipositor through which the oothecae are laid. = = distribution and habitat = = cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of environments, especially in the tropics and subtropics. in north america, 50 species separated into five families are found throughout the continent. 450 species are found in australia. only about four widespread species are commonly regarded as pests. cockroaches occupy a wide range of habitats. many live in leaf litter, among the stems of matted vegetation, in rotting wood, in holes in stumps, in cavities under bark, under log piles and among debris. some live in arid regions and have developed mechanisms to survive without access to water sources. others are aquatic, living near the surface of water bodies, including bromeliad phytotelmata, and diving to for
. this difference, in theory, should lead to each sex evolving adaptations that bias the outcome of reproduction towards its own interests. this sexual competition leads to sexually antagonistic coevolution between males and females, resulting in what has been described as an evolutionary arms race between males and females. = = = conflict over mating = = = males'reproductive successes are often limited by access to mates, whereas females'reproductive successes are more often limited by access to resources. thus, for a given sexual encounter, it benefits the male to mate, but benefits the female to be choosy and resist. for example, male small tortoiseshell butterfly compete to gain the best territory to mate. another example of this conflict can be found in the eastern carpenter bee, xylocopa virginica. males of this species are limited in reproduction primarily by access to mates, so they claim a territory and wait for a female to pass through. big males are, therefore, more successful in mating because they claim territories near the female nesting sites that are more sought after. smaller males, on the other hand, monopolize less competitive sites in foraging areas so that they may mate with reduced conflict. another example of this is sepsis cynipsea, where males of the species mount females to guard them from other males and remain on the female, attempting to copulate, until the female either shakes them off or consents to mating. similarly the neriid fly derocephalus angusticollis demonstrates mate guarding by using their long limbs to hold onto the female as well as push other males away during copulation. extreme manifestations of this conflict are seen throughout nature. for example, the male panorpa scorpionflies attempt to force copulation. male scorpionflies usually acquire mates by presenting them with edible nuptial gifts in the forms of salivary secretions or dead insects. however, some males attempt to force copulation by grabbing females with a specialized abdominal organ without offering a gift. forced copulation is costly to the female as she does not receive the food from the male and has to search for food herself ( costing time and energy ), while it is beneficial for the male as he does not need to find a nuptial gift. in other cases, however, it pays for the female to gain more matings and her social mate to prevent these so as to guard paternity. for example, in many socially monogamous birds, males follow females closely during their fertile periods and attempt to chase away any other
Answer:
|
the butterfly
| 0.3 |
Birds will have different kinds of beaks depending on the
0. organisms they hunt
1. computer
2. groceries
3. seven
streams than in rural streams. new york city white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) had shorter upper and lower tooth rows relative to their rural counterparts. longer tooth rows are advantageous for eating low - quality foods, which typically require more chewing. urban mice having shorter tooth rows consequently implies that they consume softer food or food of higher quality due to differential availability of nutritional food in urban and rural environments. house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in urban environments showed divergence from their rural counterparts in terms of bill morphology and bite force. house finches in urban areas rely on different food sources than those in rural desert areas - urban house finches eat more sunflower seeds from bird feeders, which are larger and harder than the non - anthropogenic seeds found naturally occurring in the native desert habitat that rural finches continue to reside in. thus, urban house finches have evolved longer and wider beaks compared to the shorter beaks of desert house finches. it was discovered that the urban finches express bone morphogenetic proteins at larger doses and earlier on in their development, a likely biochemical cause to their larger beaks. the common blackbird ( turdus merula ) may be the first example of actual speciation by urban evolution, due to the urban heat island and food abundance the urban blackbird has become non - migratory in urban areas. the birds also sing higher and at different times, and they breed earlier than their rural counterparts which leads to sexual selection and a separated gene pool. natural behavioral differences have also formed between urban and rural birds. urban anole lizards ( anolis ) have evolved longer limbs and more lamellae compared with anolis lizards from forest habitats. this because the lizards can navigate the artificial building materials used in cities better. the urban hawksbeard plant ( crepis ) has evolved a higher percentage of heavier nondispersing seeds compared to rural hawksbeard plants, because habitat fragmentation leads to a lower chance of dispersing seeds to settle. white clover ( trifolium repens ) has repeatedly adapted to urban environments on a global scale due to genetic changes in a heritable antiherbivore defense trait ( hydryogen cyanide ) in response to urban - rural changes in drought stress, vegetation and winter temperatures. the london underground mosquito ( culex pipiens f. molestus ) has undergone reproductive isolation in populations at higher latitudes, including the london underground railway populations, where attempted hybridizations between
##anzees in africa. in 2011, research led by dalila bovet of paris west university nanterre la defense, demonstrated grey parrots were able to coordinate and collaborate with each other to an extent. they were able to solve problems such as two birds having to pull strings at the same time to obtain food. in another example, one bird stood on a perch to release a food - laden tray, while the other pulled the tray out from the test apparatus. both would then feed. the birds were observed waiting for their partners to perform the necessary actions so their behaviour could be synchronized. the parrots appeared to express individual preferences as to which of the other test birds they would work with. = = = = corvids = = = = it was thought that self - recognition was restricted to mammals with large brains and highly evolved social cognition, but absent from animals without a neocortex. however, in 2008, an investigation of self - recognition in corvids was conducted to determine the ability of self - recognition in the magpie. mammals and birds inherited the same brain components from their last common ancestor nearly 300 million years ago, and have since independently evolved and formed significantly different brain types. the results of the mirror test showed that although magpies do not have a neocortex, they are capable of understanding that a mirror image belongs to their own body. the findings show that magpies respond to the mirror test in a manner similar to that of apes, dolphins, killer whales, pigs and elephants. a 2020 study found that carrion crows show a neuronal response that correlates with their perception of a stimulus, which they argue to be an empirical marker of ( avian ) sensory consciousness β the conscious perception of sensory input β in the crows which do not have a cerebral cortex. the study thereby substantiates the theory that conscious perception does not require a cerebral cortex and that the basic foundations for it β and possibly for human - type consciousness β may have evolved before the last common ancestor > 320 mya or independently in birds. a related study showed that the birds'pallium's neuroarchitecture is reminiscent of the mammalian cortex. a 2025 review applied a five - dimensional framework of consciousness to corvids, examining sensory, evaluative, temporal, and self - related aspects of their experience. drawing on behavioural and neurological evidence, the authors argue that corvids exhibit sophisticated cognitive capacities across all dimensions, including high perceptual ac
##enotypes as binary strings ( this could be generalized to k - state strings for characters with more than two states ) before analyses using an appropriate mode. this can be illustrated using a " toy " example : we can use a binary alphabet to score the following phenotypic traits " has feathers ", " lays eggs ", " has fur ", " is warm - blooded ", and " capable of powered flight ". in this toy example hummingbirds would have sequence 11011 ( most other birds would have the same string ), ostriches would have the sequence 11010, cattle ( and most other land mammals ) would have 00110, and bats would have 00111. the likelihood of a phylogenetic tree can then be calculated using those binary sequences and an appropriate substitution model. the existence of these morphological models make it possible to analyze data matrices with fossil taxa, either using the morphological data alone or a combination of morphological and molecular data ( with the latter scored as missing data for the fossil taxa ). there is an obvious similarity between use of molecular or phenotypic data in the field of cladistics and analyses of morphological characters using a substitution model. however, there has been a vociferous debate in the systematics community regarding the question of whether or not cladistic analyses should be viewed as " model - free ". the field of cladistics ( defined in the strictest sense ) favor the use of the maximum parsimony criterion for phylogenetic inference. many cladists reject the position that maximum parsimony is based on a substitution model and ( in many cases ) they justify the use of parsimony using the philosophy of karl popper. however, the existence of " parsimony - equivalent " models ( i. e., substitution models that yield the maximum parsimony tree when used for analyses ) makes it possible to view parsimony as a substitution model. = = references = = = = external links = = empirical models of amino acid substitution = = notes = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
when the predator is learning foraging behaviour, it is going to obtain the common form of prey most frequently. since the predator learns from what is most frequently captured, the most common morph is what is identified as prey. foraging behaviour is shaped by the learned preference, thus causing apostatic selection and conferring a fitness benefit on the rare prey morphs. from this, it was concluded that search image formation and adaption is the mechanism that causes the most common prey type to be most easily distinguished from its environment, and thus be eaten more frequently than rarer types. = = experimental evidence = = various types of experiments have been done to look into apostatic selection. some involve artificial prey because it is easier to control external variables in a simulated environment, though using wild specimens increases the study's external validity. often a computer screen simulation program is used on animals, such as birds of prey, to detect prey selection. another type looks into how apostatic selection can act on the predator as well as the prey, as predator plumage polymorphism can also be influenced by apostatic selection. they hypothesized that a mutant predator morph will become more abundant in a population due to apostatic selection because the prey will not be able to recognize it as often as the common predator morph. apostatic selection has been observed in both humans and animals, proving that it is not exclusive to lower organisms, and the cognition it requires is applicable to all organisms which display learning. though a lot of this work has been experimental and lab controlled, there are some examples of it happening in both wild specimens and in the natural habitat of the species. in hawks, almost all polymorphism is found on their ventral side. it allows for less common coloration to be favored since it will be recognized the least. polymorphism is established by foraging strategies, creating opportunities for apostatic selection. because of the different morphs and the varying selection on them, prey perception bias maintains prey polymorphism due to apostatic selection. apostatic selection can be reflected in batesian mimicry. aposematism and apostatic selection is used to explain defensive signaling like batesian mimicry in certain species. a paper by pfenning et al., 2006 looks into this concept. in allopatric situations, situations where separate species overlap geographically, mimic phenotypes have high fitness and are selected for when their model is present, but when it is absent, they suffer intense predation. in pfenning '
Answer:
|
organisms they hunt
| null |
Birds will have different kinds of beaks depending on the
0. organisms they hunt
1. computer
2. groceries
3. seven
streams than in rural streams. new york city white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) had shorter upper and lower tooth rows relative to their rural counterparts. longer tooth rows are advantageous for eating low - quality foods, which typically require more chewing. urban mice having shorter tooth rows consequently implies that they consume softer food or food of higher quality due to differential availability of nutritional food in urban and rural environments. house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in urban environments showed divergence from their rural counterparts in terms of bill morphology and bite force. house finches in urban areas rely on different food sources than those in rural desert areas - urban house finches eat more sunflower seeds from bird feeders, which are larger and harder than the non - anthropogenic seeds found naturally occurring in the native desert habitat that rural finches continue to reside in. thus, urban house finches have evolved longer and wider beaks compared to the shorter beaks of desert house finches. it was discovered that the urban finches express bone morphogenetic proteins at larger doses and earlier on in their development, a likely biochemical cause to their larger beaks. the common blackbird ( turdus merula ) may be the first example of actual speciation by urban evolution, due to the urban heat island and food abundance the urban blackbird has become non - migratory in urban areas. the birds also sing higher and at different times, and they breed earlier than their rural counterparts which leads to sexual selection and a separated gene pool. natural behavioral differences have also formed between urban and rural birds. urban anole lizards ( anolis ) have evolved longer limbs and more lamellae compared with anolis lizards from forest habitats. this because the lizards can navigate the artificial building materials used in cities better. the urban hawksbeard plant ( crepis ) has evolved a higher percentage of heavier nondispersing seeds compared to rural hawksbeard plants, because habitat fragmentation leads to a lower chance of dispersing seeds to settle. white clover ( trifolium repens ) has repeatedly adapted to urban environments on a global scale due to genetic changes in a heritable antiherbivore defense trait ( hydryogen cyanide ) in response to urban - rural changes in drought stress, vegetation and winter temperatures. the london underground mosquito ( culex pipiens f. molestus ) has undergone reproductive isolation in populations at higher latitudes, including the london underground railway populations, where attempted hybridizations between
##anzees in africa. in 2011, research led by dalila bovet of paris west university nanterre la defense, demonstrated grey parrots were able to coordinate and collaborate with each other to an extent. they were able to solve problems such as two birds having to pull strings at the same time to obtain food. in another example, one bird stood on a perch to release a food - laden tray, while the other pulled the tray out from the test apparatus. both would then feed. the birds were observed waiting for their partners to perform the necessary actions so their behaviour could be synchronized. the parrots appeared to express individual preferences as to which of the other test birds they would work with. = = = = corvids = = = = it was thought that self - recognition was restricted to mammals with large brains and highly evolved social cognition, but absent from animals without a neocortex. however, in 2008, an investigation of self - recognition in corvids was conducted to determine the ability of self - recognition in the magpie. mammals and birds inherited the same brain components from their last common ancestor nearly 300 million years ago, and have since independently evolved and formed significantly different brain types. the results of the mirror test showed that although magpies do not have a neocortex, they are capable of understanding that a mirror image belongs to their own body. the findings show that magpies respond to the mirror test in a manner similar to that of apes, dolphins, killer whales, pigs and elephants. a 2020 study found that carrion crows show a neuronal response that correlates with their perception of a stimulus, which they argue to be an empirical marker of ( avian ) sensory consciousness β the conscious perception of sensory input β in the crows which do not have a cerebral cortex. the study thereby substantiates the theory that conscious perception does not require a cerebral cortex and that the basic foundations for it β and possibly for human - type consciousness β may have evolved before the last common ancestor > 320 mya or independently in birds. a related study showed that the birds'pallium's neuroarchitecture is reminiscent of the mammalian cortex. a 2025 review applied a five - dimensional framework of consciousness to corvids, examining sensory, evaluative, temporal, and self - related aspects of their experience. drawing on behavioural and neurological evidence, the authors argue that corvids exhibit sophisticated cognitive capacities across all dimensions, including high perceptual ac
##enotypes as binary strings ( this could be generalized to k - state strings for characters with more than two states ) before analyses using an appropriate mode. this can be illustrated using a " toy " example : we can use a binary alphabet to score the following phenotypic traits " has feathers ", " lays eggs ", " has fur ", " is warm - blooded ", and " capable of powered flight ". in this toy example hummingbirds would have sequence 11011 ( most other birds would have the same string ), ostriches would have the sequence 11010, cattle ( and most other land mammals ) would have 00110, and bats would have 00111. the likelihood of a phylogenetic tree can then be calculated using those binary sequences and an appropriate substitution model. the existence of these morphological models make it possible to analyze data matrices with fossil taxa, either using the morphological data alone or a combination of morphological and molecular data ( with the latter scored as missing data for the fossil taxa ). there is an obvious similarity between use of molecular or phenotypic data in the field of cladistics and analyses of morphological characters using a substitution model. however, there has been a vociferous debate in the systematics community regarding the question of whether or not cladistic analyses should be viewed as " model - free ". the field of cladistics ( defined in the strictest sense ) favor the use of the maximum parsimony criterion for phylogenetic inference. many cladists reject the position that maximum parsimony is based on a substitution model and ( in many cases ) they justify the use of parsimony using the philosophy of karl popper. however, the existence of " parsimony - equivalent " models ( i. e., substitution models that yield the maximum parsimony tree when used for analyses ) makes it possible to view parsimony as a substitution model. = = references = = = = external links = = empirical models of amino acid substitution = = notes = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
when the predator is learning foraging behaviour, it is going to obtain the common form of prey most frequently. since the predator learns from what is most frequently captured, the most common morph is what is identified as prey. foraging behaviour is shaped by the learned preference, thus causing apostatic selection and conferring a fitness benefit on the rare prey morphs. from this, it was concluded that search image formation and adaption is the mechanism that causes the most common prey type to be most easily distinguished from its environment, and thus be eaten more frequently than rarer types. = = experimental evidence = = various types of experiments have been done to look into apostatic selection. some involve artificial prey because it is easier to control external variables in a simulated environment, though using wild specimens increases the study's external validity. often a computer screen simulation program is used on animals, such as birds of prey, to detect prey selection. another type looks into how apostatic selection can act on the predator as well as the prey, as predator plumage polymorphism can also be influenced by apostatic selection. they hypothesized that a mutant predator morph will become more abundant in a population due to apostatic selection because the prey will not be able to recognize it as often as the common predator morph. apostatic selection has been observed in both humans and animals, proving that it is not exclusive to lower organisms, and the cognition it requires is applicable to all organisms which display learning. though a lot of this work has been experimental and lab controlled, there are some examples of it happening in both wild specimens and in the natural habitat of the species. in hawks, almost all polymorphism is found on their ventral side. it allows for less common coloration to be favored since it will be recognized the least. polymorphism is established by foraging strategies, creating opportunities for apostatic selection. because of the different morphs and the varying selection on them, prey perception bias maintains prey polymorphism due to apostatic selection. apostatic selection can be reflected in batesian mimicry. aposematism and apostatic selection is used to explain defensive signaling like batesian mimicry in certain species. a paper by pfenning et al., 2006 looks into this concept. in allopatric situations, situations where separate species overlap geographically, mimic phenotypes have high fitness and are selected for when their model is present, but when it is absent, they suffer intense predation. in pfenning '
Answer:
|
computer
| 0.3 |
Harriet wants to know the area of a rectangular sheet of paper. Its size is unknown to her. Which one of these will be the only tool that she needs?
0. a ruler
1. a compass
2. a calculator
3. a protractor
all measurements are, by their nature, approximations, and always have a margin of error. thus 123. 456 is considered an approximation of any real number greater or equal to 1234555 / 10000 and strictly less than 1234565 / 10000 ( rounding to 3 decimals ), or of any real number greater or equal to 123456 / 1000 and strictly less than 123457 / 1000 ( truncation after the 3. decimal ). digits that suggest a greater accuracy than the measurement itself does, should be removed. the remaining digits are then called significant digits. for example, measurements with a ruler can seldom be made without a margin of error of at least 0. 001 m. if the sides of a rectangle are measured as 1. 23 m and 4. 56 m, then multiplication gives an area for the rectangle between 5. 614591 m2 and 5. 603011 m2. since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant. therefore, the result is usually rounded to 5. 61. just as the same fraction can be written in more than one way, the same real number may have more than one decimal representation. for example, 0. 999..., 1. 0, 1. 00, 1. 000,..., all represent the natural number 1. a given real number has only the following decimal representations : an approximation to some finite number of decimal places, an approximation in which a pattern is established that continues for an unlimited number of decimal places or an exact value with only finitely many decimal places. in this last case, the last non - zero digit may be replaced by the digit one smaller followed by an unlimited number of 9s, or the last non - zero digit may be followed by an unlimited number of zeros. thus the exact real number 3. 74 can also be written 3. 7399999999... and 3. 74000000000.... similarly, a decimal numeral with an unlimited number of 0s can be rewritten by dropping the 0s to the right of the rightmost nonzero digit, and a decimal numeral with an unlimited number of 9s can be rewritten by increasing by one the rightmost digit less than 9, and changing all the 9s to the right of that digit to 0s. finally, an unlimited sequence of 0s to the right of a decimal place can be dropped. for example
on object permanence suggest that horses may struggle to track objects once they are no longer visible. maria franchini speculates that some horses may be able to perceive small animals or insects in their path, citing the example of a mare which avoided live insects but stepped on dead ones. additionally, many riders report that horses exhibit a strong sense of direction, which psychologist sara j. shettleworth suggests is closely linked to their memory. = = = counting and categorizing = = = horses have demonstrated the ability to solve complex cognitive tasks, including categorizing and understanding concepts. researcher evelyn hanggi demonstrated that horses can grasp the relational concept of size by sorting objects of different dimensions. horses can also distinguish complex patterns, such as certain geometric shapes, and are particularly adept at recognizing triangles. studies on horses β counting abilities often reference the famous case of clever hans, though it remains unclear whether horses truly possess the ability to count. some research indicates that horses can differentiate between quantities, such as one apple and two, or two apples and three, but may not distinguish between larger quantities like four and six. this suggests that horses can " count " up to four. these studies also show that horses can form mental representations and perform simple counting tasks. = = = an ability to improvise? = = = based on practical experiences, doctor of theatre studies charlene dray suggests that show horses are capable of improvising on stage without expecting a reward, provided they have exploratory objects available. however, some riders who work with show horses agree that these animals are not aware of creating artistic emotions. shelly r. scott describes a similar practical example, involving a horse race for where neither the horses nor their riders were prepared, requiring both to improvised during the event. = = social intelligence of the horse = = many studies have highlighted horses'advanced social intelligence. according to lansade, scientific research on horses'social cognition toward humans has yielded significant findings, especially in the late 2010s. these studies suggest that horses have a complex representation of the individuals they interact with, which has led to their consideration as potential subjects for research on the theory of mind. these findings contribute to understanding their broader learning capabilities. in the wild, horses live in groups and learn from one another within these social structures. social learning is influenced by hierarchy, with horses more likely to learn from dominant members of their group than from subordinate members or those outside the group. while visual social communication is a key aspect of equine interaction, it is more
calculus integration = = = the first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the ancient greek astronomer eudoxus and philosopher democritus ( ca. 370 bc ), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of divisions for which the area or volume was known. this method was further developed and employed by archimedes in the 3rd century bc and used to calculate the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral. a similar method was independently developed in china around the 3rd century ad by liu hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. this method was later used in the 5th century by chinese father - and - son mathematicians zu chongzhi and zu geng to find the volume of a sphere. in the middle east, hasan ibn al - haytham, latinized as alhazen ( c. 965 β c. 1040 ad ) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. alhazen determined the equations to calculate the area enclosed by the curve represented by y = x k { \ displaystyle y = x ^ { k } } ( which translates to the integral x k d x { \ displaystyle \ int x ^ { k } \, dx } in contemporary notation ), for any given non - negative integer value of k { \ displaystyle k }. he used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid. the next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 17th century. at this time, the work of cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with cavalieri computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in cavalieri's quadrature formula. the case n = β1 required the invention of a function, the hyperbolic logarithm, achieved by quadrature of the hyperbola in 1647. further steps were made in the early 17th century by barrow and torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and
geometry ( from ancient greek Ξ³Ξ΅ΟΞΌΞ΅ΟΟΞΉΞ± ( geometria )'land measurement'; from Ξ³Ξ· ( ge )'earth, land'and ΞΌΞ΅ΟΟΞΏΞ½ ( metron )'a measure') is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. a mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. until the 19th century, geometry was almost exclusively devoted to euclidean geometry, which includes the notions of point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface, and curve, as fundamental concepts. originally developed to model the physical world, geometry has applications in almost all sciences, and also in art, architecture, and other activities that are related to graphics. geometry also has applications in areas of mathematics that are apparently unrelated. for example, methods of algebraic geometry are fundamental in wiles's proof of fermat's last theorem, a problem that was stated in terms of elementary arithmetic, and remained unsolved for several centuries. during the 19th century several discoveries enlarged dramatically the scope of geometry. one of the oldest such discoveries is carl friedrich gauss's theorema egregium ( " remarkable theorem " ) that asserts roughly that the gaussian curvature of a surface is independent from any specific embedding in a euclidean space. this implies that surfaces can be studied intrinsically, that is, as stand - alone spaces, and has been expanded into the theory of manifolds and riemannian geometry. later in the 19th century, it appeared that geometries without the parallel postulate ( non - euclidean geometries ) can be developed without introducing any contradiction. the geometry that underlies general relativity is a famous application of non - euclidean geometry. since the late 19th century, the scope of geometry has been greatly expanded, and the field has been split in many subfields that depend on the underlying methods β differential geometry, algebraic geometry, computational geometry, algebraic topology, discrete geometry ( also known as combinatorial geometry ), etc. β or on the properties of euclidean spaces that are disregarded β projective geometry that consider only alignment of points but not distance and parallelism, affine geometry that omits the concept of angle and distance, finite geometry that omits continuity, and others. this enlargement of the scope of geometry led to a change of meaning of the word " space ",
is an open - access, free - to - publish, online - only journal outlet specifically for research in the domain of numerical cognition. journal link = = see also = = addition β arithmetic operation approximate number system β innate ability to detect differences in magnitude without counting counting β finding the number of elements of a finite set estimation β process of finding an approximation numerosity adaptation effect β phenomenon in numerical cognition ordinal numerical competence β ability to count objects in order and to understand the greater than and less than relationships between numberspages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback parallel individuation system β non - symbolic cognitive system that supports the representation of numerical values from zero to three or fourpages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback plant arithmetic β form of plant intelligence the problem of the speckled hen β type of epistemological problempages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets subitizing β assessing the quantity of objects in a visual scene without individually counting each item subtraction β one of the four basic arithmetic operations = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = geary, david c. ( 1994 ). children's mathematical development : research and practical applications. washington, dc : american psychological association. isbn 978 - 1557982582. lakoff, george ; nunez, rafael e. ( 2000 ). where mathematics comes from. new york : basic books. isbn 978 - 0 - 465 - 03770 - 4.
Answer:
|
a ruler
| null |
Harriet wants to know the area of a rectangular sheet of paper. Its size is unknown to her. Which one of these will be the only tool that she needs?
0. a ruler
1. a compass
2. a calculator
3. a protractor
all measurements are, by their nature, approximations, and always have a margin of error. thus 123. 456 is considered an approximation of any real number greater or equal to 1234555 / 10000 and strictly less than 1234565 / 10000 ( rounding to 3 decimals ), or of any real number greater or equal to 123456 / 1000 and strictly less than 123457 / 1000 ( truncation after the 3. decimal ). digits that suggest a greater accuracy than the measurement itself does, should be removed. the remaining digits are then called significant digits. for example, measurements with a ruler can seldom be made without a margin of error of at least 0. 001 m. if the sides of a rectangle are measured as 1. 23 m and 4. 56 m, then multiplication gives an area for the rectangle between 5. 614591 m2 and 5. 603011 m2. since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant. therefore, the result is usually rounded to 5. 61. just as the same fraction can be written in more than one way, the same real number may have more than one decimal representation. for example, 0. 999..., 1. 0, 1. 00, 1. 000,..., all represent the natural number 1. a given real number has only the following decimal representations : an approximation to some finite number of decimal places, an approximation in which a pattern is established that continues for an unlimited number of decimal places or an exact value with only finitely many decimal places. in this last case, the last non - zero digit may be replaced by the digit one smaller followed by an unlimited number of 9s, or the last non - zero digit may be followed by an unlimited number of zeros. thus the exact real number 3. 74 can also be written 3. 7399999999... and 3. 74000000000.... similarly, a decimal numeral with an unlimited number of 0s can be rewritten by dropping the 0s to the right of the rightmost nonzero digit, and a decimal numeral with an unlimited number of 9s can be rewritten by increasing by one the rightmost digit less than 9, and changing all the 9s to the right of that digit to 0s. finally, an unlimited sequence of 0s to the right of a decimal place can be dropped. for example
on object permanence suggest that horses may struggle to track objects once they are no longer visible. maria franchini speculates that some horses may be able to perceive small animals or insects in their path, citing the example of a mare which avoided live insects but stepped on dead ones. additionally, many riders report that horses exhibit a strong sense of direction, which psychologist sara j. shettleworth suggests is closely linked to their memory. = = = counting and categorizing = = = horses have demonstrated the ability to solve complex cognitive tasks, including categorizing and understanding concepts. researcher evelyn hanggi demonstrated that horses can grasp the relational concept of size by sorting objects of different dimensions. horses can also distinguish complex patterns, such as certain geometric shapes, and are particularly adept at recognizing triangles. studies on horses β counting abilities often reference the famous case of clever hans, though it remains unclear whether horses truly possess the ability to count. some research indicates that horses can differentiate between quantities, such as one apple and two, or two apples and three, but may not distinguish between larger quantities like four and six. this suggests that horses can " count " up to four. these studies also show that horses can form mental representations and perform simple counting tasks. = = = an ability to improvise? = = = based on practical experiences, doctor of theatre studies charlene dray suggests that show horses are capable of improvising on stage without expecting a reward, provided they have exploratory objects available. however, some riders who work with show horses agree that these animals are not aware of creating artistic emotions. shelly r. scott describes a similar practical example, involving a horse race for where neither the horses nor their riders were prepared, requiring both to improvised during the event. = = social intelligence of the horse = = many studies have highlighted horses'advanced social intelligence. according to lansade, scientific research on horses'social cognition toward humans has yielded significant findings, especially in the late 2010s. these studies suggest that horses have a complex representation of the individuals they interact with, which has led to their consideration as potential subjects for research on the theory of mind. these findings contribute to understanding their broader learning capabilities. in the wild, horses live in groups and learn from one another within these social structures. social learning is influenced by hierarchy, with horses more likely to learn from dominant members of their group than from subordinate members or those outside the group. while visual social communication is a key aspect of equine interaction, it is more
calculus integration = = = the first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the ancient greek astronomer eudoxus and philosopher democritus ( ca. 370 bc ), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of divisions for which the area or volume was known. this method was further developed and employed by archimedes in the 3rd century bc and used to calculate the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral. a similar method was independently developed in china around the 3rd century ad by liu hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. this method was later used in the 5th century by chinese father - and - son mathematicians zu chongzhi and zu geng to find the volume of a sphere. in the middle east, hasan ibn al - haytham, latinized as alhazen ( c. 965 β c. 1040 ad ) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. alhazen determined the equations to calculate the area enclosed by the curve represented by y = x k { \ displaystyle y = x ^ { k } } ( which translates to the integral x k d x { \ displaystyle \ int x ^ { k } \, dx } in contemporary notation ), for any given non - negative integer value of k { \ displaystyle k }. he used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid. the next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 17th century. at this time, the work of cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with cavalieri computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in cavalieri's quadrature formula. the case n = β1 required the invention of a function, the hyperbolic logarithm, achieved by quadrature of the hyperbola in 1647. further steps were made in the early 17th century by barrow and torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and
geometry ( from ancient greek Ξ³Ξ΅ΟΞΌΞ΅ΟΟΞΉΞ± ( geometria )'land measurement'; from Ξ³Ξ· ( ge )'earth, land'and ΞΌΞ΅ΟΟΞΏΞ½ ( metron )'a measure') is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. a mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. until the 19th century, geometry was almost exclusively devoted to euclidean geometry, which includes the notions of point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface, and curve, as fundamental concepts. originally developed to model the physical world, geometry has applications in almost all sciences, and also in art, architecture, and other activities that are related to graphics. geometry also has applications in areas of mathematics that are apparently unrelated. for example, methods of algebraic geometry are fundamental in wiles's proof of fermat's last theorem, a problem that was stated in terms of elementary arithmetic, and remained unsolved for several centuries. during the 19th century several discoveries enlarged dramatically the scope of geometry. one of the oldest such discoveries is carl friedrich gauss's theorema egregium ( " remarkable theorem " ) that asserts roughly that the gaussian curvature of a surface is independent from any specific embedding in a euclidean space. this implies that surfaces can be studied intrinsically, that is, as stand - alone spaces, and has been expanded into the theory of manifolds and riemannian geometry. later in the 19th century, it appeared that geometries without the parallel postulate ( non - euclidean geometries ) can be developed without introducing any contradiction. the geometry that underlies general relativity is a famous application of non - euclidean geometry. since the late 19th century, the scope of geometry has been greatly expanded, and the field has been split in many subfields that depend on the underlying methods β differential geometry, algebraic geometry, computational geometry, algebraic topology, discrete geometry ( also known as combinatorial geometry ), etc. β or on the properties of euclidean spaces that are disregarded β projective geometry that consider only alignment of points but not distance and parallelism, affine geometry that omits the concept of angle and distance, finite geometry that omits continuity, and others. this enlargement of the scope of geometry led to a change of meaning of the word " space ",
is an open - access, free - to - publish, online - only journal outlet specifically for research in the domain of numerical cognition. journal link = = see also = = addition β arithmetic operation approximate number system β innate ability to detect differences in magnitude without counting counting β finding the number of elements of a finite set estimation β process of finding an approximation numerosity adaptation effect β phenomenon in numerical cognition ordinal numerical competence β ability to count objects in order and to understand the greater than and less than relationships between numberspages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback parallel individuation system β non - symbolic cognitive system that supports the representation of numerical values from zero to three or fourpages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback plant arithmetic β form of plant intelligence the problem of the speckled hen β type of epistemological problempages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets subitizing β assessing the quantity of objects in a visual scene without individually counting each item subtraction β one of the four basic arithmetic operations = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = geary, david c. ( 1994 ). children's mathematical development : research and practical applications. washington, dc : american psychological association. isbn 978 - 1557982582. lakoff, george ; nunez, rafael e. ( 2000 ). where mathematics comes from. new york : basic books. isbn 978 - 0 - 465 - 03770 - 4.
Answer:
|
a compass
| 0.3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.